CHAPTER 3

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Charges in motion constitute an electric current. Such currents occur naturally in many
situations. Lightning is one such phenomenon in which charges flow from the clouds to
the earth through the atmosphere. The flow of charges in lightning is not steady, but in
our everyday life we see many devices where charges flow in a steady manner. A torch
and a cell-driven clock are examples of such devices. Electric Current
When current steady, the rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a conductor
is called electric current flowing through it.
𝐈 = 𝐪/𝐭
Unit of electric current = coulomb/second =C/s =ampere (A)
When current is not steady, the current at time t across the cross-section of the
conductor is defined as the ratio of ∆Q to ∆t in the limit of ∆t tending to zero,

ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CONDUCTORS

When no electric field is present: - The electrons will be moving due to thermal motion.
During motion electrons collide with the fixed ions. The direction of its velocity after the
collision is completely random. The average velocity of electrons will be zero. So, there
will be no net electric current.
When an electric field is present:-

The electrons will be accelerated due to this field towards +Q. They will thus move to
neutralize the charges and constitute an electric current. Hence there will be a current
for a very short while and no current thereafter. To maintain a steady electric field in the
body of the conductor we use cells or batteries.
OHM’S LAW
A basic law regarding flow of currents was discovered by G.S. Ohm in 1828. At constant
temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference between the ends of the conductor.
Metals and metallic alloys, which obey ohms law, are known as ohmic conductors.
Conductors like electrolytes; gases etc do not obey ohms law and are known as non –
ohmic conductors.
The resistance of a conductor depends on
(1) the material of the conductor
(2) the dimensions [length and area of cross section] and
𝐑∝𝒍
𝐑 ∝ 𝟏 /𝐀
(3) the temperature.
RESISTIVITY OF A CONDUCTOR
𝐑 = 𝛒𝒍/𝐀
where the constant of proportionality ρ is called resistivity. Resistivity depends on the
material of the conductor but not on its dimensions. 𝛒 = 𝐑𝐀 /𝒍
Unit of resistivity = Ωm2/ m = Ωm
CONDUCTANCE
The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance.
Unit of conductance is ohm−1 (Ω −1or mho) or =siemens
CONDUCTIVITY:
Reciprocal of resistivity is called as conductivity.
Limitations of Ohm’s Law

a) The value of V stops to be proportional to I.

b) The value of current changes when we reverse the direction of V.
c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for
the same current I.
RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS
The materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators depending on
their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.
▪ Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10−8 Ωm to 10−6 Ωm.
▪ Insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having resistivities 1018 times greater than
metals or more.
▪ In between the two are the semiconductors
A simple device which maintains a steady current in an electric circuit is the electrolytic
cell
The current in the external circuit is divided among the cells.
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐸1 −𝑉 𝐸2 −𝑉
= +
𝑟1 𝑟2

𝐸1 𝐸2 1 1
=( + ) − 𝑉( − )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝐸1 𝑟2 +𝐸2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
V= –I( )
𝑟1 +𝑟2 𝑟1 +𝑟2
 EMF Potential Difference
EMF is the maximum potential difference P.D is the difference of potentials between
between the two electrodes of the cell any two points in a closed circuit
when no current is drawn from the
cell,i.e, when the circuit is open
(i) It is independent of the resistance (i) It is proportional to the resistance
of the circuit. between the given points.
(i) The term emf is used only for the (ii) It is measured between any two
source of the emf. points of the circuit.

(i) It is greater than the potential However, P.D is greater than emf when
difference between any two the cell is being charged
points in a circuit.
Wheatstone Bridge
The Wheatstone bridge has four resistors P, Q, R and X. The arm AC
is called the battery arm. The arm BD is called the galvanometer arm.
Current flows through all the resistors and 𝐼𝑔 is the current
flowing through the galvanometer.
In a balanced bridge, the resistors are such that 𝐼𝑔 = 0
Applying Kirchhoff's rule to the closed loops ABDA and CBDC,
For loop ABDA
-𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0
𝐼1 𝑅
=
𝐼2 𝑃
For loop BCDB,
-𝐼1 𝑄 + 𝐼2 𝑋 = 0
𝐼1 𝑋
Therefore, =
𝐼2 𝑄
𝑃 𝑅
From the above equation, =
𝑄 𝑋

Meter Bridge or Slide Wire Bridge.

One common form of Wheatstone bridge is Meter Bridge used to measure an unknown resistance or to
compare two unknown resistances. Meter Bridge consists of a resistance wire AC one meter long and
stretched between two fixed copper strips. A resistance box R is connected in gap G1, and unknown
resistance Q is connected across gap G2. A cell E is connected across AC and a galvanometer G is
connected between B and D; where D is a movable point. At D
there is a jockey, which slides along the wire so that contact may
be made with the bridge wire at any point desired. A suitable
resistance R is introduced in the resistance box and the jockey is
moved over the wire until the galvanometer shows zero
deflection. Then the bridge is said to be balanced. The position
of the jockey where galvanometer shows no deflection is called
null point.
CHAPTER 4. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Oersted’s Experiment
Christian Oersted discovered that moving charges or currents produce a magnetic field
in the surrounding space. The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of
current.
In 1820, Oersted discovered that an electric current could
produce a magnetic field. Stretch a wire AB over a pivoted
magnetic needle NS placed below it, the length of the wire
being parallel to the axis of the needle. On sending a current
through the wire, the needle is found to get deflected. On
reversing the current, the magnetic field is also reversed. So Oersted concluded that a
magnetic field is associated with an electric current.

Biot – Savart law:-

According to Biot and Savart, the magnetic field dB at a point P due to a current I flowing
through a small element of length dl of the conductor is
(1) directly proportional to the length dl of the element and to the current I it carries.
(2) inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between the current element
and the point P; and
(3) directly proportional to the
sine of the angle between the current
element and the line joining it with the
point P under considered.
Application of Biot-Savart law
Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop

Consider a circular coil of wire of radius a, carrying a current I. Let P be a point on the
axis of the coil at a distance x from the center O. Consider a small element dl of the loop
carrying current. It is at a distance r from the point P.
Now according to Biot – Savart’s law, the Magnetic field at P due to element dl is given

by

since angle theta is 900

because for all elements around the loop, the distance r is perpendicular to dl.
The direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and P – ie along PQ. The
field dB may be resolved into two components – dBsin ∅along the axis of the loop and
dBcos ∅ perpendicular to the axis.
If we consider a diametrically opposite element dl, the contribution of the magnetic field
at P is same, but along PQl . When we resolve the magnetic field along PQl, the
perpendicular components due to the two elements being equal and opposite, cancel
each other but the components along the axis get added up. Now the current loop may
be imagined to be made up of such pairs of elementary lengths, so that the magnetic
field B at the point P is the sum of the components along the axis.

The direction of the magnetic field is given by right-hand thumb rule. Curl the palm of
your right hand around the circular wire with the fingers pointing in the direction of the
current. The right-hand thumb gives the direction of the magnetic field.
AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL THEOREM.
Ampere’s Circuital theorem states that the line integral of the magnetic field around any
closed path in free space is equal to µ0 times the net current enclosed by the path.
Applications of Ampere’s circuital theorem
1) Magnetic field due to a long straight conductor.
Consider a long straight conductor carrying a current I. Let B be the magnetic field
at a point P, distant r from the long conductor. Now with r as radius and the
conductor as center, draw a circle. Now by Ampere’s circuital theorem,

Magnetic field due to a solenoid

A solenoid consists of a long-insulated wire wound closely and uniformly over a hollow
cylindrical nonconducting core. The number of turns per unit length is n(=N/L), where N
is the total number of turns.
 Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field.
We know that moving charges can produce magnetic field. So, when a charge moves
through a magnetic field, it will interact with the field and hence experience a force. The
force F acting on a charge q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field of flux density B
is given by

This force is known as magnetic Lorentz force.

⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑
The direction of magnetic Lorentz force is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐵
𝑣.
Magnetic Lorentz force, F = q v B Sin𝜃
1) If charge is moving parallel to the field, 𝜃 = 0. F = 0.
2) If charge is moving perpendicular to the field, 𝜃 = 90° F = maximum = q v B.
 3) If v=0, then F=0

Motion of a charged particle in a Magnetic field

Case 1 - When θ =00 or θ =1800
i.e. the charge is moving in the same direction or opposite direction of magnetic field
(parallel or antiparallel)
F = qvB sin 0 =0 F = qvB sin 180 =0
Thus there is no magnetic force on the charge and the charge moves undeflected.
Case 2 - When θ =900
i.e. the charged particle entering perpendicular to a magnetic field.
F = qvB sin 90
F = qvB
The perpendicular force, F=q v B, acts as a centripetal force and produces a circular
motion perpendicular to the magnetic field. The particle will describe a circle if v and B
are perpendicular to each other.
Case 3- When θ between 00 and 900
i.e. when the charged particle moves at an arbitrary angle 𝜃 with the field direction,
it undergoes helical path.
Here velocity has one component along B, and the other perpendicular to B. The motion
in the direction of field is unaffected by magnetic field, as the magnetic force is zero. The
motion in a plane perpendicular to B is circular , thereby producing a helical motion.
The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p.

Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length 𝑙. The total number of
mobile charge carriers in it is nA𝑙. Let e be the charge on each charge carrier.
Then q=neA 𝑙 Let each mobile carrier has an average drift velocity vd.

F = B I l sin𝜃
If the conductor is parallel to the field, 𝜃 = 0. Therefore, force F = 0. If the conductor is
perpendicular to the field, 𝜃 = 90°. Then force F = B Il= maximum.

Force between two parallel conductors carrying

current.
Consider two infinitely long conductors P and Q parallel to each
other and separated by a distance r. Let I1 and I2 be the currents
through P and Q respectively. Now each conductor is in the
magnetic field of the other and hence experiences a force. The
magnetic field produced by P at the Q conductor is given by,
𝜇0𝐼
B=
2𝜋𝑟
This magnetic field acts perpendicular to the conductor Q and is directed into the plane
of the paper. The force experienced per unit length of conductor Q, F = I2B
Similarly, a force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction is exerted on P by the
current carrying wire Q.

Definition of 1 Ampere: -
The force experienced per unit length between two infinitely long parallel conductors
carrying currents I1 and I2 and separated by a distance r is given by
Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole
Torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic field
The Moving Coil Galvanometer
A convenient way for the manufacturer to increase the sensitivity is to increase
the number of turns N
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
To convert a Galvanometer to a voltmeter a high resistance, R is connected in series with
the galvanometer coil.