Year 9 Term 4 Study Guide Statistics and Probability

Week Topics Area

1 - Review of statistical descriptions

- Data representation (histograms, bar, line)
- Data representation (stem-and-leaf, box-and-whisker)

2 - Types of data and inputting data

- Processing data with spreadsheets
- Conducting surveys

Statistics
3 - Representing survey data
- The Normal Distribution
- Descriptors of the Normal Distribution

4 - Statistical investigations
- Statistical report writing
- Drawing conclusions from reports

5 CAT - Statistical Survey Investigation

6 - Basics of probability
- Simple probabilities
- From statistics to probability

7 - Multiple step probability

Probability
- Applied multiple step probability
- Replacement rules in probability

8 - Multiple step probability with replacement rules

- Testing probabilities
- Conducting tests of probabilities

9 Exam Preparation Week

Exams

10 Exam Week: Your mathematics exam will cover trigonometry, statistics, and
probability.

11 Final Week Review

Khan Academy Guide

Khan Academy is a free resource that provides videos, questions, and worked solutions to all fields of
study.

It is recommended to use Khan Academy to supplement your learning and extend your understanding.

To use Khan Academy, follow these links, and begin your study:

Khan Academy Statistics:

1. https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability

Khan Academy Probability:

1. https://www.khanacademy.org/math/cc-seventh-grade-math/cc-7th-probability-statistics
2. Then, https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/probability-library
Week Topics Area

1 Review of statistical descriptions:

Mean: The mean is the average of a set of numbers. It is calculated by adding

all the values together and then dividing by the number of values.

Median: The median is the middle value in a data set when the numbers are
arranged in order. If there is an even number of values, the median is the
average of the two middle numbers.

Mode: The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set. There
can be more than one mode if multiple values occur with the same highest
frequency.

Range: The range is the di erence between the largest and smallest values in
a data set. It shows the spread of the data.

Frequency: Frequency refers to how often a particular value appears in a data

set.

Outlier: An outlier is a value that is significantly higher or lower than the rest of
the data, potentially a ecting the overall analysis.

Statistics
Data representation (histograms, bar, line):

Histogram:

 A histogram is a graphical representation of data that groups numbers into

ranges (or bins). Each bar represents the frequency of data points falling
within each range. The bars are usually adjacent, reflecting continuous
data.

 Key Feature: The height of each bar shows the number of occurrences
within each bin, and the width of the bars represents the range of data
values.

Bar Chart:

 A bar chart displays data with rectangular bars, where the length of each
bar corresponds to the value it represents. Bar charts are commonly used
for comparing discrete categories.

 Key Feature: The bars in a bar chart are separated by spaces, showing
distinct categories, and they can be plotted vertically or horizontally.

Line Graph:
  A line graph is used to display data points connected by straight lines,
often to show how values change over time. It is useful for illustrating
trends and patterns in data over a continuous scale.

 Key Feature: Each point on the graph represents a specific value at a given
time or interval, and the lines between the points show the progression of
change.

Data Representation (Stem-and-Leaf, Box-and-Whisker):

Stem-and-Leaf Plot:

 A stem-and-leaf plot is a method of displaying quantitative data where

each data point is split into a "stem" (the leading digits) and a "leaf" (the
last digit). This plot helps in organizing data while preserving the original
values.

 Key Feature: The stems represent the larger groupings (such as tens or
hundreds), and the leaves list the individual data points. It is useful for
showing the distribution of data in a compact format, making it easy to
identify the shape and spread.

Box-and-Whisker Plot (Box Plot):

 A box-and-whisker plot is a graphical representation of data that shows the

distribution’s spread and central tendency. It is made up of a box, which
spans the interquartile range (IQR), and "whiskers" that extend to the
smallest and largest data points within a certain range.

 Key Feature: The plot includes a median line inside the box and the
"whiskers" that stretch to the minimum and maximum values that are not
considered outliers. Outliers, if present, are often plotted as individual
points. This plot is excellent for visualizing the spread, skewness, and
presence of outliers in the data.

2 Types of data and inputting data:

Qualitative Data (Categorical Data):

 Qualitative data consists of information that can be grouped into

categories but cannot be measured numerically. It describes qualities or
characteristics.

 Examples: Colours, types of pets, names, or brands.

Quantitative Data:

 Quantitative data consists of numerical values that can be measured or

counted. It can be further divided into two types:
 o Discrete Data: Data that can take only specific values (usually
integers). It often comes from counting.

 Examples: The number of students in a class, the number of

cars in a parking lot.

o Continuous Data: Data that can take any value within a range. It
often comes from measuring.

 Examples: Height, weight, temperature.

Nominal Data:

 A type of qualitative data where the categories do not have a natural order
or ranking.

 Examples: Types of fruit, eye colour, or car brands.

Ordinal Data:

 A type of qualitative data where the categories have a meaningful order or

ranking, but the intervals between the categories are not necessarily equal.

Processing data with spreadsheets:

Modern Spreadsheet Software

 Microsoft Excel provides the most versatility and calculative power.

 Google Sheets is very accessible and allows for team to work on their data
analysis at the same time.

Conducting Surveys:

Cross-Sectional Survey:

 A cross-sectional survey collects data from a population at one specific

point in time.

 Key Feature: It provides a snapshot of opinions, behaviours, or

characteristics at a given moment but does not track changes over time.

Longitudinal Survey:

 A longitudinal survey collects data from the same subjects repeatedly over
a period of time.

 Key Feature: It is useful for tracking changes or trends but requires more
time and resources than cross-sectional surveys.

3 Representing Survey Data:

 The choice of graph:

 Complex graphs, such as the stem-and-leaf plot and the box-and-whisker

plot allow for more statistical information to be represented in a simple
graph.

 Simple graphs, such as the histogram and bar graph, allow for the
audience to understand more of the data, and draw their own conclusions,
with a quick glance.

 Some data can only be represented in certain types of graphs. For

example, nominal categorical data cannot be represented in a bar graph,
and continuous data cannot be represented in a histogram.

The Normal Distribution:

Normal Distribution:

 The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is

symmetric, bell-shaped, and defined by its mean and standard deviation. It
represents how data points are distributed around the mean, with most
values clustering near the centre and fewer values occurring as you move
away from the mean in either direction.

 The normal distribution is an important concept in statistics because many

real-world phenomena, like heights, test scores, and measurement errors,
tend to follow this pattern. It is also foundational in many statistical
methods and probability theory.

Descriptors of the Normal Distribution:

Symmetry: The distribution is perfectly symmetrical around the mean. The left
and right sides of the curve are mirror images of each other.

Mean, Median, and Mode: In a normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode
are all equal and located at the centre of the distribution.

Standard Deviation: The spread or dispersion of the data around the mean is
determined by the standard deviation. A smaller standard deviation means the
data is more tightly clustered around the mean, while a larger one indicates more
spread.

68-95-99.7 Rule: This rule states that:

 About 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean.

 About 95% of the data falls within two standard deviations of the mean.

 About 99.7% of the data falls within three standard deviations of the mean.
 Bell Shape: The curve is highest at the mean and gradually tapers o as you move
farther from the mean in both directions.

4 Statistical Investigations:

Formulating a Question:

 The first step is to identify the purpose of the investigation by formulating a

clear, specific, and measurable question or hypothesis. The question
should be relevant and provide direction for the investigation. Examples
include "What is the most common mode of transport to school?" or "Is
there a relationship between study time and test scores?"

Planning the Investigation:

 Once the question is set, students must decide how they will gather the
necessary data. This involves selecting an appropriate method (survey,
observation, experiment, etc.), determining the sample size, and
considering any variables that might a ect the data. Planning also includes
defining how data will be recorded and organized.

Statistical Report Writing:

Introduction:

 The introduction provides an overview of the investigation, stating the

purpose or research question being addressed. It should briefly outline
what the investigation is about and why it's important or relevant to study.

Data Collection:

 This section explains how data was collected. It should describe the
method used, such as surveys, experiments, or secondary data, and
mention the sample size and any considerations taken to ensure fair and
accurate data collection.

Data Analysis:

 In this section, the collected data is presented and analyzed. This includes
organizing the data using tables, graphs, or charts, and performing
statistical calculations such as mean, median, mode, or range. It may also
involve identifying patterns or trends in the data.

Conclusion:

 The conclusion summarizes the key findings from the data analysis. It
answers the research question posed in the introduction and discusses
any insights or implications of the results.

Evaluation:
  This section reflects on the process of the investigation, including any
limitations or challenges encountered during data collection or analysis.
Suggestions for improving the investigation or further questions to explore
can also be included.

Drawing Conclusions from Reports:

Descriptive Conclusions:

 These conclusions summarize and describe the main features of the

data without making any inferences. For example, one might conclude,
"The average score on the test was 75%, with a range of 40 to 95%." This
type of conclusion focuses on measures like mean, median, mode, and
standard deviation.

Correlational Conclusions:

 Correlational conclusions describe relationships between variables,

showing whether and how variables are related. For example, "There is
a positive correlation between hours of study and test scores," which
indicates that as one variable increases, the other tends to increase as
well. Correlation does not imply causation, but it highlights patterns in
the data.

Causal Conclusions:

 These conclusions suggest that one variable causes change in another.

They are stronger than correlational conclusions and are typically
drawn from experimental or controlled studies. For example,
"Implementing a new teaching method caused an increase in student
performance." Establishing causality requires careful analysis and
controlled conditions.

5 CAT - Statistical Survey Investigation

6 Basics of Probability:

Experiment:

 An experiment is any process or activity that has an uncertain outcome.

Probability

For example, rolling a dice or flipping a coin.

Outcome:

 An outcome is a possible result of an experiment. For example, when

flipping a coin, the possible outcomes are "heads" or "tails."

Event:
  An event is a specific set of outcomes. For example, rolling an even number
on a die is an event that includes the outcomes 2, 4, and 6.

Sample Space:

 The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment. For
example, the sample space for flipping a coin is {heads, tails}, and for
rolling a six-sided die, it’s {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

Simple Probability:

 The probability of a single event occurring.

Compound Probability:

 The probability of two or more events occurring together, either as

independent or dependent events.

Simple Probabilities:

Probability of an Event (P):

 The probability of an event is calculated as:

From Statistics to Probability:

Expected Value is the average outcome in a probability experiment.

Variance and Standard Deviation measure how spread out the results are from
the mean.

Standard Error shows the accuracy of the sample mean compared to the true
population mean.

Standard deviation is crucial in interpreting the spread and likelihood of outcomes

in normal distributions and other probability models.

7 Multiple Step Probability:

Independent Events:

 Events that do not a ect each other’s outcomes. The compound

probability of independent events is found by multiplying the probabilities
of each event.

Dependent Events:
  Events where the outcome of one event a ects the outcome of another.
The compound probability of dependent events considers how one event
changes the likelihood of the other.

Applied Multiple Step Probability:

Weather Forecasting:

 Meteorologists use probability to predict the likelihood of di erent weather

conditions. For example, they may state that there is a 70% chance of rain,
which helps people prepare for various weather scenarios.

Risk Assessment:

 In fields like finance, insurance, and medicine, probability is used to assess

risks. Insurance companies use probability to determine the likelihood of
certain events (e.g., accidents or illnesses) and set premiums accordingly.

Games of Chance:

 Probability is central to understanding games like dice, cards, or lottery

draws. Players calculate the probability of certain outcomes, which can
influence strategies in games or gambling.

Replacement Rules in Probability:

With Replacement:

 When an item is selected and then replaced back into the sample set
before the next selection, the total number of items remains the same, and
the probability of selecting each item stays constant for each draw. This is
common in situations like rolling a die multiple times or drawing a card
from a deck and placing it back before drawing again.

Without Replacement:

 When an item is selected and not returned to the sample set, the total
number of items decreases, changing the probabilities for future
selections. This is often used in scenarios like drawing cards from a deck
without returning them or selecting ra le tickets.

8 Multiple Step Probability with Replacement Rules:

Identify the Probability for Each Step:

 For each event, calculate the probability of that specific outcome. Since
the item is replaced after each selection, the probability for each step
 remains the same. For example, if you are drawing a card from a deck and
then replacing it, the probability of drawing a specific card (like an Ace) will
always be 4 out of 52 for each draw.

Multiply the Probabilities:

 To find the overall probability of multiple independent events happening in

sequence, multiply the probabilities of each event together. For example, if
you flip a coin twice and want to know the probability of getting heads both
times, you would multiply the probability of heads on the first flip (1/2) by
the probability of heads on the second flip (1/2), which gives (1/2) × (1/2) =
1/4.

Testing Probabilities:

Set Up the Experiment:

 Choose an event with known or theoretical probabilities, like flipping a

coin, rolling a die, or drawing a card from a deck. Clearly define the
outcomes you are measuring (e.g., heads or tails for a coin flip).

Conduct Trials:

 Repeat the event a large number of times. For instance, flip a coin 100
times or roll a die 50 times. Each repetition is called a trial.

Record Results:

 For each trial, record the outcome. After completing many trials, tally how
often each outcome occurs.

Calculate Experimental Probability:

 The experimental probability of an outcome is calculated by dividing the

number of times the outcome occurs by the total number of trials. For
example, if heads come up 45 times out of 100-coin flips, the experimental
probability of heads is 45/100 or 0.45.

Compare with Theoretical Probability:

 Finally, compare your experimental probability with the theoretical

probability (e.g., the theoretical probability of getting heads in a coin flip is
0.5). The more trials you conduct, the closer your experimental probability
will likely get to the theoretical value due to the law of large numbers.

Conducting Tests of Probabilities:

Sports:
  Probability helps predict the outcomes of games or individual
performances. For example, the likelihood of a basketball player making a
free throw can be based on their previous success rate.

Tra ic Flow and Safety:

 Probability models are used to predict tra ic patterns and accident risks.
Transportation planners use this information to design safer roads and
reduce congestion.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning:

 In AI, probability is used to predict outcomes, recognize patterns, and

make decisions. Machine learning models, such as those used for image
recognition or recommendation systems, rely heavily on probability theory
to make accurate predictions.

9 Exam Preparation Week

Exams
10 Exam Week:

Your mathematics exam will cover trigonometry, statistics, and probability.

11 Final Week Review