BUSINESS LOGIC

Critical Thinking

Definition of Critical Thinking:

- Critical thinking involves analyzing facts to form a judgment. It’s characterized by

open-mindedness, analytical skills, and the ability to reason effectively.

Relation to Business Management:

- In business management, critical thinking helps leaders make informed decisions,

solve problems creatively, and navigate complex business environments.

Critical Thinking Skills Relevant to Business Practices:

 Analysis: Examining data and arguments to understand connections and draw

conclusions.
 Evaluation: Assessing the credibility of sources, arguments, and strategies.
 Inference: Drawing reasonable conclusions from limited information.
 Explanation: Communicating findings clearly and persuasively.
 Self-regulation: Reflecting on one’s own beliefs and adjusting in light of new
evidence.

Importance of Soft Skills in the Global Economy:

 Critical thinking is vital in the global economy for innovation and adapting to
changing markets.
 Enhances negotiation skills and the ability to understand and manage cultural
differences in international business.
 Soft skills, including critical thinking, are increasingly valued by employers
worldwide for their role in achieving strategic objectives.
Logic

Definition and Importance of Logic

 Logic is the analysis and evaluation of arguments, focusing on reasoning from

premises to conclusions.
 It clarifies reasoning, helping to distinguish good reasoning from bad.
 Logic is essential for improving analytical skills, crucial in fields like law, business,
science, and philosophy.
 Studying logic enhances understanding of philosophical issues and everyday
decision-making.

Deductive Reasoning

- logical process in which a conclusion is drawn from a set of premises or general

principles that are assumed to be true. It involves starting with a general
statement or hypothesis and then reasoning from that to a specific conclusion.
Deductive reasoning is often used in formal logic and mathematics because it
guarantees the truth of the conclusion if the premises are true.

For example:

Premise 1: All humans are mortal.

Premise 2: Socrates is a human.

Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

In this example, the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Deductive reasoning
is characterized by its top-down approach, where the reasoning moves from a general
principle to a specific case.

Truth and Validity

Valid Arguments:

- A valid argument is one where if the premises are true, the conclusion must also
be true.
- The focus is on the logical structure, not the actual truth of the premises.

Example: “If you overslept, you’ll be late. You aren’t late. Therefore, you didn’t oversleep.

Sound Arguments:

- A sound argument is both valid and has all true premises, guaranteeing a true
conclusion.

Example: “If you’re reading this, you aren’t illiterate. You’re reading this. Therefore, you
aren’t illiterate.

Invalid Arguments:

- An invalid argument fails because the conclusion does not logically follow from the
premises, even if the premises are true.

Example: “If Bill Gates owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then Bill Gates would be wealthy.
Bill Gates does not own all the gold in Fort Knox. Therefore, Bill Gates is not wealthy

True Conclusion False Conclusion

Valid Arguments and True Premises:

- A valid argument with true premises guarantees a true conclusion, defining the
argument as sound.
- If an argument is valid and the conclusion is false, at least one premise must be
false.

Sound Arguments:

- Sound arguments are both valid and have all true premises, ensuring the truth of
their conclusions. Only sound arguments can definitively establish the truth of their
conclusions.

Non-Sound Deductive Arguments:

 - A deductive argument that is not sound—due to being invalid or having false
premises—cannot establish the truth of its conclusion, even if the conclusion is
factually true.

Role of Logic and Science:

- The role of science is to test the truth or falsehood of premises, as premises can
cover any subject matter. Logicians focus on the logical relationships between
propositions, rather than the factual truth of the propositions themselves.

Arguments and Explanation

OBJECTIVES:

a) Define and identify arguments.

b) Differentiate arguments from explanation.
c) Apply the different techniques in recognizing arguments.

Definition of Argument in Logic:

- The term “argument” has different meanings. In logic, it doesn’t refer to a heated
exchange of views but rather to a reason for believing a statement or claim is true.

Example of an Argument:

- In logic, an argument is made up of premises (reasons) that support a conclusion

(the claim being made).

Example: “Abortion is morally wrong because it is wrong to take the life of an innocent
human being, and a fetus is an innocent human being.”

Premise 1: It is morally wrong to take the life of an innocent human being.

Premise 2: A fetus is an innocent human being.

Conclusion: Therefore, abortion is morally wrong.

Components of an Argument:

Premises: The statements that provide reasons or evidence.

Conclusion: The statement that the premises support.

1. Statements:

- Sentences that can be true or false (e.g., “The Nile is a river in Northeastern Africa”
is a statement because it can be evaluated as true or false).

2. Non-Statements:
 - Commands, requests, and questions are not statements because they cannot be
true or false (e.g., “Please help yourself to more casserole” is a command, not a
statement).

Standard Argument Form:

- Arguments are often structured by numbering the premises and conclusion.

Example format:

1. Premise

2. Premise 2

3. Conclusion (denoted by “therefore”)

Example: Abortion is morally wrong because it is wrong to take the life of an innocent
human being, and a fetus is an innocent human being.

We could capture the structure of that argument like this:

1. It is morally wrong to take the life of an innocent human being

2. A fetus is an innocent human being

3. Therefore, abortion is morally wrong

Purpose of an Argument:

- Arguments aim to provide reasons for a conclusion, often used to persuade or

convince, but the structure and validity of the argument are independent of
persuasion

 So, to reiterate: all arguments are composed of premises and conclusions, which
are both types of statements. The premises of the argument provide a reason for
thinking that the conclusion is true. And arguments typically involve more than one
premise. A standard way of capturing the structure of an argument is by
numbering the premises and conclusion.

Identifying an Argument:

- To determine if an argument is present, ask if there’s a statement that someone is

trying to establish as true based on another statement. If yes, then there is an
argument; if no, then there isn’t.
Premise and Conclusion Indicators:

1. Premise Indicators: Words like “because,” “since,” and “given that” signal that a
statement provides a reason for believing something.

Example:

“Abortion is morally wrong because it is wrong to take the life of an innocent human
being.”

“I know the student plagiarized since I found the exact same sentences on a website.”

2. Conclusion Indicators: Words like “therefore,” “so,” and “hence” signal that a
statement is the conclusion being drawn from premises.

Example:

“Bob-the-arsonist has been dead for a year, so he didn’t set the fire at the Starbucks last
week.”

“Candidate X is behind in the polls, therefore they probably won’t win the election.

Interchangeability of Indicators:

- Premise indicators like “because” and “since” or conclusion indicators like “so” and
“therefore” can often be swapped without changing the meaning.

Non-Argument Examples:

- Not every use of words like “since” or “so” indicates an argument.

Example:

“I have been running competitively since 1999” (Here, “since” refers to time, not a
Premise).

“I am so happy to have finished that class” (Here, “so” intensifies “happy” and doesn’t
indicate a conclusion).

Substitution Test:

- To check if a word is truly a premise or conclusion indicator, substitute it with

another indicator from the list. If the sentence still makes sense, it’s likely an
argument. If not, it isn’t.

Example: “Bob-the-arsonist has been dead for a year, it follows that he didn’t set the
fire” (makes sense, so it’s an argument).

Non-Example: “I am because happy to have finished that class” (doesn’t make sense,
so it’s not an argument).
Arguments vs. Explanation

Arguments and Conclusions:

- Arguments are made up of premises that provide reasons (support or evidence )

for accepting a conclusion as true.

Example: To prove that obesity rates are rising in the U.S., you might cite studies from
the CDC and NIH as premises supporting this conclusion.

Standard Form of an Argument:

1. Premise 1: Multiple studies by the CDC and NIH have shown a consistent rise
in obesity over the last four decades.
2. Conclusion: Therefore, obesity is on the rise in the U.S.

This format clearly separates the premise from the conclusion, showing how the
evidence supports the conclusion.

Purpose of Arguments:

- The goal of many arguments is to convince someone that the conclusion is true by
providing supporting evidence.

Explanations vs. Arguments:

- Sometimes, instead of proving that a conclusion is true, we aim to explain why it is

true. An argument that explains why a conclusion is true is called an explanation.
Example: Explaining why obesity is on the rise by discussing how the increased
consumption of high-sugar, low-fiber foods triggers the body’s fat-storing mechanisms.

Standard Form of an Explanation:

Premise 1: Over the past four decades, Americans have increasingly consumed foods
high in sugar and low in fiber.

Premise 2: Consuming foods high in sugar and low in fiber triggers the in system to store
calories as fat.

Premise 3: When people store more calories as fat, they tend to become obese.

Conclusion: Therefore, the rate of obesity is on the rise in the U.S.

In an explanation, the premises aim to show why the conclusion is true, assuming that
the conclusion is already accepted as true.

Distinguishing Arguments from Explanations:

1. Arguments: Aim to establish that the conclusion is true.

2. Explanations: Aim to establish why the conclusion is true.

Uses and Function of Language

OBJECTIVES

 Distinguish the different functions of language.

 Explore ways in which sentences/passage serve multiple functions.
 Differentiate linguistic form from language functions
 Explore the many uses and forms of language.

Language

- In logic, language refers to the system of symbols and rules used to express and
analyze logical propositions, arguments, and reasoning. It serves as a tool to
represent thoughts, make inferences, and evaluate the validity of arguments.

Key aspects of language in logic:

1. Symbols and Syntax: Language in logic uses formal symbols and syntax to

propositional logic uses symbols like p, q, and logical operators like ∧ (and), ∨ (or),
create well-structured statements. This ensures clarity and precision. For Example,

→ (implies).
 2. Propositions: Propositions are declarative statements that can be true or false.
They form the basic building blocks of logical analysis. For example, “The sky is
blue” is a proposition.
3. Arguments: In logic, an argument consists of a set of propositions where some
are premises leading to a conclusion. The language must be precise to assess
whether the conclusion logically follows from the premises.
4. Inference Rules: Logical language includes rules for deriving conclusions from
premises. These rules are fundamental for constructing valid arguments.
5. Formal Languages: Logic often uses formal languages with strict rules to avoid
ambiguity and ensure that reasoning is rigorous. Examples include predicate logic
and modal logic.
6. Evaluation: Logical language helps in evaluating the validity and soundness of
arguments by providing a structured framework for analysis.

Language naturally combines different functions in almost all its uses, as seen in both
speech and writing.

Emotive language can serve multiple purposes: for instance, a parent might say, “That
conduct is utterly disgusting!” to express an attitude, guide behavior, and report a fact.

Language primarily serves three major functions:

 Informative
 Expressive
 Directive

Additionally, there are less common uses of language:

- Ceremonial language, like saying “How do you do?” when meeting someone,
which blends expressive and other functions.
- Performative language, such as “I apologize for my foolish remark,” where
words perform the function they announce (e.g., “I congratulate you,” “I accept
your offer,” “I promise”).
- Logicians focus on the informative function of language, such as affirming or
denying propositions and evaluating arguments.
- It’s important to distinguish between the uses of language (informative,
expressive, etc.) and its forms (declarative, exclamatory, imperative,
interrogative).
- The principal uses of language are informative, expressive, and directive,
while the grammatical forms are declarative, interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory.
- There is no direct correlation between the grammatical form of a passage and
its intended use or uses. Language serving any of the principal functions can adopt
any of the grammatical forms.
Principal Functions of Language:

1. Informative: aims to provide factual information or convey knowledge.

Example: “The Earth revolves around the Sun.”
2. Expressive: expresses the speaker’s emotions or feelings
Example: “I am thrilled about the new project!”
3. Directive: aims to direct or instruct someone to do something.
Example: “Please submit your reports by Friday.”
4. Ceremonial: used in formal or ritualistic contexts and often blends expressive and
other functions.
Example: “It’s a pleasure to meet you.”
5. Performative: performs the action it describes, such as making a promise or
giving an apology.
Example: “I promise to complete the task.”

Grammatical Forms of Language:

1. Declarative: makes a statement or provides information.

Example: “The meeting starts at 10 AM.”
2. Interrogative: asks a question.
Example: “What time does the meeting start?”
3. Imperative: gives a command or request.
Example: “Start the meeting at 10 AM.”
4. Exclamatory: expresses strong emotions or reactions
Example: “What a fantastic meeting that was!”

The Expressive Use:

- Not all sentences are used to convey information. A common example is the
expressive function, where language primarily serves to express emotions or
feelings. For instance, saying, “I am so sorry your cat is ill. Please accept my
sympathy, focuses on conveying feelings rather than providing information.
Although some information is shared, the main goal is emotional expression. The
term “expressive” in this context relates to venting, revealing, or evoking
emotions.

The Directive Use:

- Sentences can also be used to prompt someone to act or refrain from acting. For
example, “Take your cat to the veterinarian!” aims to direct action rather than to
inform or express feelings. Such directives are commands or imperative and are
evaluated based on their appropriateness rather than their truth value. However,
sentences like “You ought to take your cat to the veterinarian” can combine
directive and informative functions, presenting an argument for action based on
factual information
The Performative Use:

- J. L. Austin highlighted performative language, where saying certain words

performs an action. For instance, making a bet or a promise involves saying
specific phrases under certain conditions to accomplish an action. These
utterances are not true or false but can be assessed based on their success.
Simply saying “I bet” or “I promise” requires agreement or sincerity to be effective.

The Ritual Use:

- Ritual language, closely related to performative language, involves using words to

complete a traditional or ceremonial act. Unlike performatives, ritual language
does not necessarily bring about an action but follows a customary pattern.
Examples include saying prayers, giving greetings, or celebrating occasions.
Phrases like “How ya doing?” serve as ritualistic greetings rather than genuine
inquiries.

DISPUTES AND DEFINITIONS

Disputes

- Are disagreements or conflicts between people and parties. It typically refers

to a disagreement over the truth or validity of a statement or argument. “The
terms used by the disputing parties may have more than one meaning—they may
be ambiguous—but such ambiguity may be unrecognized by the disputing parties.”

Cause: Ambiguity- disputing parties uses terms that have more than one possible
meaning and therefore possibly causing confusion

Solution: ambiguities must be identified, and the alternative meanings of the critical
terms in the dispute must be distinguished and clarified.

3 Categories of Disputes

1. Obviously genuine disputes – there is a very real disagreement between the

parties (either in belief or in attitude or in both), and this disagreement does not
rest on any confusion concerning ambiguous words or phrases.
2. Merely verbal disputes - when the disagreement between the parties rests
primarily on different understandings of a word or phrase. The conflict is resolved
by having them agree on how they should use this word or phrase.
3. Apparently verbal but really genuine – there is not a shared understanding of
some word or phrase, but resolving this disagreement is not likely to settle the
deeper disagreement between the parties.
Confronting Dispute that arises in discourse

1. ask whether there is some ambiguity that can be eliminated by clarifying the
alternative meanings in play.

2. ask whether clearing up that linguistic issue will resolve the matter.

3. If it does, the dispute was indeed merely verbal. If it does not, the dispute was
genuine, although it may have appeared to be merely verbal.

Definition

Definition helps in avoiding verbal disagreement.

A good and clear definition is a definition that could find its way into a dictionary and be
accepted into common usage.

• Definiendum- the term that is to be defined.

• Definiens- group of words or concepts used in the definition that is supposed
to have the same meaning as the definiendum.

Example: A bachelor is an unmarried man.

Definiendum- bachelor

Definiens- an unmarried man

Non-lexical definition

- definitions that are not usually included in dictionaries.

Four Non-lexical kinds of definition

1. Stipulative definitions – It assigns a new meaning to a term, whether or not the

term has already got a meaning. If the stipulative definition is accepted, then the
term is used in the new way that is prescribed.
Example: Ghosting refers to an act of suddenly ending a communication with a
person without a warning.
2. Precising definition – It is used to make the meaning of a term more precise for
some specific purpose. It intends to reduce the vagueness of a word.
Example: Liquidity, in accounting, refers to the company’s ability to pay off its short-
term liabilities.
3. Theoretical definition – provides a precise meaning that aligns with specific
scientific or academic frameworks, making it easier to discuss and analyze concepts
within those fields.
Example: Atom is the smallest unit of matter that is composed of proton, neutron,
and electron.
4. Emotive definition – assignment of a meaning to a term that is designed to arouse
emotions either positive or negative.
Example: Taxation is a theft by the government.

Lexical definition

- terms that find their way into standard dictionaries.

- Lexical definitions can be formulated relative to either the extension or intension of
a term.
So let’s consider definitions of both types.
1. Extensive definition – (Denotative meaning) The extensive of a term consist of
all the objects named, or referred to, or denoted by that term.
Example – A smartphone is a handheld mobile device that combines cellular
communication, internet access, and a wide range of multimedia capabilities. It
typically features a touch-screen interface, a high-resolution camera, access to
apps, and an operating system like Android or iOS. Smartphones are used for
making calls, sending messages, browsing the internet, taking photos, and using
applications for various tasks such as navigation, gaming, or productivity. Modern
smartphones often have significant computing power, rivaling desktop computers
in some respects.
2. Intensive Definition – (Connotative meaning) The intensive of a term consist
of all the common attributes of the objects referred to by the term.
Example – A smartphone is a mobile device that can make calls, browse the
internet, and run apps.”

Three kinds of intensive definitions

1. Intensive Definition with synonyms – meaning to a term by transferring to it

the meaning of another term presumed to be more readily known and roughly
equivalent to it.
2. Intensive Operational Definitions – meaning to a term on the basis of some
observational effect that the term is supposed to produce.
3. Intensive Genus Species Definition – meaning to a general term on the basis of
it’s affiliation with a general category and on the basis of it’s specific difference
from other members of that category.

GENUS SPECIES DEFINITION DEFECTS

1. Too broad – A definition is too broad if it includes more than actually false with in
the domain of the term being defined.
“Human beings are featherless bipeds.”
The genus here is the class of bipeds (things that walk on two feet.)
 The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
bipeds is that they are featherless.

2. Too Narrow
A definition is too narrow if it excludes somethings that are included within the
domain of the term being defined.
“Human beings are the only animals that are accountable before the law.”
The genus here is animals.
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
animals is that they are accountable before the law.

3. Too broad and narrow

A definition can be both exclusive and to inclusive.
“Human beings are the only animals that can communicate.”
The genus here is animals.
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
animals is that they communicate.

4. Circular
A definition is circular if the term being defined is used in the definition itself.
“Human beings are the only animals that are essentially human.”
The genus here is the class of animals.
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
animals is that they are essentially human.

5. Figurative
Is one which uses a metaphor or image rather than making an attempt to state
the essential characteristics of the concept being defined.
“Human beings are thinking reeds.”
The genus here is the class of “reeds” (no doubt this is a figure for things that are
fragile).
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
“reeds” is that they think.

6. Emotive
An emotive definition is one which attempts to arouse emotion rather than clarify
the concept.
“Human beings are the only animals that are blights on the environment.”
The genus here is the class of animals.
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
animals is that they are 8 blights on the environment.
7. Accidental
A definition is accidental if it fails to state the essential characteristics of the term
being defined.
“Human beings are the only animals that are inclined to appreciate beautiful
sunsets.”
The genus here is the class of animals.
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
animals is that they are inclined to appreciate beautiful sunsets.

8. Negative
A negative definition is one which says what a term does not mean rather than
what it does mean.
“Human beings are not gods.”
The genus here is the class of beings.
The specific difference that is claimed to make human beings different from other
beings is that they are not gods.

9. Obscure
An obscure definition is one which uses language even less will known than the
term being defined.
“Human beings are enigmas wrapped up in a conundrum.”
The genus here is the class of, well, what?
It is not clear. It could be the class of things; but this would be much too general.