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Research Methodology - NTS

Research methods (Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology)

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

OF
AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIT NAME: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

UNIT CODE: HBAF 3112

INSTRUCTOR: MR. DOUGLAS ROSANA

Course Purpose:

The purpose of the course is to introduce students to the key development research issues
necessary to critically use and evaluate qualitative and quantitative data. The course unit aims to
provide an understanding of the underlying principles of development research methodology
that will complement and extend the more specialized knowledge students derive from their
professional or academic disciplinary background. The course will focus on different kinds of
research methodologies, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and how these can be
integrated.

Expected Learning Outcomes of the Course:

By the end of the course, students should be able to:-


Explain the importance of research to the development of knowledge;

Discuss basic research concepts and explain the common research methods applied in
development studies;

Discuss the relevant tools used to collect primary data during the actual research;

Define research and know the importance of research

Write a proposal

Know the research process

Use different research designs

Know how to sample a large population

Use the various data collection methods

Analyze and present data

Test an hypothesis

Write a research report

Course Content

Basic research methods. Types of research. Identification and definition of a research

problem. Data types and sources. Process of conducting research: Statement of the
research problem, review of literature, data collection and analysis. Computer
application in data processing and analysis. Writing research
reports/dissertations/thesis.

Instructional Material and Equipment

Audio-visuals devices, computers/internet services, journals, newspapers, chalk/pens
and white boards, flip charts and learning centers

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Recommended Text Books:

Rita C. Richey (2007): Design and Development Research: Methods, Strategies, and
Issues, Routledge.

Alan Thomas (Editor) (2007): Research Skills for Policy and Development: How to Find
Out Fast, Sage.

Jeremy Holland (Editor) (2005): Methods in Development Research: Combining

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Practical Action.

Philip, J.S. and Pugh, M.T. (1994). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques,
Light Publishers, New Delhi

Patten, M.L. (2002). Understanding Research Methods: An Overview of the Essentials, 3rd
Edition, Pyrczak Publishing, Los Angels

Cooper, D, R and Schindler P, M (2011), Business Research Methods, 11th Edition,

McGraw-Hill International Edition, New Delhi.

Bliss, O., Monk, M. and Ogborn (1983). Questionnaire Construction and Question Writing
for Research, Sterling Press, Western Cape

Saunders, P, Lewis.P and Thornhil.A.(2009), Research Methods for business students,

5th Edition, Pearson Education Limited

Text Books for further Reading:

Earl R. Babbie (2010): The Basics of Social Research, Wadsworth Publishing.

Dr Andrew Sumner (2008): International Development Studies: Theories and Methods

in Research and Practice, Sage.

Saunders, M., & Lewis, P. (2003).Research methods for business students (3rd Ed.).
Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.

Orodho, A.J. and Kombo, D.K. (2002). Research Methods, Kenyatta University, Institute of
Open Learning, Nairobi

Mugenda, O.M. and Mugenda, A.G. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches, Acts Press, Nairobi

Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines
Publications Africa, Nairobi.

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to;

Know the meaning of research

Know the different types of researches

Able to choose a research topic

1.0 Definition
The word <research= is derived from the Latin word meaning <to know=. Research is about
asking questions such as;
i) What do I want to know?
ii) How do I want to gain knowledge?
iii) Why do I want to know?
Research may be defined as a disciplined enquiry or systematic investigation aimed at
providing solutions to problems. The main purpose of research is to advance or discover
new knowledge and improve practice through scientific progress. Research means looking
again. To research means to take a more careful look or find out more

1.2 Types of Research

There are three main types of researches;

i) Business Research – This is the systematic and objective process of gathering,
recording and analyzing data to investigate specific problems to aid in making business
decisions
ii) Marketing Research – This is defined a systematic and objective process of
identification, collection of data, analysis and dissemination of information to provide
solution to marketing problems
iii) Scientific Research – This is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about the presumed
relations among such phenomena. It can also be defined as the activity of investigating
some phenomena through practices that are consistent with the method of science

1.3 Qualities of a Good Research

1. Clear definition of the research purpose
2. There should be consistent in research focus throughout the research process
3. The research process should be detailed
4. Limitations of the research should be fulfilled
5. High ethical standards must be maintained
6. Adequate analysis for decision makers should be made
7. Findings should logically be analyzed
8. Findings should be presented unambiguously
9. The research must have an abstract
10. Conclusions should be justified and based on your research findings and not own
thoughts

1.4 Importance of Knowing Research Methods

i) Increased effectiveness of solving problems in analytical context
ii) Improved ability to understand and effectively apply the findings of the research
iii) Enhanced ability to access what is made by others
iv) Increased capacity to evaluate the soundness of theories

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1.5 Choosing a Research Topic

1. Choose a topic that is appealing to you. Self-interest must come first
2. The topic must be appropriate for the course so as to help you expand your
knowledge on the subject matter
3. The topic must be specific
4. Choose a topic that has sufficient material available e.g. reading material
5. Topic should be within the time recommended
6. Financial ability should be considered
7. Avoid topics that are highly controversial e.g. religion
8. Avoid topics that are oversized
9. Avoid topics that are trivial
10. Avoid recycling

1.6 Sources of Topics

i) Area of interest
ii) Reference sources
iii) Current periodicals
iv) Browsing the library collection and internet

1.7 Problems Facing Research

i) Research is a costly undertaking
ii) Research process takes a lot of time
iii) We have very few professional researchers
iv) Language barriers
v) Geographical coverage
vi) Negative attitude by most characters
1. Lack of literature
2. Government regulations

Review Questions
i) Define research and explain the various types of research
ii) Discuss the qualities of a good research
iii) Explain the importance of knowing research methods
iv) Discuss the sources of research topics and the factors considered in choosing a
research topic
v) Explain the problems facing research

References for Further Reading

i) Orodho, A.J. and Kombo, D.K. (2002). Research Methods, Kenyatta University,
Institute of Open Learning, Nairobi

ii) Philip, J.S. and Pugh, M.T. (1994). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques,
Light Publishers, New Delhi

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CHAPTER TWO
WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to;


Know the meaning and importance of a research proposal

Know the types of proposals

Know the contents of a proposal

2.0 Definition of a Proposal

A research proposal is also known as a work plan, an outline, a draft plan, statement of
intent or a prospectus. A proposal tells us what, why, how, where, and whom the study
will be done. It must also show the benefits of the research/study. A research proposal is
essentially a road work showing clearly the location from which the journey begins the
destination to be reached and the methods to be used to reach there. Every research must
have a sponsor and thus the sponsor must understand the research/project. The sponsor
may be the lecturer for the students, firms, universities, Government, etc.

2.2 Significance of a Research Proposal

i) It serves as a summary of major decisions in a research process

ii) Serves as a written agreement between the researcher and the sponsor e.g. on
geographical scope and time scope
iii) It is used to solicit for funds
iv) It helps in thinking through the project
v) Resolves any future misunderstandings

2.3 Characteristics of a Good Proposal

1. Clear/neat
2. Convincing
3. Detailed
4. Reliable
5. Data based
6. Realistic
7. Systematic in focus
8. Time bound

2.4 Types of Proposals

i) Academic proposal – This type of proposal is found in academic institutions
ii) Funding proposal – This is commonly used by NGO’s to solicit for funds
iii) Business bidding proposal – This is used by business people to bid for tenders
iv) Business proposal – This type of proposal is also known as a business plan. It
is used by potential investors or public institutions to get approval.

2.5 Contents of a Proposal

2.5.1 Preliminary Pages

1. Title page
2. Declaration

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3. Dedication
4. Acknowledgement
5. Abstract
6. Table of Contents
7. List of Tables
8. List of Figures
9. Abbreviations/Acronyms
10. Definition of Terms

2.5.2 Main Text

i) Chapter One – This contains the Introduction to the Study and should have
Introduction, Background of the Study, Statement of the Problem, Objectives of the Study
(General and Specific), Research Questions, Significance/Importance of the Study,
Limitations of the Study and Scope of the Study
ii) Chapter Two – This deals with Literature Review and should have Introduction,
Review of Theoretical Literature, Critical Review, Summary and Conceptual/Theoretical
Framework
iii) Chapter Three – This captures the Research Design and Methodology and should give
the Introduction, Research Design, Target Population, Sampling Technique, Data
Collection Methods and Data Analysis/Presentation Methods
iv) References – All the authors and books used in the text should appear in the
references. Use the recommended style of referencing but usually it is the APA style of
referencing

2.5.3 Appendices

i) Letter of Introduction
ii) Questionnaire
iii) Budget
iv) Time Frame

Review Questions

i) Define a proposal and explain the characteristics of a good proposal

ii) Explain the components of a proposal

References for Further Reading

i) Patten, M.L. (2002). Understanding Research Methods: An Overview of the Essentials,

3rd Edition, Pyrczak Publishing, Los Angels

ii) Cooper, D, R and Schindler P, M (2011), Business Research Methods, 11th Edition,
McGraw-Hill International Edition, New Delhi.

iii) Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines
Publications Africa, Nairobi

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CHAPTER THREE
PROCESS OF RESEARCH

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to know;


The steps in research

Problem identification

How to review literature

The difference between theoretical and conceptual framework

The different types of research variables

How to formulate research objectives and research questions

3.0 Research Process/Steps

The research process is the sequence of steps in the design and implementation of a
research study from problem formulation to research report writing. The research
process begins when a management dilemma triggers the need for a decision. Example a
growing number of complaints about post-purchase service can start the process. Such
event will cause the manager to reconsider their purposes or objective, define a problem
for solutions, or develop strategies for solutions they have identified. The stages in the
research process include the following:

i) Formulate research problem

ii) Development of an approach to the problem
iii) Research design formulation
iv) Field work or data collection
v) Analyze and interpret data
vi) Report preparation and presentation

3.2 Problem Identification

A research problem is the basic management or societal challenge or opportunity, which
motivates a social research. A problem well defined is said to be a problem half solved.
This is why a researcher needs to identify and describe a research problem with great
precision. In defining the problem, the researcher should take into account the purpose of
the study and the relevant background information needed. Before a researcher sets out to
carry on a research there should be an issue or a problem that is to be investigated.

A research problem has some conditions to be met.

1. There must be an individual/ group/ organization to which the problem can be

attributed.
2. There must be at least two cause of action to be pursued. A cause of action is defined
by one or more values of the controlled valuables.
3. There must be two or more possible outcomes emanating from the cause of action.
There must be a preferable outcome.

The causes of action available must prove same chance of obtaining the objective but they
cannot provide the same chance otherwise the choice could not matter, thus, a research
problem can be defined as a matter of concern/ issue under investigation in order for the
researcher to come up with solutions to it or just findings in case it is not a problem. A

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useful way to approach the research process is to state the basic dilemma that prompts
the research and then try to develop other questions by progressively breaking down the
original question into more specific ones. Management dilemma is usually a symptom of
an actual problem, such as: Rising Cost, declining sales, increasing employee turnover in a
restaurant, an increasing number of letters and phone complaints about post purchase
and a large number of product defects during the manufacture of an automobile.

The manager and research collaborator have to define the following:

i) Management decision: A restatement of the manager's dilemma(s) in question form.
ii) Research questions: The hypothesis that best states the objective of the research, the
question(s) that focuses the researcher's attention.
iii) Investigative questions: Questions the researcher must answer to satisfactorily answer
the research questions, what the manager feels he needs to know to arrive at a conclusion
about the management dilemma.
iv) Measurement questions: What participants in research are asked or what specifically
is observed in a research study.

3.3 Steps in Defining Research Problem

i) Start with a general statement of the problem
At this stage the research problem is stated in a broad way putting scientific or intellectual
interest into consideration. A researcher should at this stage read thoroughly the area of
interest. Some preliminary survey might be necessary and the researcher can also seek
expert help.
ii) Understand the nature of the problem
This step helps to understand the origin and nature of the problem. The researcher should
analyze what made him raise the topic or discuss the problem with those who have more
knowledge about it.
iii) Surveying the available literature
This process is also known as literature review where the researcher goes through all the
relevant journal.' books, newspaper articles, this will help him know if there are certain
gaps in the theory, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study
are consistent with each other, or whether the findings of different study do not follow a
pattern consistent with the theoretical expectation.
iv) Developing ideas through discussion
Discussion helps in discovering new ideas and development of different perception of the
problem being looked at. It is advisable that a researcher discusses the problem with
colleagues and other experts who have knowledge in the same area.
v) Rephrasing the research problem
Finally, the researcher should rephrase the problem into a working condition. Once the
nature of the problem has been understood, rephrasing the problem should be an easy
task. By rephrasing, the researcher puts research problem in a specific term as possible so
that it becomes operational and helps in the development the hypothesis.

3.4 Literature Review

Literature review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and

unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the area of specific interest to the
researcher. The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information related to these research problems being
investigated. Literature review should be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at
obtaining detailed knowledge of the topic being studied.

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3.4.1 Importance of Literature Review

The main purpose of literature review is to determine what has been already related to
the research being studied, so as to avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication and
also form the framework within which the research findings are to be interpreted.

A review of the literature will reveal what strategies procedures and measuring
instruments have been found useful in investigating the problem in question. This
information helps one to avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers and
also helps to benefit from other researchers' experiences.

In most cases literature review will suggest other procedures and approaches. This is very
useful information because a researcher could try out suggested approaches, especially if
they will improve the research study.

It enables the researcher to be familiar with previous studies and thus facilitate
interpretation of the result of the study.

Reviewing the literature critically will provide the foundation on which your research is
built. Main purpose of literature review is to help you to develop a good understanding
and insight into relevant previous research and the trends that have emerged.

The precise purpose of your reading of the literature will depend the approach you are
intending to use in you research. For some research projects you will use the literature to
help you to identify theories and ideas that you will test using data. This is known as
deductive approach in which you develop a theoretical or conceptual framework, which
you subsequently test using data.

For other research project you will be planning to explore your data and to develop
theories from them that you will subsequently relate to the literature. This is known as
inductive approach and, although your research still has a clearly defined purpose with
research question(s) and objectives, you do not start with any predetermined or
conceptual frameworks. We believe such an approach cannot be taken without a
conceptual knowledge of your subject area. It is however, impossible to review every
single piece of the literature before collecting your data.

The purpose of your literature review is not to provide a summary of everything that has
been written on your research topic, but to review the most relevant and significant
research on your topic.
Your review also has a number of other purposes. Many of these have been highlighted by
Gall et al. (2002) in their book for students undertaking education research and are:
i) To help you refine further your research question(s) and objectives.
ii) To highlight research possibilities those have been overlooked implicitly in research
to date.
iii) To discover explicit recommendations for further research. These can provide you
with a superb justification for your own research question and objectives.
iv) To help you to avoid simply repeating work that has been done already.
v) To sample current opinions in newspapers. Professional and trade journals, thereby
gaining insights into the aspect of your research questions and objectives that are
considered newsworthy.

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vi) To discover and provide an insight into research approaches, strategies and
techniques that may be to your own research questions and objectives.

3.4.2 Scope of the Literature Review

If the area of study has been studied for a long time and there is a huge body of literature,
one can read only those studies that are reasonably close to one's research topic. In those
thoroughly explored areas, much greater depth is available and the researcher can
personally cover a narrower topic range of greater depth. In new or little research areas,
where little depth is available, a researcher would require to review any relevant material
in order to develop a logical framework for the study and appropriate hypothesis for the
study. A researcher should avoid the temptation to include all available materials.
Excessive material does not mean great information. A smaller well organized review is
preferable to a review containing many studies that are remotely related to the problem.

3.4.3 Content of the Critical Review

As you begin to find, read and evaluate the literature, you will need to think how to
combine the academic theories and ideas about which you are reading to form the critical
review that will appear in your project report. Your review will need to evaluate the
research that has already been undertaken in the area of your research project, show and
explain the relationship between published research findings and reference the literature
in which they were reported. It will draw out the key points and trends (recognizing any
commissions and bias) and present them in a logical way which also shows the
relationship to your own research. In doing so you will also provide readers of your
project research with the necessary background knowledge to your research questions
and objectives and establish the boundaries of your own research. It will also enable
readers to see your ideas against the background of previous published research in the
area.

3.4.3.1 Critique of Theories

This means appraising or evaluating a problem with effective use of language. It
emphasizes the need of you as the reviewer, to use own skill both of making reasoned
judgments and of arguing effectively in writing.

3.4.3.2 Critique of Tradition

This includes your questioning, where justification exists to do so, the conventional
wisdom, the "critique of authority". Finally it is likely to include recognizing in your review
the knowledge and information you are discussing are not value free, "The Critique of
objectivity"
3.4.4 Evaluating whether your Literature review is Critical

1. Have you shown how your research questions relate to previous research reviewed?
2. Have you assessed the strengths and weaknesses of the research reviewed?

3. Have you been objective in your discussion and assessment of other people's
research?
4. Have you included references to research that are counter to your own opinion?
5. Have you distinguished clearly between facts and opinions?
6. Have you made reasoned judgments' about the values and relevance of others
research to your own?
7. Have you justified clearly your own ideas?

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8. Have you highlighted those areas where new research (yours) is needed to provide
fresh insights and taken these into account in your arguments?
a. Where there are inconsistencies in current knowledge and understanding?
b. Where there are omissions or bias in published research?
c. Where research findings need to be tested further?
d. Where evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or limited?
9. Have you justified your arguments by referencing correctly published research?

3.4.5 Steps in Literature Review

1. Be familiar with the literature before beginning with the literature review.
2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search. For example, if the
study deals with family conflict, other phrases that could be used to search the literature
are family 'family violence' or abuse 'family Dissolution'.
3. With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the source
literature. Library staffs are generally very helpful in offering guidance.
4. Summarize the reference on cards for easy organization of the literature.
5. Once collected the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly
manner. Such organized, analysis and reporting represents the hardest part of the
literature review.
6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation. Decide on the
number of headlines and sub-headlines required depending on how detailed the review is.
7. Analyze each reference in term as of the outline made and establish where it will be
most relevant.
8. Studies contrary to received wisdom should not be ignored when reviewing literature.
Such studies should be analyzed and possible explanation for the differences given.
9. The literature should be organized in such a way that more general is covered first
before the research narrows down to that which is more specific to the research problem.
Organizing the literature in this way leads to testable hypothesis.
10. Some researchers prefer to have a brief summary of the literature and its
implications. This is however, optional depending on the length of the literature under
review.

3.4.6 General Rules of Citation

i) Every paragraph must have a source
ii) Use the American Psychological Association (APA) publication style
iii) Citation only surname and year. When starting with author the year is bracketed e.g.
<According to Kotler (2013) a research designs&&= At the end of a sentence both surname
and year in brackets e.g.

<&&&&&&descriptive research design is used= (Mugenda and Mugenda, 2013).

iv) When citing more than two authors use one surname and the Latin words et al
meaning and others
v) Authors with the same surname include the initials
vi) For Corporate authors cite the name once and thereafter use abbreviations

3.5 Theoretical Framework

After conducting the interviews, completing a literature survey, and defining the problem,
one is ready to develop a theoretical framework. A theoretical framework is a conceptual
model of how one theory or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several
factors that have been identified as important to the problem. The theoretical framework

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discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are deemed to be integral to the
dynamics of the situation being investigated.

Developing such a framework helps us to postulate or hypothesize and test certain

relationship and thus to improve our understanding of the dynamic of the situation. From
the theoretical framework, then, testable hypothesis can be developed to examine
whether the theory formulated is valid or not. Thus, the entire research rests on the basis
of the theoretical framework. A good theoretical research is central to examining the
problem under investigation.

3.6 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is defined as <a set of broad ideas and principles taken from
relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation= (Reichel and
Ramney, 1987). It explains either graphically or in narrative form the main dimensions
being studied, or the presumed relationships among them. It is a framework showing the
relationship between the independent variables and the dependant variable

3.7 Variables
A variable is anything that can take on differing values. The values can differ at various
times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons.
Examples of variables are units, absenteeism and motivation.

3.7.1 Types of Variables

i) Dependent Variable
This is the variable of primary interest to the researcher. The researcher goal is to
understand and describe the dependent variable, or to explain its variability or to predict
it. It is the main variable that lends itself for investigation as a viable factor. Through the
analysis of the dependent variable (that is, finding what variable influence it) it is possible
to find answers or solutions to the problem.

ii) Independent Variable

It is the one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way.
The variable in the dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable.

iii) Moderating Variable

It is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent
variable relationship. That is he presence of a third variable (the moderating variable)
modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

iv) Intervening Variable

This is the one surface between the times the independent starts operating to influence
the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it. There is thus a temporal
quality or time dimension to the intervening variable. The intervening variable surfaces as
a function of the independent variable operating in any situation, and helps to
conceptualize and explain the independent variable on the dependent variable.

v) Extraneous Variable
These are independent variables that are not related to the purpose of study but may
affect the dependent variables. Example, a researcher testing the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between the children's gain in social study achievement and self-concepts. In
this case self-concept is an independent variable and social achievement is dependent

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variable. But intelligent may well affect social study achievement and is thus termed as an
extraneous variable.

3.8 Research Objectives

Research objectives are statements that indicate the specific information the researcher
seeks to get by conducting a given research. Thus they give a specific guideline to the
research work. Research objectives ought to be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Accurate,
Realistic and Time bound

3.9 Formulation of Hypothesis/ Research Questions

3.9.1 Research Questions

Research questions are refined statements of the specific components of the problem.
Research questions ask what specific information is required with respect to the problem
components. The research objectives are often: converted into research questions that
then give a specific direction of the information sought by the researcher.

3.9.2 Research Hypothesis

The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to
a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain at least one independent
and one dependent variable. Hypothesis is an unproven statement about a factor or
phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher. A hypothesis is also defined as possible
answer to the research questions. There are two types of hypotheses; the null hypothesis
and the alternative hypothesis. For example; Null Hypothesis: The quantity demanded is
determined by price, taste preference and fashion and price of other commodities.

Alternative Hypothesis: the quantity demanded is not determined by price, taste

preference and fashion and price of other commodities. Unfortunately it is not possible to
formulate hypothesis in all situations, sometimes information is not available to develop
hypotheses. It is necessary for every research project to have a hypothesis because they
help identify variables to be included in the research design and they form the basis for
the empirical test on identified variables.

3.9.3 Research Questions versus Hypothesis

i) Research questions are interrogative while hypothesis are declarative and can be
tested empirically.

ii) Hypotheses go beyond research questions because they are statements of

relationships or propositions rather than merely questions to which answers are sought.
iii) Hypotheses suggest variables to be included in a research while research question
seek to establish the relevance of such variables to research.
iv) A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question

Review Questions

i) Explain the steps used in research

ii) Discuss the steps used in defining a research problem
iii) Distinguish between theoretical and conceptual framework
iv) Discuss the various types of variables
v) Explain how research objectives and research questions are formulated

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References for Further Reading

i) Mugenda, O.M. and Mugenda, A.G. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches, Acts Press, Nairobi

ii) Kothari, C.R. (1997).Research methodology, Methods and Techniques, 2nd edition

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CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter the learner should be able to;

Formulate a research design
Know the factors considered in choosing a research design
Know the different types of research designs

4.1 Research Design Formulation

It is the plan according to which research participants are chosen, information collection
and data analysis is done. Research design is a framework for conducting the research
project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required information and its
purpose is to design a study that will successfully validate the hypothesis. It is the
conceptual structure within which research is conducted, that is, it consists of the
blueprint for collection, measurement and analysis of data. A research design is a master
plan/framework or blue print specifying the methods and procedures of collecting and
analyzing the needed information. It specifies the details of the procedures necessary for
obtaining the information needed to structure or solve the marketing research problems.
Thus it pertains/ includes the what, where, when, how much, by what. It basically contains
questions as: What the study is all about? Why the study is carried out? Where the study
will be carried out? What type of data will be required? What time will it take? Which
sample and design will be used? Which data collection techniques will be used? How will
data be analysed? How will data be analysed and how will the report be written?

4.1.1 What a Research Design Must Consist of;

i) A clear statement of research problem.
ii) Procedures used for gathering information.
iii) Population to be studied.
iv) Methods to be used in analyzing and processing data.

4.1.2 Characteristics of a good Research design

i) It should include general terms in broad, economical, efficient, appropriate and flexible.
ii) It should be able to minimize bias and maximize reliability.
iii) It should have a small experimental error.
iv) It should yield maximum information and provide opportunity for considering other
aspects of the problem. In reality there is no ingle research which can be said to be
appropriate across the board. Much of it will depend on the nature of research at hand.
Different research will require different research design.

4.1.3 Factors to be considered when choosing a Research Design

i) Means of obtaining the information.
ii) Availability of skills of researcher and his staff.
iii) Objectives of problems to be studied.
iv) Nature of problems to be studied.
v) Availability of money and time for research.

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For instance if a research study is exploratory in nature where the major emphasis is on
discovery of ideas an insights, the research design should be one that allows consideration
of many different aspect of a phenomenon on the other hand if a study research is
descriptive in nature accuracy becomes a major consideration and research design which
minimizes bias and maximizes reliability of the evident collected will be used.

4.2 Types of Research Designs

1. Exploratory Research

Exploratory research design is also known as Formulative Research Studies. The main
purpose of such a study is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation of
developing a working hypothesis from in operational point of view. The main emphasis in
such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights.

2. Survey of Literature

It is the most appropriate research design. Hypothesis stated by earlier study may be
reviewed and their usefulness evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be
considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. This approach
basically entails a survey done in that area and a researcher should also make an attempt
to apply concepts or and theories developed in different research context to the area in
which he himself wants.

3. Experience Survey

It means the survey of people who have experience to the problem to be studied. People
who have competent and contribute to new ideas are selected to ensure representation of
different types of experiences.

4. Analysis of Insight

It is used in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. It involves intensive
study of issues in the area of interest through the study of existing records or unstructured
interviews. The investigator should carry out an intensive study and should poses high
skills and techniques in the collection and collating of information.

5. Focus Groups

It is a personal interview conducted simultaneously amongst a small number of

individuals. It is more of a discussion than an interview. It is guided by questions directed
to the panel to generate data.

6. Descriptive Research

Descriptive study are those which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual or group whereas diagnostic research study determine the frequency
in which something occurs for its association to something else Studies concerned with

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specific predictions with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual

groups or situations are termed as descriptive studies.

7. Cross Sectional Studies/ Sample Survey

This is a type of research involving the collection of information from any given sample of
the population only once. In single cross sectional design, only one sample of the
respondent is drawn from the target population and information is obtained from the
sample once. In multiple cross sectional design there are two or more sample of
respondents and information from each sample is obtained only once.

8. Cohort Analysis

A cohort analysis is a multiple cross sectional design that has a series of surveys conducted
at appropriate time intervals. Example opinion polls on the best presidential candidate
carried out fortnightly to show the trends overtime. It is of special interest as it is an
improved cross sectional design used to monitor system-change in behavior.

9. Longitudinal Research

This is an investigation involving a fixed sample (panel) of elements that is measured

repeatedly through a period of time. The sample remains the same overtime, thus
providing a series of picture which when viewed together portray a vivid illustration of the
situation and changes that are taking place overtime. True panels are members studied
repeatedly to measure the same variable. Omnibus panel are members studied repeatedly
but along variables the change,

Table 4.1 Differences between Exploratory and Descriptive Research

Review Questions
i) Explain what you understand by the word <research design= and state the
characteristics of a good research design
ii) Asses the various research designs
iii) Differentiate between exploratory and descriptive research designs

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References for Further Reading

i) Cooper, D, R and Schindler P, M (2011), Business Research Methods, 11th Edition,

McGraw-Hill International Edition, New Delhi.
ii) Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines
Publications Africa, Nairobi

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CHAPTER FIVE
POPULATION, SAMPLING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to;


Define a target population

Define a sample and sampling techniques

5.0 Population
According to Cooper and Schindler (2000) <a population is the total collection of elements
about which we wish to make some inferences=. A population is a group of individuals,
objects or items from which samples are taken for measurement e.g. a population of
students. Population also refers to the group of persons or elements that have at least one
thing in common, for instance, students at Mount Kenya University. Population also refers
to the larger group from which the sample is taken. In some studies a small group instead
of the total population can be studied

5.2 Sampling Design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining subjects from a given population. It refers
to the techniques that a researcher adopts in selecting items for the sampling. It lays down
the number of items to be included in the sample that is the sample size. Sample design is
normally determined before data is collected. Sampling is normally done so as to reduce
the number of subjects to be studied. It enables a researcher to study all subjects in the
population of interest by picking of subjects across a population that has all the
characteristics the researcher wishes to study.

5.3 Types of Sampling Design

5.3.1. Probability Sampling

It is normally known as random sampling or chance sampling. Under the sampling design
every element of the population has an impact on the sample.

5.3.1.1 Types of Probability Sampling

i) Systematic Random Sampling
It involves giving a number to every subject of the population, placing the numbers in a
container and picking any number at random. The subjects corresponding to the numbers
picked are included in the sample. Another approach is to use the table of random number
or random numbers can be generated by computer programs.
ii) Systematic Sampling
Every kth case in the population frame is selected for inclusion in the sample. To obtain a
truly random sample all the members of the sampling frame must be randomized.
iii) Stratified Random Sampling
A stratified sample subjects are selected in such a way that the existing samples in the
population are more or less produced in the sample. It means that the sample will consist
of more or two samples.
iv) Cluster Sampling

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It is used when it is not possible to obtain a sampling frame because the population is
either very large or scattered over a large geographical area. It involves the selection of an
intact group.

v) Multistage Sampling
It is a further development of the principle of cluster sampling. Suppose we want to
investigate working efficiency of insurance firms in Kenya and we want to take a sample
of a few insurance firms for this purpose. The first stage is to select a large primary unit
such as provinces in a country. This would represent a two stage sampling design with the
ultimate sampling unit being cluster of districts. If we select randomly at all stages we will
have multi stage sampling.

5.3.2 Non Probability Sampling

This is the sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample

5.3.2.1 Types of Non-probability Sampling

i) Convenience Sampling
It is also known as accidental or haphazard sampling. In these sampling the researcher
studies all those persons who are most conveniently available, or who accidentally come
into his contact.
ii) Purposive Sampling/ Judgmental Sampling
It is a sampling technique that allows a researcher to use cases that have the required
information with respect to the objectives of his study. Cases of subjects are therefore
handpicked because they are informative or they pose the required characteristics.
iii) Quota Sampling
The researcher purposely selects subjects to fit the quotas identified. The selection of
actual participants is not random since subjects are picked as they fit into identified
quotas.
iv) Snowball Sampling
In this method subjects with the desired characteristics are picked using purposive
sampling. The few identified subjects name others that they know have the required
characteristics until the researcher gets number of cases he requires.

5.4 Census

This means using the entire population as the sample. It is very attractive for small
populations but very costly for large populations. A census eliminates sampling error and
provides data on all the individuals in the population

5.5 Using a Sample of a Similar Study

Another approach is to use the same sample size as those of studies similar to the one you
plan to do. There is a risk though of repeating errors those were made in determining the
sample size for the other researches

5.6 Using Published Tables

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Published tables are another way of determining the sample size as they provide the
sample size for a given set of criteria

5.7 Using Formulas to Calculate Sample Size

Sometimes it is useful to calculate the necessary sample size for a different combination of
levels of precision, confidence and variability. It may also be necessary to calculate the
precise minimum sample size you require

Review Questions

i) Define target population

ii) Asses the various methods used in sampling

References for Further Reading

1. Cooper, D, R and Schindler P, M (2006), Business Research Methods, 9th Edition,

McGraw-Hill International Edition, New Delhi.

2. Collis, J. (2004), Business Research, 2nd Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, London.

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CHAPTER SIX
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Learning Objectives

By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to;


Define data collection

Know the sources of data collection

Know the methods of data collection

6.0 Meaning of Data Collection

Data collection refers to gathering specific information aimed at providing or refuting

some facts. It is the gathering of information to serve or to prove some facts. In data
collection the researcher must have a clear vision of the instruments to be used. The
researcher must also have a clear understanding of what they hope to obtain and how
they hope to obtain it

6.2 Sources of Data/Data Collection

6.2.1 Primary Data

It refers to information obtained first hand by the researcher on variables of interest for
specific purposes of study. This information gathered directly from the respondents. It can
be qualitative or quantitative research. Primary data can gathered through
questionnaires, interviews, focused group discussions observation and experimental
studies

6.2.2 Secondary Data

This is data neither collected by the user nor meant for the user. It involves gathering data
that has already been collected by other people. Data is gathered by the collection and
analysis of published materials and information from internal sources. It is sometimes
known as desk research

6.3 Methods of Primary Data Collection Include

6.3.1 Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a means of eliciting the feelings, beliefs, experiences, perceptions or
attitudes of some individuals. It is a combination of questions in written form that is
usually sent by post to the respondents who are expected to answer the questions and
return them. Sometimes it can be a walk in exercise where the questionnaires are handed
out in person. As a data collection instrument a questionnaire can be structured,
unstructured or semi structured. A structured questionnaire is one that has closed ended
questions. It is restricted and calls for a <yes= or <no= answer. Unstructured questionnaire
is one that has open ended questions. It is unrestricted and calls for free response from
the respondent. Semi structured questionnaire has both open and closed ended questions

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6.3.1.1 Advantages

i) It has a low costs-even when the universe is large and widely spread geographically.
ii) It is free from bias of the interviewer.
iii) Respondents have adequate time to give all the answers.
iv) Uniformity of the questions
v) Standardized questions

6.3.1.2 Disadvantages

i) It has a low rate of return.

ii) Respondent’s motivation is difficult to asses
iii) May present biased samples
iv) It can only be used when respondents are educated and cooperative.
v) The control of the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

6.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Rate of Returned Questionnaires

i) Length of the questionnaire

ii) Reputation of the sponsoring agency
iii) Complexity of the questions asked
iv) Relative importance of the study
v) Quality and design of the questionnaire
vi) Time of the year the questionnaire is distributed

6.3.2 Interviews

It involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli in terms of oral responses. This method can
be used through personal/ telephone interviews. Personal interviews involve an
interviewer asking the respondent questions in a face to face contact. It is a conversation
in which the roles of the interviewer and the respondent change continually. They may be
structured interviews where a guiding questionnaire (interview schedule) is used or
unstructured interview where there is no questionnaire to be followed. Structured
interviews are rigidly standardized and formal while unstructured interviews are flexible
and informal

6.3.2.1 Advantages

i) Advantages include you get more information and in greater depth.

ii) It can also be applied to record verbal answers to various questions.
iii) Sample can be controlled.
iv) Can be used with young children and illiterates
v) Allows the interviewer to clarify questions
vi) The language of the interviewer can be adapted to the nature of the respondent
vii) The interviewer can collect supplementary information

6.3.2.2 Disadvantages
1. It is expensive

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2. Gaining access to interviewers may be very difficult especially if they are high profile
people
3. It is time consuming

6.3.3 Observation

It is commonly used in studies related to behavioral science. It has to be systematically

planned and controlled and subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability
and also constructed to serve a formulated research purpose for it to serve as a scientific
tool for data collection. Direct observation is a measuring instrument to measure such
traits as self-control, cooperativeness, truthfulness and honesty. One observes without
asking questions to correspondence.

6.3.3.1 Advantages

The advantages of observation include:

1. The researcher is enabled to record the natural behavior.

2. It is done in a natural behavior thus bias is reduced.
3. Observation is not expensive.
4. It allows collection of a wide range of information
5. It is ideal in studying non-verbal communication.

6.3.3.2 Disadvantages

1. Observation lacks control of variables in its natural set up.

2. There is difficulty in quantification because it is mostly descriptive.
3. It lacks privacy and has limited study.
4. Observation studies use a smaller sample than survey studies.

6.3.4 Conference
The conference technique is a face to face discussion of a topic of interest. Experts are
brought together at a common site. The group brainstorms to generate as many ideas on
the problem as possible. The experts then evaluate and rate the suggestions. The most
popular responses are determined. Finally the group discusses the strengths and
weaknesses of the top suggestions and ranks the final choices

6.3.5 Case Study

It involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit be it a family, institution or
cultural group. It normally places emphasis on depth rather than breadth. A case study
concentrates on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
inter-relations.

6.3.6 Focus Group Discussion

A focused group is an organized discussion session. A panel of people meets for a short
duration to exchange ideas, feelings, and experiences on a specific topic. A trained

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facilitator, using group dynamics and principles guides participants through the meeting.
Focus group meetings enable a researcher to gain much information in a relatively short
period of time

6.3.7 Telephone Surveys

This is a direct talk with the interviewees over the phone

6.3.8 Mail Surveys

This is the sending of questionnaires through the post office

6.3.9 Computer Direct Surveys

These are interviews in which the interviewees enter their own answers directly into a
computer

6.3.10 Email Surveys

Similar to computer direct surveys email survey can be done by sending the questionnaire
through the email

6.4 Pilot Testing

It is conducted to detect weakness in design and instrumentation and to provide proxy

data for selection of a probability sample. It should draw subjects from the target
population and stimulate the procedures and protocols that have designated for data
collection. Pretesting may rely on colleagues, respondent surrogates, or actual
respondents to refine a measuring instrument. Pretesting may be repeated several times
to refine questions, instruments or procedures.

6.5 Validity and Reliability

According to Cook and Campbell (1979) <validity is the best available approximation to
the truth or falsity of a given inference, proposition or conclusion=. A test is valid when it
measures what it is supposed to measure. How valid a test is depends on its purpose e.g. a
ruler may be a valid measurement for length but it is not a valid measurement volume.
The validity of a questionnaire depends on its reliability. If the questionnaire is not
reliable then it cannot be valid

Reliability is the consistency of measurement or the degree to which an instrument

measures the same way each time it is used under the same conditions with the same
subjects. An instrument is considered reliable if the score of a person on the same test
given twice is similar. Reliability is not measured but estimated

Review Questions

i) Define data collection and state the sources of data

ii) Asses the data collection methods
iii) Differentiate between validity and reliability

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References for Further Research

i) Bliss, O., Monk, M.M. and Ogborn (1983). Questionnaire Construction and Question
Writing for Research, Sterling Press, Western Cape
ii) Jonathan, (2004), The Foundation of Research, Palgrave Macmillan, London

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CHAPTER SEVEN
DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

Learning Objectives

By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to know;


Data analysis and interpretation

How to report the results

Presentation of data

7.0 Data Analysis and Interpretation

Managers need information, not raw data. Researchers generate information by analyzing
data after its collection. Data analysis usually involves reducing accumulated data to a
manageable size, developing summaries, looking for patterns, and applying statistical
techniques. Scaled responses on questionnaires and experimental instruments often
require the analyst to derive various functions, as well as to explore relationships among
variables.

Further, researchers must interpret these findings in light of the client's research
questions or determine if the results are consistent with their hypothesis and theories.
Increasingly, managers are asking research specialists to make recommendation based on
their interpretation of data.

7.2 Reporting the Results

Finally, it is necessary to prepare a report and transmit the findings and recommendation
to the manager for the intended purpose of decision making. The researcher adjusts the
style and organization of the report according to the target audience, the occasion, and the
purpose of the research. Reports should be developed from the manager's or information
user’s perspective.

In the end, the manager's foremost concern is solving the management dilemma thus the
researcher must accurately assess the manager’s needs throughout the research process
and incorporate this understanding into the final product, the research report. The
management decision maker occasionally shelves the research report without taking
action. Inferior communication of results is a primary reason for this outcome. With this
possibility in mind the research specialist should strive for: Insightful adaptation of the
information to the client's needs and careful choice of words in crafting interpretations,
conclusions and recommendations.

Occasionally, organizational and environmental forces beyond the researcher's control

argue against the implementation of results.

At a minimum, a research report should contain the following:

i) An Executive Summary consisting of a synopsis of the problem, findings and

recommendations.

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ii) An Overview of the Research: The problem's background, literature summary, methods
and procedures, and conclusion.
iii) A Section on Implementation Strategies for the recommendations.

iv) A Technical Appendix with all the materials necessary to replicate the report.

7.2.1 Research Process Issues

Although it is desirable for research to be thoroughly grounded in management priorities,

studies can wander off target or be less effective than they should be.

7.2.2 Favored-technique Syndrome

Not all research is comfortable with experimental design. The availability of technique is
an important factor in determining how research will be done or whether a given study
can be done. Persons knowledgeable about and skilled in some techniques but not in
others are too often blinded by their special competencies.

7.2.3 Company Database Strip-Mining

The existence of a pool of information or a database can distract a manager, seemingly

reducing the need for other research. Data mining is often starting points in decision-
based research but rarely will such activity answer all management questions related to a
particular management dilemma.

7.2.4 Unresearchable Questions

Not all management questions are researchable, not all research questions are
answerable. To be researchable, a question must be one for which observation can
provide the answer. Many questions cannot be answered on the basis of information
alone.

7.2.5 Ill-Defined Management Problem

Some categories of problems are so complex, value-laden, and bound by constraints that
they prove to be intractable to traditional forms of analysis. These questions have
characteristics that are virtually the opposite of those of well-defined problems.

7.2.6 Politically Motivated Research

It is important to remember that a manager's motivations for seeking research are not
always obvious. Managers might express a genuine need for specific information on which
to base a decision. This is the ideal scenario for quality research.

7.3 Presentation and Analysis of Data

The main aim of statistics is simply the complexity of the quantitative data and to make
them easily intelligible. Diagrams and graphs help to understand the information easily

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and in comprehensive way. Business data like sales, production, and price are frequently
presented in the forms of diagrams or graphs.

7.3.1 Diagrams

Diagram representation is best suited to spatial services and split into different categories
where never a comparison of the same type of data at different places is to be made,
diagrams will be the best way to do that.

7.3.1.1 Advantages of Diagrams

i) They save time and labor

ii) Facilitate comparison
iii) They give an effective impression
iv) Easy to memories
v) It makes information contained in the data readily intelligent
vi) Attractive way in representing data.

7.3.1.2 Limitations of Diagrams

i) They don't give accurate results but rough idea

ii) Need some technical knowledge to construct a diagram
iii) One cannot compare diagrams especially when the units used are different hence
the phenomena is not the same
iv) Diagrams can be misused easily

7.3.1.3 Construction of a Diagram

Any diagram drawn should be neat and clean so that it can attract the mind of the reader.
A good diagram should have a brief hearing on the top and the scale should be indicated
clearly. All symbols to be used should be explained clearly so that it does not cause
confusion.

7.3.1.4 Types of Diagrams

1. One-dimensional diagram — bar grams

2. Two-dimensional of diagrams - example rectangle square and circles
3. Pictograms and maps.

7.4 Analysis of Data

Analysis of data means the computation of certain indices or measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the grouped data. Analysis
particularly in case of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of
unknown parameter of a population and testing of hypothesis for a drawing inferences.

7.5 Data Processing Operations

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The data, after collection has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for
a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation
of certain measures along with searching for partners of relationship that exist among
data groups.

7.5.1 Editing

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially in surveys) to
detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. Editing involves a careful
scrutiny of the complete questionnaires and or schedules. It is done to ensure that the
data are accurate, consistence with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as complete
as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

Editing can be in a form of field editing which consists in the review of the reporting forms
by the investigator for completing what the letter has written in abbreviated and/or in
illegible form at the time of recording the respondent’s responses. Another form of editing
is central editing which should take place when all form or schedules have been
completed and returned to the office and all these forms should get although editing by a
single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of a large inquiry.

7.5.2 Coding
This refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to answers so that
response can be put into a limited number categories or classes. These classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also possess the
characteristics of exhaustiveness and also that of mutual exclusively which means that
specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set.

It is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to a
small number of classes which contain the critical information required for analysis.
Coding decisions should be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire.

7.5.3 Classification
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into
homogeneous groups and so to get meaningful relationships. This necessitates
classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having common characteristics are
placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or
classes.

7.5.3.1 Two Types of Classification

i) Classification according to attributes: Data classified on the basis of common

characteristics which can be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty etc) or numerical
(such as weight, height, income etc). Data obtained this way on the basis of certain
attributes are known as statistics of attributes.
ii) Classification according to class intervals: Data which can be measured through some
statistical units like income, production, age, weight etc come under this category. They

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are classified on the basis of class-intervals. For instance, person whose income, say, are
within Kshs. 10,000 to kshs l5,000 can form one group.

7.5.4 Tabulation

When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to
arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. Tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis.

7.5.4.1 Importance of tabulation

i) It conserves space and reduced explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum

ii) It facilitates the process of comparison
iii) It facilitates the summation of items and detection of errors and omissions
iv) It provides a basis for various statistical compositions.

Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices depending on the

size and type of study, cost, time pressure and availability of tabulating machines or
computers.

7.6 Graphical Presentation

A graph is a pictorial presentation of the relationship between variables. The relationship

between two quantities can be shown by the help of a graph, and by use of graphs is a
better form of presentation especially when working on large numbers of items. The data
are plotted on a graph as a serious of points and these points are joined by the help of
alive or curve.

7.6.1 Characteristics of a Graph

i) Must give a correct impression
ii) The graphs must be clear and comprehensive title
iii) A good graph must not be overcrowded with curves.
iv) The curve must be distinct
v) The scale on y and x axis must be suitable according to given data.
vi) A good graph must be neat and clean.

7.6.2 Types of Graphs

Important types of graphs are:-
i) Time series graphs or Histogram
ii) Z-charts
iii) Scatter graphs
iv) Semi-logarithmic graph or ratio scale graphs
v) Lorenz curve
vi) Graphs of frequency distribution

7.6.2.1 Time Series Graphs

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In a time series, values of variable are given at a different period of time. When such graph
is drawn, it would give changes in the value of a variable with the passage of time. The
graphical presentation of such a series is called histogram

The main aim of drawing such graphs is to have comparison to study their

i) Changes in one variable over a period of time

ii) Changes of two or more variable over a period of time.

Example of time series include:-

i) Population of a country over a specific period of time

ii) Sales of a business enterprises over a period of time
iii) Price of some specific commodities over a period of time.
iv) Temperature over a period of time

7.6.2.2 Z charts

A Z chart is simply a time series chart incorporating three curves for:-

i. Individual monthly figures

ii. Monthly cumulative figure for the year
iii. A moving annual total

Z chart takes its name from the fact that the three curves lend to look alike the letter

Z.

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Example of a z-chart

7.6.2.3 Scatter Graph

Scatter graphs are those graphs which are used to indicate the relationship between two
variables. The x axis is used to represent the data of another variable scatter graphs are
usually down to indicate the relationship between two variables. For this purpose, a line
of best fit is established from the scatter graphs, this line indicates the relation or
association between two variables.

This line may have a rising or falling trend which shows positive and negative relationship
between two variables respective. Example the sales and advertising expenditure of a
company, whereby the y-axis represents sales and x axis represent advertising
expenditure.

Example of a scatter graphs

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7.6.2.4 Semi-Logarithmic Graphs

A semi-logarithmic graph is that graph on which vertical scale is logarithmic. It is also

known as scale graph. These graphs are important in studying the relative movements,
Instead of absolute movements.

Semi-Logarithmic Graphs are generally Used when:-

i. Visual comparisons are to be made between series of greatly different magnitude

ii. The series are equated in non-comparable units
iii. The data are to be examined to see whether they are characterized by a constant rate
of change.

7.6.2.5 Lorenz Curve

This Lorenz curve measures dispersion. It is devised by Dr. Lorenz to measure inequalities
of health distribution. It is used to measure the extent to which income is unevenly
distributed between various income groups. The disparity of proportion is a common
economic phenomenon. This disparity can be demonstrated by the help of Lorenz curve.

A Lorenz curve is constructed as follows:-

i) Write down the values of the two variable being plotted

ii) Express the variable or percentages of the total
iii) Compute the cumulative percentage of each variable
iv) Draw a horizontal and vertical axis and plot 0% to 100% on each axis
v) Mark the cumulative percentage on the graph and join the points
vi) Draw the line of an equal distribution by joining 0% to the 100% point by a straight
line.

7.6.3 Graphs of Frequency Distribution

The graphs of frequency distribution of continuous type are:-

a) 0 give curve
b) Histogram
c) Frequency polygon
d) Frequency curve

7.6.3.1 O- give Curve

It is obtained when the cumulative frequencies of a distribution are graphed. It is also

called cumulative frequency curve.

7.6.3.2 Histogram

Is a graph that represents the class frequencies in a frequency distribution by vertical

rectangles. Consists of a series of rectangles having a base measured along the x axis
proportional to the class interval and an area proportional to the frequency.

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Example of Histogram

7.7 Measure of Central Tendency

Measure of central tendency (or statistical average) tells us the point about which items a
tendency to cluster. Such a measure is considered as the most representative figure for the
entire mass of data. Measuring of central tendency is known as statistical average. Mean,
media and mode are the most popular averages. Mean, also known as arithmetic average,
is the most common measure of central tendency and may be defined as the value which
we get by dividing the total of values of various given items in a series by the total of
items.

7.7.1 Qualities of a Good Average

i) It should be rigidly defined
ii) It should be based on all values
iii) It should be easily understood and calculated
iv) It should be least affected by the fluctuations of sampling
v) It should be capable of further algebraic or statistical treated
vi) It should be least affected by extreme values.

7.7.2 Mean
(or x) = £X n
Where x = the symbol for mean £X = Summation of observation value n = number of
observation n = total number of items

7.7.3 The Median

This is the value of the middle item of service when it arranged in ascending or
descending order of magnitude, it divides the series into two halves. The median is the
middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in the order of magnitude. The
median is less affected by outlets and skewed data. In order to calculate the median,
suppose we have the data below.

Our median mark is the middle mark in this case 56

7.7.4 Mode
The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it represents the
highest bar in a bar chart or histogram. It is the most commonly or frequently occurring
value in a series. The mode in a distribution is that item around which there is maximum
concentration hence it is the size of the item which has the maximum frequency.

7.8 Measure of Dispersion

It is the extent of the scatteredness of items around a measure of central tendency. The
degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called the
variation or dispersion of the data. A measure of dispersion indicates the extent to which

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the individual observations differ on average from the mean or from any other measurer
of central tendency.

7.8.1 Significance of Measuring Dispersion

i) To determine the reliability of an average
ii) To serve as a basis for the central of the variability
iii) To compare two or more series with regard to their variability.
iv) To facilitate the use of the statistical measures.

7.8.2 Properties of a Good Measurer of Dispersion

i) It should be simple to understand
ii) It should be rigidly defined
iii) It should be easy to compute
iv) It should be based on each and every item of the distribution

7.8.3 Measure of Dispersion

The main methods of measuring dispersion are:-

 Range
 Quartile deviation or inter-quartile range
 Mean Deviation or average Deviation
 Standard Derivation
 Lorenz curve

7.9 Range

The range is simple a measure of dispersion i.e. between the highest or biggest value of a
variable and the lowest or smallest one respectively. When dealing with a continuous
variable the range can only be found accurately from the original data. Its value can only
be estimated from a grouped frequency distribution because of its simplicity, it is use in
quality control work.

7.10 The Quartile Deviation

Quartiles are values of the variable that make up 25%, 50% or 75% of the population all
the way through the distribution. There are three quartiles, first as Ql, second as Q2 and
the thud is Q3. The second quartile is the median i.e. variable that belongs to the item half-
way through the distribution.

7.11 Mean Deviation

Mean deviation measurers how far an average the readings are from the arithmetic mean.
The median is very occasionally used instead of the arithmetic mean. If the data have a
small spread about the mean, the mean deviation has a lower value than for data which
show large variations about the mean.

To Calculate the Mean Deviation

i) Find the arithmetic mean X of the data
ii) Find the deviation of each reading from X

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iii) Find the arithmetic mean of the deviations, ignoring their signs i.e. the visits made to
the local dispensary by members is as follows:
8, 6, 5, 5, 7, 4, 5, 9, 7, 4 Arithmetic mean = 60/6=10

7.12 Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is the most important measure of dispersion. It takes values of every
observation into account but does not suffer from the same arithmetical deficiencies as
the mean deviation.

Variance = ∑ (x - x)2
n

i) To calculate standard deviation for ungrouped data we use the formula:-

ii) Find the arithmetic mean X of the data
iii) Find the deviation of each reading from X
iv) Square each of the variations
v) Total the squared deviation
vi) Divide this sum by the total number of reading to obtain the variance.
vii) Find the square root of the variance to obtain the standard deviation.

Standard deviation = √ ∑ ( x - x ) 2
n

7.13 Measure of Relationship

In statistics, dependence refers to any statistical relationship between two random

variables or two sets of data.

7.14 Regression

The linear relationship between two or more variables. It is widely used in statistical work
than correlation. In regression analysis we are interested in "functional" relationship of
variables i.e. which the independent variable is and which the dependent variable is. Note
that we can use the variables the independent variables to predict or estimate the value of
the dependent variables. Regression analysis is a term that refers to the use of
observations/values of variable to calculate a curve of best fit so that we can make
estimate and predictions about the behavior of variables. The calculated line of best fit is
called the regression line. The simplest method of calculating a regression line is by three
points methods, it involves calculating arithmetic mean.

Example

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7.15 Least Squares Method

A better and more exact method of finding the line of best fit is to use the heat squares
method. This gives an algebraic equation connecting x and y. The type of equation that
gives a straight line relationship between x and y is in this form.

Y = a + bx

Where: y is the value of the dependent variable

X is the value of the independent variable (a) and (b) are constants.

7.16 Correlation

It is the linear relationship between two or more variables. The main interest is to find the
degree and direction of his relationship. Correlation can be positive or negative depending
on how the degree of correlation is calculated. Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is
denoted by the symbol "v". It is one of the very few symbols that are used universally for
describing the degree' of correlation between two series.

The formula is:-

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Review Questions

i) Explain the process of reporting results

ii) Asses the various methods of data presentation
iii) Briefly explain what you understand by the following terms
a) Measure of central tendency
b) Measure for dispersion
c) Range
d) Quartile deviation
e) Mean deviation
f) Standard deviation
g) Measure of relationship
h) Regression
i) Correlation

References for Further Reading

i) Cooper, D, R and Schindler P, M (2011), Business Research Methods, 11th Edition,

McGraw-Hill International Edition, New Delhi.
ii) Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines
Publications Africa, Nairobi

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CHAPTER EIGHT
TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to;

o Define an hypothesis
o Know the basic concepts of hypotheses testing
o Know the types and levels of significance
o Use the various tests for testing hypothesis
o Analyze data using the computer

8.0 Basic Concept of Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is a statistical inferential procedure in which a statement based on
some experimental or observational study is formulated, tested and then put through a
decision process. Hypothesis is a researcher's anticipated explanation or opinion
regarding the result of the study. A hypothesis states possible differences, relationships or
causes between two variables or concepts. Hypotheses are derived from or based on
existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. For example,
in a study on productivity of labor within manufacturing industries, a researcher may
hypothesize that more monetary incentives would lead to increases in productivity of
labor or that provision of recreational facilities would raise productivity.

8.1.1 Experiment of Studies or Hypothesis Testing

This are studies where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between
variables. Such studies reduce bias and increase reliability and also permit drawing
inferences about causality. It is a research resign in which the major emphasis is on
determining the cause and effect relationships. Its main purpose is to understand which
variables are the cause (independent variable) and which ones are the effects (dependent
variable) of a phenomenon. It also determines the nature of the relationship between the
causal variables and the effects to be predicted.

8.1.2 Steps in Hypothesis Testing

i) A study can have one hypothesis or, where the study includes several variables,
multiple hypotheses can be formulated.
ii) Each hypothesis will usually express a predicted relationship between two or more
variables or concepts.
iii) Some authors have recommended that hypotheses which do not have strong
support from theory/previous research or professional experience should be avoided.
iv) Researchers usually find it difficult to formulate hypotheses in an area of knowledge
that has very little previous research. In such an area not much is known that can support
a hypothesis. They also find it difficult to formulate hypothesis in certain types of
research. For example, where the research is exploratory, researchers usually omit the
hypotheses and the study is guided by the stated objectives
v) It is very important for a researcher to give a lot of thought to his or her hypotheses
because the whole study revolves around the stated hypotheses. It is the hypotheses that
are put to empirical tests in a study.

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vi) The test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either
support or fail to support the hypothesis. It is important to emphasize that testing a
hypothesis does not "prove" or "disapprove" the hypothesis.
vii) The collected data is then analyzed to determine whether the hypothesized
relationships exist. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that
the study has failed. Such a situation actually implies that existing theories or principles
need to be revised or tested under various situations.

8.2 Types and Levels of Significance

Researchers recognize three types of hypotheses;

i) Null hypotheses
ii) Alternative non - directional hypotheses
iii) Alternative directional hypotheses.

8.2.1 Null Hypothesis

A null hypothesis is sometimes referred to as a statistical hypothesis. A null hypothesis

always states that no real relationship or difference exists: any relationship between two
variables or difference between groups is merely due to chance or error.

Example;

There is no difference in the performance of national examinations between standard

eight students from rural primary schools and standard eight students from urban
primary schools in Kenya.

We can test the above hypothesis by sampling several schools from each region and
working out an average score on the national examination for each region. We can then
start by stating that the two averages will not differ i.e. the null hypothesis states that the
population mean of children in rural primary schools is equal to the population mean of
children in urban schools.

8.2.2 Alternative Non-Directional Hypotheses

An alternative non-directional hypothesis is also referred to as a research hypothesis. This

type of hypothesis states that there is a relationship or differences but the researcher does
not know the nature of such a difference or relationship. An alternative non-directional
hypothesis is suitable where previous research findings are conflicting or where a strong
rationale to support a predicted relationship does not exist. Stating a hypothesis in a non-
directional form is a conservative approach; the researcher avoids commitment to a
specific outcome.

Examples;

i) High alcohol content in the blood affects reaction time among truck drivers in Kenya.
These hypothesis states that a relationship exists between the variables but the

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researcher does not indicate the direction of that relationship i.e. does alcohol reduce or
increase reaction time?
ii) There is a difference in the performance of national examinations between children
from rural primary schools and children from urban primary schools. This hypothesis
states that a difference between the two groups exists, but we are not told which group
performs better than the other.

8.2.3 Alternative Directional Hypothesis

An alternative directional hypothesis specifies the nature of the relationship or difference

between variables. This means that a relationship may be stated as being greater than,
less than, increased, decreased, higher than, lower than etc

Where the researcher is not sure of the form of the relationship, he or she should not use a
directional hypothesis especially where there is a chance of obtaining an opposite
relationship form the one hypothesized.

Example;

1. High alcohol content in the blood decreases reaction time of truck drivers in Kenya

From previous studies and experiences it is highly likely that this hypothesis is borne out
by the results of a research study. Even from common sense or general observation, drunk
drivers take a longer time to react to dangerous situations compared to sober drivers.

8.3 <T=- test

A t- test is a special case of the analysis of variance (ANOVA). It is used to test whether
there are significant differences between two means derived from two samples or groups
at a specified probability level. For example, a researcher might want to compare IQ
performance from rural and urban children. The researcher gets a sample of 30 subjects
from a rural school and another 30 subjects from an urban school and administers the IQ
test to both. A t- test is then used to compare the mean scores obtained by these two
groups.

There are two types of tests;

8.3.1The t- Test for Independent Samples

Independent samples are samples that are randomly formed, that is formed without
matching. In such samples the members of one group are not related to the members of
the other group in any systematic way other than that they are selected from the same
population. It is assumed that the two groups are the same on the measure of interest at
the beginning of the study. If they are different at the end of the study, then the treatment
administered to the groups made them different. To determine whether there is a
significant difference between the means of the two independent samples, a t- test is used.

8.3.2The t - Test for non - Independent Samples

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Non - independent samples refer to samples or groups that are formed by some type of
matching. For example, if the same group is pre - tested on some dependent variable and
then post tested at a later date, the samples are non - independent and scores on the
dependent variable are expected to be correlated. A special t - test for correlation or non -
independent samples must be used to determine whether there is significant difference
between the means of the two samples or between the means for one sample at two
different times.

A researcher may wish to compare groups on many variables. In this case, each
comparison requires a separate t-test. To determine if the t value is significant, the
researcher must decide on the significant level to use.

8.4 <F= Test

An <F= test is any statistical test in which the test statistic has an F - distribution under the
null hypothesis. It is most often used when comparing statistical models that have been fit
to a data set, in order to identify the model that best fits the population from which the
data were sampled. Exact F - tests mainly arise when the models have been fit to the data
using least squares. The name was coined by George .W. Snedecor, in honor of Sir Ronald
A. Fisher. Fisher initially developed the statistic as the variance ratio in the 1920,s

Examples of F-Tests Include;

i) The hypothesis that the means of several normally distributed populations, all having
the same standard deviation, is equal. This is perhaps the best known F- test and plays an
important role in the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
ii) The hypothesis that a proposed regression model fits the data well.
iii) The hypothesis that a data set in a regression analysis follows the simpler of two
proposed linear models that are nested within each other
iv) Scheffe’s method for multiple comparisons adjustments in linear models.

8.5 Chi-Square Test

The chi-squared test is essentially always a one-sided test. Here is a loose way to think
about it: the chi-squared test is basically a 'goodness of fit' test. Sometimes it is explicitly
referred to as such, but even when it's not, it is still often in essence a goodness of fit. For
example, the chi-squared test of independence on a 2 x 2 frequency table is (sort of) a test
of goodness of fit of the first row (column) to the distribution specified by the second row
(column), and vice versa, simultaneously.

Thus, when the realized chi-squared value is way out on the right tail of its distribution, it
indicates a poor fit, and if it is far enough, relative to some pre-specified threshold, we
might conclude that it is so poor that we don't believe the data are from that reference
distribution.

If we were to use the chi-squared test as a two-sided test, we would also be worried if the
statistic were too far into the left side of the chi-squared distribution. This would mean
that we are worried the fit might be too good. This is simply not something we are
typically worried about. (As a historical side-note, this is related to the controversy of
whether Mendel fudged his data. The idea was that his data were too good to be true.

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Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we
would expect to obtain according to a specific hypothesis. For example, if, according to
Mendel's laws, you expected 10 of 20 offspring from a cross to be male and the actual
observed number was 8 males, then you might want to know about the "goodness to fit"
between the observed and expected. Were the deviations (differences between observed
and expected) the result of chance, or were they due to other factors. How much deviation
can occur before you, the investigator, must conclude that something other than chance is
at work, causing the observed to differ from the expected. The chi-square test is always
testing what scientists call the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant
difference between the expected and observed result.

8.5.1 Background

The Student's t-test and Analysis of Variance are used to analyse measurement data
which, in theory, are continuously variable. Between a measurement. But in some types of
experiment we wish to record how many individuals fall into a particular category, such
as blue eyes or brown eyes, motile or non-motile cells, etc. These counts, or enumeration
data, are discontinuous (1, 2, 3 etc.) and must be treated differently from continuous data.
Often the appropriate test is chi- 2), which we use to test whether the number of
individuals in different categories fit a null hypothesis (an expectation of some sort).

Chi squared analysis is simple, and valuable for all sorts of things - not just Mendelian
crosses! On this page we build from the simplest examples to more complex ones. When
you have gone through the examples you should consult the checklist of procedures and
potential pitfalls.

Chi-square requires that you use numerical values, not percentages or ratios.

Step-by-Step Procedure for Testing Your Hypothesis and Calculating Chi-Square

i) State the hypothesis being tested and the predicted results. Gather the data by
conducting the proper experiment (or, if working genetics problems, use the data
provided in the problem).
ii) Determine the expected numbers for each observational class. Remember to use
numbers, not percentages.
iii) Calculate using the formula. Complete all calculations to three significant digits.
Round off your answer to two significant digits.
iv) Use the chi-square distribution table to determine significance of the value.
a) Determine degrees of freedom and locate the value in the appropriate column.
b) Locate the value closest to your calculated 2 on that degrees of freedom df row.
c) Move up the column to determine the p value.
v) State your conclusion in terms of your hypothesis.
a) If the p value for the calculated 2 is p > 0.05, accept your hypothesis. 'The
deviation is small enough that chance alone accounts for it. A p value of 0.6, for
example, means that there is a 60% probability that any deviation from
expected is due to chance only. This is within the range of acceptable deviation.
b) If the p value for the calculated 2 is p < 0.05, reject your hypothesis, and
conclude that some factor other than chance is operating for the deviation to be
so great. For example, a p value of 0.01 means that there is only a 1% chance

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that this deviation is due to chance alone. Therefore, other factors must be
involved.

The chi-square test will be used to test for the "goodness to fit" between observed and
expected data from several laboratory investigations in this lab manual.

8.6 Computerized Data Analysis and Processing

8.6.1 Data Analysis

Data Analysis, it is the domain from which the data are harvested is a science or an
engineering field. Data processing and information systems are considered terms that are
too broad and the more specialized term data analysis is typically used. This is a focus on
the highly-specialized and highly-accurate algorithmic derivations and statistical
calculations that are less often observed in the typical general business environment. In
these contexts data analysis packages like DAP, greti or PSPP are often used. This
divergence of culture is exhibited in the typical numerical representations used in data
processing versus numerical; data processing's measurements are typically represented
by integers or by fixed point or binary coded-coded decimal representations of numbers
whereas the majority of data analysis's measurements are often represented by floating-
point representation of rational numbers.

8.6.2 Computerized Data Analysis

Software packages are available for the analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Each
packed has different features and the researcher needs to choose carefully. The aim of all
of the packages is to assist in the categorization and matching process. The packages can
save time, but there is still a great deal of time required to set them up and input the data
and check through the process

Computer data processing is any process that a computer program does to enter data and
summarize, analyze or otherwise convert data into usable information. The process may
be automated and run on a computer. It involves recording, analyzing, sorting,
summarizing, calculating, disseminating and storing data. Because data are most useful
when well-presented and actually informative, data-processing systems are often referred
to as information systems. Nevertheless, the terms are roughly synonymous, performing
similar conversions; data-processing systems typically manipulate raw data into
information, and likewise information systems typically take raw data as input to produce
information as output. Data processing may or may not be distinguished from data
conversion, when the process is merely to convert data to another format, and does not
involve any data manipulation. Scientific data processing

Scientific data processing usually involves a great deal of computation (arithmetic and
comparison operations) upon a relatively small amount of input data, resulting in a small
volume of output. In the early days of computers, the emphasis was upon scientific data
processing. This refers to a class of programs that organize and manipulate data, usually
large amounts of numeric data. Accounting programs are the prototypical examples of
data processing applications. In contrast, word processors, which manipulate text rather
than numbers, are not usually referred to as data processing applications.

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8.6.3 Processing

Basically, data are nothing but facts (organized or unorganized) which can be converted
into other forms to make it useful, clear and practically used. This process of converting
facts to information is processing. Practically all naturally occurring processes can be
viewed as examples of data processing systems where "observable" information in the
form of pressure, light, etc. are converted by human observers into electrical signals in the
nervous system as the senses we recognize as touch, sound, and vision. Even the
interaction of non-living systems may be viewed in this way as rudimentary information
processing system. Conventional usage of the terms data processing and information
systems restricts their use to refer to the algorithmic derivations, logical deductions, and
statistical calculations that recur perennially in general business environments, rather
than in the more expansive sense of all conversions of real-world measurements into real-
world information in, say, an organic biological system or even a scientific or engineering
system.

8.6.3.1 Commercial Data Processing

Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively few
computational operations, and a large volume of output.

8.6.3.2 Elements of Data Processing

In order to be processed by a computer, data needs first be converted into a machine

readable format. Once data are in digital format, various procedures can be applied on the
data to get useful information. Data processing may involve various processes, including:

Processing of data requires advance planning at the stage of planning the research design.
This advance planning may covey such aspects as categorization of variables and
preparation of dummy tables. This should be done with reference to the requirements of
testing hypotheses/investigative questions. This type of preplanning ensures better
identification of data needs and their adequate coverage in the tools for collection of data.
Data processing consists of a number of closely related operations, viz.

i) Editing
ii) Classification and coding
iii) Transcription
iv) Tabulation.

8.7 Editing
The first step in processing of data is editing of complete schedules/questionnaires.
Editing is a process of checking to detect and or correct errors and omissions. Editing is
done at two stages: first at the fieldwork stage and second at office.

i) Field Editing
ii) Office Editing

All completed schedules/questionnaires should be thoroughly checked in the office for

Completeness, accuracy and Uniformity.

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8.8 Classification and Coding

8.8.1 Coding

Coding means assigning numerals or other symbols to the categories or responses. For
each question a coding scheme is designed on the basis of the con med categories. The
coding schemes with their assigned symbols together with specific coding instructions
may be assembled in a book. The codebook will identify a specific item of
variable/observation and the code number assigned to each category of that item. If the
data are to be transferred to machine punch cards, the codebook will also identify the
column in which it is entered.

8.8.2 Categorization and Classification

The edited data are classified and coded. The responses are classified into meaningful
categories so as to bring out essential pattern. By this method, several hundred responses
are reduced to five or six appropriate categories containing critical information needed
for analysis.

8.8.3 Editing and Classification

Classification can be done at any phase prior to the tabulation. Certain items like sex, age,
type of house, and the like are structured and pre classified in the data collection form
itself. The responses to open-ended questions are classified at the processing stage.

8.8.4 Categorization Rules

A classification system should meet certain requirements or be guided by certain rules.

First, classification should be linked to the theory and the aim of the particular study.

Second, the scheme should be exhaustive. That is, there must be a category for every
response. Third, the categories must also be mutually exclusive, so that each case is
classified only once.

8.8.5 Categorization and coding

How many categories should a scheme include? It is preferable to include many categories
rather than a few, since reducing the number later is easier than splitting an already
classified group of responses. However, the number of categories is-limited by the number
of cases and the anticipated statistical analysis.

8.9 Transcription

When only a few schedules are processed and hand-tabulated, tabulation can directly be
made from the schedules. On the other hand, direct tabulation from the edited schedules/
questionnaires is difficult if the number of the schedules and the number of responses in
them are large/ suppose an interview schedule contains 180 responses requiring

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tabulation and 210 simple and cross tables are to be constructed, each schedule has to be
handled at least 210 for tabulation. This will result in mutilation of the schedule, and.
omissions and commissions may easily occur in tabulation. In order to avoid these
drawbacks, data contained in schedules/questionnaires are transferred to another
material for the purpose of tabulation. This intermediary process is called 'transcription.

8.10 Importance of Computerized Data

i) Information empower
ii) Accessibility to information
iii) Edify, coding/tabulation.
iv) Information presentation
v) Storage elective storage

8.11 Advantages of Electronic Storage

i) It is extensible
ii) It is easy to distribute
iii) It is easy to interchange option
iv) It has low volume.

8.12 Computer Assist Researchers In The Following Areas

1. Knowledge Identification
Refers to checking the availability of knowledge. Knowledge identification may be
fostered through borrowing different research works.

2. Access to Comprehensive Data

Computer circuit research is locating information and knowledge resources in addition
they provide free access to various and knowledge of the enhance knowledge use.

3. Knowledge Generation
Most comps programmers can be used to generate new knowledge. May support to
elaboration of existing knowledge.

4. Knowledge Evaluation
Computer us enable a researcher to compare various ideas from different sources.
Researcher may also compare their ideas with an expat knowledge on the same data can
also be analyses electricity.

5. Knowledge Representation
Computer based tools provides functional for representations of knowledge. When
graphs, tables are used for representations individual knowledge they fear as cognitive
tools to augment capital of human memory.

6. Knowledge Maintenance

This is to be a control need for people using the World Wide Web for resource based
learning of problem solving.

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7. Data Storage
In order to cope effectively with the growing amount of the capacity of knowledge and
knowledge reforce in many domains there is a new for effectively organism of information

8. Computer also curt in the collection of structured data items.

8.13 Data Processing Operations

1. Recording - refers to the transfer of data into some form or document. It relates to the
documentation of intermediate figures and facts resulting from calculations.
2. Verifying - refers to the careful checking of the recorded data for any errors.
3. Duplicating - refers to the reproduction of the data into many forms or documents.
4. Classifying - refers to identifying and arranging items with like characteristics into
groups or classes.
5. Sorting - refers to arranging or rearranging data in a predetermined sequence to
facilitate processing. Sorting is done in alphabetic or a numeric order.
6. Calculating - refers to arithmetic manipulation of the data.
7. Summarizing and Reporting - it is here where a collection of data is condensed and
certain conclusions from the data are represented in a meaningful format that is clear,
concise and effective.
8. Merging - this operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by
the same key, and puts them together to form a single sorted set of data.
9. Storing - refers to placing similar data into files for future reference
10. Retrieving - refers to recovering stored data and/or information when needed.
11. Feedback - refers to the comparison of the output(s) and the goal set in advance, any
discrepancy is analyzed, corrected, and fed back to proper stage in the processing
operation.

Review Questions

i) Explain the basic concept of hypotheses testing

ii) Explain the steps used in hypothesis testing
iii) Asses the levels of significance
iv) Discuss the T-test, F-test and the Chi Square tests
v) Asses the importance of computerized data

References for Further Reading

i) Wisker, G. (2001), The Post Graduate Research Handbook , Palgrave Macmillan London
ii) Sekaran.U, (2006), Research Methods for Business: A Skilled Building Approach, 4th
Edition

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CHAPTER NINE
REPORT WRITING

Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter the learner should be able to;

o Understand the research format
o Know how to disseminate the report

9.0 Research Report Format

The research format may differ slightly among institutions but there is a high degree of
consensus on the format. In some institutions the conceptual framework is in chapter one
while in others it is in chapter two. Other institutions have references as chapter six while
other don’t have chapter six. A typical research report format will have the following;

9.1.1 Preliminary Pages

The preliminary pages are usually numbered in roman numbers but the title page is not
given any number

1. Cover Page/Title Page – contains the title/topic of research, name of student, sponsor
and year
2. Declaration – This is the declaration by the student, supervisor and sponsor
3. Dedication - Dedication should be brief and usually limited to the family
4. Acknowledgement – Acknowledge all those that made your research possible in one or
two paragraphs

5. Abstract – This is a summary of your report and it should include

a) General objective
b) Specific objectives
c) Research design
d) Target population
e) Sampling technique
f) Sample size
g) Data collection methods
h) Data analysis methods
i) Findings
j) Recommendations

6. Table of Contents
7. List of Tables
8. List of Figures
9. Abbreviations/Acronyms
10. Definition of Terms

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9.1.2 CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

This section introduces to the reader of what to expect in that chapter and should be very
brief eg This chapter deals with background of the study, statement of the problem,
research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, limitations of the study
and scope of the study

1.2 Background of the Study

This section introduces us to the study in relation to the title. Introduction to background
should give an insight of the global trend and the narrowing/cascading down to the local
trend. This should be about two pages. In the background we include the profile of the
study as 1.2.1

1.3 Statement of the Problem

A problem is a felt need, a question thrown forward for a solution, a deviation from what
is known and what is desired to be known. . A research problem refers to an issue or
concern that puzzles the researcher. It is a concern that may result in the formulation of
research questions. A research problem can also be viewed as an opportunity

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

This is usually the same as the title e.g. the main objective of this study was to determine
the factors influencing the supply of Oil in Kenya with reference National oil Cooperation
of Kenya.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

These are based on variables chosen from the problem. The specific objectives must be
SMART eg;

i) To ascertain the effects of infrastructure on the supply of oil in Kenya.

ii) To determine the effects of foreign exchange on the supply of oil in Kenya
iii) To establish the effects of governance on the supply of oil in Kenya
iv) To identify the extent to which refinery capacity affects the supply of oil in Kenya

1.5 Research Questions

Research questions are questions that the researcher asks such that if answered then the
research problem will be answered. They are usually open questions eg

i) To what extent does infrastructure affect the supply of oil in Kenya?

ii) What is the effect of foreign exchange on the supply of oil in Kenya?
iii) How does governance affect the supply of oil in Kenya?

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iv) To what extent does refinery capacity affect the supply of oil in Kenya?

1.6 Significance/Importance of the Study

Here we need to know who is going to benefit from your study eg the organization, other
researchers, the Government of Kenya etc
1.7 Limitations of the Study

State the factors that hindered you from achieving your goals and how you overcame
them eg Non Cooperation, Bureaucracy, Confidentiality, etc

1.8 Scope of the Study

This is the scope in terms of content scope, geographical scope and time scope

9.1.3 CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Explain to the readers what to expect in the chapter

2.2 Review of Theoretical Literature

This covers literature by other authors based on your variables. Only the variable in the
title and objectives should be discussed. Each variable should be discussed in about 3 – 4
pages from different authors. Literature review should be done in continuous prose and
every paragraph must have a source

2.3 Critical Review

Tell us what other authors have said, what you think they have not said and how you will
fill the gap left by the authors. Do not criticize but only critique. Depending on the report
can be limited to a paragraph for each variable eg According to Agboola (2001) use of ICT
has influenced the content and quality of banking operations. He argues that, ICT presents
great potential for business process reengineering of Banks. Investment in information
and communication technology should form an important component in the overall
strategy of banking operators to ensure effective performance. It is imperative for bank
management to intensify investment in ICT products to facilitate speed, convenience, and
accurate services, or otherwise lose out to their competitors. Whereas this is true, the
author does not tell us how competition affects the use of ICT in the banking sector. This
study therefore intends to find out how competition affects the use of ICT in the banking
sector in Kenya

2.4 Summary

Here we can have summary of any literature that you feel is important from the 3-4 pages
of your literature review. Cover the entire variable in precisely in a paragraph for each
variable

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2.5 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is defined as <a set of broad ideas and principles taken from
relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation= (Reichel and
Ramney, 1987). It explains either graphically or in narrative form the main dimensions
being studied, or the presumed relationships among them. It is a framework showing the
relationship between the independent variables and the dependant variable eg

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework

Source: Author (2013)

Since this is own conceptualization the relationship between the independent variables
and the dependent variable must be interpreted.

9.1.4 CHAPTER THREE – RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Introduce to the readers what to expect in the chapter

3.2 Research Design

Indicate the research design to be used and support it with a relevant authority who has
justified the use of that design. The design must be suitable for your study

3.3 Target Population

Research population, according to Mugenda and Mugenda (2008) refers to entire group of
individuals, event or object having a common characteristic or attributes. Babbie (1975)
defines population as the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements. Target

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population is the complete unit of study interest. It is better understood by the use of a
table eg

3.4 Sampling Technique

Sampling technique is the process of selecting a number of individuals or objects from a

population such that the selected group contains element representative of the
charactherics found in the entire group (Orotho 2002). Sometimes when the population is
too large a sample can be used. If the population is small a census can be used. The
technique of sampling should be based on your research and support it with a relevant
authority who justifies its use. A table can be used eg

3.5 Data Collection Methods

Here indicate the methods/instruments used for data collection justifying the use of each
method. Support the use by citing relevant authorities

3.6 Data Analysis Methods

Indicate the methods used to analyze your data. This will largely depend on the
instrument used for data collection. Also indicate how data will be presented and justify
both analysis and presentation methods

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9.1.5 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction
Introduce what the chapter contains

4.2 Presentation of Findings

Quantitative data is analysed in form of tables and presented in figures (pie charts, graphs,
etc) and the interpretation is done. All questions asked in the questionnaire must be
analysed.

4.3 Summary of Data Analysis

The qualitative data is analyzed in narrative form

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

Introduce the reader what is to be expected in the chapter

5.2 Answers to Research Questions

State the research questions as they are in chapter one (1.5) and answer them using the
extent or rating questions

5.3 Conclusions

Conclude as per the variables preferably a paragraph for each

5.4 Recommendations

Recommend on each variable based on your findings

5.5 Suggestion for Further Studies

It is assumed that your research is not conclusive. Even from your limitations and scope it
may show that you did not cover all the areas necessary to make your research conclusive.
This necessitates that you suggest areas where other researchers can do research to
supplement your research

9.2 Dissemination of Research Findings

The length, style and content is very important is dissemination of a report. The target
group has to be considered when preparing a report. All the interested parties should get
the report. The cost of dissemination must also be considered. Ensure that there is free
access of information both on the research being conducted and on the findings of the
research

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Review Questions

i) Asses the process of preparing a research report

ii) Explain the process of disseminating a research report

References for Further Reading

i) Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines
Publications Africa, Nairobi
ii) Philip, J.S. and Pugh, M.T. (1994). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, Light
Publishers, New Delhi

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CHAPTER TEN
ISSUES IN RESEARCH

Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter the learner should be able to;

o Know the ethical issues in research
o Understand plagiarism
o Know the problems encountered in research
o Give recommendations
o Do the required referencing

10.0 Ethical Considerations in Research

Marketing research involves the voluntary participation and trust of your participants. It
is your ethical responsibility as a marketing researcher to treat your subjects with dignity
and avoid violating this trust.

1. Privacy

Protect the privacy of the customers who agree to provide you with data for your
marketing research. Do not disclose this information to any members of your staff who do
not need to know it, and don't ever sell information gathered through marketing research
to other companies without the express permission of your participants. If you do need to
reveal the identity of your research participants for any reason, let them know beforehand
so they can provide informed consent.

2 .Clear Objectives

When conducting ethically sound business research, your subjects should have a clear
idea of your research intentions.

3. Consent

Customers who participate in your company's marketing research should know that they
are doing so. It is unethical to film customers making purchasing choices and then review
these films for clues about purchasing behavior unless your customers know that you are
filming them, and consent to the process. Although gathering this type of consent may
change the data you receive because subjects may behave differently if they know they are
being observed, failure to do so is a violation of their rights.

4. Third-party Obligations

If you are conducting marketing research as a third party, such as an independent

consultant, it is your ethical obligation to provide honest, objective data based on carefully
crafted questions. Phrase your survey in order to provide honest, accurate answers rather
than trying to extract information as easily as possible. Choose a subject group that will
provide the most useful, relevant information for the company that hired you, rather than
simply working with a group because they are easy to interview.

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5. It is unethical to interview children without their parents’ permission

6. It is unethical to intelligently collect data for another company
7. It is unethical to make recommendations beyond your study
8. It is also unethical to publish the report if the source of the data says you shouldn’t
publish it

10.2 Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the presentation of someone else’s ideas or words as your own. Whether
deliberate or accidental plagiarism is a serious and punishable offence in research.
Students found guilty of plagiarism fail in research project and may be disqualified from
pursuing their career. Deliberate or accidental plagiarism occurs when a writers draw
words, phrases or passages from other people’s work and present them verbatim as their
own work without providing complete documentation or source citation

10.2.1 Deliberate Plagiarism

i) Copying or downloading someone else’s work and passing it off as your own without
proper source citation
ii) Handing in as your work, a paper you have bought, had a friend write or copied from
another student
iii) Summarizing or paraphrasing someone else’s ideas without acknowledgement in a
source citation

10.2.2 Accidental Plagiarism

i) Forgetting to put quotation marks around another writer’s words
ii) Omitting a source citation for someone else’s ideas without acknowledgement in a
source citation

To avoid plagiarism the researcher should always acknowledge other people’s ideas that
are not common knowledge

10.3 Problems Encountered In Implementation of Research

1. Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research.

2. Lack of competent researchers
3. Attitude towards research
4. Copying of data - Some researchers merely copy other international studies or studies
which have been done by researchers/students of other universities. This is a crime and
should not be promoted.
5. Manipulation of data - Every researcher tries or does one or the other kinds of
manipulation of data. This never reveals the reality
6. Lack of availability or access to literature needed - This is a major problem faced
during the literature review. The lack of availability of access to Internet, ignorance of the
way to search needed articles from journals and other databases are other problems.

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7. Lack of confidence to take up a new study especially exploration stud The fear of the
result and fear of not able to answer questions during presentations.
8. Unavailability of permission to do research
9. In specific business establishments usually don’t allow third party inside to conduct
research. This may be due to security reasons or may be due to lack of confidence in
keeping the confidentiality of the data or names.
10. Publishing may be expensive Research
11. Study once it is completed, the further step will be the publishing of the same. Printing
and binding may turn to be expensive.

10.4 Recommendations

i) Informed consent - Essentially, this means that prospective research participants must
be fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in research and must give their
consent to participate.
ii) Guarantee confidentiality - They are assured that identifying information will not be
made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. rights to equal access
to services are being curtailed
iii) Training - Researchers should be trained in order to carry research in more cope-tent
way
iv) Provide with literature
v) Provide with funds

10.5 Reference List

In research the term <reference= applies to materials that have been referred to or quoted
in the study. The reference list is usually at the end of the project report or term paper.
The reference list provides the information necessary to identify and retrieve each source.
Researchers should choose references judiciously and must include only the sources that
were used in the preparation of the research project
References cited in the text must appear in the reference list. Conversely, each entry in the
reference list must be cited in the text. The author must make sure that each source
referenced appears in both places and that the text citation and referene list entry are
identical.

10.5.1 Reference List Format and Order

i) The reference list format should provide the surname, initials, year of publication
(in bracket), title, edition, publisher and place of publish
ii) The list should be in alphabetical order
iii) Indent 2nd line
iv) Begin with books then journals and magazines

Examples
Ateka, C. (2013), Research Methodology and Design, 1st Edition, Mount Kenya Publishers,
Thika - Kenya

Kamau, J. & Onyango, T. (2007), Referencing in Rersearch, 2nd Edtition, Longonot

Publishers, Nairobi-Kenya

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Mutiso, O.K. & Kiptoo S.C. (2002), Understanding Basics of Research, 3rd Edition, Konza
Publishers, Machakos-Kenya

Oresi, S.N., Onchoke S.N. & Ombuna, G.N. (2004), Research Made Easy, 1st Edition, Onchoke
Publishers, Nairobi-Kenya

Vicky, O.K, Nyabuku, N.M. & Matundra, P.B. (2006), The History of Research, 5th Edition,
Sakawa Publishers, Kisii-Kenya

Zaituni, X.M., (2012), Choosing a Resaerch Design, 1st Edition, Mshenangu Publishers and
Printers, Mombasa-Kenya

Review Questions

i) Explain the ethical issues considered in research

ii) Explain what you understand by plagiarism
iii) Discuss the factors that must be considered when making recommendations
iv) Asses the styles of referencing

References for Further Reading

i) Mugenda, O.M. and Mugenda, A.G. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches, Acts Press, Nairobi
ii) Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines
Publications Africa, Nairobi

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REFERENCES

Orodho, A.J. and Kombo, D.K. (2002). Research Methods, Kenyatta University, Institute of
Open Learning, Nairobi

Philip, J.S. and Pugh, M.T. (1994). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, Light
Publishers, New Delhi

Patten, M.L. (2002). Understanding Research Methods: An Overview of the Essentials,

3rd Edition, Pyrczak Publishing, Los Angels

Cooper, D, R and Schindler P, M (2011), Business Research Methods, 11th Edition, McGraw-
Hill International Edition, New Delhi.

Kombo, D.K. and Tromp, D.L.A. (2006), Proposal and Thesis Writing, Paulines Publications
Africa, Nairobi

Mugenda, O.M. and Mugenda, A.G. (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches, Acts Press, Nairobi

Bliss, O., Monk, M.M. and Ogborn (1983). Questionnaire Construction and Question Writing
for Research, Sterling Press, Western Cape

Jonathan, (2004), The Foundation of Research, Palgrave Macmillan, London Collis, J.

(2004), Business Research, 2nd Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, London.

Kothari, C.R. (1997).Research methodology, Methods and Techniques, 2nd edition

Wisker, G. (2001), The Post Graduate Research Handbook , Palgrave Macmillan London

Sekaran.U, (2006), Research Methods for Business: A Skilled Building Approach, 4th
Edition

Saunders, P, Lewis.P and Thornhil.A.(2009), Research Methods for business students, 5th
Edition, Pearson Education Limited

Wisker, Gina, The post graduate Research Handbook (2001), Palgrave Macmillan London.

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