Chapter 1

Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

Introduction
In the Cartesian coordinate system, we only need to have the values for x and y to graph the
equations. However, in certain phenomenon such as in freely falling object, the path of the object
can be fully described based on the vertical and horizontal components. These two components
are described as a function of time t that gives us the parametric equations. Parametric equations
have a long history in mathematics, and one of them is on the usage of parameters as a procedure
to draw a range of crystals and provision variations (Dana, 1837).
A polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system with the position of the
point can be determined based on the distance or radius from the origin and angle from the
reference axis. In many common polar coordinate system, the angle is measured in the anti-
clockwise direction. A lot of physical systems such as concerning with phenomenon originated
from a centre point or bodies moving around a centre point are much simpler to model using a
polar coordinate system rather than the Cartesian coordinate system.
In this chapter, we will learn on parametric equations and polar coordinates, with including
the definition of parametric equations, tangent lines and arc length for parametric equations, polar
coordinate system, the graph of polar equations, tangent lines and arc length for polar curves.

1.1 Parametric Equations

There are many curves that we cannot write down in terms of x and y as a single equation. The
parametric equation can deal with some of these issues. Now let us have a look at the definition of
parametric equations.

Definition 1.1: Let x and y are given as functions x = f(t) and y = g(t) over an interval of t values.
The set of points (x,y) = (f(t), g(t)) is called as a parametric curve. The equations x = f(t) and
y = g(t) are parametric equations for the curve. The variable t is called the parameter for the curve.
The domain of t is the parameter interval. If the domain is a closed interval a  t  b , the point
(f(a), g(a)) is called the initial point, and the point (f(b), g(b)) is called the terminal point.
Example 1.1 Sketch and identify the curve defined by parametric equations
x = t2 + t , y = 2t − 1 , −1  t  2
Solution

We begin by letting t be the parameter for determining the values of x and y. Table 1.1 shows the

values of x and y corresponding to t   −1, 2 .

Table 1.1: Values of x and y for t   −1, 2

t x y
-1 0 -3
-0.5 - -2
0.25
0 0 -1
0.5 0.75 0
1 2 1
1.5 3.75 2
2 6 3

The points (x, y) are plotted and by joining them together, producing a curve as shown in Figure
1.1.
 Figure 1.1: A parabola defined by x = t + t , y = 2t − 1 , −1  t  2
2

A particle defined by the parametric equation moves along the curve in the direction of increasing

t, which starts at the initial point (0,−3) and ends at the terminal point ( 6 ,3) . The curve traced
out by the particle looks like a parabola. We can confirm by eliminating the parameter t.

1
t= ( y + 1)
From equation y = 2t − 1, we obtain 2 , and substitute it in x = t 2 + t . We have
2
1  1 1 3
x =  ( y + 1) + ( y + 1) = y 2 + y +
2  2 4 4.
Thus, the curve in the parametric form represents a parabola open to the right with rectangular
1 3
x = y2 + y +
equation 4 4.

Eliminating the parameter

We may have a pair of parametric equations in certain situations, but we find that it is easier to
draw a curve if only two variables x and y involved. Eliminating the parameter is a technique that
transform the parametric equations to rectangular equations, which make the graphing of certain
curves more easier.

Example 1.2 Let C is a curve with x = t + 1 , y = 4 − t and − 3  t  3 . Sketch the curve C and
2

indicate the direction of increasing t by eliminating the parameter.

Solution

Table 1.2 shows the values of x and y for

t   −3,3 .

Table 1.2: Values of x and y for each t

t x y
-3 -2 -5
-2 -1 0
-1 0 3
0 1 4
1 2 3
2 3 0
3 4 -5
From equation x = t + 1 , we obtain t = x − 1, and substitute it in y = 4 − t 2 . We have
y = 4 − (x − 1) = − x 2 + 2 x + 3 .
2

Thus, the curve in the parametric form represents a parabola opens down with rectangular equation
y = − x 2 + 2x + 3 as shown in Figure 1.2. The parabola starts at the initial point (− 2,−5) and ends
at the terminal point (4,−5) .

●
● ●

● ●

● ●

Figure 1.2: A parabola defined by x = t + 1 , y = 4 − t 2 and − 3  t  3

Example 1.3 Given a curve C with the parametric equation x = cos t , y = sin t and 0  t  2 .
Find the rectangular equation for C by eliminating the parameter. Then, sketch the curve C and
indicate the direction of increasing t.

Solution

To eliminate the parameter for equations in trigonometric functions involved the usage of
trigonometric identities.

First, solve for cost and sint , we obtain

cost = x and sint = y .

Substitute in the trigonometric identity cos t + sin t = 1 , we have

2 2

x2 + y 2 = 1
Thus, the parametric equations represent a unit circle. The circle starts at the initial point (1,0 )
and ends at the same point as shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: A circle defined by x = cos t , y = sin t and 0  t  2

Exercise 1.1

Sketch the curve of the given parametric equations. Indicate the direction in which the curve is
traced as the parameter increases. Eliminate the parameter to find a rectangular equation of the
curve.

x = 2t , y = t , − 5  t  5
2
(a) (b) x = 1− t 2 , y = t − 2, − 2  t  2
(c) x = 3 − 4t , y = 2 − 3t , − 1  t  2 (d) x = 3cost , y = 3sint , 0  t  2

(e) x = 5 cos t , y = 2 sin t , 0  t  2

1.2 Tangent Lines and Arc Length for Parametric

Curves
In this section, we will discuss the procedures to determine the slopes, tangent lines and arc lengths
for parametric curves.

Tangent lines

We start with finding the slope of tangent lines for parametric curves x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) where x and
y are differentiable functions of t. By using the Chain Rule, we have
dy dy dx
= .
dt dx dt .
dy
dy dt
=
dx dx dx
0
If dt , then dt .

dy dx
=0 =0
The curve has a horizontal tangent when dt , and it has a vertical tangent when dt .

The second derivative can be obtained by differentiating the first derivative as follows:
d  dy 
2  
d y d  dy  dt  dx 
=  =
dx 2 dx  dx  dx
dt .

Example 1.4 Given a curve with parametric equation x = 3 cos t and y = 3 sin t .


t=
a) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at 4.
 d2y
2
b) Find dx .

Solution

dx dy
= −3sint = 3cost
a) We have dt and dt , and thus

dy
dy dt 3 cos t
= = = − cot t
dx dx − 3 sin t
dt .


t=
When 4 , we have
  3 2   3 2
x = 3 cos  = y = 3 sin   =
4 2 , 4 2

dy  
= − cot  = −1
and dx 4 .

Thus, the slope of the tangent line is − 1and its equation is y = 3 2 − x .

d2y
2
b) To find dx , first compute
d  dy  d
  = ( −cot t ) = csc t
2

dt  dx  dt .

Therefore,
d  dy 
d y dt  dx  csc2t
2
1
= = = − csc3t.
dx 2
dx −3sin t 3
dt

Arc length

If a curve C is described parametrically with x = f (t ) , y = g (t ) ,   t   , whereby f  and g  are

continuous for      , and C is traversed exactly once as t increases from  to  , then the arc
length L of curve C is given as
  2 2
 dx   dy 
L =    +   dt
  dt   dt 

Example 1.5 Find the arc length for the parametric curve x = 4cos t and y = 4 sin t with
0  t  2 .

Solution

dx dy
= −4sint = 4cost
We have dt and dt , and thus the arc length of the curve is given as

2 2 2
 dx   dy 
L= 
0
  +   dt
 dt   dt 

2 2 2

 (− 4 sin t ) + (4 cos t ) dt =  16 sin 2 t + 16 cos2 t dt =  4dt = 8

2 2
=
0 0 0 .

Exercise 1.2

1. Find the tangent line to the curve at the given point.


t=
a) x = t − 2 sin t , y = 2 − cos t , 2
−t
b) x = et , y = e , t = 2
cos 2t 
x= t=
c) 2 , y = sin t , 4

d) x = t + t2 , y = t3 − t2 , t = 1
x = 2t − 1 , y = t , t = 3
2
e)

2. Find the arc length of the curve.

3 4
0t
a) x=t, y =t , 2
3
 
t 
b) x = cos t + t sin t , y = sin t − t cos t , 6 4
1 2 1 3
x= t y = (6t + 9) 2
c) 2 , 9 , 0t 4

d) x = 1 + 3t 2 , y = 4 + 2t 3 , 0  t  1
 e) x = e t cos t , y = et sin t , 0  t  

1.3 Polar Coordinate Systems

Some graphs have complicated equations if we represent them in Cartesian coordinates. For
example, the Cartesian equation of the families of rose curves in Figure 1.4 is given as
  y 
x 2 + y 2 = 9 sin 2 4 tan −1  
  x  . Similarly, the Cartesian equation of the families of cardioids in
2 2 2
(
2
)
Figure 1.5 can be written as x + y = 4 x + y − y . However, the equation of the graphs can
be written in a natural way based on its distance and direction from the origin or its polar

coordinates. The polar equations for Figures 1.4 and 1.5 are r = 3sin 4 and r = 4 (1 − sin  )
respectively. Thus, this topic presents the definition of polar coordinates system, the relationship
of polar coordinates and Cartesian coordinates, and graphing polar equations.

Figure 1.4: Family of rose curves with polar equation r = 3sin 4

 Figure 1.5: Family of cardioids with polar equation r = 4 (1 − sin  )

Definition 1.2: A polar coordinate system in a plane consists of a fixed point O called the pole (or
origin) and a ray starting from the pole, called the polar axis.

Figure 1.6 illustrates the pole O, the ray OP and polar axis.

θ
o x
polar axis

Figure 1.6: Polar coordinate P(r ,  )

Each point P in the polar coordinate system is a pair of polar coordinates (r, θ), where r is the
distance from P to the pole, and θ is an angle from the polar axis to the ray OP. r is called the
radial coordinate of P, and θ is called the angular coordinate or polar angle.

If P is at the pole O, then r = 0, and point (0, θ) represents the pole for any value of θ. Furthermore,
the angle is positive if it is measured in the anti-clockwise direction from the polar axis, and
negative if it is measured in the clockwise direction from the polar axis.

Example 1.6 Plot the points of the following polar coordinates:

a) (3, 60o) b) (4, 210o)

o
c) (2, –45 ) d) (3, –120o)

Solution
a) The point is located three units from the pole and makes an angle 600 in an anti-clockwise
direction from the polar axis as shown in Figure 1.7.

o
•(3, 60 )

60o

O
Figure 1.7: Coordinate (3, 60o)

b) The point is located four units from the pole and makes an angle 2100 in an anti-clockwise
direction from the polar axis as shown in Figure 1.8.

2100

•o

(4,•210o)
Figure 1.8: Coordinate (4, 210o)

c) The point is located two units from the pole and makes an angle 450 in a clockwise direction
from the polar axis as shown in Figure 1.9.

o
450

•(2, –45o)
Figure 1.9: Coordinate (2, –45o)

d) The point is located three units from the pole and makes an angle 1200 in a clockwise
direction from the polar axis as shown in Figure 1.10.

1200
 Figure 1.10: Coordinate (3, –120o)

Figure 1.11 shows the coordinates (–r, θ) and (r, θ) lie on the same line through O and at the same
distance | r | from O, but on the opposite sides of O.

•(r, θ)
θ+π
θ
•o
•
(‒r, θ)

Figure 1.11: Coordinates (r ,  ) and (− r ,  )

Figure 1.11 shows that if r is positive, the point will be located in the same quadrant as 𝜃. However,
if r is negative, the point will be located in the quadrant on the opposite side of 𝜃.

Example 1.7

Figure 1.12 shows the coordinate of (

−3,1200 )
. The point is located three units from the pole in
the fourth quadrant since the angle 120o falls in the second quadrant and r is negative.

1200

•
 Figure 1.12: Coordinate ( −3,120 )
0

Note that the coordinate ( −3,120 ) describes the same point as the coordinates ( 3,300 ) , ( 3, −60 )
0 0 0

and ( −3, −240 ) .

0
Thus, the four coordinates represent the same point which are

( 3,300 ) = ( 3, −60 ) = ( −3,120 ) = ( −3, −240 ) .

0 0 0 0

Relationship between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

To convert between polar and rectangular coordinates, assume the polar axis coordinate coincides
with the positive x-axis and the pole with the origin. Therefore, every point P can have both
rectangular coordinates (x,y) and polar coordinates (r,𝜃) as shown in Figure 1.13.

P(r,)

r y

O x
Figure 1.13: Relationship between polar and rectangular coordinate

Based on Figure 1.13, the two coordinates are related by the equations

x = r cos , y = r sin  (1)

 sin 
tan  =
By using the trigonometric identities sin  + cos  = 1 and
2 2
cos  , we can find r and 𝜃 if
given x and y, via these equations

y
r 2 = x2 + y 2 , tan  =
x (2)

 2 
 3, 
Example 1.8 Convert the point  3  from polar to rectangular coordinates.

Solution

2
=
Since the polar coordinates r = 3 and 3 , Equation (1) produces
 2   1 3
x = 3cos   = 3 −  = −
 3   2 2,
 2   3  3 3
y = 3sin   = 3   =
 3   2  2
.

 2 
 3 3 3
 3,  − , 
 2 2 
Thus, the rectangular coordinates of  3  are  .

( )
Example 1.9 Convert the point 3,−3 3 from rectangular to polar coordinates.

Solution

( )
The point 3,−3 3 lies in the fourth quadrant. From Equation (2), we can find the polar
coordinates (r,𝜃) as

r= x 2 + y 2 = 32 + − 3 3 ( )
2
= 6,

 y
 = tan −1   = tan −1 − 3 ( )
x .
 (3,−3 3 ) lies in the fourth quadrant, we can choose the angle as  = − 3 or

Since the point
   5 
( )
5  6,−   6, 
= 3,−3 3 are either 
3 . Thus, the polar coordinates of 3  or  3  .

Exercise 1.3

1. Plot the point with the given polar coordinates and find their rectangular coordinates.

   
 6,   4,− 
a)  3 b)  6
 
c) (5,−150 )
d)
 − 2, 
 6
 
 − 4,− 
e)  3 f) (− 2,− )

2. Find the polar coordinates (r ,  ) of the given points.

a) (2,−2 3) with r > 0 and 0    2 .

b) (− 3,1) with r < 0.
 2 
 − ,−2 
c)  3  with r < 0 and 0    2 .

d) (− 2,2 3 ) with r > 0 and   0 .

e) (− 1, 3) with r < 0 and 0    2 .

1.4 Graph of Polar Equations

In the previous section, we have learnt how to plot points in polar coordinates (r, θ). The graph of
the polar equation consists of all points whose polar coordinates (r, θ) satisfy the equation. For
graphing the polar equation, we choose an angle  and calculate the equation to determine its
corresponding value of r.
Example 1.10 Sketch the graph of r = 4 sin  in polar coordinates.

Solution


The coordinates of the point on the graph in the increments of 6 are shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Coordinates of point of r = 4 sin 

 2 3 5 3 5

0     7 4 11
2
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 6 3 2 3 6
r 0 2 4 2 0 -2 -4 -2 0
2 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 −2 3 −2 3

These points are plotted in Figure 1.14. The pairs from  =  onwards yield duplicates of the
 7   
 − 2,   2, 
preceding points for eg:  6  and  6  represent the same point. Thus, only 8 distinct
points are plotted although there are 15 points listed in Table 1.3.

● ●

● ●

● ●

Figure 1.14: r = 4 sin  is a circle with radius 2 and center at (0,2)

Symmetry Test

The polar graph of r = 4 sin  in Figure 1.14 is symmetric about the y-axis. Some polar graphs are
symmetric about the x-axis, and some are symmetric about both x-axis and y-axis. The following
theorem presents the symmetry test for polar graphs.

Theorem 1.1

i) A polar graph is symmetric about the x-axis if substitution of  by −  leads to an

equivalent equation.
ii) A polar graph is symmetric about the y-axis if substitution of  by  −  leads to an
equivalent equation.
iii) A polar graph is symmetric about the origin if substitution of  by  +  , or by substitution
of r by − r leads to an equivalent equation.

Example 1.11 Sketch the graph of r = 2 + 4 cos in polar coordinates.

Solution

First, we test whether the graph is symmetric about the x-axis.

Let r ( ) = 2 + 4 cos .
r (−  ) = 2 + 4 cos(−  ) = 2 + 4 cos  = r ( )
The graph is symmetric about the x-axis.

Thus, it is enough to sketch the graph for  between 0 and .

Next, we test whether the graph is symmetric about the y-axis.
r ( −  ) = 2 + 4 cos( −  )

= 2 + 4cos  cos  + sin  sin  

= 2 − 4 cos
 r ( )
The graph is not symmetric about the y-axis.
Since the graph is symmetric about the x-axis, sketch the graph of r ( ) for  between 0 and  ,
and use symmetry to complete the graph. Table 1.4 shows the coordinates of point on the graph
for 0     .

Table 1.4: Coordinates of point of r = 2 + 4 cos

0     2 3 5
 
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
r 6
2+2 3
4 2 0
2−2 3
-2
2+2 2 2−2 2

The graph of r = 2 + 4 cos is known as limacon and shown in Figure 1.15.

Figure 1.15: Graph of r = 2 + 4 cos

Families of lines, rays, circles, cardiods, limacons and rose curves are among general shapes in
polar equation. Learning to distinguish the formulas of these equations can be a guidance in sketching
the graphs.

Families of lines and rays

If 0 is a fixed angle, then for all values of r the point (r,0 ) lies on the line that makes an angle
 = 0 with the polar axis, as shown in Figure 1.16.
 Figure 1.16: Graph of  = 0

Example 1.12 Sketch the graphs of


 =
a) 3.

 =
b) 3 for r  0 .

Solution

  
 r, 
a) The point  3  lies on the line that makes an angle of 3 with the polar axis, as shown
in Figure 1.17. The positive values of r represent the points on the line in quadrant one,
while the negative values of r stand for the points on the line in quadrant three.


 =
Figure 1.17: Graph of 3

b) Since r is positive, the graph is just the ray in quadrant one, as shown in Figure 1.18.


 =
Figure 1.18: Graph of 3 with r  0
Families of circles

If r = a for any nonzero real number a, and  is any angle, the point (a ,  ) is a circle of radius a
with center at the pole, as shown in Figure 1.19.

Figure 1.19: Graph of r=a

The polar equations of r = 2a cos and r = 2a sin  are also circles with radius a . r = 2a cos has
a center at (a,0 ) while r = 2a sin  has a center at (0, a ) as shown in Figures 1.20 and 1.21
respectively.

Figure 1.20: Graph of r = 2a cos Figure 1.21: Graph of r = 2a sin 

Example 1.13 Sketch the graphs of

a) r =5 b) r = 5 cos c) r = 5 sin 

Solution
a) r = 5 is a circle with radius 5 and center at the pole, as shown in Figure 1.22.

(0,5)

o (5,0)

Figure 1.22: Graph of r = 5

5 5
5cos  = 2   cos  r = 2   cos 
b) Since 2 , we can write r = 5cos as 2 . If we compare it
5 5
a=
with the polar equation r = 2a cos , we obtain 2 , and it is a circle with radius 2 and has
5 
 ,0 
center at  2  , as shown in Figure 1.23.

Figure 1.23: Graph of r = 5 cos

5 5
5sin  = 2   sin  r = 2   sin 
c) It is obvious that 2 . Thus, we can write r = 5sin  as 2 . If
5
a=
we compare it with the polar equation r = 2a sin  , we obtain 2 , and it is a circle with radius

5  5
 0, 
2 and has center at  2  , as shown in Figure 1.24.
 Figure 1.24: Graph of r = 5 sin 

Families of cardiods and limacons

The graph of r = 2 + 4 cos in Figure 1.15 is a limacon with inner loop. Equations in any of the
following forms represent polar graph named as limacons.
r = a  b sin  , a> 0 and b>0 .
r = a  b cos , a> 0 and b>0 .

By using the symmetry test, the limacon with equation r = a  b cos is symmetrical about the x-
axis. Similarly, the limacon with equation r = a  b sin  is symmetrical about the y-axis.
a
=1
The ratio of a and b will determine the exact shape of the limaçons. For b , the limacon is known
a a
1 1  2
as cardioid (heart-shaped appearance), b is a limacon with inner loop, b is a dimpled
a
2
limacon and for b the limacon is known as convex limacon. Figure 1.25 shows the four
possible shapes for a limacon with r = a + b cos namely as convex limacon, dimpled limacon,
cardioid and limacon with inner loop. Figure 1.26 shows the four possible shapes of cardiods.

convex dimpled cardioid limacon with

limacon limacon inner loop

Figure 1.25: Graph of limacons with r = a + b cos

 Figure 1.26: Graph of four possible cardioids

Example 1.14 Sketch the graphs of r = 5 − 5 sin  .

Solution

a
=1
Since b , thus the graph has a shape of cardioid. The cardioid is symmetrical with y-axis and
most of the area is below the horizontal axis. To determine where the graph intersect with x and y-
 
−  
axis, we determine three coordinates of points on the graph for 2 2 , as shown in Table
1.5.
 
−  
Table 1.5: Coordinates of point of r = 5 − 5 sin  for 2 2
 0 
 −
2 2
r 10 0
5

Since the graph is symmetrical to the y-axis, thus we obtain the cardioid as shown in Figure 1.27.

Figure 1.27: A cardiod with r = 5 − 5 sin 

1
r= + cos
Example 1.15 Sketch the graph of 2 .

Solution
 a
1
Since b , thus the graph has a shape of limacon with inner loop. The limacon is symmetrical
with the x-axis and most of the area is on the right of the vertical axis. To determine where the
graph intersect with x and y-axis, we determine four coordinates of points on the graph for
0     , as shown in Table 1.6.

1
r= + cos
Table 1.6: Coordinates of point of 2
0  2
 
2 3
r 1.5 0.5 0 -0.5

Since the graph is symmetrical to the x-axis, thus we obtain the limacon as shown in Figure 1.28.

1
r= + cos
Figure 1.28: A limacon with inner loop and 2

Families of rose curves

Equations in the form of r = a sin n and r = a cos n , with a  0 and n is a positive integer
represent families of rose curves as the loops that are formed resemble petals (Figures 1.29 and 1.30).

The number of petals depends on the value of n. If n is even, the rose has 2n petals. If n is odd, the rose
has n petals. The value of a determines the length of the petals.

Figure 1.29: Families of rose curves r = a cos n

 Figure 1.30: Families of rose curves r = a sin n

Example 1.16 Sketch the graph of

a) r = 2 cos 2 b) r = 2 sin 2
c) r = 3 cos 5 d) r = 3sin 5

Solution

a) The graph has four petals, each petal has a length of two, and it follows the families of rose
curves r = a cos n , as shown in Figure 1.31.

Figure 1.31: Graph of r = 2 cos 2

b) The graph has four petals, each petal has a length of two, and it follows the families of rose
curves r = a sin n , as shown in Figure 1.32.

Figure 1.32: Graph of r = 2 sin 2

c) The graph has five petals, each petal has a length of three, and it follows the families of
rose curves r = a cos n , as shown in Figure 1.33.

Figure 1.33: Graph of r = 3 cos 5

c) The graph has five petals, each petal has a length of three, and it follows the families of
rose curves r = a sin n , as shown in Figure 1.34.

Figure 1.34: Graph of r = 3sin 5

Intersection of polar curves

In this section, we will discuss the procedure for determining the intersection points of polar
curves. First, we have to solve the equations of the curves simultaneously. However, in some
situations, the intersection at the pole or some other points may not be identified by solving the
equations simultaneously. Thus, we have to graph the equations to identify all the intersection
points.

Example 1.17 Find the intersection points between the curves r = cos and r = 1− cos .
Solution

First, solve the simultaneous solution of the systems of equations.

cos = 1 − cos
2 cos = 1
1
cos =
2
 5
 = =
3 , 3

Then, r can be obtained by using either of the two given equations:

  1  5  1
r = cos   = r = cos  =
 3  2 and  3  2
1    1 5 
 ,   , 
Thus, we obtain two intersections points which are  2 3  and  2 3  .

The two curves are sketched as shown in Figure 1.35, and based on that; we can see that there are
three intersection points. By solving the simultaneous equations, we are missing the intersection
point at the pole.

Figure 1.35: Graphs of r = cos and r = 1− cos .


 =
When r = 0 and 2 , the curve r = cos passes through origin. When r = 0 and  = 0 , the
 
 0, 
curve r = 1− cos passes through origin. Since both curves pass through origin, and point  2 
is the same location as (0,0 ) , thus (0,0 ) is another intersection point. The intersection points are (0,0 )
1    1 5 
 ,   , 
,  2 3  and  2 3  .
Exercise 1.4

1. Sketch the curve in polar coordinates.

a)  =1 b) r =2
c) r = 2 cos d) r = 7 − 6 cos
e) r = 1+ sin  f) r = 1 + 3 cos
g) r = cos 2 h) r = sin 3

2. Sketch the given curves and find the intersection point(s) between the curves.

a) r = 3 cos , r = 1+ cos
b) r = 2 sin  , r = 2 cos
c) r = 1+ cos , r = 1− cos
d) r = 2(1 + cos ) , r = 2(1 + sin  )
e) r = 3 , r = 2 + 2 cos

1.5 Tangent Lines and Arc Length for Polar Curves

In this section, we will discuss the procedures to determine the slopes, tangent lines and arc lengths
for polar curves.

Tangent lines

We start with finding the slope of tangent lines for polar curves. A polar curve r = f ( ) can be written
parametrically as x = r cos = f ( ) cos and y = r sin  = f ( ) sin  .

dx dr
= − f ( )sin  + f ( ) cos = −r sin  + cos
We obtain, d d and
dy dr
= f ( ) cos + f ( )sin  = r cos + sin 
d d .

dy
Based on the parametric formula, we calculate dx as
 dy dr
r cos + sin 
dy d d
= =
dx dx dr
− r sin  + cos
d d (3)

Example 1.18


 =
a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the cardioid r = 1+ cos at the point where 4.
b) Find the points on the cardioid at which the tangent line is horizontal.
c) Find the points on the cardioid at which the tangent line is vertical.

Solution

dr
= −sin
a) Based on Equation (3) with r = 1+ cos and d  , we obtain
dy (1 + cos )(cos ) + (sin  )(− sin  )
=
dx − (1 + cos )(sin  ) + (cos )(− sin  )
cos + cos 2  − sin 2 
=
− sin  − 2 cos sin 


 =
Thus, at the point where 4 , the slope of the tangent line is
     
cos  + cos2   − sin 2  
dy 4 4 4
m= =
dx  =      
4 − sin   − 2 cos  sin  
4 4 4
1 1 1
+ −
2 2 2 1
= =−
1  1  1  1+ 2
− − 2  
2  2  2  .

b) To find horizontal tangent lines, we let

cos + cos 2  − sin 2  = 0
cos + cos2 = 0
cos + 2 cos 2  − 1 = 0
(2 cos − 1)(cos + 1) = 0
 1
cos =
2 or cos = −1
 5
 = , ,
3 3

 5
= =
r can be obtained by substituting  =  , 3 and 3 in the equation.
r = 1 + cos ( ) = 0 ,
  3  5  3
r = 1 + cos   = r = 1 + cos   =
 3  2 and  3  2
 3   3 5 
 ,   , 
Therefore, there are horizontal tangent lines at the points (0,  ) ,  2 3  and  2 3 .

c) To find the vertical tangent lines, we let

− sin  − 2 cos sin  = 0
− sin  (1 + 2 cos ) = 0
1
cos = −
sin  = 0 or 2
2 4
 = 0,  , ,
3 3

From (b),  gives a horizontal tangent.

2 4
= =
r can be obtained by substituting  = 0 , 3 and 3 in the equation.
 2  1  4  1
r = 1 + cos   = r = 1 + cos   =
r = 1 + cos0 = 2 ,  3  2 and  3  2

 1 2   1 4 
 ,   , 
Thus, there are vertical tangents at the points (2,0 ) ,  2 3  and  2 3  .

Arc length

If a polar curve r = f ( ) has a continuous f  for      and if the point (r ,  ) traces the curve
exactly once as  increases from  to  , then the arc length L from  =  to  =  is given as
 2
 dr 
L= r +   d
2

  d 
Example 1.19 Find the arc length of the circle r = 2 cos .

Solution

Figure 1.36: Graph of r = 2 cos


 =−
The circle r = 2 cos as shown in Figure 1.36 is traced out once as  increases from 2 to

 =
2 , thus the arc length of the circle is

 
2 2 2
 dr 
 r 2 +   d =  (2 cos ) + (− 2 sin  ) d
2 2
L=
−
 d  −

2 2

 


 4(cos  + sin  )d =  2d = 2 

2 2
= 2 2 2
− = 2
− − 2
2 2 .

Exercise 1.5

1. Find the slope of the tangent line to the given polar curve at the specified  .

 
=  =
a) r = 2 sin  , 3 b) r = 1+ sin  , 4
 
 =  =
c) r = cos 2 , 4 d) r = sin 3 , 4

 =
e) r = 4(1 − sin  ) ,  =0 f) r = 8 cos 3 , 4
2. Find the points on the given polar curve where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.

a) r = 3 cos
b) r = 1+ sin 

Miscellaneous Questions 1
1. Sketch the graph of the following parametric equations.
a) x = sin t , y = −2 + 3 cos t , − 2  t  2
b) x = 1+ t , y = 1 − t , − 2  t  2
c) x = sec t , y = tan t , 0  t  2

2. Find the rectangular coordinates of the point with polar coordinates as follows:
   
 2,   − 4, 
a)  4 b)  3
 3 
1, 
c)  4 

3. Describe the graph of the polar equation given as follows:


 =
a) r =3 b) 3
c) r = 5 sin  d) r = 4 cos
e) r = sec tan f) r = 3 csc

4. Transform the given rectangular equations into polar equations.

a) x2 + y 2 = 9 b) x2 − y 2 = 4

c) xy = 2 d) x + 3y = 5

5. Sketch the following polar graphs.

a) r = 1− sin  b) r = 1+ 2 cos
c) r = sin 4 d) r = 5 + 3 cos

6. Find the point of intersection of the following pairs of polar graphs.

 a) r = 2 cos , r = 2 3 sin 

b) r= 2 sin  , r 2 = cos 2

c) r 2 = 3 cos 2 , r 2 = 3 sin 2
1
r=
d) r = 1+ cos , 2

 =
7. Find the equation of the tangent line to the polar curve r = 1+ cos at 4.
8. Find the arch length of the following polar graphs.
a) r = e from  = 0 to  = ln 3 .

 =
b) r = sec from  = 0 to 4.
1  
r=  = =
c)  from 4 to 2.
  3
r = sin 3   =
d) 3
  from  = 0 to 2 .