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i
 Chapter 9
Effective Business Writing
However great…natural talent may be, the art of writing cannot be learned all at
once.

- Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Read, read, read…Just like a carpenter who works as an apprentice and studies the
master.

- William Faulkner

You only learn to be a better writer by actually writing.

- Doris Lessing

Getting Started

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES

1. Take a moment to write three words that describe your success in

writing.
2. Make a list of words that you associate with writing. Compare your list
with those of your classmates.
3. Briefly describe your experience writing and include one link to
something you like to read in your post.

Something we often hear in business is, “Get it in writing.” This advice is meant to
prevent misunderstandings based on what one person thought the other person
said. But does written communication—getting it in writing—always prevent
misunderstandings?

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According to a Washington Post news story, a written agreement would have been
helpful to an airline customer named Mike. A victim of an airport mishap, Mike was
given vouchers for $7,500 worth of free travel. However, in accordance with the
airline’s standard policy, the vouchers were due to expire in twelve months. When
Mike saw that he and his wife would not be able to do enough flying to use the
entire amount before the expiration date, he called the airline and asked for an
extension. He was told the airline would extend the deadline, but later discovered
they were willing to do so at only 50 percent of the vouchers’ value. An airline
spokesman told the newspaper, “If [Mike] can produce a letter stating that we
would give the full value of the vouchers, he should produce it.”Oldenburg, D. (2005,
April 12). Old adage holds: Get it in writing. Washington Post, p. C10. Retrieved from
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A45309-2005Apr11.html

Yet, as we will see in this chapter, putting something in writing is not always a
foolproof way to ensure accuracy and understanding. A written communication is
only as accurate as the writer’s knowledge of the subject and audience, and
understanding depends on how well the writer captures the reader’s attention.

This chapter addresses the written word in a business context. We will also briefly
consider the symbols, design, font, timing, and related nonverbal expressions you
make when composing a page or document. Our discussions will focus on effective
communication of your thoughts and ideas through writing that is clear, concise,
and efficient.

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9.1 Oral versus Written Communication

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Explain how written communication is similar to oral communication,

and how it is different.

The written word often stands in place of the spoken word. People often say “it was
good to hear from you” when they receive an e-mail or a letter, when in fact they
didn’t hear the message, they read it. Still, if they know you well, they may mentally
“hear” your voice in your written words. Writing a message to friends or colleagues
can be as natural as talking to them. Yet when we are asked to write something, we
often feel anxious and view writing as a more effortful, exacting process than
talking would be.

Oral and written forms of communication are similar in many ways. They both rely
on the basic communication process, which consists of eight essential elements:
source, receiver, message, channel, receiver, feedback, environment, context, and
interference. Table 9.1 "Eight Essential Elements of Communication" summarizes
these elements and provides examples of how each element might be applied in oral
and written communication.

Table 9.1 Eight Essential Elements of Communication

Element of
Definition Oral Application Written Application
Communication

A source creates
Jay makes a
and Jay writes an e-mail to
1. Source telephone call to
communicates a Heather.
Heather.
message.

A receiver
receives the
2. Receiver Heather listens to Jay. Heather reads Jay’s e-mail.
message from the
source.

The message is Jay asks Heather to

Jay’s e-mail asks Heather to
the stimulus or participate in a
3. Message participate in a conference
meaning conference call at
call at 3:15.
produced by the 3:15.

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Element of
Definition Oral Application Written Application
Communication

source for the

receiver.

A channel is the
way a message
The channel is the
4. Channel travels between The channel is e-mail.
telephone.
source and
receiver.

Feedback is the
message the
Heather replies with an e-
5. Feedback receiver sends in Heather says yes.
mail saying yes.
response to the
source.

The environment
Heather is traveling
is the physical
by train on a business
atmosphere Heather is at her desk when
6. Environment trip when she
where the she receives Jay’s e-mail.
receives Jay’s phone
communication
call.
occurs.

The context Heather expects Jay Heather expects Jay to dial

involves the to send an e-mail and connect the call. Jay
psychological with the call-in expects Heather to check
7. Context
expectations of information for the her e-mail for the call-in
the source and call. Jay expects to do information so that she can
receiver. so, and does. join the call.

Also known as
Heather calls in at
noise,
3:15, but she has
interference is
missed the call Heather waits for a phone
anything that
8. Interference because she forgot call from Jay at 3:15, but he
blocks or distorts
that she is in a doesn’t call.
the
different time zone
communication
from Jay.
process.

As you can see from the applications in this example, at least two different kinds of
interference have the potential to ruin a conference call, and the interference can
exist regardless of whether the communication to plan the call is oral or written.
Try switching the “Context” and “Interference” examples from Oral to Written, and
you will see that mismatched expectations and time zone confusion can happen by
phone or by e-mail. While this example has an unfavorable outcome, it points out a
way in which oral and written communication processes are similar.

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Chapter 9 Effective Business Writing

Another way in which oral and written forms of communication are similar is that
they can be divided into verbal and nonverbal categories. Verbal communication
involves the words you say, and nonverbal communication involves how you say
them—your tone of voice, your facial expression, body language, and so forth.
Written communication also involves verbal and nonverbal dimensions. The words
you choose are the verbal dimension. How you portray or display them is the
nonverbal dimension, which can include the medium (e-mail or a printed
document), the typeface or font, or the appearance of your signature on a letter. In
this sense, oral and written communication are similar in their approach even as
they are quite different in their application.

The written word allows for a dynamic communication process between source and
receiver, but is often asynchronous1, meaning that it occurs at different times.
When we communicate face-to-face, we get immediate feedback, but our written
words stand in place of that interpersonal interaction and we lack that immediate
response. Since we are often not physically present when someone reads what we
have written, it is important that we anticipate the reader’s needs, interpretation,
and likely response to our written messages.

Suppose you are asked to write a message telling clients about a new product or
service your company is about to offer. If you were speaking to one of them in a
relaxed setting over coffee, what would you say? What words would you choose to
describe the product or service, and how it may fulfill the client’s needs? As the
business communicator, you must focus on the words you use and how you use
them. Short, simple sentences, in themselves composed of words, also communicate
a business style. In your previous English classes you may have learned to write
eloquently, but in a business context, your goal is clear, direct communication. One
strategy to achieve this goal is to write with the same words and phrases you use
when you talk. However, since written communication lacks the immediate
feedback that is present in an oral conversation, you need to choose words and
phrases even more carefully to promote accuracy, clarity, and understanding.

KEY TAKEAWAY

Written communication involves the same eight basic elements as oral

communication, but it is often asynchronous.

1. Occurring at different times.

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Chapter 9 Effective Business Writing

EXERCISES

1. Review the oral and written applications in Table 9.1 "Eight Essential
Elements of Communication" and construct a different scenario for
each. What could Jay and Heather do differently to make the conference
call a success?
2. Visit a business Web site that has an “About Us” page. Read the “About
Us” message and write a summary in your own words of what it tells you
about the company. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3. You are your own company. What words describe you? Design a logo,
create a name, and present your descriptive words in a way that gets
attention. Share and compare with classmates.

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9.2 How Is Writing Learned?

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Explain how reading, writing, and critical thinking contribute to

becoming a good writer.

You may think that some people are simply born better writers than others, but in
fact writing is a reflection of experience and effort. If you think about your
successes as a writer, you may come up with a couple of favorite books, authors, or
teachers that inspired you to express yourself. You may also recall a sense of
frustration with your previous writing experiences. It is normal and natural to
experience a sense of frustration at the perceived inability to express oneself. The
emphasis here is on your perception of yourself as a writer as one aspect of how you
communicate. Most people use oral communication for much of their self-
expression, from daily interactions to formal business meetings. You have a lifetime
of experience in that arena that you can leverage to your benefit in your writing.
Reading out loud what you have written is a positive technique we’ll address later
in more depth.

Martin Luther King Jr.’s statement, “Violence is the language of the unheard”
emphasizes the importance of finding one’s voice, of being able to express one’s
ideas. Violence comes in many forms, but is often associated with frustration born
of the lack of opportunity to communicate. You may read King’s words and think of
the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, or perhaps of the violence of the 9/11
terrorist attacks, or of wars happening in the world today. Public demonstrations
and fighting are expressions of voice, from individual to collective. Finding your
voice, and learning to listen to others, is part of learning to communicate.

You are your own best ally when it comes to your writing. Keeping a positive frame
of mind about your journey as a writer is not a cliché or simple, hollow advice. Your
attitude toward writing can and does influence your written products. Even if
writing has been a challenge for you, the fact that you are reading this sentence
means you perceive the importance of this essential skill. This text and our
discussions will help you improve your writing, and your positive attitude is part of
your success strategy.

There is no underestimating the power of effort when combined with inspiration

and motivation. The catch then is to get inspired and motivated. That’s not all it

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takes, but it is a great place to start. You were not born with a key pad in front of
you, but when you want to share something with friends and text them, the words
(or abbreviations) come almost naturally. So you recognize you have the skills
necessary to begin the process of improving and harnessing your writing abilities
for business success. It will take time and effort, and the proverbial journey starts
with a single step, but don’t lose sight of the fact that your skillful ability to craft
words will make a significant difference in your career.

Reading

Reading is one step many writers point to as an integral step in learning to write
effectively. You may like Harry Potter books or be a Twilight fan, but if you want to
write effectively in business, you need to read business-related documents. These
can include letters, reports, business proposals, and business plans. You may find
these where you work or in your school’s writing center, business department, or
library; there are also many Web sites that provide sample business documents of
all kinds. Your reading should also include publications in the industry where you
work or plan to work, such as Aviation Week, InfoWorld, Journal of Hospitality,
International Real Estate Digest, or Women’s Wear Daily, to name just a few. You can also
gain an advantage by reading publications in fields other than your chosen one;
often reading outside your niche can enhance your versatility and help you learn
how other people express similar concepts. Finally, don’t neglect general media like
the business section of your local newspaper, and national publications like the Wall
Street Journal, Fast Company, and the Harvard Business Review. Reading is one of the
most useful lifelong habits you can practice to boost your business communication
skills.

In the “real world” when you are under a deadline and

production is paramount, you’ll be rushed and may lack Figure 9.1
the time to do adequate background reading for a
particular assignment. For now, take advantage of your
business communication course by exploring common
business documents you may be called on to write,
contribute to, or play a role in drafting. Some
documents have a degree of formula to them, and your
familiarity with them will reduce your preparation and
production time while increasing your effectiveness. As Reading is one of the most useful
you read similar documents, take notes on what you lifelong habits you can practice
observe. As you read several sales letters, you may to boost your business
communication skills.
observe several patterns that can serve you well later on
when it’s your turn. These patterns are often called
conventions2, or conventional language patterns for a
2. Conventional language
patterns for a specific genre.
specific genre.

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Chapter 9 Effective Business Writing

Writing
© 2010 Jupiterimages
Never lose sight of one key measure of the effectiveness Corporation
of your writing: the degree to which it fulfills readers’
expectations. If you are in a law office, you know the
purpose of a court brief is to convince the judge that
certain points of law apply to the given case. If you are at a newspaper, you know
that an editorial opinion article is supposed to convince readers of the merits of a
certain viewpoint, whereas a news article is supposed to report facts without bias. If
you are writing ad copy, the goal is to motivate consumers to make a purchase
decision. In each case, you are writing to a specific purpose, and a great place to
start when considering what to write is to answer the following question: what are
the readers’ expectations?

When you are a junior member of the team, you may be given clerical tasks like
filling in forms, populating a database, or coordinating appointments. Or you may
be assigned to do research that involves reading, interviewing, and note taking.
Don’t underestimate these facets of the writing process; instead, embrace the fact
that writing for business often involves tasks that a novelist might not even
recognize as “writing.” Your contribution is quite important and in itself is an on-
the-job learning opportunity that shouldn’t be taken for granted.

When given a writing assignment, it is important to make sure you understand

what you are being asked to do. You may read the directions and try to put them in
your own words to make sense of the assignment. Be careful, however, not to lose
sight of what the directions say versus what you think they say. Just as an
audience’s expectations should be part of your consideration of how, what, and why
to write, the instructions given by your instructor, or in a work situation by your
supervisor, establish expectations. Just as you might ask a mentor more about a
business writing assignment at work, you need to use the resources available to you
to maximize your learning opportunity. Ask the professor to clarify any points you
find confusing, or perceive more than one way to interpret, in order to better meet
the expectations.

Before you write an opening paragraph, or even the first sentence, it is important to
consider the overall goal of the assignment. The word assignment can apply equally
to a written product for class or for your employer. You might make a list of the
main points and see how those points may become the topic sentences in a series of
paragraphs. You may also give considerable thought to whether your word choice,
your tone, your language, and what you want to say is in line with your
understanding of your audience. We briefly introduced the writing process
previously, and will visit it in depth later in our discussion, but for now writing
should about exploring your options. Authors rarely have a finished product in

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Chapter 9 Effective Business Writing

mind when they start, but once you know what your goal is and how to reach it, you
writing process will become easier and more effective.

Constructive Criticism and Targeted Practice

Mentors can also be important in your growth as a writer. Your instructor can serve
as a mentor, offering constructive criticism, insights on what he or she has written,
and life lessons about writing for a purpose. Never underestimate the mentors that
surround you in the workplace, even if you are currently working in a position
unrelated to your desired career. They can read your rough draft and spot errors, as
well as provide useful insights. Friends and family can also be helpful mentors—if
your document’s meaning is clear to someone not working in your business, it will
likely also be clear to your audience.

The key is to be open to criticism, keeping in mind that no one ever improved by
repeating bad habits over and over. Only when you know what your errors
are—errors of grammar or sentence structure, logic, format, and so on—can you
correct your document and do a better job next time. Writing can be a solitary
activity, but more often in business settings it is a collective, group, or team effort.
Keep your eyes and ears open for opportunities to seek outside assistance before
you finalize your document.

Learning to be a successful business writer comes with practice. Targeted

practice3, which involves identifying your weak areas and specifically working to
improve them, is especially valuable. In addition to reading, make it a habit to
write, even if it is not a specific assignment. The more you practice writing the
kinds of materials that are used in your line of work, the more writing will come
naturally and become an easier task—even on occasions when you need to work
under pressure.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking4 means becoming aware of your thinking process. It’s a human
trait that allows us to step outside what we read or write and ask ourselves, “Does
this really make sense?” “Are there other, perhaps better, ways to explain this
idea?” Sometimes our thinking is very abstract and becomes clear only through the
process of getting thoughts down in words. As a character in E. M. Forster’s Aspects
3. Identifying one’s weak areas of the Novel said, “How can I tell what I think till I see what I say?”Forster, E. M.
and specifically working to
improve them. (1976). Aspects of the novel (p. 99). Oliver Stallybrass (Ed.). Harmondsworth, UK:
Penguin. Did you really write what you meant to, and will it be easily understood by
4. “Self-directed, self-disciplined, the reader? Successful writing forms a relationship with the audience, reaching the
self-monitored, and self-
corrective thinking.”
reader on a deep level that can be dynamic and motivating. In contrast, when

9.2 How Is Writing Learned? 453

Chapter 9 Effective Business Writing

writing fails to meet the audience’s expectations, you already know the
consequences: they’ll move on.

Learning to write effectively involves reading, writing,

critical thinking, and hard work. You may have seen The Figure 9.2
Wizard of Oz and recall the scene when Dorothy
discovers what is behind the curtain. Up until that
moment, she believed the Wizard’s powers were needed
to change her situation, but now she discovers that the
power is her own. Like Dorothy, you can discover that
the power to write successfully rests in your hands.
Excellent business writing can be inspiring, and it is
important to not lose that sense of inspiration as we
deconstruct the process of writing to its elemental
components.
Excellence in writing comes from
effort.
You may be amazed by the performance of Tony Hawk
on a skateboard ramp, Mia Hamm on the soccer field, or
© 2010 Jupiterimages
Michael Phelps in the water. Those who demonstrate Corporation
excellence often make it look easy, but nothing could be
further from the truth. Effort, targeted practice, and
persistence will win the day every time. When it comes
to writing, you need to learn to recognize clear and
concise writing while looking behind the curtain at how it is created. This is not to
say we are going to lose the magic associated with the best writers in the field.
Instead, we’ll appreciate what we are reading as we examine how it was written and
how the writer achieved success.

KEY TAKEAWAY

Success in writing comes from good habits: reading, writing (especially

targeted practice), and critical thinking.

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EXERCISES

1. Interview one person whose job involves writing. This can include
writing e-mails, reports, proposals, invoices, or any other form of
business document. Where did this person learn to write? What would
they include as essential steps to learning to write for success in
business? Share your results with a classmate.
2. For five consecutive days, read the business section of your local
newspaper or another daily paper. Write a one-page summary of the
news that makes the most impression on you. Review your summaries
and compare them with those of your classmates.
3. Practice filling out an online form that requires writing sentences, such
as a job application for a company that receives applications online. How
does this kind of writing compare with the writing you have done for
other courses in the past? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.

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9.3 Good Writing

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Identify six basic qualities that characterize good business writing.

2. Identify and explain the rhetorical elements and cognate strategies that
contribute to good writing.

One common concern is to simply address the question, what is good writing? As we
progress through our study of written business communication we’ll try to answer
it. But recognize that while the question may be simple, the answer is complex.
Edward P. BaileyBailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
offers several key points to remember.

Good business writing

• follows the rules,

• is easy to read, and
• attracts the reader.

Let’s examine these qualities in more depth.

Bailey’s first point is one that generates a fair amount of debate. What are the rules?
Do “the rules” depend on audience expectations or industry standards, what your
English teacher taught you, or are they reflected in the amazing writing of authors
you might point to as positive examples? The answer is “all of the above,” with a
point of clarification. You may find it necessary to balance audience expectations
with industry standards for a document, and may need to find a balance or
compromise. BaileyBailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. points to common sense as one basic criterion of good writing, but common
sense is a product of experience. When searching for balance, reader understanding
is the deciding factor. The correct use of a semicolon may not be what is needed to
make a sentence work. Your reading audience should carry extra attention in
everything you write because, without them, you won’t have many more writing
assignments.

When we say that good writing follows the rules, we don’t mean that a writer
cannot be creative. Just as an art student needs to know how to draw a scene in

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correct perspective before he can “break the rules” by “bending” perspective, so a

writer needs to know the rules of language. Being well versed in how to use words
correctly, form sentences with proper grammar, and build logical paragraphs are
skills the writer can use no matter what the assignment. Even though some business
settings may call for conservative writing, there are other areas where creativity is
not only allowed but mandated. Imagine working for an advertising agency or a
software development firm; in such situations success comes from expressing new,
untried ideas. By following the rules of language and correct writing, a writer can
express those creative ideas in a form that comes through clearly and promotes
understanding.

Similarly, writing that is easy to read is not the same as “dumbed down” or
simplistic writing. What is easy to read? For a young audience, you may need to use
straightforward, simple terms, but to ignore their use of the language is to create an
artificial and unnecessary barrier. An example referring to Miley Cyrus may work
with one reading audience and fall flat with another. Profession-specific terms can
serve a valuable purpose as we write about precise concepts. Not everyone will
understand all the terms in a profession, but if your audience is largely literate in
the terms of the field, using industry terms will help you establish a relationship
with your readers.

The truly excellent writer is one who can explain complex ideas in a way that the
reader can understand. Sometimes ease of reading can come from the writer’s
choice of a brilliant illustrative example to get a point across. In other situations, it
can be the writer’s incorporation of definitions into the text so that the meaning of
unfamiliar words is clear. It may also be a matter of choosing dynamic, specific
verbs that make it clear what is happening and who is carrying out the action.

Bailey’s third point concerns the interest of the reader. Will they want to read it?
This question should guide much of what you write. We increasingly gain
information from our environment through visual, auditory, and multimedia
channels, from YouTube to streaming audio, and to watching the news online. Some
argue that this has led to a decreased attention span for reading, meaning that
writers need to appeal to readers with short, punchy sentences and catchy phrases.
However, there are still plenty of people who love to immerse themselves in
reading an interesting article, proposal, or marketing piece.

Perhaps the most universally useful strategy in capturing your reader’s attention is
to state how your writing can meet the reader’s needs. If your document provides
information to answer a question, solve a problem, or explain how to increase
profits or cut costs, you may want to state this in the beginning. By opening with a

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“what’s in it for me” strategy, you give your audience a reason to be interested in
what you’ve written.

More Qualities of Good Writing

To the above list from Bailey, let’s add some additional qualities that define good
writing. Good writing

• meets the reader’s expectations,

• is clear and concise,
• is efficient and effective.

To meet the reader’s expectations, the writer needs to understand who the
intended reader is. In some business situations, you are writing just to one person:
your boss, a coworker in another department, or an individual customer or vendor.
If you know the person well, it may be as easy for you to write to him or her as it is
to write a note to your parent or roommate. If you don’t know the person, you can
at least make some reasonable assumptions about his or her expectations, based on
the position he or she holds and its relation to your job.

In other situations, you may be writing a document to be read by a group or team,

an entire department, or even a large number of total strangers. How can you
anticipate their expectations and tailor your writing accordingly? Naturally you
want to learn as much as you can about your likely audience. How much you can
learn and what kinds of information will vary with the situation. If you are writing
Web site content, for example, you may never meet the people who will visit the
site, but you can predict why they would be drawn to the site and what they would
expect to read there. Beyond learning about your audience, your clear
understanding of the writing assignment and its purpose will help you to meet
reader expectations.

Our addition of the fifth point concerning clear and concise writing reflects the
increasing tendency in business writing to eliminate error. Errors can include those
associated with production, from writing to editing, and reader response. Your twin
goals of clear and concise writing point to a central goal across communication:
fidelity. This concept involves our goal of accurately communicating all the
intended information with a minimum of signal or message breakdown or
misinterpretation. Designing your documents, including writing and presentation,
to reduce message breakdown is an important part of effective business
communication.

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This leads our discussion to efficiency. There are only twenty-four hours in a day
and we are increasingly asked to do more with less, with shorter deadlines almost
guaranteed. As a writer, how do you meet ever-increasing expectations? Each
writing assignment requires a clear understanding of the goals and desired results,
and when either of these two aspects is unclear, the efficiency of your writing can
be compromised. Rewrites require time that you may not have, but will have to
make if the assignment was not done correctly the first time.

As we have discussed previously, making a habit of reading similar documents prior

to beginning your process of writing can help establish a mental template of your
desired product. If you can see in your mind’s eye what you want to write, and have
the perspective of similar documents combined with audience’s needs, you can
write more efficiently. Your written documents are products and will be required
on a schedule that impacts your coworkers and business. Your ability to produce
effective documents efficiently is a skill set that will contribute to your success.

Our sixth point reinforces this idea with an emphasis on effectiveness. What is
effective writing? It is writing that succeeds in accomplishing its purpose.
Understanding the purpose, goals, and desired results of your writing assignment
will help you achieve this success. Your employer may want an introductory sales
letter to result in an increase in sales leads, or potential contacts for follow-up
leading to sales. Your audience may not see the document from that perspective,
but will instead read with the mindset of, “How does this help me solve X problem?”
If you meet both goals, your writing is approaching effectiveness. Here,
effectiveness is qualified with the word “approaching” to point out that writing is
both a process and a product, and your writing will continually require effort and
attention to revision and improvement.

Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies

Another approach to defining good writing is to look at how it fulfills the goals of
two well-known systems in communication. One of these systems comprises the
three classical elements of rhetoric5, or the art of presenting an argument. These
elements are logos (logic), ethos (ethics and credibility), and pathos (emotional
appeal), first proposed by the ancient Greek teacher Aristotle. Although rhetoric is
often applied to oral communication, especially public speaking, it is also
fundamental to good writing.

5. The art of presenting an

A second set of goals involves what are called cognate strategies6, or ways of
argument.
promoting understanding,Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing visual
6. Ways of framing, expressing language: Strategies for professional communicators (p. 14). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn
and representing a message to
& Bacon. developed in recent decades by Charles Kostelnick and David Rogers. Like
an audience.

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rhetorical elements, cognate strategies can be applied to public speaking, but they
are also useful in developing good writing. Table 9.2 "Rhetorical Elements and
Cognate Strategies" describes these goals, their purposes, and examples of how they
may be carried out in business writing.

Table 9.2 Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies

Aristotle’s
Cognate
Rhetorical Focus Example in Business Writing
Strategies
Elements

An announcement will be made to the

company later in the week, but I wanted to
tell you personally that as of the first of next
Clear month, I will be leaving my position to accept
Clarity
understanding a three-year assignment in our Singapore
office. As soon as further details about the
management of your account are available, I
will share them with you.

In tomorrow’s conference call Sean wants to

introduce the new team members, outline the
Conciseness Key points schedule and budget for the project, and
Logos clarify each person’s responsibilities in
meeting our goals.

Our department has matrix structure. We

have three product development groups, one
for each category of product. We also have a
manufacturing group, a finance group, and a
Order,
sales group; different group members are
Arrangement hierarchy,
assigned to each of the three product
placement
categories. Within the matrix, our structure is
flat, meaning that we have no group leaders.
Everyone reports to Beth, the department
manager.

Having known and worked with Jesse for

more than five years, I can highly recommend
him to take my place as your advisor. In
Character,
Credibility addition to having superb qualifications, Jesse
trust
is known for his dedication, honesty, and
Ethos caring attitude. He will always go the extra
mile for his clients.

Norms and As is typical in our industry, we ship all

Expectation anticipated merchandise FOB our warehouse. Prices are
outcomes exclusive of any federal, state, or local taxes.

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Aristotle’s
Cognate
Rhetorical Focus Example in Business Writing
Strategies
Elements

Payment terms are net 30 days from date of

invoice.

Sources and According to an article in Business Week dated

Reference frames of October 15, 2009, Doosan is one of the largest
reference business conglomerates in South Korea.

I really don’t have words to express how

grateful I am for all the support you’ve
Tone Expression
extended to me and my family in this hour of
need. You guys are the best.

It was unconscionable for a member of our

Pathos organization to shout an interruption while
Emphasis Relevance the president was speaking. What needs to
happen now—and let me be clear about
this—is an immediate apology.

Faithful soldiers pledge never to leave a fallen

Engagement Relationship
comrade on the battlefield.

KEY TAKEAWAY

Good writing is characterized by correctness, ease of reading, and

attractiveness; it also meets reader expectations and is clear, concise,
efficient, and effective. Rhetorical elements (logos, ethos, and pathos) and
cognate strategies (clarity, conciseness, arrangement, credibility,
expectation, reference, tone, emphasis, and engagement) are goals that are
achieved in good business writing.

EXERCISES

1. Choose a piece of business writing that attracts your interest. What

made you want to read it? Share your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Choose a piece of business writing and evaluate it according to the
qualities of good writing presented in this section. Do you think the
writing qualifies as “good”? Why or why not? Discuss your opinion with
your classmates.
3. Identify the ethos, pathos, and logos in a document. Share and compare
with classmates.

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9.4 Style in Written Communication

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Describe and identify three styles of writing.

2. Demonstrate the appropriate use of colloquial, casual, and formal
writing in at least one document of each style.

One way to examine written communication is from a structural perspective. Words

are a series of symbols that communicate meaning, strung together in specific
patterns that are combined to communicate complex and compound meanings.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and articles are the building blocks
you will use when composing written documents. Misspellings of individual words
or grammatical errors involving misplacement or incorrect word choices in a
sentence, can create confusion, lose meaning, and have a negative impact on the
reception of your document. Errors themselves are not inherently bad, but failure
to recognize and fix them will reflect on you, your company, and limit your success.
Self-correction is part of the writing process.

Another way to examine written communication is from a goals perspective, where

specific documents address stated (or unstated) goals and have rules, customs, and
formats that are anticipated and expected. Violations of these rules, customs, or
formats—whether intentional or unintentional—can also have a negative impact on
the way your document is received.

Colloquial, casual, and formal writing are three common styles that carry their own
particular sets of expectations. Which style you use will depend on your audience,
and often whether your communication is going to be read only by those in your
company (internal communications7) or by those outside the organization, such as
vendors, customers or clients (external communications8). As a general rule,
7. The sharing and understanding external communications tend to be more formal, just as corporate letterhead and
of meaning between business cards—designed for presentation to the “outside world”—are more formal
individuals, departments, or
than the e-mail and text messages that are used for everyday writing within the
representatives of the same
business. organization.

8. The sharing and understanding

of meaning between Style also depends on the purpose of the document and its audience. If your writing
individuals, departments, or assignment is for Web page content, clear and concise use of the written word is
representatives of the business
and parties outside the essential. If your writing assignment is a feature interest article for an online
organization. magazine, you may have the luxury of additional space and word count combined

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with graphics, pictures, embedded video or audio clips, and links to related topics.
If your writing assignment involves an introductory letter represented on a printed
page delivered in an envelope to a potential customer, you won’t have the
interactivity to enhance your writing, placing an additional burden on your writing
and how you represent it.

Colloquial

Colloquial language9 is an informal, conversational style of writing. It differs from

standard business English in that it often makes use of colorful expressions, slang,
and regional phrases. As a result, it can be difficult to understand for an English
learner or a person from a different region of the country. Sometimes colloquialism
takes the form of a word difference; for example, the difference between a “Coke,” a
“tonic,” a “pop, and a “soda pop” primarily depends on where you live. It can also
take the form of a saying, as Roy Wilder Jr. discusses in his book You All Spoken Here:
Southern Talk at Its Down-Home Best.Wilde, J., Jr. (2003). You all spoken here: Southern
talk at its down-home best. Athens: University of Georgia Press. Colloquial sayings like
“He could mess up a rainstorm” or “He couldn’t hit the ground if he fell”
communicate the person is inept in a colorful, but not universal way. In the Pacific
Northwest someone might “mosey,” or walk slowly, over to the “café,” or bakery, to
pick up a “maple bar”—a confection known as a “Long John doughnut” to people in
other parts of the United States.

Colloquial language can be reflected in texting:

“ok fwiw i did my part n put it in where you asked but my ? is if the group does not
participate do i still get credit for my part of what i did n also how much do we all
have to do i mean i put in my opinion of the items in order do i also have to reply to
the other team members or what? Thxs”

We may be able to grasp the meaning of the message, and understand some of the
abbreviations and codes, but when it comes to business, this style of colloquial text
writing is generally suitable only for one-on-one internal communications between
coworkers who know each other well (and those who do not judge each other on
spelling or grammar). For external communications, and even for group
communications within the organization, it is not normally suitable, as some of the
codes are not standard, and may even be unfamiliar to the larger audience.

Colloquial writing may be permissible, and even preferable, in some business

contexts. For example, a marketing letter describing a folksy product such as a
9. An informal, conversational wood stove or an old-fashioned popcorn popper might use a colloquial style to
style of writing. create a feeling of relaxing at home with loved ones. Still, it is important to consider

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how colloquial language will appear to the audience. Will the meaning of your
chosen words be clear to a reader who is from a different part of the country? Will a
folksy tone sound like you are “talking down” to your audience, assuming that they
are not intelligent or educated enough to appreciate standard English? A final point
to remember is that colloquial style is not an excuse for using expressions that are
sexist, racist, profane, or otherwise offensive.

Casual

Casual language10 involves everyday words and expressions in a familiar group

context, such as conversations with family or close friends. The emphasis is on the
communication interaction itself, and less about the hierarchy, power, control, or
social rank of the individuals communicating. When you are at home, at times you
probably dress in casual clothing that you wouldn’t wear in public—pajamas or
underwear, for example. Casual communication is the written equivalent of this
kind of casual attire. Have you ever had a family member say something to you that
a stranger or coworker would never say? Or have you said something to a family
member that you would never say in front of your boss? In both cases, casual
language is being used. When you write for business, a casual style is usually out of
place. Instead, a respectful, professional tone represents you well in your absence.

Formal

In business writing, the appropriate style will have a degree of formality. Formal
language11 is communication that focuses on professional expression with
attention to roles, protocol, and appearance. It is characterized by its vocabulary
and syntax12, or the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. That is,
writers using a formal style tend to use a more sophisticated vocabulary—a greater
variety of words, and more words with multiple syllables—not for the purpose of
throwing big words around, but to enhance the formal mood of the document. They
also tend to use more complex syntax, resulting in sentences that are longer and
contain more subordinate clauses.

The appropriate style for a particular business document may be very formal, or
less so. If your supervisor writes you an e-mail and you reply, the exchange may be
10. Involves everyday words and informal in that it is fluid and relaxed, without much forethought or fanfare, but it
expressions in a familiar group will still reflect the formality of the business environment. Chances are you will be
context.
careful to use an informative subject line, a salutation (“Hi [supervisor’s name]” is
11. Focuses on professional typical in e-mails), a word of thanks for whatever information or suggestion she
expression with attention to provided you, and an indication that you stand ready to help further if need be. You
roles, protocol, or appearance.
will probably also check your grammar and spelling before you click “send.”
12. The grammatical arrangement
of words in a sentence.

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A formal document such as a proposal or an annual report will involve a great deal
of planning and preparation, and its style may not be fluid or relaxed. Instead, it
may use distinct language to emphasize the prestige and professionalism of your
company. Let’s say you are going to write a marketing letter that will be printed on
company letterhead and mailed to a hundred sales prospects. Naturally you want to
represent your company in a positive light. In a letter of this nature you might
write a sentence like “The Widget 300 is our premium offering in the line; we have
designed it for ease of movement and efficiency of use, with your success foremost
in our mind.” But in an e-mail or a tweet, you might use an informal sentence
instead, reading “W300—good stapler.”

Writing for business often involves choosing the appropriate level of formality for
the company and industry, the particular document and situation, and the
audience.

KEY TAKEAWAY

The best style for a document may be colloquial, casual, informal, or formal,
depending on the audience and the situation.

EXERCISES

1. Refer back to the e-mail or text message example in this section. Would
you send that message to your professor? Why or why not? What
normative expectations concerning professor-student communication
are there and where did you learn them? Discuss your thoughts with
your classmates.
2. Select a business document and describe its style. Is it formal, informal,
or colloquial? Can you rewrite it in a different style? Share your results
with a classmate.
3. List three words or phrases that you would say to your friends. List three
words or phrases that communicate similar meanings that you would
say to an authority figure. Share and compare with classmates.
4. When is it appropriate to write in a casual tone? In a formal tone? Write
a one- to two-page essay on this topic and discuss it with a classmate.
5. How does the intended audience influence the choice of words and use
of language in a document? Think of a specific topic and two specific
kinds of audiences. Then write a short example (250–500 words) of how
this topic might be presented to each of the two audiences.

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9.5 Principles of Written Communication

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the rules that govern written language.

2. Understand the legal implications of business writing.

You may not recall when or where you learned all about nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, prepositions, articles, and phrases, but if you understand this sentence
we’ll take for granted that you have a firm grasp of the basics. But even professional
writers and editors, who have spent a lifetime navigating the ins and outs of
crafting correct sentences, have to use reference books to look up answers to
questions of grammar and usage that arise in the course of their work. Let’s
examine how the simple collection of symbols called a word can be such a puzzle.

Words Are Inherently Abstract

There is no universally accepted definition for love, there are many ways to
describe desire, and there are countless ways to draw patience. Each of these terms
is a noun, but it’s an abstract13 noun, referring to an intangible concept.

While there are many ways to define a chair, describe a table, or draw a window,
they each have a few common characteristics. A chair may be made from wood,
crafted in a Mission style, or made from plastic resin in one solid piece in
nondescript style, but each has four legs and serves a common function. A table and
a window also have common characteristics that in themselves form a basis for
understanding between source and receiver. The words “chair,” “table,” and
“window” are concrete terms14, as they describe something we can see and touch.

Concrete terms are often easier to agree on, understand, or at least define the
common characteristics of. Abstract terms can easily become even more abstract
with extended discussions, and the conversational partners may never agree on a
common definition or even a range of understanding.

In business communication, where the goal is to be clear and concise, limiting the
13. Referring to an intangible
concept. range of misinterpretation, which type of word do you think is preferred? Concrete
terms serve to clarify your writing and more accurately communicate your
14. Describes something we can intended meaning to the receiver. While all words are abstractions, some are more
see and touch.

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so than others. To promote effective communication, choose words that can be

easily referenced and understood.

Words Are Governed by Rules

Perhaps you like to think of yourself as a free spirit, but did you know that all your
communication is governed by rules? You weren’t born knowing how to talk, but
learned to form words and sentences as you developed from infancy. As you learned
language, you learned rules. You learned not only what a word means in a given
context, and how to pronounce it; you also learned the social protocol of when to
use it and when not to. When you write, your words represent you in your absence.
The context may change from reader to reader, and your goal as an effective
business communicator is to get your message across (and some feedback)
regardless of the situation.

The better you know your audience and context, the better you can anticipate and
incorporate the rules of how, what, and when to use specific words and terms. And
here lies a paradox. You may think that, ideally, the best writing is writing that is
universally appealing and understood. Yet the more you design a specific message
to a specific audience or context, the less universal the message becomes. Actually,
this is neither a good or bad thing in itself. In fact, if you didn’t target your
messages, they wouldn’t be nearly as effective. By understanding this relationship
of a universal or specific appeal to an audience or context, you can look beyond
vocabulary and syntax and focus on the reader. When considering a communication
assignment like a sales letter, knowing the intended audience gives you insight to
the explicit and implicit rules.

All words are governed by rules, and the rules are vastly different from one
language and culture to another. A famous example is the decision by Chevrolet to
give the name “Nova” to one of its cars. In English, nova is recognized as coming
from Latin meaning “new”; for those who have studied astronomy, it also refers to a
type of star. When the Chevy Nova was introduced in Latin America, however, it
was immediately ridiculed as the “car that doesn’t go.” Why? Because “no va”
literally means “doesn’t go” in Spanish.

By investigating sample names in a range of markets, you can quickly learn the
rules surrounding words and their multiple meaning, much as you learned about
subjects and objects, verbs and nouns, adjectives and adverbs when you were
learning language. Long before you knew formal grammar terms, you observed how
others communicate and learned by trial and error. In business, error equals
inefficiency, loss of resources, and is to be avoided. For Chevrolet, a little market
research in Latin America would have gone a long way.

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Words Shape Our Reality

Aristotle is famous for many things, including his questioning of whether the table
you can see, feel, or use is real.Aristotle. (1941). De anima. In R. McKeon (Ed.), The
basic works of Aristotle (J. A. Smith, Trans.). New York, NY: Random House. This may
strike you as strange, but imagine that we are looking at a collection of antique
hand tools. What are they? They are made of metal and wood, but what are they
used for? The words we use help us to make sense of our reality, and we often use
what we know to figure out what we don’t know. Perhaps we have a hard time
describing the color of the tool, or the table, as we walk around it. The light itself
may influence our perception of its color. We may lack the vocabulary to accurately
describe to the color, and instead say it is “like a” color, but not directly describe
the color itself.Russell, B. (1962). The problems of philosophy (28th ed., p. 9). Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1912) The color, or use of the
tool, or style of the table are all independent of the person perceiving them, but
also a reflection of the person perceiving the object.

In business communication, our goal of clear and

concise communication involves anticipation of this Figure 9.3
inability to label a color or describe the function of an
antique tool by constructing meaning. Anticipating the
language that the reader may reasonably be expected to
know, as well as unfamiliar terms, enables the writer to
communicate in a way that describes with common
reference points while illustrating the new, interesting,
or unusual. Promoting understanding and limiting
misinterpretations are key goals of the effective Meaning is a reflection of the
business communicator. person perceiving the object or
word.

Your letter introducing a new product or service relies, © 2010 Jupiterimages

to an extent, on your preconceived notions of the Corporation
intended audience and their preconceived notions of
your organization and its products or services. By
referencing common ground, you form a connection
between the known and the unknown, the familiar and
the new. People are more likely to be open to a new product or service if they can
reasonably relate it to one they are familiar with, or with which they have had good
experience in the past. Your initial measure of success is effective communication,
and your long term success may be measured in the sale or new contract for
services.

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Words and Your Legal Responsibility

Your writing in a business context means that you represent yourself and your
company. What you write and how you write it can be part of your company’s
success, but can also expose it to unintended consequences and legal responsibility.
When you write, keep in mind that your words will keep on existing long after you
have moved on to other projects. They can become an issue if they exaggerate, state
false claims, or defame a person or legal entity such as a competing company.
Another issue is plagiarism15, using someone else’s writing without giving credit to
the source. Whether the “cribbed” material is taken from a printed book, a Web
site, or a blog, plagiarism is a violation of copyright law and may also violate your
company policies. Industry standards often have legal aspects that must be
respected and cannot be ignored. For the writer this can be a challenge, but it can
be a fun challenge with rewarding results.

The rapid pace of technology means that the law cannot always stay current with
the realities of business communication. Computers had been in use for more than
twenty years before Congress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998,
the first federal legislation to “move the nation’s copyright law into the digital
age.”United States Copyright Office (1998). Executive summary: Digital millennium
copyright act. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from
http://www.copyright.gov/reports/studies/dmca/dmca_executive.html Think for a
moment about the changes in computer use that have taken place since 1998, and
you will realize how many new laws are needed to clarify what is fair and ethical,
what should be prohibited, and who owns the rights to what.

For example, suppose your supervisor asks you to use your Facebook page or
Twitter account to give an occasional “plug” to your company’s products. Are you
obligated to comply? If you later change jobs, who owns your posts or tweets—are
they yours, or does your now-former employer have a right to them? And what
about your network of “friends”? Can your employer use their contact information
to send marketing messages? These and many other questions remain to be
answered as technology, industry practices, and legislation evolve.Tahmincioglu, E.
(2009, October 11). Your boss wants you on Twitter: Companies recognizing value of
having workers promote products. MSNBC Careers. Retrieved from
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/33090717/ns/business-careers

“Our product is better than X company’s product. Their product is dangerous and
you would be a wise customer to choose us for your product solutions.”

What’s wrong with these two sentences? They may land you and your company in
15. Representing another’s work as
court. You made a generalized claim of one product being better than another, and
your own.

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you stated it as if it were a fact. The next sentence claims that your competitor’s
product is dangerous. Even if this is true, your ability to prove your claim beyond a
reasonable doubt may be limited. Your claim is stated as fact again, and from the
other company’s perspective, your sentences may be considered libel or
defamation.

Libel16 is the written form of defamation, or a false statement that damages a

reputation. If a false statement of fact that concerns and harms the person defamed
is published—including publication in a digital or online environment—the author
of that statement may be sued for libel. If the person defamed is a public figure,
they must prove malice or the intention to do harm, but if the victim is a private
person, libel applies even if the offense cannot be proven to be malicious. Under the
First Amendment you have a right to express your opinion, but the words you use
and how you use them, including the context, are relevant to their interpretation as
opinion versus fact. Always be careful to qualify what you write and to do no harm.

KEY TAKEAWAY

Words are governed by rules and shape our reality. Writers have a legal
responsibility to avoid plagiarism and libel.

16. The written form of

defamation, or a false
statement that damages a
reputation.

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EXERCISES

1. Define the word “chair.” Describe what a table is. Draw a window. Share,
compare, and contrast results with classmates
2. Define love. Describe desire. Draw patience.
3. Identify a target audience and indicate at least three words that you
perceive would be appropriate and effective for that audience. Identify a
second audience (distinct from the first) and indicate three words that
you perceive would be appropriate and effective. How are the audiences
and their words similar or different? Compare your results with those of
your classmates.
4. Create a sales letter for an audience that comes from a culture other
than your own. Identify the culture and articulate how your message is
tailored to your perception of your intended audience. Share and
compare with classmates.
5. Do an online search on “online libel cases” and see what you find.
Discuss your results with your classmates.
6. In other examples beyond the grammar rules that guide our use of
words, consider the online environment. Conduct a search on the word
“netiquette” and share your findings.

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9.6 Overcoming Barriers to Effective Written Communication

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Describe some common barriers to written communication and how to

overcome them.

In almost any career or area of business, written communication is a key to success.

Effective writing can prevent wasted time, wasted effort, aggravation, and
frustration. The way we communicate with others both inside of our business and
on the outside goes a long way toward shaping the organization’s image. If people
feel they are listened to and able to get answers from the firm and its
representatives, their opinion will be favorable. Skillful writing and an
understanding of how people respond to words are central to accomplishing this
goal.

How do we display skillful writing and a good understanding of how people respond
to words? Following are some suggestions.

Do Sweat the Small Stuff

Let us begin with a college student’s e-mail to a professor:

“i am confused as to why they are not due intil 11/10 i mean the calender said that
they was due then so thats i did them do i still get credit for them or do i need to
due them over on one tape? please let me know thanks. also when are you grading
the stuff that we have done?”

What’s wrong with this e-mail? What do you observe that may act as a barrier to
communication? Let’s start with the lack of formality, including the fact that the
student neglected to tell the professor his or her name, or which specific class the
question referred to. Then there is the lack of adherence to basic vocabulary and
syntax rules. And how about the lower case “i’s” and the misspellings?

One significant barrier to effective written communication is failure to sweat the

small stuff. Spelling errors and incorrect grammar may be considered details, but
they reflect poorly on you and, in a business context, on your company. They imply
either that you are not educated enough to know you’ve made mistakes or that you

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are too careless to bother correcting them. Making errors is human, but making a
habit of producing error-filled written documents makes negative consequences far
more likely to occur. When you write, you have a responsibility to self-edit and pay
attention to detail. In the long run, correcting your mistakes before others see them
will take less time and effort than trying to make up for mistakes after the fact.

Get the Target Meaning

How would you interpret this message?

“You must not let inventory build up. You must monitor carrying costs and keep
them under control. Ship any job lots of more than 25 to us at once.”

Bypassing17 involves the misunderstanding that occurs when the receiver

completely misses the source’s intended meaning. Words mean different things to
different people in different contexts. All that difference allows for both source and
receiver to completely miss one another’s intended goal.

Did you understand the message in the example? Let’s find out. Jerry Sullivan, in his
article Bypassing in Managerial Communication,Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T.
(1991). Bypassing in managerial communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.
relates the story of Mr. Sato, a manager from Japan who is new to the United States.
The message came from his superiors at Kumitomo America, a firm involved with
printing machinery for the publishing business in Japan. Mr. Sato delegated the
instructions (in English as shown above) to Ms. Brady, who quickly identified there
were three lots in excess of twenty-five and arranged for prompt shipment.

Six weeks later Mr. Sato received a second message:

“Why didn’t you do what we told you? Your quarterly inventory report indicates
you are carrying 40 lots which you were supposed to ship to Japan. You must not
violate our instructions.”

What’s the problem? As Sullivan relates, it is an example of one word, or set of

words, having more than one meaning.Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991).
Bypassing in managerial communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80. According
to Sullivan, in Japanese “more than x” includes the reference number twenty-five.
In other words, Kumitomo wanted all lots with twenty-five or more to be shipped to
17. The misunderstanding that
occurs when the receiver
Japan. Forty lots fit that description. Ms. Brady interpreted the words as written,
completely misses the source’s but the cultural context had a direct impact on the meaning and outcome.
intended meaning.

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You might want to defend Ms. Brady and understand the interpretation, but the
lesson remains clear. Moreover, cultural expectations differ not only
internationally, but also on many different dimensions from regional to
interpersonal.

Someone raised in a rural environment in the Pacific Northwest may have a very
different interpretation of meaning from someone from New York City. Take, for
example, the word “downtown.” To the rural resident, downtown refers to the
center or urban area of any big city. To a New Yorker, however, downtown may be a
direction, not a place. One can go uptown or downtown, but when asked, “Where
are you from?” the answer may refer to a borough (“I grew up in Manhattan”) or a
neighborhood (“I’m from the East Village”).

This example involves two individuals who differ by geography, but we can further
subdivide between people raised in the same state from two regions, two people of
the opposite sex, or two people from different generations. The combinations are
endless, as are the possibilities for bypassing. While you might think you
understand, requesting feedback and asking for confirmation and clarification can
help ensure that you get the target meaning.

Sullivan also notes that in stressful situations we often think in terms of either/or
relationships, failing to recognize the stress itself. This kind of thinking can
contribute to source/receiver error. In business, he notes that managers often
incorrectly assume communication is easier than it is, and fail to anticipate
miscommunication.Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991). Bypassing in
managerial communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.

As writers, we need to keep in mind that words are simply a means of

communication, and that meanings are in people, not the words themselves.
Knowing which words your audience understands and anticipating how they will
interpret them will help you prevent bypassing.

Consider the Nonverbal Aspects of Your Message

Let’s return to the example at the beginning of this section of an e-mail from a
student to an instructor. As we noted, the student neglected to identify himself or
herself and tell the instructor which class the question referred to. Format is
important, including headers, contact information, and an informative subject line.

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This is just one example of how the nonverbal aspects of a message can get in the
way of understanding. Other nonverbal expressions in your writing may include
symbols, design, font, and the timing of delivering your message.

Suppose your supervisor has asked you to write to a group of clients announcing a
new service or product that directly relates to a service or product that these
clients have used over the years. What kind of communication will your document
be? Will it be sent as an e-mail or will it be a formal letter printed on quality paper
and sent by postal mail? Or will it be a tweet, or a targeted online ad that pops up
when these particular clients access your company’s Web site? Each of these choices
involves an aspect of written communication that is nonverbal. While the words
may communicate a formal tone, the font may not. The paper chosen to represent
your company influences the perception of it. An e-mail may indicate that it is less
than formal and be easily deleted.

As another example, suppose you are a small business owner and have hired a new
worker named Bryan. You need to provide written documentation of asking Bryan
to fill out a set of forms that are required by law. Should you send an e-mail to
Bryan’s home the night before he starts work, welcoming him aboard and attaching
links to IRS form W-4 and Homeland Security form I-9? Or should you wait until he
has been at work for a couple of hours, then bring him the forms in hard copy along
with a printed memo stating that he needs to fill them out? There are no right or
wrong answers, but you will use your judgment, being aware that these nonverbal
expressions are part of the message that gets communicated along with your words.

Review, Reflect, and Revise

Do you review what you write? Do you reflect on whether it serves its purpose?
Where does it miss the mark? If you can recognize it, then you have the opportunity
to revise.

Writers are often under deadlines, and that can mean a rush job where not every
last detail is reviewed. This means more mistakes, and there is always time to do it
right the second time. Rather than go through the experience of seeing all the
mistakes in your “final” product and rushing off to the next job, you may need to
focus more on the task at hand and get it done correctly the first time. Go over each
step in detail as you review.

A mental review of the task and your performance is often called reflection18.
Reflection is not procrastination. It involves looking at the available information
18. A mental review of the task and, as you review the key points in your mind, making sure each detail is present
and your performance.

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and perfect. Reflection also allows for another opportunity to consider the key
elements and their relationship to each other.

When you revise19 your document, you change one word for another, make subtle
changes, and improve it. Don’t revise simply to change the good work you’ve
completed, but instead look at it from the perspective of the reader—for example,
how could this be clearer to them? What would make it visually attractive while
continuing to communicate the message? If you are limited to words only, then
does each word serve the article or letter? No extras, but just about right.

KEY TAKEAWAY

To overcome barriers to communication, pay attention to details; strive to

understand the target meaning; consider your nonverbal expressions; and
review, reflect, and revise.

EXERCISES

1. Review the example of a student’s e-mail to a professor in this section,

and rewrite it to communicate the message more clearly.
2. Write a paragraph of 150–200 words on a subject of your choice.
Experiment with different formats and fonts to display it and, if you
wish, print it. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3. How does the purpose of a document define its format and content?
Think of a specific kind of document with a specific purpose and
audience. Then create a format or template suitable to that document,
purpose, and audience. Show your template to the class or post it on a
class bulletin board.
4. Write one message of at least three sentences with at least three
descriptive terms and present it to at least three people. Record notes
about how they understand the message, and to what degree their
interpretations are the same of different. Share and compare with
classmates.

19. Change one word for another,

make subtle changes, and
improve a document.

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9.7 Additional Resources

Visit AllYouCanRead.com for a list of the top ten business magazines.

http://www.allyoucanread.com/top-10-business-magazines

The Wall Street Executive Library presents a comprehensive menu of business Web
sites, publications, and other resources. http://www.executivelibrary.com

The Web site 4hb.com (For Home Business) provides many sample business
documents, as well as other resources for the small business owner.
http://www.4hb.com/index.html

The Business Owner’s Toolkit provides sample documents in more than a dozen
categories from finance to marketing to worker safety. http://www.toolkit.com/
tools/index.aspx

Words mean different things to different people—especially when translated from

one language to another. Visit this site for a list of car names “que no va” (that won’t
go) in foreign languages. http://www.autoblog.com/2008/04/30/nissan-360-the-
otti-and-the-moco

Visit “Questions and Quandaries,” the Writer’s Digest blog by Brian Klems, for a
potpourri of information about writing. http://blog.writersdigest.com/qq

Appearance counts. Read an article by communications expert Fran Lebo on

enhancing the nonverbal aspects of your document. http://ezinearticles.com/?The-
Second-Law-of-Business-Writing---Appearance-Counts&id=3039288

Visit this site to access the SullivanSullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991).
Bypassing in managerial communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80. article on
bypassing in managerial communication. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/
mi_m1038/is_n1_v34/ai_10360317

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