Learning

Leaming refers to the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information,
resulting from experience.

Characteristics of Learning

- Learning is indexed by a change in behaviour (results of learning must always be

translated into measurable behaviour.)

- This behavioural change is relatively permanent; that is, it is neither transitory nor fixed.

- The change in behaviour need not occur immediately following the learning experience.

- The change in behaviour (or behaviour potentiality) results from experience or practice.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

- Russian physiologist
- Interested in studying digestion in dogs
- Accidentally discovered classical conditioning
Classical conditioning

- Learning through association

- An organism learns to associate two stimuli, such that one stimulus comes to elicit a
response that originally was elicited only by the other stimulus

Basic idea of CC: Pavlov showed that dogs could be conditioned to salivate at the sound of a
bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time when they were given food.

Process

1. First, when dogs were presented with the food, they salivated.
● Food= unconditioned stimulus
● Salivation= unconditioned response.

2. Then Pavlov sounded the bell (neutral stimulus) before giving the food.

3. After a few pairings, the dogs salivated when they heard the bell even when no food was
given.
● Bell= conditioned stimulus
● Salivation= conditioned response.

The dogs had learnt to associate the bell with the food and the sound of the bell and salivation
was triggered by the sound of the bell. Pavlov showed that classical conditioning leads to
learning by association.
Key Terms associated with Classical Conditioning:

1. Neutral Stimulus: Neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that initially does not evoke a
response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment the
bell was the neutral stimulus, only producing a response when it was paired with food.

2. Unconditioned stimulus- It is a feature of the environment which causes a natural and

automatic unconditioned response. For eg- food

3. Unconditioned response- An unlearned response that occurs automatically when the

unconditioned stimulus is presented. For eg- salivation

4. Conditioned stimulus- Substitute stimulus that triggers the same response in an

organism as an unconditioned stimulus.

5. Conditioned response- it is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. For
eg- bell

6. Acquisition in the initial period of learning acquisition describes when an organism learns
to connect a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. It occurs when the conditioned
stimulus after repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus comes to evoke the
conditioned response.

7. Extinction- Gradual weakening of a conditioned response by breaking the association

between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus

8. Spontaneous recovery- Reappearance of the conditioned response after a rest period

following extension.

9. Generalisation- tendency to respond in the same way to a stimuli that are similar but not
identical to the conditioned stimulus

10. Discrimination- Process through which individuals differentiate among similar stimuli and
respond appropriately to each one
Applications of Classical Conditioning

1. Treatment of disorders
- Used to treat anxiety disorders
- Sometimes used to manage depression

2. Counter conditioning
- Involves pairing a stimulus that elicits fear with a stimulus that elicits positive
emotions

3. Aversion therapy
- Helps to remove an undesired behaviour by associating it with the unpleasant
feelings

4. Systematic desensitisation
- Developed by Wolpe
- Best used in managing with phobias
- Aims to remove the fear of response and substitute it with a relaxation response

Operant Conditioning

BF Skinner

- Burrhus Fredrick Skinner

- Father of operant conditioning
- Based his work on Thorndike’s Law of effect
Operant Conditioning

- Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a learning method

popularised by B.F. Skinner in which the consequences of a response determine the
likelihood that it will be repeated.
- Using operant conditioning, behaviour that is reinforced (rewarded) is more likely to be
repeated, while behaviour that is punished is less likely to occur.

Skinner Box

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device that is used to
objectively record an animal's behaviour in a short period of time. Certain behaviours, such as
lever pressing (for rats) can be rewarded or punished in an animal.

A lever is positioned on one wall above a small cup. When the lever is depressed, a food pellet
automatically falls into the cup. In the chamber, a hungry rat is placed, and as it moves around,
it inadvertently presses the lever. The rat consumes a food pellet, which clinks into the cup. The
rat's behaviour is recorded using a recorder.

Reinforcement- A response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it.

a) Positive reinforcement- A response in behaviour strengthened by rewards in positive

reinforcement resulting in the repetition of desired behaviour
b) Negative reinforcement- A response in behaviour weakened by negative stimuli,
resulting in gradual disappearance of the behaviour
Punishment-

- It is the opposite of reinforcement

- It is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it
- It is not the best method to cause a behaviour change, because:
● Punished behaviour is suppressed rather than forgotten
● It causes aggression
● It creates fear

Observational Learning

- Proposed by Albert Bandura

- Gave by explaining Bobo doll experiment

Social learning theory-

- People learn by observing and imitating behaviour

- Behaviour is modelled to perform actions

Bobo Doll experiment-

Cognitive learning

1. Insight Learning
2. Latent Learning

Insight Learning

- Wolfgang Kohler
- Experiment on chimpanzee

Learning by insight means sudden grasping of the solution, a flash of understanding,

without any process of trial and error.

1. Kohlar kept a monkey hungry for some time, and then shut him in a large cage. He hung
bananas from the ceiling, and kept a box on the floor of the cage, fast beneath. 2. The
monkey could not reach the banana. Another box was put in a corner of the cage. 3. But
still, he could not get the idea of placing one box on the other and thus reaching the banana.
4. Ultimately Kohlar gave a demonstration of putting one box on the other. The monkey
then used his intelligence and insight to put the two boxes one upon the other, stand on
these and then reach the bananas.

(ii) Experiment with two sticks:

1. In another experiment Kohler kept two sticks in the cage.

2. One end of the shorter sticks could be fitted in the one end of the longer sticks, so as to
make them longer.
3. The monkey did not get the idea of forming the two sticks through trial and error. 4.
When Kohlar gave a hint through putting his finger in the whole of the bigger stick, the
monkey viewed the whole situation and performed the right task through understanding the
insight.

Latent Learning

Latent Learning is defined as a phenomenon in which learning takes place sometime before but
isn’t displayed until there is an incentive to perform.

Tolman experiment-

- Tolman
- Maze experiments with rats
A maze was constructed and three groups of rats were taken who had to find their way out of
the maze at the end of which there was a food box.

- It is believed that group 2 from day 1-10, formed a cognitive map of the route of the
maze.
- They took time to reach the end of the maze because there was no motivation for them to
perform.
- But from day 11, they had a motivation, i.e., food and therefore took less time and
committed less errors.
- Hence latent learning took place in group 2 rats as they learned (cognitive maps) but
didn’t display it until there was an incentive for them to perform it (food).
Motivation

- Motivation is the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so
that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
- The word comes from the Latin word movere, which means “to move.”
- Motivation is what “moves” people to do the things they do.

Types of motivation

The two types of motivation are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

a) Intrinsic motivation
- Intrinsic motivation can arise from the self-generated factors that influence
people’s behaviour.
- It is not created by external incentives.
- It can take the form of motivation by the work itself when individuals feel that
their work is important, interesting and challenging and provides them with a
reasonable degree of autonomy (freedom to act), opportunities to achieve and
advance, and scope to use and develop their skills and abilities.
- Deci and Ryan (1985) suggested that intrinsic motivation is based on the need
to be competent and self-determining (that is, to have a choice).

b) Extrinsic motivation
- Extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people to motivate
them.
- These include rewards, such as incentives, increased pay, praise, or
promotion; and punishments, such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or
criticism.
- Extrinsic motivators can have an immediate and powerful effect, but will not
necessarily last long.
McClelland Theory of Motivation
Motivational Conflicts

1. Approach approach conflict

- Choose between 2 desirable outcomes
- Theory of cognitive dissonance- a state of tension occurs when beliefs or
behaviours conflict with one another.
- Cognitive dissonance reduction- process by which people are motivated to
reduce tension between beliefs or behaviours

2. Approach avoidance conflict

- When people want a desirable goal but wish to avoid it at the same time.
- Happens when a positive outcome has some cons attached to it.
- For eg- you want to go to a party but you'll fail your stats exam

3. Avoidance avoidance conflict

- When people are forced to choose between 2 outcomes and both have
undesirable consequences