CHEMICAL BONDING

Contents
1. Chemical Bond ......................................................................................................... 1
2. Types of Chemical Bond ........................................................................................ 2
3. Orbital Overlap and Covalent Bond ................................................................... 9
4. Differences Between  Bond and  Bond ......................................................... 9
5. Polar Covalent Bond and Electronegativity ..................................................... 9
6. Dipole Moment ..................................................................................................... 11
7. Hybridisation ........................................................................................................ 17
8. Shapes of Molecules Based on VSEPR Theory .............................................. 24
9. Molecular Orbital Theory .................................................................................. 28
10. Orbital Energy Diagrams for Homonuclear Diatomic Species................. 30
11. Hydrogen Bond ..................................................................................................... 36
12. Level – 1 (Main) .................................................................................................... 37
13. Level – 2 (Main) .................................................................................................... 39
14. Level – 3 (Advanced) ........................................................................................... 41
15. Level – 4 (Comprehension & Match the Column) ........................................ 44
16. Level – 5 (Single Integer Subjective Type) .................................................... 48
17. Level – 6 (Previous Years Main & Advanced)............................................... 49
18. Level – 7 (NCERT Corner)................................................................................... 55
19. Answer Sheet ......................................................................................................... 61
 CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Chemical Bond
The attractive force that holds together the constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) in a chemical species is
known as chemical bond.
The modern theory of bonding can be correlated with the concept of valency.

Valency: It has been derived from the Latin word ‘Valentia’ which means capacity. Each element is said to have a
valency equal to its combining capacity. The number of hydrogen or chlorine atoms with which another atom
combines is called its combining capacity.
Valency is termed as the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom in a molecule. The modern concept of
valency deals with the interaction between atoms in light of the structure of atoms, i.e. electronic configuration of
atoms. It believes that electrons are responsible for chemical combination.

(i) Variable electrovalency: Most of the elements lose different number of electrons under different condition
thereby showing variable electrovalency this can be described by following reasons.

(a) Unstability of core: The residue configuration left after the loss of valency electrons is called kernel or core. In
the case of the atoms of transition elements, ions formed after the loss of valency electrons do not possess a
2 6 2 6 1 to 10
stable core as the configuration of outermost shell is not ns np but ns np d.

(b) Inert pair effect: Some of heavier elements of third, fourth and fifth groups having configuration of
2 2 2 3
outermost shell ns np , ns np show valencies with a difference of 2, i.e., (1 : 3) (2 : 4) (3 : 5) respectively.
In the case of lower valencies, only the electrons present in p-subshell are lost and ns 2 electrons remain in
tact. The reluctance of s-electron pair to take part in bond formation is known as the inert pair effect.

Causes of Chemical Bond

The bond formation takes place to make the system more stable. Stability is in two forms either lowering of energy
of system or a well-defined arrangement of its constituents. For this two factors are there to explain atomic
interaction.
2 6
(i) Tendency to Acquire Noble Gas Configuration: [ns np ] The first explanation about the cause of
combination between atoms is based upon the understanding of electronic configuration of noble gases. It has
been observed that atoms of noble gases have little or no tendency to combine with each other or with atoms of
other elements. This means that these atoms must be having stable electronic configurations.
(ii) Lewis Octet Rule: All noble gases are known for their lack of chemical activity. These have electronic
structure that consists of filled outermost shells. Except helium (1s2) the s- and p- subshells of the highest
2 6
energy level contain a total of eight electrons. It is therefore concluded that s p configuration in the outer
energy level constitutes a structure of maximum stability and therefore, of minimum energy. The tendency of
atoms to achieve eight electrons in their outermost shell is known as Lewis octet rule.
(iii) Exceptions of Lewis octet rule
(a) Incomplete Octet: Compounds having incomplete octet but even though stable, are called as electron
deficient compound. Compound having two electrons in outermost shell are called as duet e.g. H 2.
-
Similarly compounds having 6e in outermost shell have sextet e.g. BF3, AlCl3 etc.
(b) Octet Expansion: The compounds whose central atoms have more than eight electrons in its outermost
shell show the expansion of octet. These are mostly third period elements having vacant d-orbitals in
general e.g. PCl5, SF6
(iv) Tendency to Acquire Minimum Energy: When two atoms approach each other, new forces of attraction
and repulsion come into play. The forces of attraction are between the nucleus of one atom and the
electrons of the other. The forces of repulsion are between two nuclei as well as between the electrons of
the two atoms. If the net result is attraction then total potential energy of the system decreases and a
chemical bond results.
2 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

2. Types of Chemical Bond

Ionic Bond: It involves complete transfer of valance electrons from one atom to the valence shell of another atom.
The resultant charged species - Anion (+ve) and Cation (–ve) – thus formed, are held together by electrostatic
forces of attraction It is also called electrovalent bond due to involvement of electrostatic forces of attraction. It is
formed between electropositive and electronegative atoms e.g. NaCl, MgCl2 and AlF3 etc.
+ –
Na  + Cl  Na +  Cl + NaCl
2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8 
NaCl
Example: (i) Formation of magnesium oxide (MgO)
2-
Mg  + O Mg2+ + O

2 2 4
Electronic : [Ne]3s [He]2s 2p [Ne] [Ne]
configuration
Magnesium ion oxide ion
2+ 2–
Mg O
(ii) Formation of calcium bromide (CaBr2)
..
. Br -
.. : ..
Ca 2  Br 2

Ca x
+ Ca2+ + 2 xx Br
.. :
x ..
. Br :
..

Conditions for Forming Ionic Bond: The following conditions favour the formation of an electrovalent bond.
(i) Number of valence e–: In general atoms having 1, 2 or 3 valence electron in outermost shell changes into
–
cation and atoms having 5, 6 or 7e in valency shell changes into anion.
(ii) Electronegativity difference: with a great difference in electronegativity of two atoms it is easier to form
ionic bond.
(iii) Overall lowering of energy: Energy must be released while bond formation.
Energy changes are involved in the following steps – A + IE = A+ + e– and B + e– = B– + EA

 For lower value of IE and higher value of EA there is more ease of formation of the cation and anion from it
respectively and consequently more chances of electrovalent bond formation.

(iv) Lattice energy

(a) Due to the strong electrostatic attraction between the ions, formation of the crystal results in release of
energy.
(b) The amount of energy released when free ions combine together to form one mole of a crystal is called
lattice energy ()
MX (g)  X (g)  MX(s) + Lattice Energy
(c) Higher the lattice energy greater will be the ease of formation of the ionic compound.
(d) Factors influencing magnitude of lattice energy are as follows:

(i) Size of ions: Smaller the size of the ions, lesser is the internuclear distance. Consequently the interionic
attraction will be high and lattice energy will also be large.
(ii) Charge on ions: Larger the magnitudes of charge on the ions, greater will be the attractive forces
between the ions. Consequently the lattice energy will be high.
Types of Ions
(a) Ions having inert gas configuration: The atoms of representative elements of group I, II and III by
complete loss of their valency electron and the elements of group V, VI and VII by gaining 3, 2 and 1
electrons respectively form ions either with ns2 configuration or ns2p6 configuration e.g. Na+, Ca2+, Cl–, O2–.
 2+
(b) Ions with pseudo inert gas configuration: The Zn ion is formed when zinc atom loses its outer 4s
2+ 2 6 10 2+ 2+ 2+ +, + + 3+
electrons. The outer shell configuration of Zn ion is 3s 3p 3d e.g. Zn , Cd , Hg , Cu Ag , Au , Ga
etc.
(c) Exceptional configurations: Many d and f block elements produce ions with configuration different than
the above two. Ions like Fe3+, Mn2+ etc. attain a stable configuration half filled d-orbitals e. g. Fe3+ =
2 5 2+ 2 6 5
3s 3p3d and Mn = 3s 3p 3d .
(d) Ions with ns2 configuration: Heavier member of group III, IV and V lose p-electrons only to form ions with
2 + 2+ 2+ 3+
ns configuration e. g. Te , Sn , Pb , Bi . These are stable ions.
(e) Polyatomic ions: These are ions, which are composed, of more than one atom. These ions move as such
in chemical reactions e. g.
+
NH4 (Ammonium); NO3– (Nitrate)
3–
PO4 (Phosphate); SO42– (Sulphate)
2–
CO3 (Carbonate); SO32– (Sulphite) etc.

Characteristics of Ionic Compounds

General properties of ionic compounds are as follows:

Physical State: These are generally crystalline in nature and are generally made from ions, which are arranged in
a regular way as a lattice structure. Force of attraction between the ions is non-directional and extends in all
directions. Thus electrovalent compounds exist as three-dimensional solid aggregates. Normally each ion is
surrounded by a number of oppositely ions and this number is called as coordination number.

High Melting and Boiling Point: Due to strong electrostatic forces of attraction, the ions are held tightly in their
position in the crystal lattice. Melting point of ionic solid is sharp and fixed cooling curve of ionic solids is also are
smooth.

Electrical Conductivity: Electrovalent solids do not conduct electricity because the ions, on account of electrostatic
forces of attraction, remain intact occupying fixed positions in the crystal lattice. When electrovalent compounds are
melted or dissolved in a polar solvent, the ions become mobile. They are attracted towards the respective electrodes
and act as carrier of electric current. Thus, electrovalent compounds in the molten state or in solution conduct
electricity.

Ionic Reactions: Electrovalent compounds furnish ions in solution. The chemical reactions are due to the
presence of these ions. Such reactions are fast e. g. SO42– ions present in Na2SO4 solution, form white precipitate
of BaSO4 as soon as BaCl2 Solution is added to it.
+ 2–
Na2SO4  2Na + SO4
2+ –
BaCl2  Ba + 2Cl
2+ 2–
Ba + SO4  BaSO4 
white ppt.

Solubility: They are fairly soluble in polar solvents and insoluble in non-polar solvents. The polar solvents have
high values of dielectric constants. The solubility of an ionic compound in a polar solvent can also be explained on
the basis of lattice energy and hydration energy. The electrovalent compound dissolves in a solvent if the value of
solvation energy is higher than the lattice energy of the electrovalent compound. Solvent molecules surround these
ions. This process is called solvation. This process is exothermic.
+ +
A + x (Solv.)  [A(Solv.)x] + energy
– –
B + y (Solv.)  [B (Solv.)y] + energy
(f) The value of solvation energy depends on the relative size of the ions.
(g) Smaller the ion more of solvation, hence solvation energy will be high.
Isomorphism: Compounds having same electronic structure are isomorphous to each other e. g. Sodium fluoride
and magnesium oxide are isomorphous to each other.
+ – 2+ 2–
Na F Mg O
(2,8) (2,8) (2,8) (2,8)

Covalent Character in Ionic Compounds (Fazan’s rule)

4 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
+ –
Although ionic compound like M X the bond is considered to be 100% ionic, but actually it has some covalent
character. Likewise, a covalent bond has some ionic character. The partial covalent character of an ionic bond has
been explained by Fazan is described below:
(a) When a cation approaches an anion, the electron cloud of the anion is attracted towards the cation and hence
gets distorted. The effect is called polarization of the anion.
(b) The power of the cation to polarise the anion is called its polarizing power.
(c) The tendency of the anion to get polarized is called its polarisability.
(d) The greater is the polarization produced, more is the neutralisation of the charges (i.e. charge of the cation
by the electron cloud of the an ion) and hence the ionic character decreases or the covalent character
increases.
The formation of covalent bond is favoured by the following factors:
(a) Small size of cation: Smaller the size of cation greater is its polarizing power i.e. greater will be the
covalent nature of the bond.
(b) Large size of anion: Larger the size of anion greater is its polarizing power i.e. greater will be the covalent
nature of the bond.
(c) Large charges on either of the two ions: As the charge on the ion increases, the electrostatic attraction
of the cation for the outer electrons of the anion also increases with the result its ability for forming the
covalent bond increases.
(d) Electronic configuration of the cation: For the two ions of the same size and charge, one with a pseudo
noble gas configuration (i.e. 18 electrons in the outermost shell) will be more polarising than a cation with
noble gas configuration (i.e. 8 electron in outer most shell).
Application of Fazan’s rule (Ionic Potential ): “The polarizing power of cation can be expressed in terms of
ionic potential ”. Ionic potential can be defined as ratio of charge on cation to the size of cation:
Charge on cation

size of cation
  Polarising power  covalent character. In a period  increases. In a group Q decreases downward. There is
correlation between nature of oxide and value of  as follows:
  2.2  basic
  2.2 to 3.3  amphoteric
  3.3  Acidic in nature
Reactivity of metal halides increases as the value of  decreases. Tendency to form complex compounds
increases as the value of increases. Thermal stability of carbonates increases as the value of  decreases.

Quiz – 1
1. Both calcium and cadmium ions have similar size however calcium carbonate and cadmium carbonate
have dissimilar thermal stability because
(A) Calcium carbonate is more thermally stable because of increased covalent character in calcium
carbonate
(B) Cadmium carbonate is more thermally stable because of decreased covalent character
(C) Calcium carbonate is more thermally stable because of lesser polarizing power of calcium ions.
(D) Cadmium ions is more thermally stable because of more polarizing power of cadmium ions

2. Arrange the following carbonates in decreasing order of their thermal stability:

(I) BeCO3 (II) MgCO3 (III) SrCO3 (IV) CaCO3
(A) I > II > III > IV (B) I > III > II > IV
(C) III > IV > II > I (D) IV > II > I > III

3. The charge/size ratio of a cation determines its polarizing power. Which one of the following sequences
represents the increasing order of the polarizing power of the cationic species, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Be2+?
2+ 2+ + 2+ 2+ + 2+ 2+
(A) Mg < Be < K < Ca (B) Be < K < Ca < Mg
+ 2+ 2+ 2+
(C) K < Ca < Mg < Be (D) Ca < Mg < Be < K+
2+ 2+ 2+
4. The stability of dihalides of Si, Ge, Sn and Pb increases steadily in the sequence
(A) GeX2 << SiX2 << SnX2 << PbX2 (B) SiX2 << GeX2 << PbX2 << SnX2
(C) SiX2 << GeX2 << SnX2 << PbX2 (D) PbX2 << SnX2 << GeX2 << SiX2

5. Lattice energy of an ionic compound depends upon:

(A) Charge on the ions only (B) Size of the ions only
(C) Packing of the ions only (D) Charge and size of the ions

6. A metal, M forms chlorides in its +2 and +4 oxidation states. Which of the following statements about these
chlorides is correct?
(A) MCl2 is more volatile than MCl4
(B) MCl2 is more soluble in anhydrous ethanol than MCl4
(C) MCl2 is more ionic than MCl4
(D) MCl2 is more easily hydrolysed than MCl4

7. Which one is most ionic?

(A) P2O5 (B) CrO3 (C) MnO (D) Mn2O7

8. The following compounds have been arranged in order of their increasing thermal stabilities. Identify the
correct order:
(I) K2CO3 (II) MgCO3
(III) CaCO3 (IV) BeCO3
(A) I < II < III < IV (B) IV < II < III < I
(C) IV < II < I < III (D) II < IV < III < I

9. The least stable in amongst the following is:

(A) Li– (B) Be– (C) B– (D) C–

10. Among the alkaline earth metals, the element that predominantly form covalent compound is:
(A) Mg (B) Sr (C) Be (D) Ca

11. Which of the following chlorides have minimum melting point?

(A) BaCl2 (B) CoCl2 (C) KCl (D) AgCl
12. Which of the following is the increasing order of covalent character of the compound?
(A) KCl < NaCl < MgO < AlN (B) AlN < MgO < NaCl < KCl
(C) MgO < AlN > KCl < NaCl (D) KCl > NaCl > MgO > AlN
0
13. Molecular size of ICl and Br2 is nearly same, but boiling point of ICl is about 40 C higher than Br2. This
might to due to:
(A) I–Cl bond is stronger than Br–Br bond
(B) Ionization energy of I < ionization energy of Br
(C) ICl is polar where as Br2 is non polar
(D) The size of I > size of Br
14. The melting point of AlF3 is 104 C and that of SiF4 is –77C (it sublimes) because:
(A) there is a very large difference in the ionic character of the Al – F and Si – F bonds
(B) in AlF3, Al3+ interacts very strongly with the neighbouring F– ions to give a three dimensional
structure but in SiF4 no interaction is possible
(C) the silicon ion in the tetrahedral SiF4 molecule is not shielded effectively from the fluoride ions
whereas in AlF3, the Al3+ ion is shielded on all sides
(D) the attractive forces between the SiF4 molecules are strong whereas those between the AlF3
molecules are weak
15. Statement–1 : Boron always forms covalent bond.
3+
Statement–2 : The small size of B favours formation of covalent bond.
(A) Statement–1 is True, Statement–2 is True; Statement–2 is a correct explanation for Statement–1
(B) Statement–1 is True, Statement–2 is True; Statement–2 is not a correct explanation for
Statement–1
(C) Statement–1 is True, Statement–2 is False
(D) Statement–1 is False, Statement–2 is True
6 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
16. Which of the following statements is correct for CsBr3?
(A) It is a covalent compound (B) It contains Cs3+ and Br  ions
+ +
(C) It contains Cs and Br3 ions (D) It contains Cs , Br  and lattice Br2 molecule

17. Anhydrous AlCl3 is covalent. From the data given below

Lattice energy = 5137 KJ/mol
3+
H hydration for Al = – 4665 KJ/mol
–
H hydration for Cl = – 381 KJ/mol
Identify the correct statement:
(A) It will remain covalent in aqueous solution
3+ –
(B) The solution will consist of Al and Cl
(C) The solution will consist of hydrated Al3+ and Cl–
(D) None of these

18. Which of the following cannot be explained on the basis of Fajan's rules?
(A) Ag2S is much less soluble than Ag2O
(B) Fe(OH)3 is much less soluble than Fe(OH)2
(C) BaCO3 is much less soluble than MgCO3
(D) Melting point of AlCl3 is much less than that of NaCl

19. When two atoms combine to form a molecules:

(A) Energy is released (B) Energy is absorbed
(C) Energy is neither released nor absorbed (D) Energy may either released or aborbed

20. Element X is strongly electropositive and is strongly electronegative. Both are univalent. The compound
formed would be:
+ – – +
(A) X Y (B) X–Y (C) X Y (D) X Y

Covalent Bond: It involves mutual sharing of electrons. It is formed between two electronegative atoms. Single
covalent bond is formed, when a single pair of electron is shared between two atoms. Double covalent bond is
formed, when two pairs of electron are shared. e.g. O 2, N2, Cl2, CO2 etc. Organic compounds also involve covalent
bonds between atoms. The sharing of electrons may be shown by Lewis structure beside BeCl2, AlF3, PF5 and SF6.

Concept of Covalency: It is defined as the number of electrons contributed by an atom of the element for sharing
with other atoms so as to achieve noble gas configuration or the number of covalent bonds formed by the atom of
the element with other atoms. The usual covalency of an element except hydrogen is equal to 8 – number of the
group to which an element belongs.

Lewis Structure and Covalent Bond: Lewis structures of covalent molecules are written in accordance with octet
rule. All atoms in a formula will have a total of eight electrons by sharing in the valence shell except the H-atom which
forms the largest number of bonds with other placed in the centre of skeleton structure. Other atoms surround it to
complete the octet.
Structures in which valence electrons are represented by dots are called Lewis structures and structures
represented by line (-) or dashes are known as Couper structure.
Lewis dot formulae show only the number of valency electron, the number and kinds of bonds, but do not depict
the three dimensional shapes of molecules and polyatomic ions. These are based on the fact that the
representative elements achieve a noble gas configuration in most of their compounds i.e. 8 electrons in their
+ 2+
outermost shell (except for H2, Li and Be ions which have 2 electrons). The following steps are followed in
constructing dot formulae for molecules and polyatomic ions.
(a) Write a symmetrical ‘Skeleton’ for the molecules and polyatomic ions.
(b) Calculate the number of electrons available in the valency shell of all the atoms.
(c) Calculate the total number of electrons needed by all atoms to achieve noble gas configuration.
(d) Calculate the total number of electron shared. This is represented by S which is equal to N–A.
(e) Place the shared pair of electron in to the skeleton, using double and triple bonds only when necessary.
(f) Place the additional unshared (lone) pairs of electron to fill the octet to every atom except hydrogen, which
can have only two electrons.
Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
Physical state: Under the normal conditions of temperature and pressure, these exist as gases or liquids of low
boiling points. This is due to the fact that very weak forces of attraction (Vander walls forces) exist between
discrete molecules. Some exist as soft solids if their molecular masses are high e. g. Sulphur, phosphorus, iodine.
Melting and Boiling Points: With the exception of few which have giant three dimensional structures such as
diamond, carborundum (SiC), Silica (SiO2), others have relatively low melting and boiling points. This is due to the
presence of weak attractive forces between the molecules. On supplying heat energy, the molecules are readily
pulled out form these forces and move freely having high KE.
Crystal Structure: Various types of structure present in covalent compounds is as follows:
(a) Covalent Solid: In this type of structure every atom is bonded to four other atom by single covalent bonds
resulting in the formation of giant structure e.g. SiC, AIN and diamond these crystals are very hard and
posses high melting point.
3
Diamond - sp hybridized carbon atom forms tetrahedral structures.
2
Graphite – sp hybridized carbon atoms form hexagonal shaped layer which can slide over each other due
to weak Vander waals forces of attraction distance between C–C atom –142 Ǻ and distance between
layers is 3.6 Ǻ. Graphite is more stable than diamond due to high value of change in enthalpy.
(b) Molecular Solids: When one atom combine with another with covalent bond and then the molecule
combines with another similar molecule with the help of Vander Waal force of attraction or hydrogen bond
e.g. CH4 (solid), dry ice, ice.

Electrical Conductivity: In general covalent substances are bad conductors of electricity. Substances, which have
polar character like HCl in solution, can conduct electricity. Covalent solids having giant molecules are bad conductor
since they do not contain charged particles or free electrons. Graphite can conduct electricity since electrons can
pass from one layer to the other. Some show conductivity due to self-ionization e.g. Liq. NH3.
NH3 + NH3  NH4+ + NH–
H2O + H2O  H3O+ + OH–
Solubility: (a) Polar compounds are soluble in polar solvent (i.e. EN 0.9 to 1.8). Polar solvent are – H2O, CHCl3
and Alcohol.
(b) Non-polar compounds are soluble in non-polar solvent. Non-polar solvents are CCl4, benzene and CS2.
Chemical Reactions: Covalent substances show molecular reactions. The reaction rates are usually low because
it involves two steps (i) breaking of covalent bonds of the reactants and (ii) establishing of new bonds while the
ionic reactions involved only regrouping of ions.
Isomerism: As the covalent bonds are rigid and directional. Hence, there is a possibility of different arrangement
of atoms in space. Covalent compounds can thus shows isomerism (structural and stereo).
Conditions for the formation of Covalent bond
(i) Two involved atomic orbitals must have positive overlap with each other.
(ii) Each of the two involved atomic orbitals must possess one unpaired electron with an opposite spin, so that
the two electrons involved in bonding have opposite spins.
Example:
(i) Formation of water, H2O:
H H
or
O + 2H O H O H
Similarly we can explain the formation of H2S (hydrogen sulphide), H2Se (hydrogen selenide) and H2Te
(hydrogen telluride).
(ii) Formation of the hydrogen molecule: Each hydrogen atom requires 1 electron to become isoelectronic
with helium, the nearest inert gas. The hydrogen atoms share their electrons thus:
– –
H + H H : H or H—H

(iii) Formation of hydrogen fluoride: The hydrogen atom has 1 electron in its orbital. It can achieve the
helium configuration by forming a single covalent bond with another atom. Fluorine has 7 electrons in its
outer, i.e., L shell. F can acquire the Neon configuration by forming a single covalent bond using its
unpaired electron. This may be represented as follows:
or H — F
:
:

H + F H F
: :
.

.
:

:
8 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
(iv) Formation of ammonia (NH3)

: :

:
: :
N 3H

.
H N H or H N H
: :

+
.
H H
(v) Formation of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)

:
:
Cl
: Cl

:
:
: :

:
... :
C Cl C
:
Cl Cl
: :
Cl C Cl
:
or
.

+
.

:
:
Cl
: :
Cl

:
(vi) Formation of methane (CH4)
H H

:
...

H C H
: :
H C H
.

C 4H or
+
.

:
H H
(vii) Formation of ethane (C2H6)
H
:
H H H
:
...

H C C H
: : :
H C C H
.

2 C 6H or
+
.

:
:

H H H H
Once the covalent bond is formed the two bonding electrons are attracted by the two nuclei (instead of one) and
the bonded state is more stable than the non-bonded state. The resultant attraction is responsible for the strength
of the covalent bond.

Sugden’s Concept of Single-Linkage: Sugden introduced the idea of singlet linkage in favour of octet rule.
According to this concept the maximum number of electrons in the outermost shell of any atom cannot exceed
eight. In PCI5, SF6, IF7, etc, the central atom is linked with some of the combining atoms by single-electron bonds,
called singlet linkage while the remaining atoms are linked by the normal two electrons bonds. The bond is
represented by a half arrow ( ) with the head pointing from donor towards the acceptore. g. In PCI5, three
chlorine atoms are linked by normal covalent bonds and two chlorine atoms are linked by singlet linkages, thus,
phosphorus achieves 8 electrons in the outermost shell.

CI
CI
or Cl P
CI
CI

This structure indicates that the nature of two chlorine atoms is different than the other three as singlet linkage is
weaker than normal covalent bond. This is confirmed by the fact that on heating, PCl 5 dissociates into PCl3 and Cl2.
PCl5  PCl3 + Cl2
Similarly, in SF6, four singlet linkages are present while in IF7, six singlet linkages are present.

Sidgwick’s Concept of Maximum Covalency

It states that the covalency of an element may exceed four and octet can be exceeded. The maximum covalency of an
element actually depends on the period of periodic table to which it belongs. This type of bond is formed between atoms
(or ions). One of which is deficient in at least two electrons while the other atom has already acquired a stable noble gas
configuration. The atom, which contributes the electrons, is called the donor while the other, which only shares the
electron pair, is known as accepter. It is represented by an arrow () pointing from donor to the acceptor atom. The
maximum covalency of the elements is given below:
 Period Elements Maximum No. of electrons in the
covalency outermost orbit
1st H 2 4
nd
2 Li to F 4 8
3rd Na to Cl 6 12
th
4 K to Br 6 12
th
5 Rb onwards and
rest of the 8 16
th
6 elements

3. Orbital Overlap and Covalent Bond

When two atoms are brought closer up to the stable internuclear distance then an overlapping of an orbital of one of the
atoms with the orbital of the second atom takes place. If each of the involved orbitals containing one unpaired electron
(before overlaping) then both the electrons couple with each other and thus belong to both the orbitals of two atoms. The
orbitals could be of s–s type, s-p type or p-p type. p-p type of orbital overlap is of two types:
(i) End to end overlap, leading to the formation of a - bond.

(ii) Sidewise overlap, leading to the formation of a - bond.

 M.O.

4. Differences Between  Bond and  Bond

Sigma () Bond Pi () Bond
1. It is formed by axial overlap of s – s or p – p or s It is formed by lateral overlap of p – p orbitals.
– p orbitals of two atoms.
2. The electron cloud of a  bond is a single cloud There are two clouds, one above and one below the plane
and is cylindrically symmetrical about the bond of the bonded atoms. The electron density is maximum in
axis. the cross-sectional plane of the overlapping orbitals.
3. Because of the symmetry of the electron cloud Since there is no cylindrical symmetry about the bond
about the bond axis, free rotation is possible axis, free rotation about a  bond is almost impossible.
around a  bond.
4. The bond is formed by the overlap of orbitals This bond is formed by sidewise overlapping (lateral
along their axes (end overlap). It includes s—s, overlapping) of orbitals. It includes p—p overlapping.
s—p and p—p overlapping.
5. It is a strong bond. It is a weak bond.
6. These bonds affect the Shape of the molecule. These bonds do not affect the shape of the molecule.

5. Polar Covalent Bond and Electronegativity

If the shared pair of electrons is shared equally between two atoms; then the covalent bond is said to be non-polar.
Equal sharing occurs between identical atoms like H – H or Cl – Cl (in homonuclear molecules) or between identical
atoms with identical neighbours as in H3C – CH3.
When the two bonded atoms are dissimilar (in heteronuclear molecules) the sharing is unequal e. g. a chlorine
atom has a greater electron attracting power than a hydrogen atom; so in H – Cl, the shared pair of electrons are
drawn more towards chlorine and away from hydrogen. The result is separation of charges with in the molecule,

the chlorine end acquiring a slight negative charge and the hydrogen end a slight but equal positive charge: H —

— Cl . Such covalent bonds are said to be polar (bonds formed by sharing a pair of electrons between two atoms
but displaced towards the nucleus of one of bonded atoms).
10 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
The net tendency of a bonded atom in a covalent molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is
known as electronegativity. (This word does not mean the actual content of the electric charge, but just the
tendency to acquire it in a molecule). Thus F is highly electronegative, but F – which has already an extra electron,
is not.
Pauling’s Table of Electronegativities
H
2.1
Li Be B C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0
K Ca As Se Br
0.8 1.0 2.0 2.4 2.8
Rb Sr Sb Te I
0.8 1.0 1.9 2.1 2.5
To assess the tendency of an atom of a given element to attract electrons towards itself in a covalent bond, relative
electronegativity values are used. Table (above) gives the relative electronegativity values of atoms calculated by
Pauling (adopting arbitrarily the value of 4 units for the electronegativity of fluorine).

 REMEMBER
(i) Electronegativity values increases across a period and decrease down a group.
(ii) Smaller atoms have greater electronegativity than larger ones and so they attract electrons more towards
them than larger ones. Alkali metals have low electronegativities and halogens high electronegativities.
(iii) Atoms with nearly filled shells of electrons (e.g., halogens) have greater electronegativity than those with
sparsely occupied shells.
(iv) Elements with low electronegativity values such as Cs (0.8) and Rb (0.8) tend to form positive ions, i.e.,
these are metals. Elements with high electronegativity values such as F(4.0) and O (3.5) tend to form
negative ions, i.e., these are non-metals.
(v) Electronegativity value may be used to make rough predictions of the type of bonding to be found in a
compound. The larger the difference between electronegativity values of two combining atoms, the more
polar the covalent bond.
(vi) If the difference is greater than 2, the greater the chance for ionic bonding (i.e., the chance of covalent
bond assuming 100% ionic character). From this point of view ionic bond may be considered to be an
extreme case of a polar bond (with total separation of charges).
If the difference between the electronegativities of the combining atoms is zero or small, the bond is
essentially non-polar.
Let XA and XB represent the electronegativities of two atoms A and B. If XB – XA = 1.7, the covalent bond A
– B is said to have 50% ionic character. On this basis, the % ionic character in some typical bonds is
calculated (Refer Table). These calculations are very qualitative.
C–H N–H O–H F–H
4% 19% 39% 60%
C–F C – Cl C – Br C–I
43% 11% 3% 0%
Pauling pointed out that for any pair of atoms AB, the electronegativity difference X A  XB  0.208 
1
Where  = EAB – [EAA + EBB],
2
where EAB, EAA and EBB are the experimentally determined bond energies of AB, A2 and B2 respectively. (
is in kcal/mol.)
 was subsequently modified as  = EAB – E AA  EBB .
Pauling adopted XH for hydrogen = 2.1 (arbitrarily as reference).
X A  XB  0.1017  , where  is in kJ/mole.

Mulliken suggested that (I + E) i.e., sum of lonization energy + Electron affinity is a measure of
electronegativity. Mulliken values are around 2.8 times larger than Pauling values.
 Mulliken E.N.
 Pauling E.N. = where 1 eV/atom = 96.48 kJ/mole
2.8  96.48
= (I + E)/540.
0.359
Allred and Rochow suggested X = Zeff + 0.744;
r2
r = covalent radius and Zeff = effective nuclear charge.

 The percent ionic character of a covalent bond may be calculated using Hannay and Smyth equation.
% ionic character = 16 (XA – XB) + 3.5 (XA – XB)2
2
e.g. percent ionic character of H – Cl bond = 16 (3.0 – 2.1) + 35 (3.0 – 2.1) = 17.2%

6. Dipole Moment
Due to difference between the electronegativity of two atoms, the electron pair lies nearer to atom of higher
electronegativity. As a result this atom acquires a partial negative charge and the other atom (with lesser
electronegativity) acquires an equal positive charge. This distortion of charges results in a polar covalent bond.
The above-discussed polarization of bonded electrons is expressed quantitatively with a physical quantity called as
Dipole moment. Dipole moment is a vector quantity and can be defined as P = (q). r or
Dipole moment = Partial Charge on either atom × distance between the two partial charges
-18 -30
Dipole moment is measured in terms of Debye and one debye = 10 esu or 3.3356 × 10 cm. Dipole moment
can be used to determine the percent ionic character of the molecule.

Illustration: Dipole moment of HCl is 1.03D. What will be its % ionic character moment if bond length is
–10
127.5  10 cm?
Solution: pionic = Electronic charge × bond distance of HCl
-10 -10
= 4.8 × 10 esu × 127.5 × 10 cm
-18
= 6.12 × 10 esu cm = 6.12 D (debye)
But the actual value of dipole moment is 1.03 D. So its ionic character is
P 1.03D
% ionic character = observed  100 =  100  17
pionic 6.12D

In polyatomic molecule, individual bonds may be polar but the overall molecule may be polar or non polar. In case
of a molecule, the dipole moment is obtained by vector addition bond moments. If the vector addition is zero then
molecule is non-polar e.g.CO2, BCl3, CCl4 and SF6. In such molecules, the individual bonds are symmetrically
arranged so as to give a net zero dipole moment.

Applications: Dipole moment is a measure of the electrical dissymmetry (polarity) in the molecule and so its
measurement provides valuable information concerning the shapes of molecules. Conversely, when the symmetry
of the molecules is known, dipole moment could also be estimated.
(A) Inorganic substances
(i) Monoatomic molecules such as He, Ne, etc., have zero dipole moment because they are symmetrical.
(ii) Diatomic molecules such as H2, Cl2, and N2 have no dipole moment; so these molecules are symmetrical.
(iii) Triatomic molecules: Some of these molecules possess zero dipole moment; so they have a symmetrical
linear structure, e.g., CO2, CS2 and HgCl2.
Other like water and sulphur dioxide has definite dipole moments. They are said to have angular or bent
structures (V-shaped).
:

O S
S = C= S Cl — Mg — Cl
:

H H O O
1.84 D 1.63 D 0D 0D 0D
[The arrow shows the direction in which the electrons are attracted; it is not a co-ordinate covalent bond.]

 Some triatomic linear molecules although linear possess dipole moments e.g. N2O.
(iv) Tetratomic molecules: Some molecules like BCl3 have zero dipole moment. They are said to possess a flat
and symmetrical (triangular) structure; other examples are BF3, BBr3, CO32  and NO3 .
12 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

Cl

Cl Cl
+
PCl3, AsCl3, NH3, PH3, AsH3, H3O have appreciable dipole moments. They possess trigonal pyramidal
structures.

:
P

Cl Cl
Cl
(B) Organic substances
Methane and CCl4 have zero dipole moment. So they possess symmetrical tetrahedral structures with C atom at
the centre of the tetrahedron.
H
—

C—
H
—

H
H
Methane
(i) Benzene has zero dipole moment. All the 6 C and 6 H atoms are assumed to be in the same plane
(symmetrical hexagonal structure).
H
H C H
C C
C C
H C H
H
Benzene

(ii) Measurement of dipole moments will enable the detection of the cis- and trans – isomers of organic
compounds.
The trans – isomer that is symmetrical has zero dipole moment (  ) while the cis – isomer has a definite
dipole moment (  ).
H H H Br
C C C C
Br Br Br H
cis-dibromoethylene ( = 1.4 D) trans-dibromoethylene ( = 0)
Co-ordinate Bond: It is formed when the pair of electron is shared between two atoms is exclusively contributed
by one of the atoms e. g.
H F
.. ..
H:N: B:F
.. ..
H F
After formation of bond, it is impossible to distinguish between the covalent and co-ordinate bond.

Conditions for Formation of Co-ordinate Bond

(i) One of the atoms must possess an orbital containing a lone pair of electrons.
(ii) The second atoms must possess an empty atomic orbital.
(iii) The two atomic orbitals mentioned in the above two conditions should have a positive overlap at the stable
internuclear state.
Example:
(i) Formation of ammonium ion: The ammonia molecule has a lone pair of electrons and the hydrogen ion -
+
H - has an empty s orbital. The lone pair comes to be shared between the nitrogen and hydrogen atoms:
+

H Ione pair H
+
H

:
H :N : + H

:
H:N:H or H N H

:
H

:
H H
+
Nitrogen atom is called the donor and H the acceptor. The arrow-heed in NH shows the acceptor. NH3
is a neutral molecule. H carries a unit positive charge and N H4 ion carries a unit positive charge. Once
+

the N H4 ion is formed, all the N—H bonds become identical.
+
(ii) Hydronium ion (H3O )

: O+

:
O
+ H
:

H H H H
H
(iii) Aluminium chloride (Al2Cl6)

(iv) Nitromethane (CH3NO2)

H
O
H C N
O
H

Quiz – 2
1. The two carbon atoms in calcium carbide are held by which of the following bonds:
(A) Three sigma bonds (B) Ionic bonds
(C) Two pi and one sigma bonds (D) Ionic and covalent bonds

2. Among the following the molecule with the highest dipole moment is:
(A) CH3Cl (B) CH2Cl2 (C) CHCl3 (D) CCl4

3. In dry ice there are:

(A) Ionic bond (B) Covalent bond
(C) Hydrogen bond (D) None of these

4. Dipole moment is highest for:

(A) CHCl3 (B) CH4 (C) CHF3 (D) CCl4

5. The molecules having dipole moment are:

(A) 2, 2-Dimethylpropane (B) Trans–3–hexene
(C) Trans-2-pentene (D) 2, 2, 3, 3-Tetramethylbutane

6. One among the following is the incorrect order in increasing ionisation energy:
– +
(A) Cl < Ar < K (B) K < Ca < Se
(C) Au < Ag < Cu (D) Cs < Rb < K
14 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
7. The dipole moment of NF3 is very much less compared to that of NH3 because:
(A) The size of N atoms is much less than that of H atom
(B) F atom is more electronegative than N atom, whereas H atom is less electronegative than N atom
(C) Unshared electron pair is not present in NF3
(D) No. of lone pairs in NF3 is much greater than in NH3
8. In HCHO, there are X non-bonding electron pairs, Y -bonds, X, Y and Z are:
(A) 1, 1, 3 (B) 2, 3, 1 (C) 1, 2, 3 (D) None of these
9. For compounds,
I : Tetracyanoethne II: Carbon dioxide
III : Benzene IV : 1, 3-Butadiene
Ratio of  and  bonds is in order:
(A) I = II < III < IV (B) I = II < IV < III
(C) I = II = III = IV (D) III < IV < I < II
10. Which of the following phenomenon will occur when two atoms of an element with same spin of electron
approach each other?
(A) Orbitals overlap will occur (B) Orbitals overlap will not occur
(C) Bonding will occur (D) A diatomic molecule will be formed
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
11. The dipole moment of is 1.5 D. The dipole moment of is:
Cl Cl
Cl
(A) 0D (B) 1.5 D (C) 2.86 D (D) 2.25 D
OH CN

12.

OH CN
(I) (II)
Which of the following statement(s) is/are true about the following two structure?
(A) i  ii (B) i  ii  0 (C) i  ii  0 (D) i  ii

13. Which one of the following has zero dipole moment?

(A) ClF (B) PCl3 (C) SiF4 (D) CFCl3

14. Which species does not exist?

(A) (SnCl6)2– (B) (GeCl6)2– (C) (CCl6)2– (D) (SiCl6)2–

15. In Co-ordinate bond, the acceptor atoms must essentially contain in its valency shell an orbital:
(A) With paired electron (B) With single electron
(C) With no electron (D) With three electron

16. Correct statement regarding this reaction

BF3 + NH3  [F3B  NH3]
(A) Hybridisation of N is changed (B) Hybridisation of B is changed
(C) NH3 act as a lewis base (D) (B) and (C) both
17. The bonds present in N2O5 are:
(A) Only ionic (B) Covalent & coordinate
(C) Only covalent (D) Covalent & ionic
18. The type of bond formed between two electronegative atoms would be:
(A) Covalent (B) Ionic
(C) Coordinate (D) All the above
19. Correct order of covalent character of alkaline earth metal chloride in:
(A) BeCl2 < MgCl2 < CaCl2 < SrCl2 (B) BeCl2 < CaCl2 < SrCl2 < MgCl2
(C) BeCl2 > MgCl2 > CaCl2 > SrCl2 (D) SrCl2 > BeCl2 > CaCl2 > MgCl2
20. The order of decreasing polarity in the compounds is:
CaO, CsF, KCl, MgO
(A) CaO > CsF > KCl > MgO (B) MgO > KCl > CaO > CsF
(C) KCl > CaO > CsF > MgO (D) CsF > KCl > CaO > MgO

Bond Characteristics
Bond Length: It is the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms constituting a chemical bond. It is expressed in Å.
Bond Energy: It is the average energy released, when a covalent bond is formed by bringing two isolated, neutral,
gaseous atoms from an infinite distance. It is expressed in kJ mol-1.
When a C - H bond is broken in CH4 yielding CH3  and  H, the energy required is bond dissociation energy.
1
But of the energy needed to break all the bonds in CH4 is the bond energy for C – H. Higher the bond energy of
4
a bond, the more stable it is. The bond energies of some bonds are as follows:

Bond Bond energy

kJ mol-1
H–F 564
H – Cl 432
H – Br 364
H–I 297
The strength of a  -bond is higher than of a  -bond. The bond energy increases with increasing s-character of
the hybrid orbital.
Bond Length and Bond Strength: The shorter the distance between a given pair of covalently bonded atoms, the
greater the bond energy and hence the stronger the bond e.g. the observed distances and energies of the bonds
between two carbon atoms in ethane, ethylene and acetylene are:
H3 C-CH3 H2 C=CH2 HC  CH
Bond length (Ǻ) 1.54 1.33 1.20
Bond energy ( kJ mol-1. ) 333.9 589.9 811.7
This shows that bond length decreases with increase in the number of bonds between the two given atoms. Multiple
bonding results in greater electron density between the nuclei. So the nuclei are more strongly attracted by this
increased electron density and are brought closer.

Multiple bond covalent radii (in Å)

B= C= N= O=
0.76 0.67 0.60 0.55
B C N O
0.68 0.6 0.55 0.50
Si = S=
1.07 0.94

By comparing these values with those of single bond covalent radii, it is found that the double bond radius of an
atom is about 13% and the triple bond radius is about 22% less than the corresponding single bond radius.
Bond length decreases with increase in s-character of a hybrid bond e. g.
C-atom sp3: C – H bond length = 1.093 Å
2
C-atom sp : C – H bond length = 1.087 Å
C-atom sp: C – H bond length = 1.057 Å
For a covalent bond, the length increases with the size of the atom e.g.
HI > HBr > HCl > HF
Bond Polarity and Bond Length: Bond polarity causes decrease in bond length e. g. the bond length of Si – F
polar bond is 1.54 Å whereas the theoretical value is 1.17 + 0.72 + = 1.89 Å. While in a nearly non-polar bond as in Br
– Cl, the observed bond length is 2.14 Å and the calculated bond length is 2.13 Å. Decrease in bond length leads to
increase in bond energy. Hence, an increase in the polarity of a covalent bond strengthens the covalent bond.
16 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

Resonance
When a molecule is represented by more than one electronic arrangement none of which is able to explain the observed
characteristics of the molecule, then the actual structure is intermediate of various electronic arrangements and is known
as resonance hybrid. The various electronic arrangements are called resonating structures or contributing structures.
Conditions for Resonance: Resonance can occur when the canonical structures:
(i) have the constituent atoms in the same relative positions,
(ii) have nearly the same energy,
(iii) have the same number of unpaired electrons (to allow for continuous change from one type of bond to another)
(iv) Differ in the distribution of electrons around the constituent atoms,
(v) Molecules or ions are planar.
Resonance Energy: The difference in energy between
the actual observed energy of the resonance hybrid and Energy of structure II or III
the most stable of the contributing structures is called Energy of structure I

Energy
resonance energy. The resonance hybrid has less
Resonance energy
energy than any of the contributing structures.
For CO2, the resonance energy is 154 Energy of actual structure
-1
kJ mol . [Resonance energy = observed heat of
formation of the compound-calculated heat of formation Resonance energy
(from bond energies; refer thermo-chemistry)].

Valence Bond Theory

Heitler and London concept
(i) Two atoms must come closer to each other for formation of covalent bond so that overlapping takes place.
(ii) Overlapping orbitals must have half filled nature (must have unpaired electron) and anti spin electrons.
(iii) As a result of overlapping, a new localized bond orbital is formed, in which probability of finding electron
pair is maximum.
(iv) Covalent bond energy arises due to (a) electrostatic attraction between nuclei and the accumulated
electron cloud and (b) cancellation or attraction between spins of anti spin electrons.
(v) Greater is the overlapping, lesser will be the bond length, more will be attraction and more will be bond
energy, and high stability of bond.
Pauling and Slater View
(i) The extent of overlapping depends upon, nature of orbitals involved in overlapping and nature of
overlapping.
(ii) More closer the valence shells are to the nucleus, more will be the overlapping, and the bond energy will
also be high. Bond energy of 1–1 > 1–2 > 2–2 > 2–3 shells.
(iii) Between two sub shells of same energy level, the sub shell more directionally concentrated shows more
overlapping.
(iv) s-orbitals are spherically symmetrical and thus show only head on overlapping. On the other hand, p-
orbitals are directionally concentrated and thus show either head on overlapping or lateral overlapping.
Energy Concept
(i) Atoms combine with each other to minimize their energy.
(ii) In hydrogen molecule the bond between two hydrogen atoms is very strong.
(iii) During the formation of hydrogen molecule, when two hydrogen atoms approach each other, two types of
interaction become operative as shown in fig.
(a) The force of attraction between the molecules of one atom and electrons of the other atom.
(b) The forces of repulsion between the Nuclei of reacting atoms and electrons of the reacting atoms.
(iv) As the two hydrogen atoms approach each other from the infinite distance, they start interacting with each
other when the magnitude of attractive forces is more than that of repulsive forces a bond is developed
between two atoms.

(v) The decreases in potential energy taking place during formation of hydrogen molecule may be shown
graphically as shown below.
Energy to
+ve
separate atom

P.E. decreases as distance

Potential E between atoms decreases
energy d0
Point of minimum energy
-ve
or maximum stability
Intermolecular distance (d)

(vi) The internuclear distance at the point O have minimum energy or maximum stability is called length.
(vii) The amount of energy released (i.e. decrease in potential energy) is known as enthalpy of formation.
(viii) From the curve it is apparent that greater the decrease in potential energy, stronger will be the bond
formed and vice versa.
(ix) It is to be noted that for dissociation of hydrogen molecule into atoms, equivalent amount of energy is to be
supplied.
(x) Obviously in general, a stronger bond will require greater amount of energy for the separation of atoms.
(xi) The energy required to cleave one mole of bonds of the same kind is known as the bond energy or bond
dissociation energy.
(xii) This is called as orbital overlaps concept of covalent bond.

7. Hybridisation
Orbital overlap concept or Quantum mechanical theory of covalent bond formation does not explain the bivalency
of Be (1s2 2s2), trivalency of B (1s2 2s2 2p1) and tetravalency of C (1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1). So to explain above facts and
also to describe geometry of the molecules formed by these atoms, a new concept – Hybridisation – is put
forwarded. According to this, two or more orbitals of the same atom combine to give the same number of
equivalent orbitals called Hybrid orbitals. Hybrid orbitals are completely identical in size, shape, orientation and
energy. Hybridisation does not involve loss or gain of energy. Each of the hybrid orbitals contain one electron and
can overlap with the pure or hybrid orbital of the other atom to form a covalent bond.

Conditions for Hybridization

(i) Only the orbitals belonging the same atom take part in the hybridisation.
(ii) The orbitals that participate in hybridization should have only small energy difference.

Salient features of Hybridisation

(i) The no. of hybrid orbital formed is equal to the no. of atomic orbitals taking part in hybridisation.
(ii) Hybridisation never takes place in isolated atoms and it occurs only when the atom is to take part in bond for.
(iii) The observed shape of a covalent molecule can be predicted from the type of the hybridization involved.

Type of Orientation of
Hybridisation Orbitals used Hybrid Orbitals Example
sp one s and one p Linear BeF2, BeCl2, CO2, C2H2, HCN
2
sp one s and two p Trigonal planar BF3, SO2, SO3, C2H4
+ –
3 CH4, CCl4, SiF4, H2O, NH3, H3O , ClO4 ,
sp one s and three p Tetrahedral –
ClO3 , NF3,
Trigonal
sp3d one s, three p and one d XeF2, CIF3, SF4, PCl5
bipyramidal
3 2
sp d one s, three p and two d Octahedral XeF4, BrF5, XeOF4, SF6
3 3 Pentagonal
sp d one s, three p and three d IF7, XeF6
bipyramidal
2 2–
dsp one s, two p and one d Square planer [Ni(CN)4]
18 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

sp Hybridisation
(i) Beryllium Chloride: It involves mixing of one s and one p orbitals e. g. Formation of beryllium chloride.

2p sp hybrid

2s

1s
Be Ground state Excited state Hybridised state

sp Hybridisation of Beryllium

The sp hybrid orbitals of beryllium atom overlap with

the vacant Px-orbitals of two chlorine atoms and x
form two  bonds. Cl  Be  Cl since sp hybrid
orbitals produces along the axis farther than the 2s 2px 2p y 2p z
corresponding s or p-orbitals they are able to
overlap better and form stronger bonds than s or p-
orbitals alone. They are of equivalent energy and sp hybridization
shape and are collinear. Each sp-orbital has one-
half s character and one-half p character. unhybridized 2p-
180 orbitals
(ii) Formation of Acetylene: Hybridisation of the x
one 2s and 2p carbon orbitals leads to the formation
of two sp hybrid orbitals. sp–sp overlap between two sp-hybrid orbitals
carbon atoms form a  bond between them. The (Liniar Molecule)
other sp orbital on each carbon atom forms a  bond
with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen atom.


H C C H

H
H

 
H C  C H

Acetylene molecule
Each of the carbon atoms has two remaining p-orbitals, which are mutually at right angles to each other. They laterally
overlap and form two  bonds, sometimes pictured as a cylindrical sheath about the line joining the nuclei. One triple
bond between 2 carbon atoms contains one C – C  bond and 2 bonds. (1 C – C  bond, 2 C – H  bonds and 2
bonds).
The carbon-carbon triple bond is made up of the strong  bond and two weaker  bonds; it has a total strength of
198 kcal/mole. It is stronger than a carbon-carbon double bond (163 kcal) or C – C single bond in ethane (88 kcal)
and therefore is shorter than either.
sp2 Hybridisation: It involves mixing of one s and two p orbitals e. g. Formation of boron trichloride (BCl3).
Boron has the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2 p1x . One of the s electrons is promoted to a vacant py-orbital
(excited state). Then one s-orbital and two p-orbitals hybridise to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy
and shape.
2p

2s sp2
 1s
Boron atom Ground state Excited state Hybridised state
2
sp Hybridisation of Boron

2s 2px 2p y 2p z

sp2 hybridization unhybridized

orbital
unhybridized
120 2p orbital



sp2 hybrid orbitals

Cl
Formation of CO2

120

B
O  C  O

Cl Cl

CO2 Molecule
Formation of BCl3
2
The three-sp hybrid orbitals are co-planar and are at angles of 120 to each other. Each hybrid orbital overlaps
with the vacant p-orbital of the chlorine atom and forms a  bond. The other halides of Boron – BF3 - have similar
2
structures. A sp hybrid orbital has one-third s character and two-third p character. (3  bonds.)
2
Additional Example of sp Hybridization
Formation of CO2-
3

C(exited) = 1s2 2s1 2p1 2p1y 2p1z

O = 1s2 2s2 2p2x 2p1y 2p1z [ordinary oxygen]
O– = 1s2 2s2 2p2x 2p2y 2p1z
2
In ‘C’ atom one 2s and two 2p orbitals gets overlapped to yield three resultant equivalent sp hybrid orbitals. The
CO32  ion has been carrying two unit negative charges. Thus two of the oxygen atom may be regarded to be
having one extra electron each.
2 2
(i) One of the sp hybrid orbitals of carbon gets overlapped with 2p-orbital of one oxygen atom to form sp –p sigma
bond. Further unhybridized 2p orbital of the carbon atom gets overlapped with another 2p-orbital of same
oxygen atom to form - bond.

(ii) Second sp2 hybrid orbital of carbon gets overlapped with half filled 2p1z orbital of 2nd oxygen atom to form
sp2–p sigma bond.
20 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
2
(iii) Third sp hybrid orbital of carbon undergo overlapping with half filled 2p orbital of third oxygen atom
– 2
possessing one extra electron (O ) to form sp –p sigma bond.

2s 2px 2py 2pz 2s 2px 2py 2pz

0 (atom) 0 (atom)
Bond

Dative Bond
2s 2px 2py 2pz
Bond  Bond
sp2 hybridization

O 120 O
C

O
Formation of Ethylene Molecule

2p
px py pz 2pz

2s
C exited sp2 hybridised

sp2 hybridisation of carbon: In the formation of ethylene, carbon atom undergoes sp2 hybridisation. Two of the sp2
orbitals of each atom form  bonds with 1s-orbitals of hydrogen atoms by axial overlapping.
The sp2 – sp2 overlap results in the formation of a C – C  bond. The two carbon atoms and the four hydrogen
atoms are all in the same plane and the bond angles are 120.
H
H  H H H


H


 C
C C C C or C
 

H  H H H
H H

Ethylene Molecule
At right angles to this plane there remains the 2pz, orbital of each carbon atom which overlaps laterally to form a 
bond between the two carbon atoms. The double bond between the two carbon atoms consists of a  bond and a
 bond. (4 C – H  bonds, 1 C – C  bond and 1  bond)
3
sp Hybridisation: It involves mixing of one s and three p orbitals e. g. Formation of methane, CH4. One of the
electrons in the 2s-orbital of carbon is promoted to the vacant px orbital (excited state). Energy released during
bond formation is utilised for this. Then the four orbitals, one s and three p-orbitals, get mixed up and form four new
hybrid orbitals of equivalent energy and shape which are called sp3 hybrid orbitals.

2p

2s

1s
 Carbon atom Ground state Excited state Hybridised state
3
sp hybridisation of carbon atom
Each sp3 hybrid orbital is like a p-orbital, but with 2 lobes of unequal size (In figures the small lobe is usually
omitted).

+ + - + -
P
3
sp hybrid orbital

2s 2px 2p y 2p z

sp3 hybridization

'
95
10

3
sp hybridization
Since the hybrid orbitals repel one another, they orient themselves with an angle of 10928 between them and
point to the four corners of a regular tetrahedron. Each hybridised orbital overlaps the 1s-orbital of a hydrogen
atom and forms a  bond. Each sp3-hybridised orbital has one-fourth s character and three-fourths p character.
Remember that a hybrid atomic orbital from s and p-orbitals can form only  bonds. (4 C – H  bonds)

198 28

CH4 molecule

Formation of Ethane
In this case there is sp3 – sp3 overlap resulting in the formation of the C – C bond and sp3 – s overlap forming C –
H bonds. (1 C – C  bond and 6 C – H  bonds).
H H

H H

H H
H C C H

H H

H H

Formation of Ethane
22 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

Additional Examples of sp3 Hybridization

1. Formation of sulphate SO
4 Ion  
2 2 6 1
S(exited) = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3p 3p1z 3d111
x
1
y

O = 1s22s2 2p2x 2p1y 2p1z

O = 1s22s2 2p2x 2p1y 2p1z
3
One 3s and three 3p orbitals of S-atom undergo hybridization to yield four sp hybrid orbitals. Two d-orbital are
unhybridized are able to form  bond.
The sulphate ion is having two unit negative charges, hence two of the oxygen atoms may be having one extra
electron each.
(i) Two of the four sp3 hybrid orbitals of sulphur atom are able to overlap with 2p orbital of two oxygen atoms.
3
(ii) Remaining two sp hybrid orbitals of sulphur atom are able to overlap with 2p-orbital of two oxygen atoms
3
forming sp -p sigma bonds.
(iii) The two unhybridized d-orbital of sulphur atom are able to overlap with 2py orbitals of two oxygen atoms by
forming p-d bonds.
Hence SO24 ion is having tetrahedral structure

2s 2p

0 atom 0 atom nd
d

 Bo 0 atom
 B on

nd nd
 Bo   Bo

3s 3p 3d
d
on

p  d Bond
B

sp3 hybridization 2s 2p

0 atom
O

S
O O

sp3d Hybridisation: The example of sp3d hybridisation is PCl5 molecule which has Trigonal bipyramidal shape.
P15 = 1s22s22p63s23p3

PNormal state =
3s 3p 3d Cl
Cl a
PExcited state = e 90 e Cl
3s 3p 3d
120 P
PHybridized state = e
3s 3p 3d a
Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
sp3d hydbridization
 3 2
sp d Hybridisation: Octahedral geometry of SF6 molecule.
S16 = 1s22s22p63s23p4

SNormal state =
3s 3p 3d

SExcited state = F F F
3s 3p 3d
S
SHybridized state =
3s 3p 3d F F
F
F F F F F F
3 2
sp d hydbridization
3 3
sp d Hybridisation: Pentagonal bipyramidal geometry of IF7 molecular.
I53 = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p64d105s25p5

INormal state =
5s 5p 5d

IExcited state = F
F
3s 3p 5d
F
IHybridized state = F I
3s 3p 5d F
F
F
F F F F F F F
3 3
sp d hydbridization

Hybridisation and Shapes of Molecules: While Hybridisation is determined by the total number of electron pairs
in the valence shell of a central atom, the actual shape of the molecules is determined by the bonded atoms and
not by the electron pairs. For example, in NH3 and H2O, there are 4 pairs of electrons around the central nitrogen
3
and oxygen atoms respectively. They are sp hybridised. But NH3 is pyramidal and water is V-shaped.

Valence Shell Electron – Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory

It was developed by Gillespie and Nyholm in 1957 to predict the shape of a molecule by considering the most
stable configuration of the bond angles in the molecule. It states that:
(a) Electron pairs (bonding or lone pairs) are regarded as occupying localized orbitals around the atom. These
orbitals arrange themselves in space so as to minimize the mutual electronic repulsions.
(b) Different types of electronic repulsions follow the order given below,
Lone pair – lone pair > lone pair – bonding pair > bonding pair – bonding pair.
24 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

8. Shapes of Molecules Based on VSEPR Theory

Total
number of Expected Type of
electron molecular electron Stable
pairs shape pairs Formula arrangement Shape Examples
1 Linear 2 BP AB2 Linear BeF2, HgCl2, ZnCl2
Trigonal Equilateral BF3, BCl3
2 3 BP AB3
planar triangular

2 BP, 1 LP AB2L V-shaped SnCl2, PbCl2

3 Tetrahedral 4 BP AB4 Tetrahedral CH4, SnCl4

3 BP, 1 LP AB2L Pyramidal NH3, PH3

2 BP, 2 LP AB2L2 V-shaped H2O, H2S

4 Trigonal 5 BP AB5 Trigonal PF5, PCl5, SbCl5

bipyramidal bipyramidal

4 BP, 1 LP AB4L See saw SF4, TeCl4

3 BP, 2LP AB2L3 T-shaped ClF3, BrF3

2 BP, 3LP AB2L3 Linear XeF2

5 Octahedral 6 BP AB6 Octahedral SF6, TeF6

5 BP, 1 LP AB5L Square BrF5, IF5

pyramidal

4 BP, 2 LP AB6L2 Square planar XeF4

6 Pentagonal 7 BP, AB7 Pentagonal IF7

bipyramidal bipyramidal

Shape of Molecules/Ions having only Bond Pairs of Electrons

No. of bp of electrons at Shape of
the central Atom Hybridisation Bond angle molecule Examples
2 sp 180° Linear BeX2, CO2, HgCl2, HCN
MgCl2, C2H2(alkynes), [Ag(NH3)2]+,
-
[Ag (CN)2] (X = F, Cl, Br, I)
3 sp2 120° Trigonal BF3, BCl3 BBr3, BH3, AlCl3, SO3, C2H2
– 3
planar (alkenes), NO3 , CO3 , C6H6
4 sp3 109.5° Tetrahedral SiX4, SnCl4, CH4 (alkanes), CX4, SO2-
4
+ 4-
ClO4, NH4 , BF
5 dsp2 90° Square planar [Ni(CN)4]2-, [PtCl4]2-, [Cu(NH3)]2+
3
6 sp d 90°120° Trigonal PCl5, PF5, SbCl5
bipyramidal
3 2 - - 2-
7 sp d 90° Octahedral SF6, ScF6, TfeF6 , PF6 , SnCl6
3- 3+ 2-
[CrF6] [Co(NH3)] , [SiF6]

3–
[Co (CN) 6] ,W(CO)6
3 3
8 sp d 90°, 72° Pentagonal IF7
bipyramidal
Vander’s Waal’s Forces: This type of attractive forces occurs in case of non-polar molecules such as H2, O2, Cl2,
CH4, CO2 etc. The existence of weak attractive forces among the non-polar molecule was first proposed by J.D.
Vander Waal.

Types of Vander Waal’s forces

+
(i) Ion dipole attraction: It is between an ion such as Na and a polar molecule such as HCl.

+
Na HCl
(ii) Dipole-Dipole attraction: It is in between two polar molecules such as HF and HCl.

HF HCl(g)
(iii) Ion induced dipole attraction: In this case a neutral molecule is induced by an ion as a dipole.

(iv) Dipole Induced dipole attraction: In this case a neutral molecule is induced as a dipole by another dipole.

HCl Cl2
26 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
(v) Induced dipole: Induced dipole attraction or London dispersion force between two non-polar molecules as
in Cl2, He etc.

Cl2 He
 The relative strength of various bonds is as follows:
Ionic bond > Covalent bond > Metallic bond > H-bond > Vander Waal bond.

Quiz – 3
1. In i.e. pyridine.
N
(A) lone pair of electron is in conjugation with double bond
(B) lone pair of electron is not localized on N-atom
(C) lone pair of electron is localized on N-atom
(D) all the double bonds are not is conjugation with each other
2. The percentage S-character of the central atom in beryllium fluoride is:
(A) 25% (B) 33.3% (C) 50% (D) AgCl
3. The shape of SO2 molecules is:
(A) linear (B) V-shaped (C) L-shaped (D) -shaped
4. Which of the following covalently bonded molecules has minimum bond angle?
(A) CCl4 (B) H2O (C) NH3 (D) H2S
+
5. In ICl2 , the hybridisation state of Cl is:
(A) dsp2 (B) sp (C) sp2 (D) sp3
6. Match List–I (Molecular or Ion) with List – II (Hybridisation of the central atom in the molecule) and select
the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
List I List II
(Molecule or Ion) (Hybridisation of the central atom in the molecule)
a. XeF4 1. dsp2
3
b. H2O 2. sp
3 2
c. PCl5 3. sp d
d. [Pt(NH3)4]2+ 4. sp3d
Code: a b c d a b c d
(A) 3 2 4 1 (B) 1 4 2 3
(C) 3 4 2 1 (D) 1 2 4 3
7. Match List–I (Compound) with List–II (Molecular shape) and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists:
List – I List – II
(Compound) (Molecular Shape)
a. XeF4 1. Tetrahedral
b. SiF4 2. Square planar
c. XeO3 3. Pyramidal
d. XeO4 4. Triangular Planar
5. Distrorted Tetrahedral
Code: a b c d a b c d
(A) 3 1 4 5 (B) 2 5 3 1
(C) 3 5 4 1 (D) 2 1 3 5
8. In the anion HCOO– the carbon-oxygen bonds are found to be of equal length. This is due to:
–
(A) The anion HCOO has two resonating structure
(B) The anion is obtained by removal of a proton from the acid molecule
(C) Electronic orbitals of carbon are hybridised
(D) The C = O bond is weaker then the C – O bond
9. The correct order of bond angles is:
(A) H2S < NH3 < BF3 < SiH4 (B) NH3 < H2S < SiH4 < BF3
(B) H2S < NH3 < SiH4 < BF3 (D) H2S < SiH4 < NH3 < BF3

10. The states of hybridisation of boron and oxygen atoms in boric acid (H3BO3) are respectively:
3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2
(A) sp and sp (B) sp and sp (C) sp and sp (D) sp and sp

11. Which has regular tetrahedral geometry?

2–
(A) SF4 (B) BF4 (C) XeF4 (D) [Ni(CN)4]

12. The maximum number of 90 angles between bond pair-bond pair of electron is observed in:
(A) sp3d2 hybridisation (B) sp3d hybridisation
2 3
(C) dsp hybridisation (D) dsp hybridisation

13. The decreasing values of bond angles from NH3 (106) to SbH3 (101) down the group 15 of the periodic
table is due to:
(A) Increasing p-orbital character in sp3 (B) Increasing bp-bp repulsion
(C) Decreasing bp-  p (D) Decreasing electronegativity

14. Molecular shape of SF4, CF4 and XeF4 are:

(A) The same with 2, 0 and 1 lone pair of electron respectively
(B) The same with 1, 1 and 1 lone pair of electron respectively
(C) Different with 0, 1 and 2 lone pairs of electron respectively
(D) Different with 1, 0 and 2 lone pairs of electron respectively

2
15. The correct order of hybridisation of the central atom in the following species NH3, PtCl4  , PCl5 and
BCl3 is:
2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2
(A) dsp , dsp , sp , sp (B) sp , dsp , sp d, sp
2 2 3 3
(C) dsp , sp , sp , dsp (D) dsp , sp , sp , dsp3
2 3 2

16. Total number of lone pair of electrons in XeOF4 is:

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3

17. The species having octahedral shape is:

(A) SF6 (B) BF4 (C) PCl5 (D) BO33

18. H – B – H bond angle in BH4 is:

(A) 180 (B) 120 (C) 109 (D) 90

19. In compounds of type ECl3, where E = B, P, As or Bi, angles Cl–E–Cl for different E are in the order:
(A) B > P = As = Bi (B) B > P > As > Bi
(C) B < P = As = Bi (D) B < P < As < Bi

20. The no. of -electrons, lone pair of electrons in the compound formed by the interaction of dimethyl ether
with BF3 is:
(A) 24, 10 (B) 24, 11 (C) 12, 9 (D) 12, 11

21. Hybridisation of nitrogen I and II in the following compound is:

N
II
N H
I
(A) sp2, sp3 (B) sp, sp2 (C) sp2, sp2 (D) sp2, sp
22. In the protonation of NH3 molecule, following statement is true:
(A) A covalent bond is formed (B) Hydrogen bond is formed
(C) Hybridisation state of N is changed (D) Shape of NH3 molecule is changed
28 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

23. Which one of the following compounds has bond angle as nearly 90?
(A) NH3 (B) H2S (C) H2O (D) SF6

24. The d-orbitals involved in sp3d hybridisation is :

(A) dx2  y2 (B) dz 2 (C) dxy (D) dxz

25. A sp3 hybrid orbital contains:

3 1
(A) s–character (B) p–character
4 4
3 1
(C) p–character (D) s – character
4 2

26. In the compound

1 2 3 4 5 6
C H2  C H — C H2 — C H2 — C  C H , the C2 — C3 bond formed by the overlapping of :
2 3 3 3 2 3
(A) sp – sp (B) sp – sp (C) sp – sp (D) sp – sp

27. In which following set of compound/ion has linear geometry:

(A) CH4 , NH4 , BH4 (B) CO23  , NO3 , BF3
(C) NO2 , CO2 , N3 (D) BeCl2 , BCl3 , CH4

28. The shape of I3 is :

(A) Tetrahedral (B) Linear (C) T-shape (D) Trigonal

29. Among the following compounds the one that is polar and has the central atom with sp3 hybridisation is:
(A) H2CO3 (B) SiF4 (C) BF3 (D) HClO2

30. Which of the following will be octahedral:

(A) SF6 (B) BF4– (C) PCl5 (D) XeF6

9. Molecular Orbital Theory

The valence bond theory is based on the assumption that the formation of a molecule involves interaction between
the electron waves of half filled atomic orbitals of the participating atoms. These atomic orbitals mix with each other
to form a new orbital of greater stability while all other orbitals on the atoms remain undisturbed or maintain their
individuality. But it is correct because the nucleus of one approaching atom is bound to affect the electron waves of
nearly all the orbitals of the other atom. Besides this, the VBT fails to explain formation of O2 molecule and the
formation of odd electron molecules or ions such as H2 ion where no pairing of electron occurs.
Molecular orbital theory or MOT of chemical bonding is comparatively more rational and useful than VBT. It was
proposed by Hund and Mulliken. According to this theory, all the A. O.’s of the atoms participating in formation of
molecule get disturbed when the concerned nuclei approach nearer. They all get mixed up to give rise to an
equivalent number of new orbitals that belong to the molecule now. These are called molecular orbitals. The
electrons belonging originally to the participating atoms are now considered to be moving along the molecular
orbitals under the influence of all the nuclei.

 Molecular orbitals are polycentric, are of varying energies and are arranged in the order of
increasing energy levels as in the case of atomic orbitals.

The filling of electrons in the molecular orbitals follows Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and Pauli’s exclusion principle.
Just as the letters s, p and d are used to denote the atomic orbitals, similarly the Greek symbols, ,  and  are
used to denote the molecular orbitals.
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO) [Formation of Bonding and Antibonding Molecular
Orbitals]: Molecular orbitals of a molecule are obtained by the linear combination of atomic orbitals of the bonded
atoms. The electron waves that describe the atomic orbitals have positive and negative phase or amplitude just as
there are positive (upward) and negative (downward) amplitudes associated with standing wave. When waves are
combined, they may interact either constructively or destructively. If the two identical waves are added, they
combine constructively to produce the wave with double the amplitude and same wavelength. Conversely, if they
are subtracted, they combine destructively to produce the wave with zero amplitude.


+ a 
—

(a) 2a
—
+ a
—
Amplitude 2a

+ a
—
(b)
Amplitude zero

Likewise when two atomic orbitals overlap they can be in phase (added) or out of phase (subtracted). If they overlap in
phase, constructive interaction occurs in the region between two nuclei and a bonding orbital is produced. The energy of
the bonding orbital is always lower (more stable) than the energies of the combining atomic orbitals. When they overlap
out of phase, destructive interference reduces the probability of finding an electron in the region between the nuclei and
antibonding orbital is produced. The energy of an antibonding orbital is higher (less stable) than the energies of the
combining atomic orbitals. The antibonding orbitals are represented by subscript asterisks, i.e., * ,  * ,  * , etc.
Antibonding M.O.
Subtraction
Repulsive
Energy

Atomic Atomic
orbital orbital
Addition
Bonding M.O.
Attractive
Formation of bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals
Thus the number of molecular orbitals formed from atomic orbitals is equal to the number of atomic orbitals
responsible for their formation. The formation can be represented graphically.
Comparison of Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals
Bonding molecular orbitals Antibonding molecular orbitals
1. It is formed by linear combination of two atomic 1. It is formed by linear combination of two atomic
orbitals when their wave functions are added. orbitals when their wave functions are subtracted.
2. Its energy is less than the combining atomic 2. Its energy is more than the combining atomic
orbitals. orbitals.
3. It increases the electron density between the 3. It decreases the electron density between the
nuclei. It therefore stabilizes the molecule.. nuclei. It therefore destabilizes the molecule.
4. It has no nodal plane (plane where electron density 4. It has nodal plane.
is zero). 5. It is symmetrical about internuclear axis and
5. It is symmetrical about internuclear axis. about a line perpendicular to it.
30 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
Molecular orbitals from s-atomic orbitals: The formation of molecular orbitals by linear combination of 1s atomic
orbitals of two atoms are shown in Fig. Each of the two molecular orbitals can accommodate two electrons each and
four in all. Similarly, the combination of two 2s-orbitals forms two molecular orbitals 2s (bonding)  * 2s (antibonding).

tio
n  *1s
ac
b tr

Energy
Su
+
Ad
1s 1s d iti o
n  1s

Molecular orbitals from p-atomic orbitals: The two 2p-orbitals can combine together in either of the two ways,
i.e., end-to-end or side-by-side.
(a) End-to-end overlap: Let x-axis be the line joining the two nuclei in the molecule. Thus, only 2px orbitals
will combine in end-to-end fashion. When 2px orbitals on two atoms combine in phase (addition), bonding
molecular orbital designated as 2px and when these overlap out of phase (subtraction), antibonding
molecular orbital * 2px come into existence. The formation is shown in Figure.

s p p p
d p d-d
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b) Side-by-side overlap: When two 2py orbitals or 2pz orbitals on two atoms, which have mutually parallel
axis, interact to give rise molecular orbitals that are not symmetrical about nuclear axis are called 
molecular orbitals. These are designed as  y 2p y (bonding) and *y 2p y (antibonding). Similarly when two 2pz
orbitals on the two atoms interact, they from two  molecular orbitals which are designed as
z 2p z (bonding) and *z 2p z (antibonding). The formation has been shown in Figure.
Thus, in all there are six molecular orbitals arising from two sets of 2p atomic orbitals. Since 2px and 2py
atomic orbitals on an atom are degenerate (equal energy), the  molecular orbitals formed by these
orbitals will also be degenerate, i.e., bonding orbitals.

*2px
+
2px 2px
Head on approach
Molecular orbitals  2px
2py 2py
Energy

y* 2py
+

 y 2py
Sidewise approach

10. Orbital Energy Diagrams for Homonuclear Diatomic Species

The combination of two 1s atomic orbitals of participating atoms results in two new molecular orbitals designated
as 1s and 1s*. Similarly, the 2s and 2p atomic orbitals i.e. eight atomic orbitals of two atoms give rise to eight
new molecular orbitals viz. 2s, 2s*, 2px, 2px*, 2py, 2py* 2pz, 2pz*.
Increasing order of energies will be as follows: (for species fill N 2)
(i) For species till N2
1s < 1s* < 2s < 2s* < 2px = 2py < 2pz < *2px = *2py <  2p*z
(ii) For species from O2
 1s < 1s* < 2s < 2s* < 2pz < 2px = 2py <  2p*x =  2p*y < *2pz

Bond Order: It is just half of the difference of bonding electrons and anti bonding electron.

Information Conveyed by Bond Order

(i) (a) If Nb > NA then molecule will form.
(b) If Nb < NA, this condition is not possible
(c) If Nb = NA then molecule will not form.
(ii) It tell us about the no. of covalent bond.
(iii) More bond order means lesser bond length and more bond energy.

2* p z 2p z*

2* p x 2* p y 2p x* 2p y*

2p z 2p x 2p y

2p x 2p y
2p z
Energy

Energy

2s* 2s*

2s 2s

s* s*

s s
Atomic Molec ular Atom ic Atomic Molec ular Atomic
orbitals orbitals orbitals orbitals orbitals orbitals

Fig. Molec ular orbital energy level diagram for diatomic Fig. Molec ular orbital energy level diagram for diatomic
homonuc lear molec ules suc h as N2, C2 and B2 etc. homonuc lear molec ules such as O2, F2, etc.

In molecular orbital energy level diagram of some Increasing order of energies of various molecular
diatomic molecules such as Li2, Be2, B2, C2, N2 etc. the orbitals will be as follows:
energy of 2pz molecular orbital is higher than 2px 1s < 1s* < 2s < 2s* < [2px = 2py] < 2pz <
and 2py molecular orbitals. [2px* = 2y*] < 2pz*.5

The electronic configurations of a few homonuclear diatomic molecules were as follows:

32 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
1
1. H2: Electronic configuration of H atom: 1s .
 In H2 molecule there are 2 electrons. M.O. configuration of H2 is  1s .
2

20
There is no electron in antibonding M.O.  Bond order (B.O.) = 1
2
2. He2: Electronic configuration of He atom: 1s 2
 in He2 molecule there are 4 electrons. The M.O. configuration for He2 is  1s2 ,  1s2 .
22
 Bond order =  0  He2 molecule is not stable.
2
Taking He+2 the structure is  1s2 ,  1s1
2 1 1
 B.O.=   He+2 is stable than He2.
2 2
2 1
3. Li2: (Li atom: 1s 2s ). Total number of electrons in Li2 = 6. Molecular orbital configuration of Li2 is:
 1s2 ,   1s2 ,  2s2 ,   2s0 or [KK]  2s2 ,   2s0 .
Where, KK corresponds to filled  1s  and   1s  levels. The contribution of [KK] to bond order is zero.
Therefore, we can ignore it and consider only the valence electrons.
20
B.O. =  1  Li2 is stable and it is found to exist to some extent in lithium vapour.
2

4. Be2: (Be: 1s2 2s2)

Molecular orbital structure of Be2 is:
[KK]  2s 2 ,   2s2 . ignoring [KK],
22
B.O. = 0  Be2 is not stable.
2
5. B2: (B: 1s2 2s2 2p1)
M.O. structure of B 2 is: [KK]  2s2 ,   2s2 . ,  2 p1y , 2 pz1 .
Remember that though   2p  orbital is usually more energetic than   2p  , there is an inversion of the
order here due to mixing (Hybridisation) of   2s  and   2p  orbitals and the degenerate M.O’s (2py)
and (2pz) have one electron each according to Hund’s rule.
42
B.O.   1  B2 is stable.
2
Since there are two unpaired electrons in the molecule, B2 is paramagnetic.
2 2 2
6. C2: (C:1s 2s 2p )
M.O. picture of C2 is: [KK]  2s 2 ,   2s2 . ,  2py2 ,  2pz2 .
62
Here (2p) orbital is less energetic then (2p) and B.O.   2 , Hence the molecule is stable.
2
Since there is no unpaired electron, C2 is diamagnetic. [If (p) orbital had been more energetic then (p),
C2 would have been paramagnetic, which is contrary to experimental observation].
2 2 3
7. N2: (N: 1s 2s 2p ).
M.O. picture of N2 is: [KK]  2s 2 ,   2s2 . ,  2 px2 ,  2 py2 ,  2pz2 ,
Ignoring the subscripts x, y and z for the p-orbital and considering, only valence electrons, the
2 2 4 2
representation is ((2s)} {*(2s)} {(2p) {(2p)} .
82
B.O.  3
2
7-2
The molecule is diamagnetic. For N+2 , B.O. =  2.5.
2
2 2 4
8. O2: [O: 1s 2s 2p ]
 M.O. structured of O2 is: [KK]  2s2 ,   2s2 . ,  2 px2 ,  2 py2 ,  2 pz2 ,   2 p1y ,   2 p1z

84
B.O.  2
2
Due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the two antibonding orbitals (Hund’s rule), O 2 is
paramagnetic.
Also compare the bond strengths of O2 , O+2 , O -2 , O 2-
2 .

For O2 , B.O.= 2.

For O+2 : one electron from the antibonding M.O. has been removed.

83
 B.O.   2.5
2
For O -2 :one electron is added to the antibonding M.O.

85
 B.O.   1.5
2
86
2 : B.O. 
For O 2- 1
2
 The bond is strongest in O+2 and the bond length the least.
Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules: In Nitric oxide (NO),
N: 1s2 2s2 2p3
O: 1s2 2s2 2p4
Simple combination of Atomic orbitals takes place, if they have nearly the same energy. This condition is
approximately satisfied in the present case.
M.O. picture of NO is:
[KK]  2s 2 ,   2s2 . ,  2 px2 ,  2 py2 ,  2 pz2 ,   2p1y ,   2 pz0 .

83
B.O.   2.5 . Due to the presence of an unpaired electron in an antibonding orbital, NO is paramagnetic. Let
2
+ 2+ -
us compare the B.O.’s in NO, NO , NO , NO .
For NO: B.O. = 2.5
82
For NO+: B.O. 
+
 3 (note that NO is isoelectronic with N2)
2
2+ 72
For NO : B.O.   2.5
2
2+ - -
[NO is formed by removing 1e from an antibonding orbital and 1e from a bonding orbital of NO]
84
For NO-: B.O.  +
 2 (Since B.O. is the greatest for NO , the bond length is the least).
2
34 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

Quiz – 4
1. Among KO2, AlO2 , BaO2 and NO2 , unpaired electron is present in:
(A) NO2 and BaO2 (B) KO2 and Al2
(C) KO2 only (D) BaO2 only

2. The correct order of increasing C – O bond length of CO, CO32  , CO2 is:
(A) CO32  < CO2 < CO (B) CO2 < CO32  < CO
(C) CO < CO32  < CO2 (D) CO < CO2 < CO32 

– +
3. The common features among the species CN , CO and NO are:
(A) Bond order three and isoelectronic (B) Bond order three and weak field ligands
(C) Bond order two and –acceptors (D) Isoelectronic and weak field ligands

4. The nodal plane in the -bond of ethene is located in:

(A) the molecular plane
(B) a plane parallel to the molecular plane
(C) a plane perpendicular to the molecular plane which bisects the carbon-carbon –bond at right angle
(D) a plane perpendicular to the molecular plane which contains the carbon-carbon bond
+
5. The bond order in NO is 2.5 while that in NO is 3. Which statement is true?
(A) Bond length is unpredictable (B) Bond length in NO greater than in NO +
+ +
(C) Bond length in NO is equal to that in NO (D) Bond length in NO is greater than in NO
6. Number of paired electrons in O2 molecule is:
(A) 7 (B) 8 (C) 16 (D) 14
7. Which of the following molecular species has unpaired electrons?
(A) N2 (B) F2 (C) O 2 (D) O 22 

8. Which statement is correct about O 2 ?

(A) Paramagnetic and bond order < O2 (B) Paramagnetic and bond order > O2
(C) Diamagnetic and bond order < O2 (D) Diamagnetic and bond order > O2
9. Arrange the following in order of decreasing N – O bond length: NO2 , NO2 , NO3
(A) NO3 > NO2 > NO2 (B) NO3 > NO2 > NO2
(C) NO2 > NO3 > NO2 (D) NO2 > NO3 > NO2

10. According to molecular orbital theory which of the following is correct?

(A) LUMO level for C2 molecule is 2px orbital
(B) In C2 molecules both the bonds are  bonds
(C) In C22 ion there is one  and two  bonds
(D) All the above are correct
11. Which of the following is incorrect?
(A) The O – O bond length in H2O2 is larger than in O2F2
(B) The O – O bond length in H2O2 is very slightly smaller than in O22 ion
(C) O 2 and O 2 species are paramagnetic and have same number of unpaired electrons
(D) None
12. Which of the following statement is incorrect?
(A) During N2 formation, one electron each is removed from the bonding molecular orbitals
(B) During O 2 formation, one electron each is removed from the antibonding molecular orbitals
(C) During O 2 formation, one electron each is added to the bonding molecular orbitals
(D) During CN– formation, one electron each is added to the bonding molecular orbitals
13. When N2  is formed from N2, bond order ............... and when O2  is formed from O2 bond order ...............
 (A) increases (B) decreases
(C) increases, decreases (D) decreases, increases

14. Which of the following option w.r.t. increasing bond order is correct?
(A) NO  C2  O2  He2 (B) C2  NO  He2  O2
(C) He2  O2  NO  C2 (D) He2  O2  C2  NO

15. The bond-orders of the given species are such that -

(A) O2– > O2+ > O22– > O2 (B) O2+ > O2 > O2– > O22–
+ 2– – 2– + –
(C) O2 > O 2 > O2 > O2 (D) O2 > O2 > O2 > O2

16. Increasing order of bond length in NO, NO+ and NO– is:
– + + –
(A) NO > NO > NO (B) NO < NO < NO
+ –
(C) NO < NO < NO (D) NO < NO = NO–
+

17. In which of the following set, the value of bond order will be 2.5:
(A) O2 , NO, NO 2 , CN (B) CN, NO2 , CN– , F2
(C) O2 , NO2 , O22 , CN (D) O22 , O2 , O2 , O2

18. The paramagnetic property of oxygen is well explained by:

(A) Molecular orbital theory (B) Resonance theory
(C) Valence bond theory (D) VSEPR theory

1
19. Which of the following group of molecules have 2 bond order:
2
(A) N22 , O2,
2
CO (B) N2 , O2,

NO
(C) C22 , BN, O2 (D) CN , NO , O22

20. N2 and O2 are converted into monoanions, N2 and O2 respectively. Which of the following statements is
wrong?
(A) In N2 , N-N bond weakens (B) In O2 , O-O bond order increases
(C) In O2 , O-O bond order decreases (D) N2 becomes paramegnetic
36 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

11. Hydrogen Bond

It is a polar bond between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom of small size (e.g. O, N, F etc.). In this
bonding, Hydrogen atom acquires a small positive charge while the electronegative atom acquires small negative
charge. The hydrogen atom can get attached to the electronegative atom of other molecule carrying a lone pair of
electrons due to electrostatic attractions. Hydrogen bonding plays very important role in determining properties of a
substance and is directional in nature because of lone pair e.g. Hydrogen bonding in ice (solid water).

H
H
H
O
O
H H
H
H
O O m
H 6p
H 27
H 0p
m
H H m 10 O
6p
17 H
O O
O H
H
H H
H
H H H O O

O O H
H
H H

O
O
H
H

Hydrogen Bonding in ice (open cage structure)

Types of Hydrogen Bond

(a) Intramolecular Hydrogen Bond: In this bonding, the hydrogen atom is attached to the electronegative
atom belonging to the same molecule e.g. – Ortho nitrophenol and Ortho nitrobenzoic acid.
O O
N C
O O
H
H O
O
N
Ortho nitrophenol
O
Ortho nitrobenzoic acid

(b) Intermolecular Hydrogen Bond: The hydrogen atom is attached to the electronegative atom of some
other molecule.
12. Level – 1 (Main)
1. The types of bonds present in CuSO4.5H2O are only:
(A) electrovalent and covalent
(B) electrovalent and coordinate
(C) electrovalent, covalent and coordinate
(D) electrovalent, covalent, coordinate and H-bonds
2. Which of the following molecule is linear?
(A) I3 (B) NO2 (C) H2O (D) H2S

3. Hybridization of boron in B2H6 molecule is:

(A) sp2 (B) sp3 (C) sp3d (D) sp
4. Which of the following is correct order of bond angle?
(A) NH3 > PH3 > NF3 (B) NF3 > NH3 > PH3
(C) NH3 > NF3 > PH3 (D) PH3 > NH3 > NF3
5. The shape of XeOF4 molecule is:
(A) octahedral (B) pentagonal bipyramidal
(C) square planar (D) square pyramidal
6. Which of the following are isoelectronic and isostructural?
NO3 , CO32  , ClO3 , SO3
(A) NO3 , CO32  (B) SO3, NO3 (C) ClO3 , CO32  (D) CO32  , ClO3

7. The dipole moment of HCl is 1.03 D, if H–Cl bond distance 1.26 Ǻ, what is the percentage of ionic
character in the H–Cl bond?
(A) 60% (B) 39% (C) 29% (D) 17%
8. BF3 and NF3 both are covalent compounds but NF3 is polar whereas BF3 is non-polar. This is because:
(A) Nitrogen atom is smaller than boron atom
(B) N – F bond is more polar than B – F bond
(C) NF3 is pyramidal whereas BF3 is planar triangular
(D) BF3 is electron deficient whereas NF3 is not

9. Dipole moment of NF3 is smaller than:

(A) NH3 (B) CO2 (C) BF3 (D) CCl4

10. The pair of species with similar shape is:

(A) PCl3, NH3 (B) CF4, SF4 (C) PbCl2, CO2 (D) PF5, IF5

11. Resonance structures can be written for:

(A) O3 (B) NH3 (C) CH4 (D) H2O
+ –
12. In an ionic compound A X the degree of covalent bonding is greatest when:
(A) A+ and X– ion are small
+ –
(B) A is small and X is large
+ –
(C) A and X ions are approximately of the same size
– +
(D) X is small and A is large

13. Most favourable conditions for electrovalent bonding are:

(A) low ionization potential of one atom and high electron affinity of the other atom
(B) high electron affinity and high ionization potential of both the atoms
(C) low electron affinity and low ionization potential of both the atoms
(D) high ionization potential of one atom and low electron affinity of the other atom
14. The electronegativity of cesium is 0.7 and that of fluorine is 4.0. The bond formed between the two is:
(A) covalent (B) electrovalent (C) coordinate (D) metallic
15. Multiple covalent bonds exist in a molecule of:
(A) F2 (B) N2 (C) CH4 (D) H2
38 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
16. In which of the following pair the boilling point of first compound is not more than the second :
(A) KCl, Cl2 (B) Ne, He (C) PH3, AsH3 (D) HF, HCl

17. The most covalent halide is:

(A) AlF3 (B) AlCl3 (C) AlBr3 (D) AlI3
18. In the formation of ethylene molecule, the carbon atom makes use of:
(A) sp3 hybridization (B) sp2 hybridization
(C) sp hybridization (D) none of these
19. Which one of the following has pyramidal structure?
(A) NH3 (B) SiF4 (C) H2O (D) BF3
20. CO2 is isostructural with:
(A) SO2 (B) HgCl2 (C) C2H2 (D) SnCl2
21. Which of the following is paramagnetic?
(A) O 2 (B) CN– (C) CO (D) NO+

22. The geometry of the molecule with 25% s-character in hybrid orbital is:
(A) plane triangular (B) linear
(C) tetrahedral (D) octahedral
23. Which of the following elements shows the capacity to form hybrid orbitals by using s, p and d-atomic
orbitals?
(A) B (B) C (C) N (D) S

24. What type of hybridisation and how many lone pair of electrons are present in the species I3 on the central
atom?
2 3
(A) sp one lone pair (B) sp d three lone pair
(C) sp three lone pair (D) sp no lone pair

25. Which bond angle  would result in the maximum dipole moment for the triatomic molecule XY2?
(A)  = 90 (B)  = 120 (C)  = 150 (D)  = 180

26. In compounds type E Cl3, where E = B, P, As or Bi, the angles Cl – E – Cl for different E are in the order:
(A) B > P = As = Bi (B) B > P > As > Bi
(C) B < P = As = Bi (D) B < P < As < Bi
27. In OF2, number of bond pairs and lone pairs and lone pairs of electrons are:
(A) 2, 6 (B) 2, 8 (C) 2, 10 (D) 1, 9
28. Which of the following exhibit variable covalency due to inert pair effect?
(A) Fe (B) Sn (C) Pb (D) Both Sn and Pb

29. Which of the following formula does not correctly represent the bonding capacities of the atoms involved?
+
H

F F
(A) H P H (B)
O

H
O O
(C) O N O H (D) H C C O H
H
2
30. The bond angle around the atom which uses sp hybrid orbitals is:
(A) 120 (B) 180 (C) 105 (D) 10928’
13. Level – 2 (Main)
1. Which of the following will be octahedral in shape?
(A) SF6 (B) PCl5 (C) BF4 (D) CO32 

2. Which of the following does not contain any dative bond?

(A) H3O+ (B) NaBF4 (C) HF2 (D) NH4Cl

3. A gas X exhibits paramagnetic behaviour at room temperature but on cooling below 0C shows increase in
molecular mass and becomes diamagnetic. The gas X can be:
(A) CO2 (B) SO2 (C) CO (D) NO2
4. Which of the following molecules does not have coordinate bonds?
(A) CH3 – NC (B) CO (C) O3 (D) CO32 

5. In the context of carbon, which of the following is arranged in the correct order of electronegativity?
2 3 3 2
(A) sp < sp < sp (B) sp < sp < sp
2 3
(C) sp < sp < sp (D) sp < sp < sp2
3

6. Strongest bond is formed by the head on overlapping of:

(A) 2s- and 2p- orbitals (B) 2p- and 2p-orbitals
(C) 2s- and 2s- orbitals (D) All
7. The critical temperature of water is higher than that of O2 because the H2O molecule has:
(A) fewer electrons than O2 (B) two covalent bonds
(C) V-shape (D) dipole moment

8. Which of the following is true?

1
(A) Bond order   bond energy
bond length
1
(B) Bond order  bond length 
bond energy
1 1
(C) Bond order  
bond length bond energy
(D) Bond order  bond length  bond energy

9. Which of the following oxyacids of sulphur contain bonds ?

(A) H2S 2 O8 (B) H2 S2O6 (C) H2S 2 O4 (D) H2 S2O5

10. In which of the following pairs of molecules have bond order three and are isoelectronics?
– + + –
(A) CN , CO (B) NO , CO (C) CN , O 2 (D) CO, O 2

11. The most suitable method of separation of a mixture of ortho and para nitrophenol in the ratio 1 : 1 is:
(A) Distillation (B) Crystallisation
(C) Vaporization (D) Colour spectrum

12. The correct order of increasing bond angles is:

(A) PF3 < PCl3 < PBr3 < PI3 (B) PF3 < PBr3 < PCl3 < PI3
(C) PI3 < PBr3 < PCl3 < PF3 (D) PF3 > PCl3 < PBr3 < PI3
13. The diamagnetic molecules are:
(A) B2, C2, N2 (B) O2, N2, F2
(C) C2, N2, F2 (D) B2, O 22 , N2

14. The shapes of PCl4 , PCl4 and AsCl5 are respectively:

(A) Square planar, tetrahedral, see-saw
(B) Tetrahedral, see-saw, trigonal bipyramidal
(C) Tetrahedral, square planar and pentagonal bipyramidal
(D) Trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral and square pyramidal
40 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
15. Which of the following is not isostructural with SiCl4?
(A) NH4 (B) SCl4 (C) SO24 (D) PO34 

16. The electronegativity difference between N and F is greater than N and H, yet the dipole moment of NH3
(1.5 D) is greater than that of NF3 (0.2 D). This is because:
(A) In NH3 as well as NF3, the atomic dipole and bond dipole are in opposite direction
(B) In NH3 the atomic dipole and bond dipole are in the opposite direction, whereas in NF3 these are in
same direction
(C) In NH3, as well as in NF3 the atomic dipole and bond dipole are in same direction
(D) In NH3, the atomic dipole and bond dipole are in same direction whereas in NF3 these are in
opposite direction

17. When two atoms combine to form a molecule:

(A) Energy is released
(B) Energy is absorbed
(C) Energy is neither released nor absorbed
(D) Energy may either released or absorbed

18. Which follows octet rule?

(A) FeCl2 (B) AgCl (C) CaCl2 (D) CuCl

19. The crystal lattice of electrovalent compound is composed of:

(A) Atoms (B) molecules
(C) Oppositely charged ions (D) both molecules and ions

20. Among LiCl, BeCl2, BCl3 and CCl4, the covalent bond character follows the order:
(A) LiCl < BeCl2 > BCl3 > CCl4 (B) LiCl > BeCl2 < BCl3 < CCl4
(C) LiCl < BeCl2 < BCl3 < CCl4 (D) LiCl > BeCl2 > BCl3 > CCl4

21. No. of covalent and co-ordinate bond in perthiosulphric acid are:

(A) 6, 4 (B) 6, 6 (C) 4, 4 (D) 4, 6

22. Allyl cyanide has:

(A) 9 sigma bonds and 4 Pi
(B) 9 sigma bonds, 3 pi bonds and 1 lone pairs
(C) 8 sigma bonds and 5 pi bonds
(D) 8 sigma bonds, 3 pi bonds and 4 non-bonding electrons

23. C—C bond in C2H6 undergoes heterolytic fission, the hybridisation of carbon is/are:
(A) sp2 (B) sp3 (C) sp2, sp3 (D) sp, sp2

24. Which of the following statement is incorrect?

(A) Non-bonding pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs
3
(B) The bonding orbitals in a trigonal bipyramidal molecule are described as sp d hybrid
(c) SnCl2 has linear shape
(D) P Cl-4 and Al Cl-4 are isoelectronic

25. Molecular orbital electronic configuration for ‘x’ anion is

* *
KK *  2s  ( 2s)2 ( 2p x )2 ( 2p y )2 ( 2pz )2 (  2p x )1
2

The anion ‘x’ is:

(A) N2 (B) O 2 (C) N22  (D) O 22

26. In which of the following ionization processes, the bond order has increased and the magnetic power has
changed?
(A) N2   N2 (B) C2   C2
+
(C) NO  NO (D) O2  O2
27. Match list I with list II and choose the correct matching codes from the choices given:
List I List II
a. PCl5 (1) Linear
b. IF7 (2) Pyramidal
c. H3O+ (3) Trigonal bipyramidal
d. ClO2 (4) Tetrahedral
e. NH4 (5) Pentagonal bipyramidal
(6) Angular
(A) a – 3, B – 5, C – 2, D – 1, E – 4 (B) a – 3, B – 5, C – 4, D – 1, E – 2
(C) a – 3, B – 5, C – 6, D – 1, E – 2 (D) a – 3, B – 5, C – 2, D – 6, E – 4

28. The correct order of bond order values among the following is:
(I) NO– (II) NO+ (III) NO (IV) NO2+ (V) NO2–
(A) I < IV < III < II < V (B) IV = II < I < V < III
(C) V < I < IV = III < II (D) V < I < IV < III < II

29. Which of the following species has a linear shape?

(A) O3 (B) I3 (C) ClO2 (D) SO2

30. Which of the following process involves cleavage of H-bonds?

(A) Sublimation of dry ice (B) Melting of ice
(C) Dissociation of H2 molecules (D) Condensation of ammonia

14. Level – 3 (Advanced)

Single Choice
1. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding increases the enthalpy of vapourization of a liquid due to the:
(A) decrease in the attraction between molecules
(B) increase in the attraction between molecules
(C) decrease in the molar mass of unassociated liquid molecules
(D) increase in the effective molar mass of hydrogen-bonded molecules

*
3
2. The compound in which C uses its sp hybrid orbitals for bond formation is:
* *
(A) HC OOH (B) (H2N)CO
* *
(C) (CH3 )3 COH (D) CH3 CHO

3. The correct order of increasing X – O – X bond angle is (X = H, F or Cl):

(A) H2O > Cl2O > F2O (B) Cl2O > H2O > F2O
(C) F2O > Cl2O > H2O (D) F2O > H2O > Cl2O

4. In piperidine, NH, the hybrid state assumed by N is:

2 3 2
(A) sp (B) sp (C) sp (D) dsp

5. A certain diatomic molecule AB has dipole moment 1.6 D and the internuclear distance is 100 pm. The
fraction of electronic charge existing on more electronegative atom is:
(A) 33% (B) 25% (C) 50% (D) 10%

6. The number of -electrons present in 2.6 g of ethyne is:

(A) 0.1 mol (B) 0.2 mol (C) 0.3 mol (D) 0.4 mol

7. Formation of which of the following anion is not possible

3– 2– 3– –
(A) [AlF6] (B) [SiF6] (C) [BF6] (D) [BF4]
42 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
+ –
8. The value of H for the reactions Cu (g) + I (g)   CuI(g) is –446 KI. If the I.E. of Cu(g) is 745 kJ/mol
and the E.A. of I (g) is –295 kJ/mol, then the value of H for the formation of one mole of CuI (g) ion–pairs
from Cu(g) and I(g) is
(A) –446 kJ (B) 450 kJ (C) 594 kJ (D) 4 kJ

9. F–As–F bond angle in AsF 3Cl2 can be

(A) 90 and 180 only (B) 120 only
(C) 90 and 120 only (D) 90 only
– 3– 2– – 2– 3–
10. Amongst NO3 , AsO3 , CO3 , ClO3 , SO3 and BO3 the non-planar species are
(A) CO32–, SO32–, BO33– (B) AsO33–, ClO3–, SO32–
– 2– 3– 2– – 3–
(C) NO3 , CO3 , BO3 (D) SO3 , NO3 , BO3

11. Which one of the following is the correct structure of XeOF4?

(A) Square pyramid with Xe = O in the square plane

(B) Trigonal bipyramid with equatorial Xe = O

(C) Trigonal bipyramid with axial Xe = O

(D) Square pyramid with axial Xe = O

12. In a change from PCl3 PCl5, The hybrid state of P change from:
(A) sp2 to sp3 (B) sp3 to sp2
3 3 3 2
(C) sp to sp d (D) sp to dsp

13. The hybrid state of B in BF4 is :

(A) sp2 (B) sp (C) sp3 (D) No specific

14. Which of the following has been arranged in order of decreasing dipole moment:
(A) CH3Cl > CH3F > CH3Br > CH3I (B) CH3F > CH3Cl > CH3Br > CH3I
(C) CH3Cl > CH3Br > CH3l > CH3F (D) CH3F > CH3Cl > CH3I > CH3Br

15. Which of the following statement is not correct -

+ 2 – 3
(A) CH3 shows sp -hybridisation whereas CH3 shows sp -hybridisation
+
(B) NH4 has a regular tetrahedral geometry
2
(C) sp -hybridised orbitals have equal s and p character
(D) Hybridisation orbitals always form -bonds

Multiple Choice
16. Which of the following bonds/forces is/are weakest?
(A) covalent bond (B) vander Waals force
(C) hydrogen bond (D) london force
17. Rotation around the bond (between the underlined atoms) is restricted in
(A) C2H4 (B) H2O2 (C) Al2Cl6 (D) I2Cl6
18. Polarisation may be called as the distortion of the shape of an anion by an adjacently placed cation. Which
of the following statement(s) is (are) not correct?
(A) Minimum polarisation is brought about by a cation of low radius.
(B) A large cation is likely to bring about a large degree of polarisation.
(C) Maximum polarisation is brought about by a cation of high charge
(D) A small anion is likely to undergo a large degree of polarisation
19. According to Fajan’s rule polarizability of an ion increases when:
(A) When size of anion becomes smaller (B) Charge on the anion decreases
(C) Size of the anion increases (D) Charge on the anion increases
20. According to Fajan’s rule ions having pseudo noble gas configuration is having more polarizing power then
the one having noble gas configuration inspite of having same charge and size because
(A) Due to decrease in effective nuclear charge because of more shielding
(B) Due to increase in effective nuclear charge because of less shielding
(C) Due to decrease in effective nuclear charge because of less effective shielding
(D) As the average distance of d and f orbital is further away from the nucleus it’s shielding ability of
the outer most electron is significantly lowered as a result the ion has more polarizing power
21. Which of the following have a three dimensional network structure?
(A) SiO2 (B) (BN)x (C) P4 (white) (D) CCl4
22. Which of the following has/have maximum bond angle?
(A) BeF2 (B) H2O (C) XeF2 (D) NH3
23. Which of the following pair(s) is/are isostructural?
(A) NO3 ,CO32  (B) SO3, NO3 (C) ClO3 , CO32  (D) ClO4 , SO 24 
24. Which of the following molecules species has/have paramagnetic characteristic?
(A) O2 (B) O 2 (C) O 22  (D) O 2

25. Which one of the following species is diamagnetic in nature?

(A) He 22  (B) H2 (C) H2 (D) H2

26. Which statement is correct about hybridization ?

(A) In hybridisation orbitals take part
(B) In hybridisation electrons take part
(C) In hybridisation fully filled , half filled or empty orbitals can take part
(D) Hybridised orbitals only contains bond pair electron
27. Which is true about OF2 & Cl2O?
(A) Both are sp3 hybridised
(B) Bond angle in OF2 less than 109º28’
(C) Bond angle in Cl2O is greater than 109º28’
(D) Bond angle in both cases are 109º28’
28. The halogen form compounds among themselves with formula XX, XX3, XX5 and XX7 where X is the
heavier halogen. Which of the following pairs representing their structures and being polar and non-polar
are correct?
(A) XX – Linear – polar (B) XX3 – T-shaped – polar
(C) XX5 – square pyramidal – polar (D) XX7 – Pentagonal bipyramidal – non-polar
– +
29. Which is true about NH2 , NH3 ,NH4 ?
(A) Hybridization of N is same.
(B) No. of lone pair of electron on N are same.
(C) Molecular geometry (i.e. shape) is different.
(D) Bond angle is same.
30. Which is(are) true about VSEPR theory ?
(A) Lone pair-lone pair repulsion is maximum.
(B) Lone pair and double bond occupy equatorial position in trigonal bipyramidal structure.
(C) More electronegative atoms occupies axial position in trigonal bipyramidal structure.
(D) Bigger atoms occupy axial positions in trigonal bipyramidal structure.
44 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

15. Level – 4 (Comprehension & Match the Column)

CMP: When anions and cations approach each other, the valence shell of anions are pulled towards
cation nucleus and thus, shape of anion is deformed. The phenomenon of deformation of anion by
a cation is known as polarization and the ability of the cation to polarize the anion is called as
polarizing power of cation. Due to polarization, sharing of electrons occurs between two ions to
some extent and the bond shows some covalent character.
The magnitude of polarization depends upon a number of factors. These factors were suggested by
Fajan and are known as Fajan’s rules.
(i) Greater is the polarization in a molecule, more is covalent character.
(ii) As the charge on cation increases, its tendency to polarize the anion increases.
(iii) As the size of the cation decreases or size of the anion increases, the polarization
increases.
(iv) The cations with 18 electrons in the outermost shell bring greater polarization of the anion
than those with inert gas configuration even both the cations have same size and same
charge.
1. Considering BeCl2, MgCl2, CaCl2 and BaCl2, predict which of the following statements is true?
(A) BeCl2 is least ionic out of the given chlorides
(B) Covalent character increases as the atomic number of the metal atom increases
(C) BeCl2 has the highest melting point among the given chlorides
(D) All are highly ionic compounds

2. In which of the halides, there is maximum polarization?

(A) AlF3 (B) AlCl3
(C) AlBr3 (D) AlI3

3. Which is most covalent in nature?

(A) NaCl (B) MgCl2
(C) AlCl3 (D) CaCl2

4. Non-aqueous solvent like ether is added to the mixture of LiCl, NaCl and KCl. Which will be extracted into
ether?
(A) NaCl (B) LiCl
(C) KCl (D) None

5. Which has the minimum melting point?

(A) CaF2 (B) CaCl2 (C) CaBr2 (D) CaI2

CMP: According to molecular orbital theory all atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbital by
LCAO (Linear combination of atomic orbitals) method. When two atomic orbitals have additive
(constructive) overlapping, they form bonding molecular orbitals (BMO) which have lower energy
than atomic orbitals whereas when atomic orbitals overlap subtractively, higher energy
antibonding molecular orbitals (AMO) are formed. Each M.O. occupies two electrons with opposite
spin. Distribution of electrons in M.O. follows Aufbau principle as well as Hund’s rule. M.O. theory
can successfully explain magnetic behaviour of molecules.
6. Which of the following is/are not paramagnetic?
(A) NO (B) B2 (C) CO (D) O2

7. Bond strength increases when

(A) bond order increases (B) bond length increases
(C) antibonding electrons increases (D) bond angle increases

8. O 22 will have:

(A) bond order equal to H2 and diamagnetic
(B) bond order equal to H2 but paramagnetic
(C) bond order equal to N2 and diamagnetic
(D) bond order higher than O2
CMP: VSEPR theory predicts the shapes of the molecules. If A represents the total number of hybrid
orbitals, P represents total number of valence electrons, then A = P – 3 (number of atoms
surrounding the central atom excluding H-atom)
The number of bond pairs (B) = number of atoms surrounding the central atom
Then total number of lone pairs of electrons n = A – b
The VSEPR notations of a molecule can be written as XSbEn
Where X = Central atom; Sb = Number of bond pairs En = Number of Lone pairs

9. Hence a molecule of CIF3 can be represented as

(A) XSE (B) XS3E2 (C) XS2E3 (D) XS4E2

10. The increasing order of dipole moments for SO2(X), H2O (Y), CO2(Z) is
(A) Z<X<Y (B) Z<Y<X
(C) Y<Z<X (D) Z<Y~X

11. The one which has linear arrangement of atoms is

(A) CH3 – C ≡ CH (B) CH3–C ≡ C – CH3
(C) CH2 = CH2 (D) CH ≡ CH

CMP 4: Dipole moment of a bond is a vector and physical quantity to calculate the percentage ionic
character in a covalent bond. It is expressed as :

Dipole moment () =  x d
Where,  is dipole moment and d is the bond length.
–18
It is usually expressed in terms of C.G.S. unit known as Debye (D) 1 D = 10 esu cm. In S.I. unit it
is expressed in Coulomb metre. Resultant dipole moment (µ R) of two bond moments (µ 1 and µ 2)
acting at an angle , is given by :
µR = 12   22  21 2 cos 
0
If µ 1 = µ 2, Also if cos  = –1, i.e.,  = 180 then µ = 0 (molecule is non-polar)
If   0 molecule is polar.
Dipole moment plays an important role in deciding the stability order of alkanes, i.e., a more stable
alkane has less dipole moment. The dipole moment of a molecule can predict the geometrical and
position isomers as well as orientations in benzene nucleus and polarity of molecule.

12. Dipole moment of HCl molecule is found to be 0.816 D. Assuming HCl bond length to be equal to 1 Å, the
% covalent character of HCl molecule is:
(A) 10% (B) 17% (C) 83% (D) 37%

13. The correct increasing order of dipole moment of the following compounds is,
o-dichlorobenzene m-dichlorobenzene p-dichlorobenzene
I II III
(A) I < II < III (B) II < I < III (C) I > II > III (D) none of these

14. Which molecule is non-polar?

-
(A) SO2 (B) I3 (C) ClF3 (D) PF3Cl2

CMP: "An atomic orbital is a one electron wave function () that defines the distribution of electron
density () in space.
There are two quantum mechanical theories of covalent bond formation, one is molecular orbital
theory: it describes bonding in terms of the combination of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals
that are associated with the molecule as a whole. The number of molecular orbitals always equals the
number of atomic orbitals that were combined. Bonding molecular orbitals increase electron density
between the nuclei and are antibonding molecular orbitals have a region of zero electron density
between the nuclei and an energy level higher than that of the individual atomic orbitals.
The electronic configuration of the molecules is written by filling electron in the molecular orbitals
in the order of increasing energy levels followed by Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule as
are followed in filling of electrons in Atomic orbitals.
46 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

15.  denotes
(A) wave function of electron
(B) probability of finding electron in space
(C) zero electron density region
(D) maximum electron density region along the axis.
16. Anti bonding molecular orbital have higher energy than its parent atomic orbital because:
(A) The probability of finding electron in anti bonding molecular orbital is zero
(B) The probability of finding electron in anti bonding molecular orbital is maximum
(C) of repulsion between nuclei as there is less electron density between them
(D) of Inter electronic repulsion between overlapping orbital

17. Total no. of molecular orbital formed by the combination of orbital of 2p-subshell of atom A and B each.
(A) 2 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 8

CMP: Fajan’s suggested following factors on which polarization depend.

(i) As the charge on cation or anion increases polarization increases.
(ii) Size of cation decreases or size of anion increases, polarization increases.
(iii) Cation with pseudo noble gas configuration shows highest polarization power.

18. Which is least soluble in water?

(A) NaCl (B) AgCl (C) CsCl (D) KCl

19. Which is having highest melting point ?

(A) LiF (B) LiCl (C) LiBr (D) Lil

20. Highest polarization is shown in following compounds?

(A) KI (B) CsI (C) AgBr (D) Agl

Match the Column

Match The Column
Column 1 (Molecules) Column 2 (Geometry and Column 3 (Specification)
Hybridisation of underline atom)
(P) Al2Cl6 (I) Tetrahedral; sp3 (i) 3c – 2e– bond(s)
3
(Q) B2H6 (II) Pyramidal; sp (ii) p–d back bonding
(R) N(SiH3)3 (III) Planar; sp2 (iii) p–p back bonding
(S) BCl3 (IV) Pyramidal; sp2 (iv) 3c – 4e– bond(s)
21. Select CORRECT code for species of Column–1 in which all the atoms are in same plane.
(A) (R), (II), (ii) (B) (S), (III), (iii) (C) (S), (III), (i) (D) (S), (IV), (iii)

22. Select INCORRECT code for species in which only two tetrahedron are present.
(A) (P), (I), (iv) (B) (Q), (I), (i) (C) (Q), (I), (iv) (D) (Q), (II), (iii)

23. The only CORRECT combination is:

(A) (R), (II), (ii) (B) (R), (III), (iii) (C) (R), (I), (ii) (D) (R), (III), (ii)

Match The Column

Column 1 (Molecule/Molecular ion) Column 2 (Highest occupied Column 3 (Unpaired electron)
molecular orbital) (H.O.M.O.)
(P) O2 (I)  (i) zero
(Q) N2 (II) * (ii) one
(R) C2 (III)  (iii) two
(S) H2 (IV) * (iv) four
24. Select CORRECT code for species of Column–1 which have highest B.O.
(A) (S), (II), (ii) (B) (R), (III), (i) (C) (Q), (III), (i) (D) (Q), (I), (i)

25. Select CORRECT code for species in which has maximum paramagnetism?
(A) (P), (IV), (iv) (B) (P), (II), (iii) (C) (P), (III), (iii) (D) (P), (IV), (iii)
26. Select CORRECT code for that species in which H.O.M.O. have given shape

(A) (R), (II), (ii) (B) (R), (III), (iii) (C) (R), (I), (ii) (D) (R), (III), (ii)

27. "X" (Species in Column–1) + 2e–  Product species (B.O. = 3). Select CORRECT code for "X".
(A) (P), (II), (iii) (B) (R), (IV), (i) (C) (R), (I), (i) (D) (P), (IV), (iii)

28. Match the following species with hybridization of central atom.

Column I Column II
(A) I3 (P) sp3d
3 3
(B) ClO 4 (Q) sp d
3
(C) XeF6 (R) sp
3 2
(D) IF5 (S) sp d

29. Match the Column I with Column II.

Column I (Compound) Column II (Shape)
(A) CS2 (P) Bent
(B) SO2 (Q) Linear
(C) BF3 (R) Trigonal planer
(D) NH3 (S) Tetrahedral
(T) Trigonal pyramidal

30. Match the Column I with Column II.

Column I Column II
(A) SO3 (gas) (P) Polar with p – d bonds and identical S – O
bond lengths
(B) OSF4 (Q) One lone pair and p-d bond
(C) SO3F– (R) Non-polar with p-p and p-d bonds. Identical
S–O bond lengths
(D) ClOF3 (S) Polar with p-d bond
(T) Hybridization of central atom in ClO2F3

31. Match the Column I with Column II.

Column I (Molecule/ion) Column II (Hybridization of central atom)
3
(A) IO F 
2 2
(P) sp d
3
(B) F2SeO (Q) sp
2
(C) ClOF3 (R) sp
3 2
(D) XeF5 (S) sp d

32. Match the Column I with Column II.

Column I Column II
(A) NF3, F2, BF3, N2H4, H2O2 (P) All except one are stabilized by resonance
(B) XeF4, SO2Cl2, PCl3F2, C3O2, PCl5(g) (Q) All except one involve only s and p orbitals
in hybridization
(C) NaNO3, NaN3, CH3CONH2, Na2CO3, NH4Cl (R) All except one are not having lone pair of
electrons on central atom
2– 2–
(D) B3N3H6, C6H6, [Ni(CN)4] , [NiCl4] (S) All except one are nonlinear molecules
48 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

16. Level – 5 (Single Integer Subjective Type)

1. In the following nine species select total number of series in which 2nd member has high boiling point as
compared to 1st member.
Series – CH4, SiH4, GeH4, SnH4
Series – NH3, PH3, AsH3, SbH3
Series – HF, HCl, HBr, HI
Series – He, Ne, Ar, Kr
Series – F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Series – H2O, H2S, H2Se, H2Te
Series – BF3, BCl3, BBr3
Series – o-dichlorobenzene, m-dichlorobenzene, p-dichlorobenzene
Series – o-hydroxybenzaldehyde, m-hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde
2. AB2L2, AB4L, AB3L2, AB2L3, AB5L, OAB4, OAB3, AB2O3, AB2OL2, AB4OL
Where A is central atom, B is surrounding atom, O-oxygen, L is lone pair.
Among the following molecules, number of molecules in which lone pair and / or O-atoms have no
preference for occupying any specified position i.e., they can occupy any available position.
3. For the given species number of species which do/does not exist:
BF63  , BiCl, SH2, HN3, SI6, CsXeF5, PbI2, ClF7, NF6 , Li2CO3, KH3

4. All the given species undergoes dimer formation, dimerization of which molecule does not require vacant
orbital.
AlCl3, HCOOH, BH3, ClO3, ICl3, NO2, BeCl2, BeH2, Cl
5. Out of given ten pairs of combination, total pair(s) which results zero overlapping is:
(Assuming Z is overlapping axis)

(py + s), (dxy + s), (dxy + py), (pz + dxy), (pz + s), (py + pz), (s + s), + + – + , (py + py),

6. Total number of water molecule(s) consumed for complete hydrolysis of one molecule of P4O10 is:

7. Total number of oxygen atom(s) which act as bridge between any two silicon atom in a mineral with
composition MM'SiO3Ox (M = divalent metal ion and M' = tetravalent metal ion) is:

8. Find the number of molecules or ions in which d-orbitals is/are not used in hybridization:
PCl6 , PCl4 , IF4 , IF5, XeO3F2, ICl2 , SF2, SF6, AsF4 , SiF4

9. Total number of molecules in which all the possible bond angles are identical:
PF3, CF4, XeF4, PF5, IF7, BeF2, SF6

10. The oxidation number of phosphorus in Ba(H2PO2)2 is:

11. Among the following total number of element(s) which does/do not form any stable compounds in ground
state is:
H, F, P, Si, B, S, Cl, N, Xe

12. Maximum number of nodal plane of -bond(s) which are in same plane in C3O2 (carbon suboxide) is:

13. Total type of different bond length data are observed in PCl2F3 is:

14. Find no. of ions which have ns2np0 configuration of outermost shell Ga+, Zn2+, Ga3+, Sn4+, In3+, Pb2+, Ti+

15. Find no. of specie(s) in which at least one hydrogen acts as bridging hydrogen between underline atoms?
B2H6, Be2H4, Si2H6, N2H4, (BeH2)n H2O2.
17. Level – 6 (Previous Years Main & Advanced)
JEE-Main
1. In which of the following species is the underlined carbon having sp3-hybridisation? [2002]
(A) CH3–COOH (B) CH3CH2OH
(C) CH3COCH3 (D) CH2=CH–CH3 

2. Which of the following statements is true? [2002]

(A) HF is less polar than HBr
(B) Water does not contain any ions
(C) Chemical bond formation takes place when forces of attraction overcome the forces of repulsion
 (D) In covalent cond, transfer of electrons takes place 

3. A square planar complex is formed by hybridisation of which atomic orbital? [2002]

(A) s, px, py, dyz (B) s, px, py, dx2  y2
(C) s, px, py, dz2 (D) s, px py, dxy

4. The reason for double helical structure of DNA is operation of: [2003]
(A) dipole-dipole interaction (B) hydrogen bonding
(C) electrostatic attraction (D) vander Wall’s forces 

5. Which one of the following pairs of molecules will have permanent dipole moments for both members:
(A) NO2 and CO2 (B) NO2 and O3 [2003]
(C) SiF4 and CO2 (D) SiF4 and NO2

6. The pair of species having identical shapes for molecules of both species is: [2003]
(A) XeF2, CO2 (B) BF3, PCl3
(C) PF5, IF5 (D) CF4, SF4

7. The correct order of bond angles (smallest first) in H2S, NH3, BF3 and SiH4 is: [2004]
(A) H2S < NH3 < SiH4 < BF3 (B) NH3 < H2S < SiH4 < BF3
(C) H2S < SiH4 < NH3 < BF3 (D) H2S < NH3 < BF3 < SiH4

+
8. The bond order in NO is 2.5 while that in NO is 3. Which of the following statements is true for these two
species? [2004]
+
(A) Bond length in NO is equal to that in NO
(B) Bond length in NO is greater than in NO +
(C) Bond length in NO+ is greater than in NO
(D) Bond length is unpredictable 
9. The states of hybridization of boron and oxygen atoms in boric acid (H3BO3) are respectively: [2004]
3 2 2 3
(A) sp and sp (B) sp and sp
2 2 3 3
(C) sp and sp (D) sp and sp 
10. Which one of the following has the regular tetrahedral structure? [2004]
BF4
2–
(A) (B) SF4 (C) XeF4 (D) [Ni(CN)4]
(Atomic nos. : B = 5, S = 16, Ni = 28, Xe = 54)
11. The maximum number of 90° angles between bond pair-bond pair of electrons is observed in:
(A) dsp2 (B) sp3d hybridization [2004]
3
(C) dsp hybridization (D) sp3d2 hybridization

12. Beryllium and aluminium exhibit many properties which are similar. But, the two elements differ in:
(A) Forming covalent halides [2004]
(B) Forming polymeric hydrides
(C) Exhibiting maximum covalency in compound 
(D) Exhibiting amphoteric nature in their oxides
50 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
13. Which one of the following species is diamagnetic in nature? [2005]
(A) He2 (B) H2 (C) H2  (D) H2 

14. Lattice energy of an ionic compound depends upon: [2005]

(A) charge on the ion only (B) size of the ion only
(C) packing of the ion only (D) charge and size of the ion

15. The molecular shapes of SF4, CF4 and XeF4 are: [2005]
(A) the same with 2, 0 and 1 lone pair of electrons on the central atom, respectively
(B) the same with 1, 1 and 1 lone pair of electrons on the central atoms, respectively
(C) different with 0, 1 and 2 lone pair of electrons on the central atoms, respectively 
(D) different with 1, 0 and 2 lone pair of electrons on the central atoms, respectively 

16. Of the following sets which one does not contain isoelectronic species? [2005]
(A) PO34 , SO24 ,CIO4 (B) CN– , N2 , C22 
(C) SO32 , CO32  , NO3 (D)  BO33  , CO32 , NO3

17. The number and type of bond between two carbon atom in calcium carbide are: [2005]
(A) One sigma, one pi bond (B) One sigma, two pi bond
(C) Two sigma, one pi bond (D) Two sigma, two pi bond 
18. Which of the following molecules\ions does not contain unpaired electrons? [2006]
(A) N2 (B) O2 (C) O22  (D) B2

19. Among the following mixtures, dipole-dipole as the major interaction, is present in: [2006]
(A) KCI and water (B) benzene and carbon tetrachloride
(C) benzene and ethanol (D) acetonitrile and acetone

20. A metal, M foms chlorides in its +2 and +4 oxidation states. Which of the following statements about these
chlorides is correct? [2006]
(A) MCl2 is more ionic than MCl4
(B) MCl2 is more easily hydrolysed than MCl4
(C) MCl2 is more volatile than MCl4 
(D) MCl2 is more soluble in anhydrous ethanol than MCl4 

21. In which of the following molecules/ions are all the bonds not equal? [2006]
(A) XeF4 (B) BF4 (C) SF4 (D) SiF4 

22. The decreasing value of bond angles from NH3 (106)° to SbH3 (101)° down group-15 of the periodic table
is due to: [2006]
(A) decreasing lp – bp repulsion (B) increasing electronegativity
(C) increasing bp – bp repulsion (D) increasing p–orbital character in sp3 
23. In which of the following ionizion processes, the bond order has increased and the magnetic behaviour has
changed [2007]
(A) NO NO+ (B) O2  O2 (C) N2  N2  (D) C2  C2
24. Which of the following hydrogen bonds is the strongest [2007]
(A) F – H .... F (B) O – H ..... O
(C) O – H .... F (D) O – H .... N 
25. Which of the following species exhibits the diamagnetic behaviour: [2007]
(A) O2 (B) O2 (C) NO (D) O22

26. The charge/size ratio of a cation determines its polarzing power. Which one of the following sequences
represents the increasing order of the polarizing power of the cationic species, K+, Ca+2 Mg+2, Be+2 [2007]
(A) Be+2 < K+ < Ca+2 < Mg+2 (B) K+ < Ca+2 < Mg+2 < Be+2
(C) Ca+2 < Mg+2 < Be+2 < K+ (D) Mg+2 < Be+2 < K+ < Ca+2
27. Which one of the following pairs of species have the same bond order? [2008]
+ + – +
(A) NO and CN (B) CN and NO
CN– and CN+ O2 and CN
–
(C) (D)

28. Which one of the following constitutes a group of the isoelectronic species? [2008]
N2, O2 , NO , CO C22  , O2 , CO, NO
+
(A) (B)
NO , C22  , CN , N2 CN , N2, O22 , C22 
+ – –
(C) (D)

29. Using MO theory predict which of the following species has the shortest bond length? [2009]
(A) O22  (B) O2 (C) O2 (D) O22

30. Among the following the maximum covalent character is shown by the compound [2011]
(A) FeCl2 (B) SnCl2 (C) AlCl3 (D) MgCl2

31. The hybridization of orbitals of N atom in NO3 , NO2 and NH4 are respectively? [2011]
2 3 2 3 3 2 2 3
(A) sp, sp , sp (B) sp , sp, sp (C) sp, sp , sp (D) sp , sp , sp

32. The structure of IF7 is [2011]

(A) square pyramid (B) trigonal bipyramid
(C) octahedral (D) pentagonal bipyramid

33. In which of the following pairs the two species are not isostructural? [2012]
(A) PCl4 and SiCl4 (B) PF5 and BrF5
(C) AlF63  and SF6 (D) CO32 and NO3

34. The molecule having smallest bond angle is: [2012]

(A) AsCl3 (B) SbCl3 (C) PCl3 (D) NCl3

35. Which one of the following molecules is expected to exhibit diamagnetic behavior? [2013]
(A) S2 (B) C2 (C) N2 (D) O2

36. In which of the following pairs of molecules/ions, both the species are not likely to exist? [2013]
(A) H2 , He22  (B) H2 , He22  (C) H2 , He22  (D) H22  , He2

37. Stability of the species Li2, Li2 and Li2 increases in the order of [2013]
(A) Li2  Li2  Li2 (B) Li2  Li2  Li2
(C) Li2  Li2  Li2 (D) Li2  Li2  Li2

38. The correct statement for the molecule, CsI3, is [2014]

+ –
(A) it contains Cs , I and lattice I2 molecule (B) it is a covalent molecule
it contains Cs and I3 ions
+ 3+ –
(C) (D) it contains Cs and I ions

39. For which of the following molecules significant   0? [2014]

Cl CN OH SH

Cl CN OH SH
(1) (2) (3) (4)
(A) 3 and 4 (B) only 1 (C) 1 and 2 (D) only 3
40. Which one of the following properties is not shown by NO? [2014]
(A) Its bond order is 2.5 (B) It is diamagnetic in gaseous state
(C) It is a neutral oxide (D) It combines with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide
52 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
41. The intermolecular interaction that is dependent on the inverse cube of distance between the molecules is:
(A) London force (B) hydrogen bond [2015_Offline]
(C) ion-ion interaction (D) ion-dipole interaction

42. The geometry of XeOF4 by VSEPR theory is [2015_Online]

(A) trigonal bipyramidal (B) square pyramidal
(C) octahedral (D) pentagonal planar

43. After understanding the assertion and reaon, choose the correct option.
Assertion: In the bonding molecular orbital (MO) of H2, electron density is increased between the nuclei.
Reason: The bonding MO is A + B, which shows destructive interference of the combining electron
waves. [2015_Online]
(A) Assertion and reason are correct and reason is the correct explanation for the assertion
(B) Assertion and reason are correct, but reason is not the correct explanation for the assertion
(C) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
(D) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct

44. Molecule AB has a bond length of 1.617 Ǻ and a dipole moment of 0.68 D. The fractional charge on each
atom (absolute magnitude) is (e0 = 4.802  10–10 esu) [2015_Online]
(A) 0 (B) 0.05 (C) 0.5 (D) 1.0

45. Which compound exhibits maximum dipole moment among the following? [2015_Online]
NO 2 NO 2
NO 2 NO 2
NH 2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
NH2
NH2

46. The species in which the N atom is in a state of sp hybridization is: [2016_Offline]
(A) NO2 (B) NO2 (C) NO3 (D) NO2

47. The group of molecules having identical shape is: [2016_Online]

(A) PCl5, IF5, XeO2F2 (B) BF3, PCl3, XeO3
(C) SF4, XeF4, CCl4 (D) ClF3, XeOF2, XeF3

48. Aqueous solution of which salt will not contain ions with the electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6?
(A) NaF (B) KBr (C) NaCl (D) CaI2 [2016_Online]

49. The bond angle H – X – H is the greatest in the compound [2016_Online]

(A) PH3 (B) CH4 (C) NH3 (D) H2O
50. Which of the following species is not paramagnetic? [2017_Offline]
(A) O2 (B) B2 (C) NO (D) CO
51. The group having isoelectronic species is: [2017_Offline]
2– – 2+ – – + 2+
(A) O , F , Na, Mg (B) O , F , Na , Mg
2– – + 2+ – – 2+
(C) O , F , Na , Mg (D) O , F , Na, Mg
52. sp3d2 hybridization is not displayed by [2017_Online]
(A) SF6 (B) PF5 (C) [CrF6]3– (D) BrF5
53. Which of the following is paramagnetic? [2017_Online]
O22
+
(A) CO (B) (C) NO (D) B2

54. The group having triangular planar structure is [2017_Online]

(A) NCl3, BCl3, SO3 (B) CO32 , NO3 , SO3
(C) NH3, SO3, CO32 (D) BF3, NF3, CO32
 JEE Advance
Single Choice
2–
55. The correct order of hybridization of the central atom in the following species NH3, [PtCl4] , PCl5 and BCl3
is : [2001]
2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2
(A) dsp , sp d, sp and sp (B) sp , dsp , sp d, sp
2 2 3 3 2 3 2 3
(C) dsp , sp , sp , sp d (D) dsp , sp , sp , sp d 
– +
56. The common features among the species CN , CO and NO are [2001]
(A) bond order three and isoelectronic (B) bond order three and weak field ligands
(C) bond order two and - acceptors (D) isoelectronic and weak field ligands 
57. Which of the following molecular species has unpaired elecron(s) ? [2002]
(A) N2 (B) F2 (C) O2 (D) O22
58. Which of the following hydrocarbons has the lowest dipole moment ? [2002]
H3C Cl
(A) C (B) CH3C  CCH3
H H
(C) CH3CH2C  CH (D) CH2  CH — C  CH
2 2
59. Which of the following represent the given mode of hybridisation sp , sp , sp and sp from left to right:[2003]
(A) H2C  CH — C  CH (B) HC  C — C  CH
CH2
(C) H2C  C  C  CH2 (D) 
H 2C

60. Which of the following are iosoelectronic and isostructural NO3 , CO32 , ClO3 , SO3 [2003]
(A) NO3 , CO32 (B) SO3 ,NO3
(C) CIO3 ,CO32 (D)  CO32 , SO3

61. Total number of lone pair of electrons in XeOF4 is [2004]

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3

62. According to molecular orbital theory which of the following statement about the megnetic character and
bond order is correct regarding O2 ? [2004]
(A) paramagnetic and bond order < O2 (B) paramagnetic and bond order > O2
(C) diamagnetic and bond order < O 2 (D) diamagnetic and bond order > O 2

63. Maximum number of lone pair of electrons are present in: [2005]
(A) CIO3 (B) XeF4 (C) SF4 (D)  I3

64. The species having bond order different from that in CO is: [2007]
(A) NO– (B) NO+ (C) CN– (D) N2

65. Assuming that Hund's rule is violated, the bond order and magnetic nature of the diatomic molecule B 2 is
(A) 1 and diamagnetic (B) 0 and diamagnetic [2010]
(C) 1 and paramagnetic (D) 0 and paramagnetic
66. The species having pyramidal shape is: [2010]
(A) SO3 (B) BrF3 (C) SiO23  (D) OSF2
67. The shape of XeO2F2 molecule is [2012]
(A) trigonal bipyramidal (B) square planar
(C) tetrahedral (D) see-saw
68. Assuming 2s-2p mixing is not operative, the paramagnetic species among the following is: [2014]
(A) Be2 (B) B2 (C) C2 (D) N2
54 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE
Multiple
69. If the bond length of CO bond in carbon monoxide is 1.128 Ǻ, then what is the value of CO bond length in
Fe(CO)5? [2006]
(A) 1.15 Ǻ (B) 1.128 Ǻ (C) 1.72 Ǻ (D) 1.118 Ǻ
70. The pair(s) of reagents that yield paramagnetic species is/are [2014]
(A) Na and excess of NH3 (B) K and excess of O2
(C) Cu and dilute HNO3 (D) O2 and 2-ethylanthraquinol
71. Hydrogen bonding plays a central role in the following phenomena: [2014]
(A) Ice floats in water
(B) Higher Lewis basicity of primary amines than tertiary amines than tertiary amines in aqueous
solutions
(C) Formic acid is more acidic than acetic acid
(D) Dimerisation of acetic acid in benzene
72. According to molecular orbital theory [2016]
(A) C22  is expected to be diamagnetic
(B) O22  is expected to have a longer bond length than O2
(C) N2 and N2 have the same bond order
(D) He2 has the same energy as two isolated He atoms
73. The compound(s) with two lone pairs of electrons on the central atom is(are) [2016]
(A) BrF5 (B) ClF3 (C) XeF4 (D) SF4
Single Integer
74. Based on VSEPR theory, the number of 90 degree F-Br-F angles in BrF 5 is [2010]

A list of species having the formula XZ4 is given below XeF4, SF4, SiF4, BF4 , BrF4 , [Cu(NH3)4] ,
2+
75.
2– 2– 2–
[FeCl4] , [CoCl4] and [PtCl4] .
Defining shape on the basis of the location of X and Z atoms, the total number of species having a square
planar shape is [2014]
76. The total number of lone pairs of electrons in N2O3 is: [2015]

77. The sum of the number of lone pair of electrons on each central atom in the following species is
[TeBr6]2–, [BrF2]+, SNF3, and [XeF3]–
(Atomic numbers : N = 7, F = 9, S = 16, Br = 35, Te = 52, Xe = 54) [2017]

78. Among H2, He2 , Li2, Be2, B2, C2, N2, O2 and F2 the number of diamagnetic species is (Atomic numbers :
H = 1, He = 2, Li = 3, Be = 4, B = 5, C = 6, N = 7, O = 8, F = 9) [2017]
Match the Column
79. Match the orbital overlap figures shown in List–I with the description given in List–II and select the correct
answer using the code given below the lists.
Column I Column II
(A) (P) p – d  antibonding

(B) (Q) d – d  bonding

(C) (R) p – d  bonding

(D) (S) d – d  antibonding

Code:
P Q R S P Q R S
(A) 2 1 3 4 (B) 4 3 1 2
(C) 2 3 1 4 (D) 4 1 3 2
80. Match each of the diatomic molecules in columns I with its property / properties in column II.
Column I Column II
(A) B2 (P) Paramagnetic
(B) N2 (Q) Undergoes oxidation
(C) O  (R) Undergoes reduction
2

(D) O2 (S) Bond order  2

(T) Mixing of s and p orbitals

18. Level – 7 (NCERT Corner)

1. Write Lewis dot symbols for atoms of the following elements: Mg, Na, B, O, N, Br.

Sol. Mg: There are two valence electrons in Mg atom. Hence, the Lewis dot symbol for Mg is: Mg

Na: There is only one valence electron in an atom of sodium. Hence, the Lewis dot structure is: Na
B: There are 3 valence electrons in Boron atom. Hence, the Lewis dot structure is B O: There are six

valence electrons in an atom of oxygen. Hence, the Lewis dot structure is: O
N: There are five valence electrons in an atom of nitrogen. Hence, the Lewis dot structure is: N
Br: There are seven valence electrons in bromine. Hence, the Lewis dot structure is: Br

2. Write Lewis symbols for the following atoms and ions:

2– 3+ –
S and S ; Al and Al ; H and H
2–
Sol. (i) S and S
The number of valence electrons in sulphur is 6.
The Lewis dot symbol of sulphur (S) is S .
The dinegative charge infers that there will be two electrons more in addition to the six valence electrons.
2–
Hence, the Lewis dot symbol of S is .
(ii) Al and Al3+
The number of valence electrons in aluminium is 3.
The Lewis dot symbol of aluminium (Al) is Al .
The tripositive charge on a species infers that it has donated its three electrons. Hence, the Lewis dot
symbol is [Al]3+.
(iii) H and H–
The number of valence electrons in hydrogen is 1.
The Lewis dot symbol of hydrogen (H) is H .
The uninegative charge infers that there will be one electron more in addition to the one valence electron.
Hence, the Lewis dot symbol is [H ]–.

3. Draw the Lewis structures for the following molecules and ions:
H2S, SiCl4, BeF2, CO32 , HCOOH
Sol. H2S

SiCl4

BeF2
56 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

CO32

HCOOH

4. Discuss the shape of the following molecules using the VSEPR model:
BeCl2, BCl3, SiCl4, AsF5, H2S, PH3
Sol. BeCl2
Cl Be Cl
BCl3

The central atom has no lone pair and there are three bond pairs. Hence, it is of the type AB3. Hence, it is
trigonal planar.

SiCl4

The central atom has no lone pair and there are four bond pairs. Hence, the shape of SiCl4 is tetrahedral
being the AB4 type molecule.

AsF5

The central atom has no lone pair and there are five bond pairs. Hence, AsF5 is of the type AB5. Therefore,
the shape is trigonal bipyramidal.

H2 S
H S H
The central atom has one lone pair and there are two bond pairs. Hence, H2S is of the type AB2E. The
shape is Bent.

PH3

The central atom has one lone pair and there are three bond pairs. Hence, PH3 is of the AB3E type.
Therefore, the shape is trigonal bipyramidal.
5. Although geometries of NH3 and H2O molecules are distorted tetrahedral, bond angle in water is less than
that of ammonia. Discuss.
Sol. The molecular geometry of NH3 and H2O can be shown as:

The central atom (N) in NH3 has one lone pair and there are three bond pairs. In H2O, there are two lone
pairs and two bond pairs.
The two lone pairs present in the oxygen atom of H2O molecule repels the two bond pairs. This repulsion is
stronger than the repulsion between the lone pair and the three bond pairs on the nitrogen atom.
Since the repulsions on the bond pairs in H2O molecule are greater than that in NH3, the bond angle in
water is less than that of ammonia.

6. Explain the important aspects of resonance with reference to the CO32 ion.
Sol. According to experimental findings, all carbon to oxygen bonds in CO32 are equivalent.
Hence, it is inadequate to represention by a single Lewis structure having two single bonds and one
double bond.
Therefore, carbonate ion is described as a resonance hybrid of the following structures:

7. H3PO3 can be represented by structures 1 and 2 shown below. Can these two structures be taken as the
canonical forms of the resonance hybrid representing H3PO3? If not, give reasons for the same.

Sol. The given structures cannot be taken as the canonical forms of the resonance hybrid of H3PO3 because
the positions of the atoms have changed.

8. Write the resonance structures for SO3, NO2 and NO3 .

Sol. The resonance structures are:
(a) SO3

(b) NO2

(c) NO3
58 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

9. Arrange the bonds in order of increasing ionic character in the molecules: LiF, K2O, N2, SO2 and ClF3.
Sol. The ionic character in a molecule is dependent upon the electronegativity difference between the
constituting atoms. The greater the difference, the greater will be the ionic character of the molecule.
On this basis, the order of increasing ionic character in the given molecules is
N2 < SO2 < ClF3 < K2O < LiF.
10. Is there any change in the hybridisation of B and N atoms as a result of the following reaction?
BF3 + NH3  F3B.NH3
2
Sol. Boron atom in BF3 is sp hybridized. The orbital picture of boron in the excited state can be shown as:

Nitrogen atom in NH3 is sp3 hybridized. The orbital picture of nitrogen can be represented as:

3
After the reaction has occurred, an adduct F3BNH3 is formed as hybridization of ‘B’ changes to sp .
However, the hybridization of ‘N’ remains intact.
11. Which hybrid orbitals are used by carbon atoms in the following molecules?
(a) CH3 – CH3; (b) CH3 – CH = CH2; (c) CH3-CH2-OH; (d) CH3-CHO (e) CH3COOH
Sol. (a)

3
Both C1 and C2 are sp hybridized.
(b)

C1 is sp3 hybridized, while C2 and C3 are sp2 hybridized.

(c)

Both C1 and C2 are sp3 hybridized.

(d)
 C1 is sp3 hybridized and C2 is sp2 hybridized.
(E)

3 2
C1 is sp hybridized and C2 is sp hybridized.
12. Use molecular orbital theory to explain why the Be2 molecule does not exist.
2 2
Sol. The electronic configuration of Beryllium is 1s 2s .
The molecular orbital electronic configuration for Be2 molecule can be written as:
2 *2 2 *2
1s 1s 2s 2s
1
Hence, the bond order for Be2 is Nb  Na  .
2
Where, Nb = Number of electrons in bonding orbitals
Na = Number of electrons in anti-bonding orbitals
1
 Bond order of Be2 =  4  4   0
2
A negative or zero bond order means that the molecule is unstable. Hence, Be2 molecule does not exist.

13. What is meant by the term bond order? Calculate the bond order of: N2, O2, O2 and O2 .
Sol. Bond order is defined as one half of the difference between the number of electrons present in the bonding
and anti-bonding orbitals of a molecule.
If Na is equal to the number of electrons in an anti-bonding orbital, then Nb is equal to the number of
electrons in a bonding orbital.
1
Bond order = Nb  Na 
2
If Nb > Na, then the molecule is said be stable. However, if Nb  Na, then the molecule is considered to be
unstable.
Bond order of N2 can be calculated from its electronic configuration as:
[(1s)2] [*(1s)]2[(2s)]2 [*(2s)]2 [(2px)]2[(2py)]2 [(2pz)]2
Number of bonding electrons, Nb = 10
Number of anti-bonding electrons, Na = 4
1
Bond order of nitrogen molecule = 10  4  = 3
2
There are 16 electrons in a dioxygen molecule, 8 from each oxygen atom. The electronic configuration of
oxygen molecule can be written as:
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
[–(1s) ] [*(1s)] [(2s)] [*(2s)] [(1pz)] [(2px)] [(2py)] [*(2py)] [*(2px)] [*(2py)]
Since the 1s orbital of each oxygen atom is not involved in boding, the number of bonding electrons = 8 =
Nb and the number of anti-bonding electrons = 4 = Na.
1
= Nb  Na 
2
60 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

1
Bond order = 8  4  = 2
2
Hence, the bond order of oxygen molecule is 2.
Similarly, the electronic configuration of O2 can be written as:
KK[(2s)]2 [*(2s)]2 [(2pz)]2 [(2px)]2 [(2py)]2 [*(2px)]1
Nb = 8 Na = 3
1
Bond order of O2 =  8  3  = 2.5
2
Thus, the bond order of O2 is 2.5
The electronic configuration of O2 ion will be:
2 2 2 2 2 2 1
KK[(2s)] [*(2s)] [(2pz)] [(2px)] [(2py)] [*(2px)] [*(2py)]
Nb = 8 Na = 5
1
Bond order of O2 =  8  5  = 1.5
2
Thus, the bond order of O2 ion is 1.5.
19. Answer Sheet
Quiz – 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C C C C D C C B B C D A C B A

16 17 18 19 20

C C C A A

Quiz – 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C A B C C C B B B B A A C C C

16 17 18 19 20

D B A C D

Quiz – 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C C B D D A D A C B B A D D B

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

B A C B A C D D B C D C B D A

Quiz – 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

C D A A B D C B B D D C D D B

16 17 18 19 20

B A A B B

Level – 1 (Main)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

D A B C D A D C A A A B A B B

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

C D B A C A C D B A B B D D A
62 – CHEMICAL BONDING – JEE

Level – 2 (Main)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

A B D D B B D A B A A D C B B

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

D A C C C A B C C A C D C B B

Level – 3 (Advanced)
Single Choice
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

B C B C A D C B A B A C C A C

Multiple Choice
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

BD AC ABD CD BD AB AC AD ABD AB

26 27 28 29 30

AC ABC ABCD AC ABC

Level – 4 (Comprehension & Match the Column)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

A D C B D C A A B A D B C B B

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

C C B A D B D D D D C C

28. A–P, B–R, C–Q, D–S 29. A–Q, B–P, C–R, D–T 30. A–R, B–ST, C–P, D–QT

31. A–P, B–Q, C–P, D–S 32. A–S, B–R, C–P, D–Q

Level – 5 (Single Integer Subjective Type)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

5 5 6 4 4 6 3 5 3 1 3 2 3 3 3
 Level – 6 (Previous Years Main & Advanced)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B C B B B A A B B A

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

D C B D D C B C D A

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

C D A A D B B C A C

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

B D B B D D C C A B

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

B B C B B A D A B D

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

C B D B B A C B A A

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

B B D A A D D C A ABC

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

ABD AC BC 8 4 8 6 6 C

80. A–PRT, B–ST, C–PQ, D–PQS