Choosing the best algorithm depends on several factors such as the type of problem

(regression, classification, etc.), the complexity of the data, and the model's performance
requirements. Below is an overview of when each algorithm may be better suited:

### **1. Linear Regression**

- **Best for:** Simple regression tasks with a linear relationship between the input
features and the target variable.
- **Strengths:** Fast, interpretable, works well with small datasets and when features are
linearly related to the output.
- **Weaknesses:** Performs poorly on non-linear data and can be sensitive to outliers.

### **2. Decision Tree Regression**

- **Best for:** Regression tasks that involve complex, non-linear relationships.
- **Strengths:** Can model complex data structures, handles both numerical and
categorical data, interpretable.
- **Weaknesses:** Prone to overfitting, sensitive to small variations in the data.

### **3. Random Forest (Regression & Classification)**

- **Best for:** Both regression and classification tasks, especially when you want a
robust, non-linear model.
- **Strengths:** Combines multiple decision trees to improve accuracy and reduce
overfitting. Works well with large datasets.
- **Weaknesses:** Requires more computational resources, less interpretable than
individual decision trees.

### **4. K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)**

- **Best for:** Both regression and classification, especially when there’s no clear
boundary between classes or when feature relationships are complex.
- **Strengths:** Simple to understand and implement, no training phase, good for small
datasets.
- **Weaknesses:** Slow for large datasets, sensitive to the choice of `k`, and performs
poorly with high-dimensional data.

### **5. Support Vector Machine (SVM)**

- **Best for:** Classification tasks with a clear margin of separation between classes or
regression when data is well-structured.
- **Strengths:** Effective in high-dimensional spaces, works well with both linear and
non-linear data using kernels.
- **Weaknesses:** Computationally expensive, less interpretable, sensitive to the choice
of hyperparameters.

### **6. Naive Bayes**

- **Best for:** Classification tasks, particularly with text data or problems with
categorical features.
- **Strengths:** Fast, simple, and effective for large datasets. Works well for text
classification and spam filtering.
- **Weaknesses:** Assumes features are independent (which is rarely true), can perform
poorly if this assumption is violated.

### **7. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)**

- **Best for:** Complex problems with a lot of data, especially for tasks involving non-
linear patterns, image recognition, or time series prediction.
- **Strengths:** Can model highly non-linear relationships, very flexible, performs well
on large datasets.
- **Weaknesses:** Requires a large amount of data and computational power, prone to
overfitting, less interpretable.

### **8. Q-Learning (Reinforcement Learning)**

- **Best for:** Problems that involve learning optimal actions or policies in a dynamic
environment (e.g., robotics, game AI).
- **Strengths:** Good for decision-making problems in complex environments.
- **Weaknesses:** Can be slow to converge, sensitive to hyperparameters, and requires a
well-defined reward system.

### **9. Viterbi Algorithm & Hidden Markov Models (HMM)**

- **Best for:** Sequential or time-series data, especially for speech recognition,
bioinformatics, and natural language processing.
- **Strengths:** Effective for modeling temporal patterns and sequential dependencies.
- **Weaknesses:** Assumes that the Markov property holds (future state depends only
on the current state), which may not be true in all problems.

### **10. Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)**

- **Best for:** Time series prediction and sequential data tasks, such as language
modeling, machine translation, and stock price prediction.
- **Strengths:** Capable of learning long-term dependencies in sequences, effective for
time-series forecasting.
- **Weaknesses:** Computationally expensive and requires a large amount of data.

|
### **Conclusion:**
- **For small, linear problems**, use **Linear Regression** or **Naive Bayes** (for
classification).
- **For non-linear problems** with more complexity, use **Decision Trees**,
**Random Forest**, or **SVM**.
- **For large datasets** and complex tasks, especially with non-linear patterns, go for
**Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)** or **Random Forest**.
- **For time-series or sequential data**, use **LSTM** or **HMM**.
- **For reinforcement learning tasks**, use **Q-Learning** or related algorithms.

Each algorithm has its strengths and weaknesses, so experiment with a few to see which
works best for your dataset.
what is seaborn in ml

Seaborn is a powerful and versatile data visualization library built on top of Matplotlib in
Python. It is particularly useful in the context of machine learning (ML) and data science
for several reasons:

Key Features of Seaborn:

1. Statistical Visualization: Seaborn provides a high-level interface for drawing

attractive and informative statistical graphics. It is especially effective for
visualizing relationships between variables and understanding data distributions.
2. Built-in Themes: Seaborn comes with several built-in themes and color palettes,
making it easy to create aesthetically pleasing visualizations without much
customization.
3. Integration with Pandas: Seaborn works seamlessly with Pandas DataFrames,
allowing you to directly plot data stored in DataFrames without needing to
manipulate it into another format.
4. Complex Visualizations: It simplifies the process of creating complex
visualizations, such as:
o Heatmaps for correlation matrices.
o Pair plots for exploring relationships between multiple variables.
o Violin plots, box plots, and swarm plots for visualizing distributions.
5. Faceting: Seaborn allows for easy creation of multi-plot grids to visualize data
across multiple dimensions, making it simpler to explore how different variables
interact with one another.
6. Support for Statistical Models: Seaborn provides functions to fit statistical
models to data and visualize the results, making it easier to understand trends and
relationships.

Common Use Cases in Machine Learning:

 Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA): Before building ML models, Seaborn is

often used to perform EDA, helping to understand the distribution of data and
relationships between variables.
 Feature Importance Visualization: After training a model, Seaborn can be used
to visualize feature importances or coefficients, aiding in model interpretation.
 Model Evaluation: Seaborn can be used to create visualizations such as
confusion matrices, ROC curves, and precision-recall curves, which are essential
for assessing model performance.

In summary, Seaborn is an essential tool for anyone working in data analysis or

machine learning, as it provides a straightforward way to visualize complex
datasets, making insights more accessible and interpretable.
what is hetatmaps in ml

Heatmaps are a powerful visualization tool commonly used in machine learning (ML)
and data analysis to represent the intensity of data values across two dimensions,
typically using colors to convey information. They are particularly useful for visualizing
complex datasets where the relationships between variables need to be analyzed. Here’s
an overview of what heatmaps are, their significance, and how they are used in ML:

What is a Heatmap?

 Definition: A heatmap is a graphical representation of data where individual

values are represented as colors. The color intensity reflects the magnitude of the
value, making it easier to identify patterns, correlations, and anomalies.
 Data Structure: Heatmaps usually visualize a matrix-like structure, where rows
and columns represent different variables or observations, and the values in the
cells are represented by colors.

Common Uses of Heatmaps in ML:

1. Correlation Matrices:
o Heatmaps are often used to display the correlation between different
features in a dataset. Each cell in the heatmap represents the correlation
coefficient between two features, with color intensity indicating the
strength of the correlation.
o This helps in identifying highly correlated features, which may be
redundant and can be dropped to simplify models.

import pandas as pd

 pandas: A powerful data manipulation and analysis library. It provides data

structures like DataFrames to handle structured data efficiently.

from matplotlib import pyplot as plt

 matplotlib.pyplot: A plotting library used for creating static, animated, and

interactive visualizations in Python. pyplot provides a MATLAB-like interface.
import seaborn as sns

 seaborn: A statistical data visualization library based on Matplotlib. It provides a

high-level interface for drawing attractive statistical graphics and makes it easier
to create complex visualizations.

from copy import deepcopy

 deepcopy: A function from the copy module that creates a new object that is a
deep copy of the original object. This is useful for creating copies of data
structures without modifying the original.

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

 train_test_split: A function from Scikit-learn that splits arrays or matrices

into random train and test subsets. It’s commonly used to prepare data for model
training and evaluation.

from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression, Ridge, Lasso,

ElasticNet

 LinearRegression: A linear model that predicts the target variable as a linear

combination of input features.
 Ridge: A type of linear regression that includes L2 regularization to prevent
overfitting.
 Lasso: Similar to Ridge but uses L1 regularization, which can lead to sparse
models where some coefficients are exactly zero.
 ElasticNet: Combines both L1 and L2 regularization techniques, making it
useful for models with many features.

explain LinearRegression

LinearRegression is a fundamental machine learning algorithm used for regression

tasks, where the goal is to predict a continuous target variable based on one or more
predictor features (independent variables). Here’s a detailed breakdown of how
LinearRegression works, its assumptions, implementation, and use cases:
1. Overview

 Purpose: Linear regression models the relationship between the target variable
and one or more predictors by fitting a linear equation to the observed data.
 Equation: The basic formula for a linear regression model with one predictor is:

For multiple predictors, the equation expands to:

2. Assumptions of Linear Regression

For linear regression to produce reliable predictions, certain assumptions need to be

satisfied:

1. Linearity: The relationship between the predictors and the target variable is
linear.
2. Independence: Observations should be independent of each other.
3. Homoscedasticity: The residuals (errors) should have constant variance at every
level of the independent variable(s).
4. Normality: The residuals of the model should be normally distributed (especially
important for hypothesis testing).

from tensorflow.keras.layers import Dense

 Dense: A layer in a neural network that is fully connected, meaning every input
node is connected to every output node in the layer.
from tensorflow.keras.models import Sequential

 Sequential: A linear stack of layers in a neural network. You can create a model
layer-by-layer.

from tensorflow.keras.callbacks import EarlyStopping

 EarlyStopping: A callback used during training of deep learning models. It stops

training when a monitored metric has stopped improving, helping to prevent
overfitting.

from sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error

 mean_squared_error: A function to evaluate the performance of a regression

model by calculating the average squared difference between predicted and actual
values.

from sklearn.model_selection import RandomizedSearchCV

 RandomizedSearchCV: A method for hyperparameter tuning that randomly

samples parameter settings from specified distributions, allowing for efficient
exploration of hyperparameter space.

from scipy.stats import randint

 randint: A function from the SciPy library that generates random integers. It is
often used to specify ranges for hyperparameter tuning.

import joblib as jb

 joblib: A library for saving and loading Python objects, especially useful for
persisting machine learning models and their associated parameters.

import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

 warnings: A built-in module to manage warnings. Here, it's used to suppress

warnings that may clutter the output, particularly useful during model training
when many warnings can arise.
2. Types of Distributions

a. Distributions

Distributions in data analysis refer to how data points are spread out or arranged in a
dataset. Here are a few types of distributions:

 Univariate Distribution: This involves analyzing a single variable. For example,

you could analyze the distribution of flight prices across all flights.
 Bivariate Distribution: This involves analyzing the relationship between two
variables, such as flight duration and price.

b. Categorical Distributions

Categorical distributions represent data that can be divided into distinct categories. In this
dataset:
  Example: You can create categorical distributions for the airline,
source_city, or class columns. This can show how many flights belong to each
category.
 Visualization: Bar charts or pie charts are commonly used to visualize categorical
distributions.

c. 2-D Distributions

A 2-D distribution shows how two variables relate to each other across two dimensions.

 Example: A scatter plot showing the relationship between duration and price
illustrates how flight durations correlate with ticket prices.

d. Time Series

Time series data is a sequence of data points recorded over time.

 Example: If you had data on flight prices over the months, you could analyze
how prices change over time.
 Visualization: Line charts are often used to represent time series data, helping to
visualize trends.

e. Values

Values refer to the actual data points in your dataset. For example, the price column
contains numerical values representing the cost of each flight.

f. 2-D Categorical Distributions

This involves visualizing relationships between two categorical variables.

 Example: A stacked bar chart showing how many flights are offered by each
airline (airline) in different classes (class).

g. Faceted Distributions

Faceting involves breaking down a dataset into subsets and creating separate
visualizations for each subset.

 Example: You might facet a dataset by source_city to create individual plots

for flights departing from each city, allowing for comparative analysis.

Conclusion

Understanding these types of distributions helps in data analysis and visualization by

enabling you to analyze relationships within the data effectively. By visualizing
categorical and numerical data appropriately, you can uncover insights that can inform
decisions, identify trends, and improve understanding of the dataset.

from matplotlib import pyplot as plt

_df_0['Unnamed: 0'].plot(kind='hist', bins=20, title='Unnamed: 0')
plt.gca().spines[['top', 'right',]].set_visible(False)

from matplotlib import pyplot as plt

 Matplotlib: This is a popular plotting library in Python that provides an object-

oriented API for embedding plots into applications.
 pyplot: This is a module within Matplotlib that offers a MATLAB-like interface,
allowing you to create various types of plots easily.
 as plt: This gives a shorthand alias plt for the pyplot module, making it
convenient to call its functions.

2. Plotting a Histogram
_df_0['Unnamed: 0'].plot(kind='hist', bins=20, title='Unnamed: 0')

 _df_0['Unnamed: 0']: This accesses a column named Unnamed: 0 from the

DataFrame _df_0. It's common in datasets to have unnamed columns, especially
when they arise from CSV files where an index column might not have a header.
 .plot(kind='hist', ...): This uses Pandas’ built-in plotting capabilities to
create a histogram of the data in the specified column.
o kind='hist': This specifies that you want to create a histogram.
o bins=20: This sets the number of bins (intervals) for the histogram to 20.
The choice of bins can affect the appearance of the histogram and how
well it represents the underlying distribution of the data.
o title='Unnamed: 0': This sets the title of the histogram to "Unnamed:
0".

plt.gca().spines[['top', 'right']].set_visible(False)

 plt.gca(): This function gets the current Axes instance on the current figure
(GCA stands for "Get Current Axes"). It allows you to customize the properties of
the current plot.
 .spines: In Matplotlib, spines are the lines that connect the axis ticks and
represent the data limits. Each plot has four spines: top, bottom, left, and right.
 [['top', 'right']]: This selects the top and right spines of the current Axes.
 .set_visible(False): This method sets the visibility of the specified spines to
False, effectively removing them from the plot. This is often done for aesthetic
reasons, as it can help focus attention on the data itself without the distractions of
extra lines.
This code snippet demonstrates how to visualize the distribution of data in a specific
column of a DataFrame using a histogram. The customizations help make the plot cleaner
by removing unnecessary spines, which can enhance the focus on the data itself. This
approach is commonly used in exploratory data analysis (EDA) to understand the
characteristics and distribution of numerical data.

This output provides a summary of a **Pandas DataFrame** containing flight data with
detailed information on columns, data types, and memory usage. Here's a breakdown of
each part:

1. **Class Information**:
- `<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>`: This shows the data structure is a Pandas
DataFrame, commonly used for data manipulation and analysis.

2. **RangeIndex**:
- `RangeIndex: 300153 entries, 0 to 300152`: This indicates that the DataFrame has
300,153 rows, indexed from 0 to 300,152.

3. **Column Details**:
- **Total Columns**: The DataFrame has 12 columns in total.
- **Column Names and Dtypes**:
- Each column name is followed by its count of non-null values, and its data type.
- `Dtype`: Shows the data type of each column, essential for understanding how data is
stored and which operations can be applied.
- `int64`: 3 columns with integer data types, often representing whole numbers (e.g.,
counts, prices).
 - `float64`: 1 column with floating-point numbers, which may indicate precise
numerical values like `duration`.
- `object`: 8 columns with object data types, commonly representing categorical or
text data, such as `airline` and `flight`.

4. **Non-Null Count**:
- Each column has 300,153 non-null entries, meaning there are no missing values in
any of the columns.

5. **Memory Usage**:
- `memory usage: 27.5+ MB`: The DataFrame occupies 27.5 MB of memory, indicating
its size and helping you assess the resource requirements for working with the dataset.

### Summary

This DataFrame is well-structured, with no missing values and a mix of numerical and
categorical data. Each column’s data type informs you on how best to handle it for data
analysis, statistical computation, or machine learning applications.

This summary table provides descriptive statistics for four columns in a dataset:
**Unnamed: 0**, **duration**, **days_left**, and **price**. Here’s a detailed
explanation of each column and the statistics provided:

### 1. **Unnamed: 0**

- This column seems to represent an identifier or index, often generated automatically
by the system during data collection or import.
 - **Statistics**:
- **count**: There are 300,153 entries (no missing values).
- **mean**: The average identifier value is 150,076, suggesting it might represent a
sequential ID in the dataset.
- **std (standard deviation)**: 86,646.85, showing high variability, which is typical
for an ID column.
- **min/max**: Ranges from 0 to 300,152, confirming that it may represent row
positions or indices.

### 2. **duration**
- Likely represents the duration of an event or activity, perhaps in days, weeks, or
another unit (not specified).
- **Statistics**:
- **mean**: Average duration is approximately 12.22 units.
- **std**: Standard deviation is 7.19, indicating moderate spread around the mean.
- **min/max**: Ranges from 0.83 to 49.83, showing that durations vary widely.
- **25%/50%/75%**: 25% of the entries have a duration of less than 6.83 units, the
median (50%) duration is 11.25, and 75% of the entries are below 16.17.

### 3. **days_left**
- This column likely represents the number of days remaining until an event or
deadline.
- **Statistics**:
- **mean**: Average of 26.00 days left.
- **std**: 13.56, indicating a moderate spread in the values.
- **min/max**: Ranges from 1 to 49, meaning all entries have a positive, bounded
count of days left.
- **25%/50%/75%**: The first quartile is 15 days, median is 26 days, and the third
quartile is 38 days, showing that most entries have between 15 to 38 days left.

### 4. **price**
- Likely represents a monetary value, such as a product or event price.
- **Statistics**:
- **mean**: Average price is approximately 20,889.66, suggesting this dataset might
deal with relatively high-value items or services.
- **std**: The standard deviation is 22,697.77, indicating a wide variation in prices.
- **min/max**: Prices range from 1,105 to 123,071, showing a large spread in
values.
- **25%/50%/75%**: The 25th percentile is 4,783, the median price is 7,425, and the
75th percentile is 42,521. This suggests a positively skewed distribution (with more
values towards the lower range but a few high-priced entries pushing up the average).

### Summary of the Statistics

The data appears to be related to events or transactions with varying durations, deadlines,
and prices. Key insights include:
- **`duration`** and **`days_left`** have relatively moderate variability, indicating
some consistency in how long events last and the time remaining.
- **`price`** is highly variable and skewed, with many lower values and a few high
values that elevate the mean.
- **`Unnamed: 0`** is likely an index or ID column, given its sequential nature and lack
of descriptive relevance.

This data seems to be a summary of missing values in a DataFrame. The columns listed
(like `airline`, `flight`, `source_city`, etc.) are typical column names in a flight-related
dataset, and each column has a value of `0`, which indicates there are no missing values
in any of the columns.

Here's what each part represents:

- **0**: This means that there are no missing values in the column. If it were, say, `5`, it
would mean 5 missing values in that column.
- **Column names (e.g., `airline`, `flight`, `source_city`)**: Each column name
represents a feature or attribute of the data (like airline name, flight number, source city,
etc.).
- **`dtype: int64`**: This indicates the data type of this output, which is `int64`, meaning
the missing value counts are in integer format.

In summary, this dataset is complete, with no missing entries in any of the columns.

columns =
['airline','source_city','departure_time','stops','arrival_time','
destination_city','class']

This list columns includes the names of the categorical columns in the DataFrame
df that you want to visualize.

1. Figure Setup:

plt.figure(figsize=(10,10))

This sets up a square figure with a size of 10x10 inches, providing ample space
for multiple subplots.

2. Loop Through Columns:

for col in columns:

count_values = df[col].value_counts()
print(count_values, end='\n\n')
...

This loop goes through each column in the columns list. For each column:
 o It calculates the frequency of each unique value in that column using
value_counts().
o The counts are printed to give a quick reference of the raw data
distribution.

3. Creating Pie Charts:

plt.subplot(4,2,columns.index(col)+1)
plt.title(col)
plt.pie(count_values, labels=count_values.index, autopct='%1.1f%
%')
plt.axis('off')

For each column:

o plt.subplot(4, 2, columns.index(col) + 1) creates a subplot grid

of 4 rows and 2 columns. columns.index(col) + 1 determines the
position of the current plot.
o plt.title(col) sets the title of the pie chart to the column name.
o plt.pie(...) generates the pie chart. It uses count_values for the chart
data, count_values.index for labels, and autopct='%1.1f%%' to
display the percentages to one decimal place.
o plt.axis('off') removes the axis for a cleaner look.

4. Display the Plot:

plt.show()

This displays the final figure with all pie charts, showing the distribution of values
in each categorical column.

Output Interpretation

 Pie Charts: Each pie chart represents the percentage distribution of different
categories for a column. For example, the airline pie chart will show the
percentage of flights by each airline.
 Insights: This visualization helps in quickly understanding the dominance or
rarity of certain categories across different columns, which can provide insight
into the dataset's composition.

This kind of visualization is beneficial for exploring categorical data distributions and
identifying any imbalances or patterns across categories.
Data Preprocessing

Data preprocessing is a crucial step in preparing raw data for analysis or machine
learning modeling. It involves transforming and cleaning the data to improve its quality
and structure, making it suitable for algorithms to process effectively. The main
objectives of data preprocessing are to handle missing values, correct inconsistencies,
standardize formats, and transform data types to improve model performance and
accuracy.

### Key Steps in Data Preprocessing

1. **Data Cleaning**:
- **Handling Missing Values**: Missing data is filled (imputed) with estimated values
(like mean, median, or mode) or removed. Handling missing data correctly prevents
models from producing biased or inaccurate predictions.
- **Removing Duplicates**: Duplicated entries are identified and removed to avoid
skewing results.
- **Outlier Detection**: Identifies and, in some cases, removes outliers that can distort
model performance, especially in numerical datasets.

2. **Data Transformation**:
- **Normalization**: Scales numerical data to a range, typically [0, 1], to ensure
uniformity and improve model convergence.
- Standardization : Centers numerical data around the mean with a standard deviation of
1, making variables comparable, especially useful for algorithms sensitive to scale (like
K-Nearest Neighbors).
- **Encoding Categorical Variables**: Converts categorical data (e.g., "Male,"
"Female") into numerical format using techniques like **one-hot encoding** or **label
encoding**. This is essential for algorithms that require numerical input.
- **Binning**: Divides continuous data into bins or intervals, often helpful for
reducing the effect of minor variations and focusing on trends.

3. **Feature Engineering**:
- **Creating New Features**: New, relevant features are created from existing ones
(e.g., extracting year and month from a date column).
- **Feature Selection**: Irrelevant or redundant features are removed to improve
model efficiency and accuracy.

4. **Splitting the Dataset**:

- The dataset is divided into **training**, **validation**, and **test sets**. Typically,
70-80% of the data is used for training, while the rest is split between validation (for
tuning) and testing (for evaluation).

5. **Handling Imbalanced Data**:

 - If a dataset is imbalanced (one class significantly outweighs others), techniques like
**oversampling** (adding copies of the minority class) or **undersampling**
(removing instances of the majority class) are used to ensure balanced representation.

### Why Data Preprocessing Is Important

Data preprocessing ensures:

- **Quality**: Removes noise, fills gaps, and corrects errors.
- **Consistency**: Standardized formats and scales help algorithms learn effectively.
- **Efficiency**: Reduces computational load and speeds up model training.
- **Accuracy**: Well-preprocessed data leads to better model performance and
generalization on unseen data.

Without data preprocessing, even advanced models can struggle with performance,
accuracy, and reliability, as raw data often contains noise and inconsistencies that obscure
real patterns.

# Drop both of Unnamed: 0,

df_prep = df.drop(['Unnamed: 0', 'flight'],axis=1)
df_prep.head()

The line of code is intended to remove (or "drop") specific columns from the DataFrame
`df` and assign the result to a new DataFrame called `df_prep`. Here’s a breakdown:

df_prep = df.drop(['Unnamed: 0', 'flight'], axis=1)

```

### Explanation

- `df.drop(['Unnamed: 0', 'flight'], axis=1)`: This uses the `.drop()` method to delete the
columns named `'Unnamed: 0'` and `'flight'` from the DataFrame `df`.
- `['Unnamed: 0', 'flight']`: This list specifies the names of the columns you want to
drop.
- `axis=1`: Specifies that you want to drop columns (not rows). In pandas, `axis=1`
represents columns, and `axis=0` represents rows.

- `df_prep = ...`: This assigns the result to `df_prep`, which is a new DataFrame with the
specified columns removed from the original `df`.

### `df_prep.head()`
This displays the first five rows of `df_prep`, allowing you to quickly verify that the
columns `'Unnamed: 0'` and `'flight'` have been successfully removed.
This table appears to represent a dataset for airline flights, with each row detailing
information about a specific flight. Here’s a breakdown of each column:

airline: The name of the airline operating the flight (e.g., SpiceJet, AirAsia, Vistara).
- **source_city**: The city from which the flight departs (e.g., Delhi).
- **departure_time**: The general time of day when the flight departs, categorized into
terms like `Evening`, `Early_Morning`, and `Morning`.
- **stops**: The number of stops on the flight, described as "zero" if it is a nonstop
flight.
- **arrival_time**: The general time of day when the flight arrives, using terms like
`Night`, `Morning`, and `Afternoon`.
- **destination_city**: The city where the flight is scheduled to arrive (e.g., Mumbai).
- **class**: The travel class for the flight, such as `Economy`.
- **duration**: The total duration of the flight in hours, represented as a decimal (e.g.,
`2.17` hours).
- **days_left**: The number of days remaining until the flight departs. This can give
insights into advance booking.
- **price**: The price of the flight ticket in a certain currency (presumably in the local
currency, possibly INR for Indian airlines).

Each row in the table represents a specific flight with unique details across these
columns. For example, the first row describes a SpiceJet evening flight from Delhi to
Mumbai, with a nonstop journey in Economy class, a duration of approximately 2.17
hours, booked one day in advance, and priced at 5953.
# Convert class column into binary column
df_prep['class'] = df_prep['class'].apply(lambda x: 1 if
x=='Business' else 0)
df_prep.head()

This code converts the `class` column in the DataFrame `df_prep` from categorical values
(e.g., "Business" and "Economy") into a binary format, where:

- **1** represents the "Business" class

- **0** represents any other class, like "Economy" in this case.

Here's a breakdown of each part:

df_prep['class'] = df_prep['class'].apply(lambda x: 1 if x == 'Business' else 0)

```

- **df_prep['class']**: Selects the `class` column in the `df_prep` DataFrame.

- **.apply(lambda x: 1 if x == 'Business' else 0)**: Uses the `apply()` function to apply a

`lambda` function to each value (`x`) in the `class` column.
- **lambda x**: Defines an anonymous function that takes each entry in the `class`
column as input (`x`).
- **1 if x == 'Business' else 0**: Checks if `x` is equal to "Business". If it is, it returns
1; otherwise, it returns 0.

After this transformation, the `class` column is now in binary format, with:
- `1` indicating a Business class seat
- `0` indicating an Economy class seat.

This binary conversion makes the `class` column easier to use in machine learning
models that may require numerical input.

Finally, `df_prep.head()` displays the first five rows of the updated DataFrame to confirm
that the transformation was successful.

one hot in ml
One-hot encoding is a technique used in machine learning to convert categorical data into
a numerical format that can be fed into models. Since many machine learning algorithms
require numeric input, categorical variables (like colors, cities, or product types) must be
transformed to avoid introducing any unintended relationships or order between
categories.

What is One-Hot Encoding?

In one-hot encoding, each unique category in a categorical variable is represented by a
new binary column (or feature). Each column corresponds to one possible category value,
with binary values:

 1 indicates the presence of that category.

 0 indicates its absence.

This table represents a dataset where certain categorical columns have been
converted into binary (or dummy) variables, often used in machine learning. Let’s break
down what each column represents and why the data is in this format.

Columns Explained:

1. **Original Columns:**
- **stops**: Represents the number of stops the flight has. Here, it looks like
it’s a binary variable where `0` means "non-stop" (zero stops).
- **class**: Originally categorical with values like "Economy" and "Business,"
it has been converted to binary. `0` likely represents "Economy," and `1` would represent
"Business."
- **duration**: A continuous numerical value that represents the duration of the
flight in hours.
- **days_left**: The number of days remaining until the flight's departure,
which could indicate how far in advance the ticket was booked.
- **price**: The price of the flight ticket.
 2. **One-Hot Encoded Columns (Dummy Variables):**
- The columns with names like **airline_Air_India**, **airline_GO_FIRST**,
**airline_Indigo**, etc., represent the airline of each flight. This is a result of one-hot
encoding, where each unique airline gets its own column with binary values:
- `True` (or `1`): Indicates that the row corresponds to a flight from that
specific airline.
- `False` (or `0`): Indicates that the row does not correspond to that airline.

- Similarly, columns like **arrival_time_Early_Morning**,

**arrival_time_Evening**, etc., represent different times of day for the flight's arrival.
Each unique arrival time has a dedicated column:
- `True` (or `1`): The flight arrives during that specific time period.
- `False` (or `0`): The flight does not arrive during that time period.

- The **destination_city_*** columns, like **destination_city_Chennai**,

**destination_city_Delhi**, represent each possible destination city in the dataset. The
values are binary:
- `True` (or `1`): The flight's destination is that specific city.
- `False` (or `0`): The flight's destination is not that city.

- **stops** = `0`: This flight is non-stop.

- **class** = `0`: This is an "Economy" class ticket.
- **duration** = `2.17`: The flight duration is 2.17 hours.
- **days_left** = `1`: The ticket was booked 1 day in advance.
- **price** = `5953`: The ticket costs 5953.

In one-hot encoded columns:

- **airline_SpiceJet** = `True`: This flight is operated by SpiceJet.

- **arrival_time_Night** = `True`: The flight arrives at night.
- **destination_city_Mumbai** = `True`: The flight’s destination is Mumbai.

### Benefits of This Format

This type of encoding is helpful for machine learning models because:

1. Models often require numerical input, and binary columns allow for easy
handling of categorical variables.
2. One-hot encoding enables models to understand each categorical value
independently without assuming any ordinal relationship.
3. This format allows the data to be easily fed into algorithms that can interpret
each feature independently for better predictions.
# Convert stops columns into categorical column
df_prep['stops'] = df_prep['stops'].apply(lambda x: 0 if x=='zero'
else 1 if x=='one' else 2)
df_prep

This code converts the `stops` column in `df_prep` from text-based categorical values
(e.g., "zero", "one") into numerical categories. Here’s how it works:

df_prep['stops'] = df_prep['stops'].apply(lambda x: 0 if x == 'zero' else 1 if x ==

'one' else 2)
```

### Explanation:

- **df_prep['stops']**: Selects the `stops` column in the DataFrame `df_prep`.

- **apply(lambda x: ...)**: Applies a `lambda` function to each value in the

`stops` column (`x` represents each value).

- **lambda x: 0 if x == 'zero' else 1 if x == 'one' else 2**:

- Checks the value of `x` and assigns a new numeric value based on the
following conditions:
- If `x` is `"zero"` (meaning no stops), assign **0**.
- If `x` is `"one"` (meaning one stop), assign **1**.
- For any other value (likely "two" or more stops), assign **2**.

This transformation turns text-based categories into numeric labels, where:

- `0` represents zero stops (non-stop flight),
- `1` represents one stop,
- `2` represents two or more stops.

### Why Convert to Numerical Categories?

This conversion can be beneficial for machine learning models because many
models require numerical input. By encoding stops as numeric categories, we help
models better interpret and process this data without the added complexity of handling
text.

For example, a model can now use the numeric `stops` values to make decisions,
treating more stops (2) differently than no stops (0) based on numeric value, which can
help it capture patterns like how additional stops might impact travel time or ticket price.
# Create Correlation between features
correlation = df_prep.corr()
plt.figure(figsize=(20,20))
sns.heatmap(correlation,
cbar=True,square=True,fmt='.1f',annot=True,annot_kws={'size':8},cmap
="Blues")
plt.show()

This code creates a correlation heatmap for the features in `df_prep`, which visualizes the
relationships between variables and highlights any patterns or dependencies. Here’s a
breakdown of each part:

correlation = df_prep.corr()

- **df_prep.corr()**: Calculates the correlation matrix of the DataFrame `df_prep`. The

correlation matrix shows the pairwise correlation coefficients between features.
- The correlation coefficient ranges between -1 and 1:
- **1** indicates a perfect positive correlation (when one variable increases, the other
does as well).
- **-1** indicates a perfect negative correlation (when one variable increases, the
other decreases).
- **0** indicates no linear relationship.
- **correlation**: Stores this correlation matrix, which will be visualized in the heatmap.

plt.figure(figsize=(20,20))

- **plt.figure(figsize=(20,20))**: Sets the figure size to a large square format (20x20

inches) to ensure all elements in the heatmap are visible. This is particularly useful if
there are many features in `df_prep`.

sns.heatmap(correlation, cbar=True, square=True, fmt='.1f', annot=True,

annot_kws={'size':8}, cmap="Blues")
```

- **sns.heatmap(...)**: Creates a heatmap using Seaborn, a data visualization library.

- **correlation**: The data being visualized in the heatmap.
- **cbar=True**: Displays a color bar next to the heatmap, showing the correlation
coefficient scale.
- **square=True**: Ensures each cell in the heatmap is square-shaped, making it
visually uniform.
- **fmt='.1f'**: Displays correlation values in each cell with one decimal place.
- **annot=True**: Annotates each cell with the numeric correlation value.
- **annot_kws={'size':8}**: Sets the font size for annotations to 8, making the numbers
readable.
 - **cmap="Blues"**: Uses a blue color palette, where darker shades represent stronger
correlations.

plt.show()
```

- **plt.show()**: Displays the plot.

### Purpose of the Correlation Heatmap

The heatmap provides an easy-to-read, visual summary of the correlations between

features. This is valuable for:

- **Feature Selection**: Highly correlated features may be redundant and can lead to
multicollinearity, which can make some models unstable or overfit.

- **Pattern Identification**: Seeing which features are positively or negatively correlated

with each other can provide insights into relationships in the data.

- **Model Insights**: Identifying features that are highly correlated with the target
variable (if included) can indicate which features may be the most predictive for the
model.

This visual overview makes it easier to assess the strength and direction of relationships
between features before model training.

# Split data into input and label data

X = df_prep.drop(['price'], axis = 1)
Y = df_prep['price']
print(f'X shape {X.shape}')
print(f'Y shape {Y.shape}')

This code separates the dataset into input features (X) and target labels (Y) for a
machine learning model. Here’s what each line does:

X = df_prep.drop(['price'], axis=1)

 df_prep.drop(['price'], axis=1): Drops the price column from df_prep, so X

contains all columns except price.
o ['price']: Specifies the column to drop. Here, price is the target label,
meaning it’s what the model will learn to predict.
o axis=1: Indicates that we're dropping a column, not a row.
  X: Now contains all feature columns except price, which will be used as input
data for the model.

Y = df_prep['price']

 df_prep['price']: Selects the price column from df_prep.

 Y: Stores this price column as the target label. This is the value that the model
will aim to predict.

print(f'X shape {X.shape}')

print(f'Y shape {Y.shape}')

 X.shape: Prints the dimensions of X (number of rows and columns). This shows
the size of the input data after dropping the price column.
 Y.shape: Prints the dimensions of Y, which should have the same number of rows
as X but only one column, as it contains only the price values.

Summary

After this split:

 X (Input Data): Contains all the features (e.g., airline, source_city, stops, class,
etc.) used to predict the target variable.
 Y (Target Label): Contains only the price column, representing the value the
model will learn to predict.

Purpose of Splitting Data

Separating features and labels allows the model to learn patterns in the features ( X) that
help it predict the target (Y). This setup is essential for supervised learning, where the
model needs both input data and the correct output to train effectively.

# Split data into train and test data

x_train, x_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, Y, test_size
= 0.1, random_state = 42)
print(f'x train shape {x_train.shape}')
print(f'x test shape {x_test.shape}')
print(f'y train shape {y_train.shape}')
print(f'y test shape {y_test.shape}')

This code splits the input features (X) and target variable (Y) into training and testing
datasets, which is a common practice in machine learning to evaluate model performance.
Here’s a breakdown of each part:
x_train, x_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, Y, test_size=0.1,
random_state=42)

 train_test_split(...): This function from the sklearn.model_selection module

is used to split arrays or matrices into random train and test subsets. The function
returns four outputs:
o x_train: The subset of X that will be used for training the model.
o x_test: The subset of X that will be used for testing the model's
performance.
o y_train: The subset of Y corresponding to x_train, which contains the
labels for the training data.
o y_test: The subset of Y corresponding to x_test, which contains the labels
for the testing data.

 test_size=0.1: Specifies the proportion of the dataset to include in the test split. In
this case, 10% of the data will be used for testing, and the remaining 90% will be
used for training.
 random_state=42: Sets a seed for the random number generator to ensure
reproducibility. Using the same random state allows you to get the same train-test
split every time you run the code, making your experiments consistent and
repeatable.

Purpose of Splitting Data

1. Training the Model: The model learns patterns from the training data (x_train
and y_train). It adjusts its parameters based on this data to make predictions.
2. Testing the Model: The test data (x_test and y_test) is used to evaluate the
model's performance. This is critical for assessing how well the model generalizes
to unseen data. By testing on data that was not used during training, you can
gauge the model’s accuracy and effectiveness in real-world scenarios.
3. Preventing Overfitting: If a model is only trained and evaluated on the same
dataset, it might memorize the training data (overfitting) rather than learning to
generalize. By splitting the data, you help ensure the model learns to make
predictions based on patterns rather than specific examples.

python
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print(f'x train shape {x_train.shape}')
print(f'x test shape {x_test.shape}')
print(f'y train shape {y_train.shape}')
print(f'y test shape {y_test.shape}')

 x_train.shape: Displays the shape (number of rows and columns) of the training
features dataset.
 x_test.shape: Displays the shape of the testing features dataset.
 y_train.shape: Displays the shape of the training labels dataset.
 y_test.shape: Displays the shape of the testing labels dataset.
Example Output

If you run the print statements, you might see an output like:

java
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x train shape (90, 29)
x test shape (10, 29)
y train shape (90,)
y test shape (10,)

This indicates that:

 The training dataset has 90 samples and 29 features.

 The testing dataset has 10 samples and 29 features.
 The training labels contain 90 target values.
 The testing labels contain 10 target values.

Overall, this split is essential for building a reliable and effective machine learning
model.

x train shape (270137, 29)

x test shape (30016, 29)
y train shape (270137,)
y test shape (30016,)

The shapes of the training and testing datasets are expressed as tuples that indicate the
number of samples (rows) and features (columns). Here's a detailed explanation of the
output you provided:

Explanation of Shapes

1. x_train shape (270137, 29)

o 270137: This number indicates that the training dataset contains 270,137
samples (or observations). Each sample corresponds to a row in the
DataFrame.
o 29: This number indicates that there are 29 features (or columns) in the
training dataset. These features are the input variables that the model will
use to learn patterns. They can include numerical features (like duration,
days_left, etc.) and binary features created through one-hot encoding
(like airline_AirAsia, arrival_time_Morning, etc.).

2. x_test shape (30016, 29)

 o 30016: This number indicates that the testing dataset contains 30,016
samples. This dataset will be used to evaluate the performance of the
trained model.
o 29: The testing dataset also has 29 features, identical to the training set,
ensuring that the model can apply the same learned patterns to unseen
data.

3. y_train shape (270137,)

o 270137: This indicates that the training labels dataset (y_train) contains
270,137 target values corresponding to the 270,137 samples in x_train.
These values are what the model will learn to predict based on the input
features.

4. y_test shape (30016,)

o 30016: This indicates that the testing labels dataset (y_test) contains
30,016 target values, matching the number of samples in x_test. These
values will be used to evaluate how well the model performs on the test
data.

Summary

 The training set (x_train and y_train) comprises 270,137 samples, which is a
substantial dataset, allowing the model to learn a variety of patterns and
relationships in the data effectively.
 The testing set (x_test and y_test) comprises 30,016 samples, which is also
significant. It is used to assess how well the model generalizes to new, unseen
data after training.
 Both datasets have the same number of features (29), which ensures consistency
and allows the model to apply what it learned from the training data to the testing
data effectively.

Importance of the Split

 Having a larger training dataset allows the model to learn more robust patterns
and relationships, which can improve its performance.
 The testing dataset is crucial for validating the model’s accuracy and ensuring that
it performs well on data it hasn't seen before, helping to avoid overfitting.

This split between training and testing datasets is a standard practice in machine learning,
as it helps ensure the model can effectively learn from the training data and perform well
on new, unseen examples.
def plot_predictions(y_train, predicted_y_train, y_test,
predicted_y_test):
plt.figure(figsize = (10,10))
plt.subplot(1,2,1)
plt.title('Training Set: Actual vs Predicted Labels')
plt.xlabel('train lables')
plt.ylabel('predicted labels')
plt.scatter(y_train, predicted_y_train,color='red',marker='X')
plt.plot(range(int(min(y_train)),
int(max(y_train))),color='black')
plt.subplot(1,2,2)
plt.title('Test Set: Actual vs Predicted Labels')
plt.xlabel('test lables')
plt.ylabel('predicted labels')
plt.scatter(y_test, predicted_y_test,color='blue',marker='o')
plt.plot(range(int(min(y_test)),
int(max(y_test))),color='black')
plt.show()

The plot_predictions function is designed to visualize the actual versus predicted

labels for both the training and testing datasets in a machine learning model. This helps
assess how well the model is performing in predicting the target variable. Here’s a
breakdown of the function:

Function Definition
python
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def plot_predictions(y_train, predicted_y_train, y_test,
predicted_y_test):

 Parameters:
o y_train: The actual labels for the training dataset.
o predicted_y_train: The predicted labels for the training dataset generated
by the model.
o y_test: The actual labels for the testing dataset.
o predicted_y_test: The predicted labels for the testing dataset generated by
the model.

Visualization Setup
python
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plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10))

 plt.figure(figsize=(10, 10)): Initializes a new figure with a size of 10x10 inches,

providing enough space for both subplots to be clearly visible.

First Subplot: Training Set Predictions

python
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plt.subplot(1, 2, 1)
plt.title('Training Set: Actual vs Predicted Labels')
plt.xlabel('train labels')
plt.ylabel('predicted labels')
plt.scatter(y_train, predicted_y_train, color='red', marker='X')
plt.plot(range(int(min(y_train)), int(max(y_train))), color='black')

 plt.subplot(1, 2, 1): Creates a 1x2 grid of subplots and activates the first subplot.
 plt.title(...): Sets the title for the first subplot as "Training Set: Actual vs
Predicted Labels".
 plt.xlabel(...): Labels the x-axis as "train labels" (the actual labels).
 plt.ylabel(...): Labels the y-axis as "predicted labels" (the labels predicted by
the model).
 plt.scatter(...): Creates a scatter plot to show actual vs. predicted labels for the
training set:
o y_train: The actual labels on the x-axis.
o predicted_y_train: The predicted labels on the y-axis.
o color='red': Sets the color of the points to red.
o marker='X': Uses an 'X' shape for the points in the scatter plot.
 plt.plot(...): Draws a line (black) representing the ideal scenario where actual and
predicted values are equal. The range is determined by the minimum and
maximum values in y_train. This line helps to visually assess how close the
predicted values are to the actual values.

Second Subplot: Test Set Predictions

python
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plt.subplot(1, 2, 2)
plt.title('Test Set: Actual vs Predicted Labels')
plt.xlabel('test labels')
plt.ylabel('predicted labels')
plt.scatter(y_test, predicted_y_test, color='blue', marker='o')
plt.plot(range(int(min(y_test)), int(max(y_test))), color='black')

 plt.subplot(1, 2, 2): Activates the second subplot in the 1x2 grid.

 plt.title(...): Sets the title for this subplot as "Test Set: Actual vs Predicted
Labels".
  plt.xlabel(...): Labels the x-axis as "test labels" (the actual labels).
 plt.ylabel(...): Labels the y-axis as "predicted labels" (the labels predicted by
the model).
 plt.scatter(...): Creates a scatter plot for the test set:
o y_test: The actual labels on the x-axis.
o predicted_y_test: The predicted labels on the y-axis.
o color='blue': Sets the color of the points to blue.
o marker='o': Uses a circular shape for the points in the scatter plot.
 plt.plot(...): Draws a black line to indicate where actual and predicted values
would match.

Show the Plots

python
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plt.show()

 plt.show(): Displays the complete figure with both subplots.

Summary of Purpose

The plot_predictions function visually compares actual versus predicted labels for
both the training and testing datasets. Here are some key insights that can be gained from
these plots:

 Model Performance: By observing how closely the predicted values align with
the actual values, you can gauge the performance of the model. Ideally, the points
should be close to the black line, indicating accurate predictions.
 Training vs. Testing: Comparing the training and testing plots helps to identify
potential issues, such as overfitting (where the model performs well on training
data but poorly on test data) or underfitting (where the model performs poorly on
both datasets).
 Distribution of Predictions: The scatter plots allow you to see the distribution of
predictions and identify any systematic errors or patterns in the predictions.

Overall, this function is a valuable tool for visual evaluation of the model's predictive
capabilities.
# Train model and make it predict on test data
def train_model(model):
model.fit(x_train, y_train)

# Find model score

train_score = model.score(x_train, y_train)
test_score = model.score(x_test, y_test)
print(f'Train score {train_score}, Test score {test_score}')

# Make model predict on train and test data

y_train_pred = model.predict(x_train)
y_test_pred = model.predict(x_test)

# Evaluate the model using MSE and R square

mse_train = mean_squared_error(y_train, y_train_pred)
mse_test = mean_squared_error(y_test, y_test_pred)
print(f'MSE train {mse_train}, MSE test {mse_test}')

# Plot actual and prediced labels

plot_predictions(y_train, y_train_pred, y_test, y_test_pred)

return model, test_score

The train_model function is designed to train a machine learning model, evaluate its
performance, and visualize its predictions. Here’s a detailed explanation of each part of
the function:

Function Definition
python
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def train_model(model):

 Parameters:
o model: This parameter represents the machine learning model to be
trained (e.g., linear regression, decision tree, etc.). It should have methods
like fit, score, and predict.

Training the Model

python
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model.fit(x_train, y_train)

 model.fit(...): This method is used to train the model using the training data:
o x_train: The input features for the training set.
o y_train: The corresponding actual labels for the training set.
 The model learns patterns from the training data, adjusting its internal parameters
accordingly.

Model Evaluation
python
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# Find model score
train_score = model.score(x_train, y_train)
test_score = model.score(x_test, y_test)
print(f'Train score {train_score}, Test score {test_score}')

 model.score(...): This method computes the coefficient of determination

R2R^2R2 of the prediction, which indicates how well the model explains the
variance in the data.
o train_score: The performance of the model on the training set.
o test_score: The performance of the model on the test set.
 print(...): Outputs the training and testing scores, allowing for a quick comparison
of how well the model performs on both datasets.

Making Predictions
python
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# Make model predict on train and test data
y_train_pred = model.predict(x_train)
y_test_pred = model.predict(x_test)

 model.predict(...): This method generates predictions based on the input features:

o y_train_pred: The predicted labels for the training data.
o y_test_pred: The predicted labels for the test data.

Evaluating Model Performance

python
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# Evaluate the model using MSE and R square
mse_train = mean_squared_error(y_train, y_train_pred)
mse_test = mean_squared_error(y_test, y_test_pred)
print(f'MSE train {mse_train}, MSE test {mse_test}')
  mean_squared_error(...): This function calculates the Mean Squared Error
(MSE), which is a measure of the average squared difference between the actual
and predicted values:
o mse_train: The MSE for the training predictions.
o mse_test: The MSE for the testing predictions.
 print(...): Outputs the MSE values for both training and testing, providing insight
into the model's accuracy. Lower MSE values indicate better performance.

Visualizing Predictions
python
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# Plot actual and predicted labels
plot_predictions(y_train, y_train_pred, y_test, y_test_pred)

 plot_predictions(...): This function (which you previously discussed) is called to

visualize the actual versus predicted labels for both the training and testing
datasets. It helps assess how well the model's predictions align with the actual
values.

Returning the Model and Test Score

python
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return model, test_score

 return model, test_score: The function returns the trained model and the test
score. This allows for further evaluation or use of the trained model in subsequent
analyses.

Summary

Overall, the train_model function is a comprehensive approach to:

1. Train the machine learning model using the training dataset.

2. Evaluate its performance on both training and testing datasets using metrics like
R2R^2R2 and MSE.
3. Visualize the model's predictions against the actual values for both datasets.
4. Return the trained model and the test score for further use or analysis.

This function encapsulates several key steps in the machine learning workflow, providing
a structured approach to model training and evaluation.
models = {
'Linear Regression': LinearRegression(),
'Ridge': Ridge(),
'Lasso': Lasso(),
'ElasticNet': ElasticNet()
}

The code snippet you've provided creates a dictionary named models that contains
various regression models from the sklearn library. Each key in the dictionary is a string
representing the name of the model, and each value is an instance of a corresponding
regression model class. Here’s a detailed explanation of the components involved:

Code Breakdown
models = {
'Linear Regression': LinearRegression(),
'Ridge': Ridge(),
'Lasso': Lasso(),
'ElasticNet': ElasticNet()
}

Explanation of Each Component

1. models Dictionary:
o This dictionary serves as a convenient way to store and access different
machine learning model instances. Using a dictionary allows you to easily
loop through or select specific models by name, which can be particularly
useful when performing model comparisons or evaluations.

2. Model Instances: Each key-value pair in the dictionary represents a specific

regression model.
o 'Linear Regression': LinearRegression()
 Key: 'Linear Regression' - A human-readable string
identifying the model.
 Value: LinearRegression() - An instance of the
LinearRegression class from the sklearn.linear_model
module.
 Description: Linear regression is a statistical method for modeling
the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more
 independent variables by fitting a linear equation to the observed
data.

o 'Ridge': Ridge()
 Key: 'Ridge' - The name for the Ridge regression model.
 Value: Ridge() - An instance of the Ridge class, which
implements ridge regression (also known as Tikhonov
regularization).
 Description: Ridge regression is a type of linear regression that
includes a regularization term. It penalizes the coefficients to avoid
overfitting, especially in cases where there are many features or
multicollinearity among features.

o 'Lasso': Lasso()
 Key: 'Lasso' - The name for the Lasso regression model.
 Value: Lasso() - An instance of the Lasso class, which
implements Lasso regression.
 Description: Lasso regression is similar to ridge regression but
uses L1 regularization instead of L2. This means it can shrink
some coefficients to zero, effectively performing feature selection
and reducing the complexity of the model.

o 'ElasticNet': ElasticNet()
 Key: 'ElasticNet' - The name for the ElasticNet regression
model.
 Value: ElasticNet() - An instance of the ElasticNet class.
 Description: ElasticNet regression combines the penalties of both
Lasso and Ridge regressions. It is particularly useful when you
have a large number of features and multicollinearity, as it can help
stabilize the coefficients.

Importance of Using Multiple Models

 Model Comparison: By storing multiple models in a dictionary, you can easily

iterate through them, train each one on your dataset, and compare their
performance metrics (like Mean Squared Error, R2R^2R2, etc.).
 Flexibility: This approach provides flexibility when experimenting with different
regression techniques. You can easily add or remove models from the dictionary
based on your needs.
 Performance Insights: Each model has its strengths and weaknesses. For
instance:
o Linear Regression is straightforward and interpretable but may perform
poorly with highly correlated features.
o Ridge helps to handle multicollinearity but does not perform variable
selection.
o Lasso can eliminate some variables entirely, which is beneficial for
interpretability and reducing overfitting.
 o ElasticNet offers a balance between Lasso and Ridge, making it versatile
for a wide range of scenarios.

Summary

The code snippet creates a structured way to manage different regression models, making
it easier to implement, evaluate, and compare their performances on a given dataset. This
approach is common in machine learning workflows, especially when trying to determine
the best model for a specific problem. By utilizing a dictionary, it allows for a clean and
efficient implementation that can be easily modified or expanded as needed.

# Train each model and plot the results

all_trained_models = {}
best_model = None
best_score = 0
for model_name, model in models.items():
print(f'model {model_name}:')
model, score = train_model(model)
all_trained_models[model_name] = deepcopy(model)

# Find the best model

if score > best_score:
best_model = deepcopy(model)
best_score = score

The provided code snippet is designed to train a collection of regression models, evaluate
their performance, and identify the best-performing model based on a scoring metric.
Here’s a detailed breakdown of each part of the code:

Code Breakdown
python
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# Initialize dictionaries and variables
all_trained_models = {}
best_model = None
best_score = 0

# Iterate over the models dictionary

for model_name, model in models.items():
print(f'model {model_name}:')
model, score = train_model(model)
all_trained_models[model_name] = deepcopy(model)
 # Find the best model
if score > best_score:
best_model = deepcopy(model)
best_score = score

Explanation of Each Component

1. Initialization:

python
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all_trained_models = {}
best_model = None
best_score = 0

o all_trained_models: This dictionary will store the trained instances of

each model, allowing for future reference or evaluation without retraining.
o best_model: This variable will hold the model with the highest
performance score as the loop iterates through the models.
o best_score: This variable keeps track of the highest score observed
during the training of the models.

2. Iterating Over Models:

python
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for model_name, model in models.items():

o This loop goes through each item in the models dictionary:

 model_name: The name of the model (e.g., "Linear Regression",
"Ridge").
 model: The instance of the model to be trained.

3. Training and Evaluating Each Model:

python
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print(f'model {model_name}:')
model, score = train_model(model)

o print(...): Outputs the current model name to the console for tracking
purposes during the training process.
o train_model(model): This function (which you've previously defined) is
called to train the model and obtain its score. It returns the trained model
and its performance score.

4. Storing the Trained Models:

python
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all_trained_models[model_name] = deepcopy(model)

o After training, the trained model is stored in the all_trained_models

dictionary using the model name as the key.
o deepcopy(model): This function is used to create a deep copy of the
model instance to ensure that any changes to the model in the future do not
affect the stored version.

5. Finding the Best Model:

python
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if score > best_score:
best_model = deepcopy(model)
best_score = score

o The code checks if the current model’s score is greater than the
best_score recorded so far.
o If it is:
 best_model = deepcopy(model): The best model is updated to
the current model instance.
 best_score = score: The best_score is updated to the current
model’s score.

Summary

Overall, this code snippet performs the following:

 Iterates through multiple regression models stored in the models dictionary.

 Trains each model on the training dataset while simultaneously evaluating its
performance.
 Stores each trained model in the all_trained_models dictionary for later use
or analysis.
 Identifies the best-performing model based on the highest score observed
during training.

This approach is common in machine learning workflows, allowing practitioners to

efficiently compare multiple models and select the one that performs best according to a
specified metric, which could be R2R^2R2, Mean Squared Error (MSE), or any other
relevant performance measure.

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Assuming you have a list of model names and their accuracies

model_names = ["Linear Regression", "Ridge", "Lasso", "ElasticNet"]
accuracies = [0.9100519449185994, 0.91005193562792,
0.910042313011652, 0.5115615036678325]

# Create the table data as a list of lists (rows)

table_data = [[model, accuracy] for model, accuracy in
zip(model_names, accuracies)]

# Create the table

fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 4)) # Adjust figsize for larger
table
table = ax.table(cellText=table_data, colLabels=['Model',
'Accuracy'], loc='center')

# Center align, increase font size, and adjust row height

for cell in table.get_celld().values():
cell.set_text_props(ha='center', va='center', fontsize=14)
cell.set_height(0.1) # Adjust row height here

# Hide the axes

ax.axis('off')

# Display the table

plt.show()

1. Importing Libraries:

python
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import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

o This line imports the pyplot module from Matplotlib, which is used for
creating static, animated, and interactive visualizations in Python.

2. Defining Model Names and Accuracies:

python
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model_names = ["Linear Regression", "Ridge", "Lasso",
"ElasticNet"]
accuracies = [0.9100519449185994, 0.91005193562792,
0.910042313011652, 0.5115615036678325]

o Two lists are defined:

  model_names: A list of strings representing the names of different
regression models.
 accuracies: A list of floats representing the accuracy (or
performance score) of each corresponding model.

3. Creating Table Data:

python
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table_data = [[model, accuracy] for model, accuracy in
zip(model_names, accuracies)]

o This line uses a list comprehension along with the zip() function to create
a list of lists (table_data), where each sublist contains the model name
and its corresponding accuracy.
o The structure of table_data would look like this:

python
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[
['Linear Regression', 0.9100519449185994],
['Ridge', 0.91005193562792],
['Lasso', 0.910042313011652],
['ElasticNet', 0.5115615036678325]
]

4. Creating the Table:

python
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fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 4)) # Adjust figsize for
larger table
table = ax.table(cellText=table_data, colLabels=['Model',
'Accuracy'], loc='center')

o fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(10, 4)): This line creates a new

figure (fig) and a set of subplots (ax) with a specified size. The figure
size of 10 by 4 inches allows for a wider table display.
o ax.table(...): This method creates a table on the specified axes (ax):
 cellText=table_data: Passes the table data to be displayed in
the cells.
 colLabels=['Model', 'Accuracy']: Sets the column headers
for the table.
 loc='center': Centers the table in the plot area.

5. Formatting the Table:

python
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for cell in table.get_celld().values():
 cell.set_text_props(ha='center', va='center', fontsize=14)
cell.set_height(0.1) # Adjust row height here

o This loop iterates through all cells in the table to adjust their properties:
 set_text_props(...): This method is used to center-align the
text in both horizontal (ha) and vertical (va) directions, and it sets
the font size to 14 for better visibility.
 set_height(0.1): This adjusts the height of each row, which can
help with readability.

6. Hiding the Axes:

python
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ax.axis('off')

o This line turns off the axes lines and ticks, giving the table a cleaner look.

7. Displaying the Table:

python
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plt.show()

o Finally, this command displays the figure with the table in a window. It
will render all the settings applied, showing the neatly formatted table.

Summary

This code snippet effectively creates a visually appealing table that presents the accuracy
of various regression models. The use of Matplotlib allows for customization of the
table's appearance, making it suitable for inclusion in reports or presentations where
model performance comparison is needed.

# Until now, the Linear Regression model is the best one, so lets
check the feature importances
# Instead of feature_importances_, we should use coef_ to get the
coefficients
features = x_train.columns
importances = all_trained_models['Linear Regression'].coef_ # Use
coef_ instead of feature_importances_
important_features = pd.DataFrame({'feature': features,
'importance': importances})
important_features = important_features.sort_values(by='importance',
ascending=False)
important_features[:10]

Explanation of Each Component

1. Context:
o The comments indicate that the Linear Regression model has been
identified as the best-performing model based on previous evaluations.
o The goal now is to analyze the importance of each feature in this model.

2. Extracting Feature Names:

python
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features = x_train.columns

o x_train.columns: This retrieves the column names from the training

dataset (x_train), which represent the features used in the model.
o These names will be useful for identifying which coefficients correspond
to which features.

3. Getting Coefficients:

python
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importances = all_trained_models['Linear Regression'].coef_ # Use
coef_ instead of feature_importances_

o all_trained_models['Linear Regression'].coef_: This accesses the

coef_ attribute of the trained Linear Regression model, which contains the
coefficients for each feature.
o In a Linear Regression model, the coefficient for each feature indicates the
strength and direction of the relationship between that feature and the
target variable. A positive coefficient suggests a direct relationship (as the
feature increases, the target variable also increases), while a negative
coefficient indicates an inverse relationship.

4. Creating a DataFrame for Feature Importance:

python
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important_features = pd.DataFrame({'feature': features,
'importance': importances})

o This line creates a pandas DataFrame named important_features with

two columns:
 feature: Contains the names of the features.
  importance: Contains the corresponding coefficients from the
Linear Regression model.
o The DataFrame provides a structured way to analyze the relationship
between features and their importance.

5. Sorting by Importance:

python
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important_features =
important_features.sort_values(by='importance', ascending=False)

o sort_values(...): This method sorts the DataFrame based on the

importance column (i.e., the coefficients) in descending order.
o This sorting helps quickly identify which features have the most
significant positive or negative influence on the target variable.

6. Displaying the Top Features:

python
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important_features[:10]

o This line retrieves the top 10 features based on their importance scores.
o By selecting only the first 10 rows, you can quickly assess the most
influential features in the model.

Summary

In summary, this code snippet allows you to analyze the feature importance of the Linear
Regression model by using the model's coefficients. Each coefficient reveals the impact
of its corresponding feature on the target variable. By sorting and displaying the top
features, you gain insights into which aspects of the data are most influential in predicting
the target, facilitating a better understanding of the model's behavior and potentially
guiding further feature engineering or data analysis efforts.

importan
feature
ce

45161.0532
1 class
44

5640.80584
0 stops
9

8 airline_Vistara 4245.27970
 importan
feature
ce

2467.84021
6 airline_Indigo
6

2451.88446
7 airline_SpiceJet
5

2148.78852
5 airline_GO_FIRST
9

1506.65004
12 source_city_Kolkata
8

departure_time_Late_ 1400.17031
16
Night 8

destination_city_Kolka 1315.99314
27
ta 6

1103.88276
23 arrival_time_Night
2

Explanation of Each Component

1. Feature Column:
o This column lists the various
features used in the Linear
Regression model. These features
represent different aspects of the
data related to flight prices.
o Specific Features:
 class: Represents the class
of service (e.g., Economy,
Business). It has the highest
coefficient, suggesting it
significantly influences
price.
 stops: Indicates the number
of stops in the flight. This
feature also has a notable
coefficient.
 airline_*: These are
 importan
feature
ce

dummy variables created

from categorical data
representing specific
airlines. Each airline's
coefficient reflects its effect
on price relative to the
baseline (the airline that was
dropped during one-hot
encoding).
 source_city_* and
destination_city_*:
These features denote the
cities involved in the flight
route, with Kolkata being
specifically highlighted in
this dataset.
 departure_time_* and
arrival_time_*: These
features indicate the time
slots for flights, which can
also influence pricing.

2. Importance Column:
o This column displays the
importance score (coefficient) for
each feature. The higher the value,
the more significant the feature's
contribution to the target variable
(price).
o Interpreting the Coefficients:
 A positive coefficient
indicates a direct
relationship with the target
variable. For example, a
higher class rating (e.g.,
Business class) results in a
higher price.
 The coefficients reflect the
change in the target variable
for a one-unit change in the
feature while keeping other
features constant.
 importan
feature
ce

Insights from the Data

1. class:
o The class of service has the highest
coefficient (45161.05), indicating
that it is the most important
predictor of flight prices. This
aligns with common expectations
that higher service classes typically
command higher prices.

2. stops:
o The stops feature has a coefficient
of 5640.81, suggesting that flights
with fewer stops are significantly
more expensive, which is also a
typical consumer preference.

3. Airlines:
o The coefficients for different
airlines (e.g., Vistara, Indigo,
SpiceJet) show how each airline's
pricing strategy affects the overall
price. For instance, Vistara has the
highest among them (4245.28),
indicating it may position itself as a
premium option relative to others.

4. Cities and Times:

o Features related to departure and
arrival times and city destinations
show lower coefficients than class
and stops, yet they still contribute
to pricing decisions. The
importance of these features may
reflect varying demand and
operational costs depending on the
time of day or specific routes.

Conclusion
 importan
feature
ce

This feature importance summary provides

valuable insights into how different variables
influence flight prices. Understanding these
relationships allows stakeholders (like airline
companies and pricing analysts) to make informed
decisions based on customer preferences and
market dynamics. It also highlights which features
should be prioritized in further analyses or model
tuning.

plt.figure(figsize = (20,10))
plt.bar([x[0] for x in important_features.values[:10]],
[x[1] for x in important_features.values[:10]])
plt.show()

The provided code snippet is a visualization of the top 10 most important features
affecting the target variable (likely flight prices) in a Linear Regression model. Let's
break down the code step-by-step to understand what it does.

Code Breakdown
python
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plt.figure(figsize=(20,10))
plt.bar([x[0] for x in important_features.values[:10]],
[x[1] for x in important_features.values[:10]])
plt.show()

Explanation of Each Component

1. Creating the Figure:

python
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plt.figure(figsize=(20,10))

o plt.figure(): This function creates a new figure for plotting.

o figsize=(20,10): This parameter sets the size of the figure to be 20
inches wide and 10 inches tall. A larger figure size allows for better
visibility of labels and details, especially when displaying multiple bars.
 2. Creating a Bar Plot:

python
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plt.bar([x[0] for x in important_features.values[:10]],
[x[1] for x in important_features.values[:10]])

o plt.bar(): This function is used to create a bar chart.

o X-Axis (Feature Names):
 [x[0] for x in important_features.values[:10]]: This list
comprehension extracts the names of the top 10 features from the
important_features DataFrame.
 important_features.values[:10] retrieves the first 10 rows of
feature importance data, and x[0] accesses the feature names
(which are in the first column).
o Y-Axis (Importance Scores):
 [x[1] for x in important_features.values[:10]]: This
extracts the importance scores (coefficients) of the top 10 features.
 Similar to the previous list comprehension, this accesses the
second column of the first 10 rows of the important_features
DataFrame (where the importance scores are located).

3. Displaying the Plot:

python
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plt.show()

o This command renders the figure and displays the bar plot. Without this
line, the plot would not appear.

Summary of the Bar Plot

 The resulting bar plot visually represents the importance of the top 10 features in
the Linear Regression model. Each bar corresponds to a feature, with the height of
the bar indicating the magnitude of its coefficient (importance).
 The bar plot makes it easy to compare the importance of different features at a
glance. For example:
o Features with higher bars have a more significant impact on predicting
flight prices.
o The plot clearly shows how each feature contributes relative to others,
allowing for straightforward visual analysis.

Conclusion

This visualization effectively communicates the influence of various features on the

target variable in a way that is accessible and interpretable. It is particularly useful for
stakeholders who need to make decisions based on the importance of different features,
facilitating discussions on which factors should be prioritized in pricing strategies or
future analyses.