A1 SIMPLE GUIDE FOR UNDERGRADUATE

I STUDENTS

NUMBER THEORY
Lecture Notes

Compiled by:

BENJIER H. ARRIOLA, Ph.D.

First Edition
Benjier H. Arriola 2

Course Title: Number Theory

No. of Units: 3 (54 HOURS)

INSTRUCTOR:BENJIER H. ARRIOLA

Course Description:

The course is about the structure of the set of rational numbers.

It focusses on basic concepts on theory of numbers in preparation for
advance theoretical concepts in algebra. It covers discussions on the
set of integers that cover duplicity, Euclid’s algorithm, factorization,
congruences, Pythagorean and linear Diophantine equations. The
course is basically axiomatic in nature and will be focused on proving
theorems and problem solving.

Course Outline:

I. DIVISIBILITY
1. Properties of Divisibility
2. Division Algorithm
3. Greatest Common Divisor
4. Integral Linear Combination
5. Least Common Multiple

II. BASIS REPRESENTATION OF INTEGERS

1. Basis Representation Theorem

III. PRIME NUMBERS

1. Primes
a. Prime Numbers
b. Composite Numbers
c. Relatively Prime
d. Prime Factorization
e. Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
2. The Sieve Method
a. Test for Primality
3. Format Factorization
4. Factor Tables
5. Euler’s Formula for Prime Numbers
6. Perfect Numbers
a. Euclid Proposition
7. Some Unsolved Problems

IV. CONGRUENCES
3 I

1. Linear Congruence
2. Linear Diophantine Equation
3. System of Linear Congruences
a. Pour wise Relatively Prime
b. Chinese Remainder Theorem
4. Format’s Remainder Theorem
5. Euler’s Theorem
6. Wilson’s Theorem

V. MULTIPLICATIVE FUNCTIONS
1. Three Special Functions
2. Perfect Numbers
a. Euler Theorem
3. Mobins Inversion

VI. PRIME FUNCTIONS

1. Greatest Integer Functions
2. Prime Counting Functions

VII. POLYNOMIAL CONGURENCES

VIII. SUMS OF SQUARES

1. Pythagorean Triples
2. Generalized Pythagorean Numbers
3. Sums of Two Square
4. Sums of Four Square

IX. PRIMITVE ROOTS

X. QUADRATIC CONGRUENCES
1. Euler’s Criterion
2. The Legendre Symbol
3. The Quadratic Reciprocity Law
4. Applications of the Quadratic Reciprocity Law
5. Quadratic Congruences
6. Linear Congruences of Two Unknows

XI. APPLICATION
1. Bar Codes
2. Coding
3. Perpetual Calendars
4. Round-Robin tournaments

Reference:
Benjier H. Arriola 4

1. Andrews, George E. (1971). Number Theory, W. B. Saundry

Company, Philadelphia.
2. Apostol, Tom M. (1976). Introduction to Analytic Number Theory,
Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
3. Armendariz, E. P. and McAdam, S. (1980). Elementary Number
Theory, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.
4. Chen, W. W. (2003). Elementary Number Theory. Retrieved June
7, 2007, from
www.maths.mq.edu.au/~wchen/lnentfolder/lnent.html
5. Edwards, Ronalds R. (1968). An Introduction to the Theory of
Numbers, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
6. Graham, William (1984). Divisibility of Polynomial Expression.
Mathematics Magazine, 57, 232-233.
7. Jordan, John Q. (1965). Divisibility Tests of the Noncongruence
Type. The Mathematics Teacher, 709-712.
8. Joyner, D., Kreminski, R., & Turisco J. (2002). Applied Abstract
Algebra. Retrieved May 17, 2007, from
http://web.usna.navy.mil/~wdj/book/node1.html
9. Loy, Jim (1999). Divisibility Tests. Retrieved May 21, 2007, from
www.jimloy.com/number/divis.htm
10. Michael Filaseta, Michael (1997). Elementary Number
Theory. Retrieved June 4, 2007 from
http://www.math.sc.edu/~filaseta/gradcourses/Math780notes.pdf
11. Rusin, Dave (2006). Number Theory. Retrieved June 4,
2007, from http://www.math-atlas.org/welcome.html
12. Stein, William (2005). Elementary Number Theory.
Retrieved February 4, 2007, from
http://modular.math.washington.edu/ent/ent.pdf
13. Yolkowski, James (2002). Generalized Divisibility Rules.
Retrieved May 22, 2007, from
http://www.stormloader.com/ajv/divisible2.html
14. Feyzioglu, Ahmet. Abstract Algebra Retrieved June 7, 2007,
from http://feyzioglu.boun.edu.tr/322/322.html
5 I

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING

The best way to use any particular textbook varies from teacher
to teacher and from student to student. Therefore, any printed
suggestions such as these cannot be expected to fit all situations.
Nevertheless, this handout was to lessen the burden of the students
especially in our institution where textbook is limited to a few copies
and sometimes nothing can be found in our mini library.

It is important that student learn how to use textbook. They

should be encouraged to read the explanations. At first, some portions
should be read and discussed in class, but later a portion may be
assigned for home reading as preparation for the next day’s
discussion. Encourage questions about what has been read. Reading
Mathematics is not like reading a story; every sentence and every
word must be considered with care. Do not allow yourself or your
students to become discouraged too easily. A little patience and
perseverance at the beginning will pay large dividends later on. By
encouraging students to develop their ability to read Mathematical
material, you will be helping them acquire a skill that will be of
inestimable value in all their future work.

Discuss with the students how to make effective use of the

organization of the textbook. For example, call their attention to the
Chapter Summaries and discuss possible ways of using them. As the
Benjier H. Arriola 6

course proceeds, show students how to locate topics and terms in the
contents. The Glossary and the Index.

By emphasizing the importance of self-reliance, a questioning

attitude and verbal precision, you will be developing your student’s
Mathematical maturity.

BRANCH OF NUMBER THEORY

Number theory is one of the oldest branches of pure

mathematics, and one of the largest. Of course, it concerns questions
about numbers, usually meaning whole numbers or rational numbers
(fractions).

Elementary number theory involves divisibility among integers --

the division "algorithm", the Euclidean algorithm (and thus the
existence of greatest common divisors), elementary properties of
primes (the unique factorization theorem, the infinitude of primes),
congruences (and the structure of the sets Z/nZ as commutative
rings), including Fermat's little theorem and Euler's theorem extending
it. But the term "elementary" is usually used in this setting only to
mean that no advanced tools from other areas are used -- not that the
results themselves are simple. Indeed, a course in "elementary"
7 I

number theory usually includes classic and elegant results such as

Quadratic Reciprocity; counting results using the Möbius Inversion
Formula (and other multiplicative number-theoretic functions); and
even the Prime Number Theorem, asserting the approximate density of
primes among the integers, which has difficult but "elementary"
proofs. Other topics in elementary number theory -- the solutions of
sets of linear congruence equations (the Chinese Remainder Theorem),
or solutions of single binary quadratic equations (Pell's equations and
continued fractions), or the generation of Fibonacci numbers or
Pythagorean triples -- turn out in retrospect to be harbingers of
sophisticated tools and themes in other areas.

The remaining parts of number theory are more or less closely

allied with other branches of mathematics, and typically use tools from
those areas.

We can try to subdivide number theory according to those other

tools used. Naturally there is significant overlap, and a single question
from elementary number theory often requires tools from many
branches of number theory.

"Combinatorial Number Theory" involves the number-theoretic

study of objects which arise naturally from counting or iteration. This
includes a study of many specific families of numbers -- the binomial
coefficients, the Fibonacci numbers, Bernoulli numbers, factorials,
perfect squares, partition numbers and so on -- which can be obtained
by simple recurrence relations, say, or as values of polynomials

"Algebraic Number Theory" extends the concept of "number" to

mean an element of some ring, usually the ring of integers in a finite
algebraic extension of the rational number field. These arise naturally
even when considering elementary topics (e.g. the representation of
an integer as a sum of two squares is tantamount to its factorization in
the ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers) but are also interesting in their own
right. In this setting, the familiar features of the natural numbers (e.g.
unique factorization) need not hold. The virtue of the machinery
introduced -- class groups, discriminants, Galois theory, field
cohomology, class field theory, group representations and L-functions
-- is that it allows a reconstruction of some of that order in these new
settings.

"Analytic Number Theory" involves the study of the Riemann zeta

function and other similar functions such as Dirichlet series.
Benjier H. Arriola 8

Other areas of number theory are also quite analytical. For

example, "additive number theory" asks about ways of expressing an
integer N as a sum of integers ai in a set A.

Finally, a significant amount of analysis is also used in Sieve

methods, and other aspects of multiplicative number theory. Here one
generalizes the sieve of Eratosthenes to investigate the presence of,
say, prime pairs (Brun's sieve) or solutions to the Goldbach conjecture
(every even number is a sum of two primes).

"Transcendental number theory" considers proofs of

transcendence or algebraicity of numbers, and the extent to which
numbers can be approximated by algebraic numbers (say). This has a
direct bearing on other fields such as Diophantine equations, for
example, since the unsolvability of a Diophantine equation can be
deduced from the observation that it would require rational numbers
which approximate a real number "too well". Well-known results in this
area include the transcendence of pi, which in turn shows the
impossibility of squaring the circle.

"Geometric number theory" incorporates all forms of geometry.

The classical Geometry of Numbers due to Minkowski begins with
statements of Euclidean geometry on lattices (A convex body contains
a lattice point if its volume is large enough); by extension this becomes
the study of quadratic forms on lattices, and thus a method of
investigating regular packings of spheres, say. But one may also
investigate algebraic geometry with number theory, that is, one may
study varieties such as algebraic curves and surfaces and ask if they
have rational or integral solutions (points with rational or integral
coordinates). This topic includes the highly successful theory of elliptic
curves (where the rational points form a finitely generated group) and
finiteness results (e.g. Siegel's, Thue's, or Faltings's) which apply to
integral or higher-genus situations.

"Computational number theory" studies the effectiveness of

algorithms for computation of number-theoretic quantities.
Considerable effort has been expended in primality-testing and integer
factorization routines, for example -- procedures which are in principle
trivial, but whose naive solution is untenable in large cases. This field
also considers integer quantities (e.g the class number) whose usual
definition is nonconstructive, and real quantities (e.g. the values of
zeta functions) which must be computed with very high precision; thus
this overlaps both computer algebra and numerical analysis.
9 I

Chapter I

THE NATURAL NUMBERS

1. INTEGERS

The ‘whole numbers’ 0 , ± 1, ± 2 ,± 3 , ± 4 , … are referred to as

integers. The set of all integers is denoted by Z . The set {1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 ,… }
of all positive integers is denoted by N . Positive integers are often
referred to as natural numbers. (Some authors include zero in the set
of natural numbers).

 If a , b ℤ, then a+ b, a−b and a · bℤ. ( Z is closed under addition,

Here are some basic properties of the integers;

 If a , b ℤ, then a+ b=b+a and a · b=b · a. (Commutative Law)

subtraction and multiplication.)

 If a , b , c ℤ, then (a+ b)+c=a+(b +c) and (a · b)·c=a ·(b · c). (Associative

 If a , b , c ℤ, then a ·(b+c )=a · b+a · c . (Distributive Law)

Law)

2. WELL-ORDERING

AXIOM 1.1 (The Well-Ordering Principle)

If D is a subset of Z , then either
(a) D contains no integers; or
(b) D contains a smallest integer; or
(c) D contains arbitrarily small integers.

EXAMPLE 1
Classify the following set according to type (a), type (b), or type

1. {aℤ│𝑎2 is positive}
(c):
Benjier H. Arriola 10

2. {aℤ│𝑎2 is negative}
3. {aℤ│2𝑎 +1 > 6}
4. {aℤ│3𝑎 = 4}

Number 1 and 3 are of type (b), because the set contains

smallest integer, for number 1 the smallest integer is 1 and
number 3 contains smallest integer 3. Number 2 and 3 are of
type (a) since a2 can never be negative and the equation 3a =
4 has no integer solution.

EXAMPLE 2
Consider the following set of rational numbers:
S = {2 + 10-m│m = 1, 2, 3,…} = {2.1,2.01,2.001,…}
Certainly, S contains rational numbers, so it is not of type (a).
Does S contain a smallest rational number? The answer is no
because 2 + 10-(m + 1) < 2 + 10-m for any positive integer m. Thus
S is not of type (b). Finally, does S contain arbitrarily small
rational numbers? Again the answer is no, because every
number in S is greater than 2. Thus S is not of type (c). The
reason for this fact, of course, is that S is not a set consisting
only of integers.

EXAMPLE 3

If n ℤ, n ≥ 1, then 1+2+…+ n=¿

Prove the statement:

Proof: Let D={n𝑍│𝑛 ≥ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 + 2 +…+ 𝑛 = }. That is, D

(1)

consists of all those integers greater than or equal to 1 for

which the statement (1) is false. As we hope to show that
the statement is never false, our goal is to show that D is
empty. By the Principle of Well-Ordering we know that
either D is empty (as we hope), or D contains a least
integer, or D contains arbitrarily small integers. If we can
eliminate these last two possibilities, our hopes are
realized; only the first possibly remains, D is empty, and
statement (1) is true for all positive integers.
The possibility that D contains arbitrarily small

the set D , if n 𝐷, then n ≥ 1. Let us now proceed to eliminate

integers is easily eliminated. After all, by the definition of

the possibility that D contains a smallest integer. We will

do this by “contradiction.” That is, we will assume that D
does contain a smallest integer and show that this
assumption leads to a logical contradiction and must
therefore be false.
11 I

d . Then since d 𝐷, we have d ≥1 and 1+2+…+ d ≠ . Clearly, d ≠ 1

Assume that D contains a smallest integer and call it

since 1=¿ . Therefore, d >1. Consider d−1. Since d >1, d – 1 ≥ 1

d−1𝐷. Therefore, the statement (1) is true when n=d−1, so

. Since d – 1< d and d is the smallest integer in the set D ,

1+2+…+(d −1)=¿. Now add d to both sides of the equality.

On the left-hand side, we get 1+2+…+(d −1)+d and on the
right-hand side we get

(d−1 )(d−1+1 ) ( d−1 ) d

+d
2 = 2
( d−1 ) d 2 d
+
= 2 2
( d−1 ) d+ 2 d
= 2
d 2−d+ 2 d
= 2
2
d +d
= 2
d (d +1)
= 2
Therefore, our original equality 1 + 2 +…+ (d – 1) =
(d−1 )(d−1+1 )
2 leads to the equality1 + 2 +…+ (d - 1) =
d (d +1)
2 . However, this cannot be true because d∈ D and
d (d +1)
hence 1 + 2 +…+ (d - 1) ≠ 2 . This is our desired
contradiction; it establishes that the assumption that D has
a least element is indeed false. Therefore, we have
eliminated all possibilities except that D is empty, as
desired. ■
THEOREM 1.1
n(n+1 )
For n∈ Z, n ≥ 1, then 1 + 2 +…+ n = 2 .
d (d +1)
Proof: Let D = {n∈ Z│n ≥ 1 and 1 + 2 +…+ d ≠ 2 }. We
must show D = Ø. Since for any n∈ D, we have n ≥ 1, by the
Principle of Well-Ordering, we have only to show that D does
not contain a least integer. Suppose that it does and call it d.
Benjier H. Arriola 12

1(1+1)
Then d > 1 since 1= 2 . Now consider d - 1. Then 1 ≤
d – 1 < d and since d is the least integer in D, d - 1∉ D. 1 + 2
(d−1 )(d−1+1 )
+…+ (d - 1) = 2 . Adding d to both sides of this
equality results in the equality 1 + 2 +…+ (d - 1) + d =
d (d +1)
2 which contradicts the fact that d∈ D.
■

Comparing the two presentations of this proof, you can see that
the second one leaves out laborious details of standard techniques.

3. INDUCTION

AXIOM 1.2 (Principle of mathematical induction)

Let pn be a statement involving a natural number n. We can
prove the proposition
for all n , pn by establishing that
(a) p1 is true,
(b)for all k∈ Z, if pk is true, then pk+1 is true.

Proofs by the principle of mathematical induction consist of two

steps. In the first step, we show that p1 is true. In practice, this is often
quite easy, but we should not neglect it. In the second step, we assume
that pk is true. This assumption is the inductive hypothesis. Using this
hypothesis, we prove that pk+1 is true. A proof by induction will not be
complete (and valid). If we carry out the first step but not the second,
or if we carry out the second step but not the first. .

THEOREM 1.1 (Revisited)

n(n+1 )
For n∈ Z, n ≥ 1, then 1 + 2 +…+ n = 2 .

Proof: We use the principle of mathematical induction.

1(1+1)
(a) 1 = 2 , so the formula is true for n = 1.
(b) Make the inductive hypothesis that
k (k +1 )
1+2+...+k= 2
We want to establish 1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =
(k +1 )[(k +1 )+1 ]
2 . We have
13 I

k (k +1 )
1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) = 2 + (k + 1)
by inductive hypothesis
k (k +1 )+2(k +1 )
= 2
( k +1 )( k +2 )
= 2
so the formula is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
Hence
n(n+1 )
1+2+...+n= 2

THEOREM 1.2
For all n∈ N
2 + 22 + 23 + . . . + 2n = 2n+1- 2.

Proof: (a) We have 2 = 22-2, which proves the assertion for n =

1.
(b) Assume
2 + 22 + 23 + . . . + 2k = 2k+1- 2.
Now we must prove
2 + 22 + 23 + . . . + 2k + 2k+1 = 2(k+1)+1- 2.
We have
2 + 22 + 23 + . . . + 2k+2k+1 = (2k+1- 2)+ 2k+1 (by
inductive hypothesis)
= 2(2k+1) - 2
= 2k+2- 2,
so the assertion is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
Thus
2 + 22 + 23 + . . . + 2n = 2n+1- 2 for all n∈ N.

THEOREM 1.3
Let h >-1 be a fixed real number, then (1 + h)n ≥1 + nh for all n
∈ N.

Proof: (a) We have (1 + h)1 ≥ 1 + 1h, so the inequality is

true for n =1.
(b) Let us assume (1 + h)k ≥ 1 + kh. We want to prove that
(1 + h)k+1 ≥ 1 + (k+1)h.
We have
(1 + h)k+1 = (1 + h)k (1 + h)
≥ (1 + kh)(1 + h) (by inductive hypothesis
and 1 + h ≥ 0)
= 1 + h + kh + kh2
Benjier H. Arriola 14

≥ 1 + h + kh + 0
= 1 + (k + 1)h,
so the inequality is true for n = k + 1 if it is true for n = k.
By the principle of mathematical induction,
(1 + h)n ≥ 1 + nh for all n∈ N .

Sometimes it is convenient to use the principle of mathematical

induction in a slightly different form. We assume (not only qk, but
rather) each one of q1, q2, q3, . . . , qk is true and then conclude that qk+1
is true. This establishes the truth of qn for all n∈ N, as the following
theorem shows.

THEOREM 1.4
Let qn be a statement involving a natural number n. Assume that
i. q1 is true,
ii. for all k∈ N , if q1, q2, q3, . . . , qk are true, then qk+1 is
true.
Then qn is true for all n∈ N .

Proof: We prove the theorem by the principle of mathematical

induction.
We put
p1 = q1
pk = q1 and q2 and . . . and qk (for all k∈ N , k ≥ 2).
Now induction.
(a) p1 is true (by the hypothesis i.)
(b) Make the inductive hypothesis that pk is true. Then
q1 and q2 and . . . and qk is true (definition of pk)
q1, q2, q3, . . . , qk are all true (truth value of
conjunction)
qk+1 is true (by the hypothesis ii.)
2q1, q2, q3, . . . , qk,qk+1 are all true
q1 and q2 and . . . and qk and qk+1 is true
pk+1 is true.
Hence, for all k∈ N , if pk is true, then pk+1 is true. By the
principle of mathematical induction, pn is true for all n∈ N .
So q1 and q2 and . . . and qn is true for all n∈ N .In particular,
qn is true for all n∈ N . This completes the proof.

EXERCISES 1.1

Prove the assertion in Ex. 1-11 for all n∈ N by the principle of

mathematical induction.
1. 1 + 3 + . . . + (2n - 1) = n2.
15 I

n(3 n−1 )
2. 1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3n-2) = 2 .
n( n+1 )( 2 n+1)
12 +2 2 +.. .+n2 =
3. 6 .
3 3 3 2
4. 1 +2 +. ..+n =(1+2+3+. ..+n )
n 2 ( n+1 )2
13 + 23 +. ..+n 3=
4. 4 .
n(n+1 )(2 n+1)(3 n 2+3 n−1 )
14 +24 +. ..+ n4 =
5. 30 .
6. xn-yn=(x - y)(xn-1+xn-2y+…+xyn-2+yn-1).
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + .. .+ =
7. 1⋅2 2⋅3 3⋅4 n(n+1) n+1
8. Prove that 2n ≥ n2 for all n ≥ 5, n∈ N.
9. Prove that n3 + 3n2 + 1 ≥ 0 for all n ≥ -2, n∈ N.
10. Prove that, for any n∈ N and for any positive real numbers a1,
a2, …, an,
n a1 + a2 +⋯+ a2n
2
√ 1 2 2n
a a ⋯a ¿
2n .
11. Prove that, for any n N and for any positive real numbers a1,
∈
a2, …, an,
a1 + a2 +⋯+ an
√n a1 a2 ⋯an ≤ n
Benjier H. Arriola 16

(Hint: if m ≠ 2n, then choose n so that 2n-1 < m < 2n. Put b
= (a1 + a2 + …+ am)/m. Then use Ex. 10 with a1, a2, …, am,
a a
am+1, …, 2n , where am+1 =…= 2n = b.)
12. Suppose that F1 = 1, F2 = 1, F3 = 2, F4 = 3, F5 = 5, and in
general Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 for n ≥ 3. (Fn is called the nth
Fibonacci number.) Prove that
F 1 +F 2 +F 3 +⋯+F n=F n−2−1 .
17 I

Chapter II

DIVISIBILITY

DEFINITION 2.1 (Divisibility)

If a and b are in Z and a ≠ 0, then a divides b means that there is
an integer c such that b = ac. We shall write a│b to indicate that
a divides b; and, a ┼ b, to indicate that a does not divide b.

Example 1.1
According to this definition, 3 does not divide 4, or 3 ┼ 4
since there is no integer which when multiplied by 3 gives
4. On the other hand, 5 does divide 35, or 5│35 since 35 =
5(7) and 7є Z.

THEOREM 2.1 (Properties of Divisibility)

Let a, b and c є Z.
a. a│a and – a│a, for all a ≠ 0.
b. If a│b, then |a|≤|b|
c. If a│b and b│a, then |a|=|b|
d. If a│b and b│c, then a│c
e. a│b iff ac│bc, for all c ≠ 0
f. If a│b and c│d then ac│bd
g. If a│b and a│c then a│b + c.
h. If a│b then for any c∈ Z then a│bc.
i. If a│b and a│c then a│(bx + cy), for all x, y ∈ Z
j. If ab│c then a│c

a) a │ a implies a=ac for some c ℤ implies c=1 . Similarly a=(-

Proof:

a)d for some d∈ Z implies c=-1. Hence a│a and –a│a.

b) a│b implies b=ac for some c∈ Z implies |b|=|ac|implies|b|
=|a||c| implies|a|≤|a||c|. Thus|a|≤|b|.
c) a│b implies |a|≤|b|, and b│a implies |b|≤|a|. Thus |a|=|b|.
Benjier H. Arriola 18

d) a│b and b│c implies b=ae and c=bf for some e,f ∈ Z
implies c=(ae)f=a(ef). Thus a│c.
e) The proof of this theorem is in two parts. First we must
show that if a│b, then ac│bc and second we need to
show that if ac│bc, then a│b. To show the first part we
use definition 2.1, that is, a│b implies b=ax for some x
∈ Z implies bc=(ac)x. Therefore, ac│bc. To show the
second part, by definition 2.1, ac│bc implies bc=(ac)y
for some y∈ Z implies b=ay. Thus a│b. Hence a│b iff
ac│bc.
f) a│b and c│d implies b=ax and d=cy for some x,y∈ Z
implies bd=(ax)(cy)=(ac)(xy). Therefore ac│bd.
g) a│b and a│c implies b=ax and c=ay for some x,y ∈ Z
implies b+c=ax+ay=a(x+y). Therefore a│b+c.
h) a│b implies b=ax for some c ∈ Z implies bc=(ax)c=a(xc).
Thus a│bc.
i) a│b and a│c implies a│bx and a│cy by theorem 2.1 (h).
Therefore by theorem 2.1 (g) a│(bx+cy).
j) ab│c implies c=(ab)x for some x∈ Z implies c=a(bx).
Therefore a│b.

THEOREM 1.2 (Division Algorithm)

If a, b ∈ Z and a ≥ 0, then there exist integers q and r such that a
= bq + r and 0 ≤ r <b.

Example 1.2
Let a = 317 and b = 5, then dividing 317 by 5 gives 63 and
a remainder of 2;
63
5
|317
30
17
15
2 remainder

Thus 317/5 = 63 + 2/5; Multiplying by 5 we get 317 =

63(5) + 2. The Division Algorithm in this case asserts the
existence of q =63 and r=2. Notice that 0 ≤ 2 < 5.

DEFINITION 1.2 (Common Divisor)

If c│a and c│b, then we say that c is a common divisor of a
and b.

Example 1.3
19 I

2 is a common divisor of 4 and 8, since 2│4 and 2│8. 4 is

also a common divisor of 4 and 8 since 4│4 and 4│8.

DEFINITION 1.3 (Greatest Common Divisor or GCD)

Let a and b be integers; the integer d is called the greatest
common divisor (GCD) of a and b, denoted by (a,b) = d, if
d satisfies the following two conditions:
a. d is a common divisor of a and b.
b. If c ∈ Z such that c│a and c│b, then c ≤ d.

Example 1.4
You can verify easily that the following are true:
(6,4) = 2, (12,18) = 6, (-12, 18) = 6, (-5, 0 ) = 5

Example 1.5
The positive divisors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6 and 12. The
positive divisors of -8 are 1,2,4 and 8. Thus the positive
common divisors of 12 and -8 are 1,2, and 4; hence (12,-8)
= -4.

THEOREM 1.3 (Properties of GCD)

Let d = (a,b),
a. If (a,b) = d, then d is unique
b. (a,b) = a iff a│b
c. 1 ≤ d ≤ min {a,b}
d. If c│a and c│b, then (a/b, b/c) = a/c
e. (a/d, b/d) = 1
f. (an, bn) = (a,b)•n, for all n ∈ Z+

Example 1.6
1. (4,8) = 4 since 4│8
2. 2│4 and 2│8 so (4/2, 8/2) = 4/2 = (2,4) = 2
3. (6,14) = (2•3, 2•7) = (3,7)•2 = 1•2 = 2

THEOREM 1.4
Let a, b ∈ Z. If a = bq + r, then (a, b) = (b, r)

Example 1.7
(8216, 1508) = (1508, 676) since 8216 = 5(1508) + 676
(1508, 676) = (676, 156) since 1508 = 2 (676) + 156
Benjier H. Arriola 20

THEOREM 1.5
Let a, b ∈ Z with b > 0. Then (a,b) is the last non zero
remainder rk in the series of equations obtained from the
Division Algorithm:
a = bq1 + r1, 0 < r1< b
b = r1·q2 + r2 , 0 < r2 < r1
r1 = r2q3 + r3, 0 < r3 < r2
r2 = r3q4 + r4, 0 < r4 <r3
rk-2 = rk-1·qk + rk, 0 < rk <rk-1
rk-1 = rk·qk+1 + 0

Example 1.8
Let us use the Division Algorithm together with
Theorem 1.4 to calculate (8216, 1508), First,
8216 = 5 (1508) + 676
Hence (8216, 1508) = (1508, 676). Next,
1508 = 2(676) + 156
So (1508, 676) = (676, 156), Continuing we obtain
676 = 4(156) + 52 and (676, 156) = (156, 52)
156 = 3 (52) + 0
Therefore (8216, 1508 = 52

Example 1.10
To find the GCD of 27 and 87, we have
87 = 3(27) + 6
27 = 4(6) + 3
6 = 2(3) + 0
Thus (27,87) = 3

THEOREM 1.6 (Integral Linear Combination)

If d = (a,b), then there exist integers x and y such ax + by
= d.

Example 1.11
From example 1.9, we would like to solve 8216x + 1508y
= 52.
We will rewrite the steps so that you can see how
this straight forward process
works.
8216 = 5(1508) + 676
1508 = 2 (676) + 156
676 = 4 (156) + 52

Then, working with the remainders,

52 = 676 – 4 (156)
156 = 1508 – 2 (676)
21 I

676 = 8216 + 5 (1508)

Thus
52 = 676 – 4 [1508 – 2 (676)]
52 = 676 – 4 (1508) + 8 (676)
52 = 9 (676) – 4 (1508)
52 = 9 [8216 – 5 (1508)] – 4 (1508)
52 = 9 (8216) – 4 (1508) – 4 (1508)
52 = 9 (8216) – 49 (1508)

Therefore x = y and y = -49

DEFINITION 1.4 (Common Multiple)

Let a, b ∈ Z; If a│n and b│n, then we say that n is a
common multiple of a and b.

DEFINITION 1.5 (Least Common Multiple or LCM)

A positive integer m is called a least common multiple of a
and b, denoted by [a,b], provided that
a. m is a common multiple of a and b; and
b. If n > 0 is any common multiple of a and b, then m
≤ n.

Example 1.12
The set of common multiple of 4 is {4,8,12,16,20,24,
…} and the set of common multiple of 5 is
{5,10,15,20, …}. Thus, the common multiple of both
and 5 are 20,40,60, … Since 60<40<20 therefore
{4,5} = 20.

Example 1.13
[8,12] = 24 , [9, 15] = 45

THEOREM 1.7 (Properties of LCM)

1. For any nonzero integers a and b. If a > 0, b > 0 then
[a,b] = ab/(a,b)
2. If (a,b) = 1, then [a,b] = ab
3. If a│b, then [a,b] = b
4. For all n ∈ Z+, [an, bn] = [a,b]·n.
5. The LCM of a and b is unique.

Example 1.14
a. [2,4] = 2.4/(2.4) = 8/2 = 4
b. [3,20] = 3.20 = 60 since (3,20) = 1
c. [4,20] = 20 since 4/20
d. [12,16] = [3.4,4.4] = [3,4] 4 = 2.4 = 48
Benjier H. Arriola 22

EXERCISES 1.1

1. Find all positive integers k such that

a. k│12
b. k│25
c. k│300
2. Find integers u, f and h, such that u│fh but u┼ f and u ┼h.
3. Find integers x and y for each of the following integral linear
combination
a. 299x + 481y = (299,481)
b. 12321x + 8658y = (12321, 8658)
c. 129x + 301y = (129, 301)

4. Find the greatest common divisor of each of the following pair

of integers.
a. 527 and 765
b. 361 and 1178
c. 108 and 243
d. 132 and 473
e. 156 and 1740

5. Compute the following

a. [25, 30]
b. [42, 49]
c. [27, 81]
d. [28, 29]
e. [n, n + 1]

6. Compute the following

a. (45, 50)
b. (1146, 381)

EXERCISES 1.2

1. True or False: If b│c and a│c, then a│b (If true, prove it; if
false provide a numerical example).
2. Prove that [ab,ad] ≤ a·[b,d]
3. Show that (5x + 6, 5x + 8) = 1 for all integers x.
4. Show that for all k∈ Z, (k, k+1)
5. Suppose that a│(k3-1). Show that a│(k2 – 1). Does a│(k3 – 1)?
Is there a general result?
6. Show that if a│2x – 3y and a│4x – 5y, then a│y.
7. Assume that d│n. Show that dc│n iff c│(n/d)
8. Show that if a│x, b│x and (a,b) = 1, then ab│x. (Hint: 1=au
+ bv, so multiply by x)
23 I

9. Assume that 0 ≤ r < b and 0 ≤ s < b. Show that if b│r – s ,

then r = s.
10. Prove that 5│(a5 – a) for any a ∈ Z.
11. Prove that if (a,c) = 1 and (b,c) = 1, then (ab,c) = 1. (Hint:
Write 1 = ax0 + cy0 and 1 = bx + cy, multiply these two
equations together.)
12. Prove that if D = d/(b,d) and B = b/(b,d), then
a b aD+cB
− =
b d [b,d]
13. Prove that (a + b, a – b) ≥ (a,b)
14. Prove that, if a and b are nonzero integers then (a,b)│[a,b],
but that (a,b)2 ┼[a,b] unless (a,b) = 1.
15. We can define a generalized Fibonacci sequence F 1, F2, F3,
F4, … by first selecting four integers a,b,c and e and then
letting F1 = a1, F2 = b and Fn = cFn -1 + eFn – 2 if n > 2.
a. Prove that, if d =(a,b), then d│Fn for all n ≥ 1
b. Prove that, if f = (Fm, Fm-1) and f ┼ e then f│d.

Chapter II
Benjier H. Arriola 24

BASIS REPRESENTATION OF INTEGERS

THEOREM 3.1 (Basis Representation Theorem)

Let k be any integer larger than 1. Then for each positive
integer n, there exists a representation
n = a0 ks + a1 k s-1 + … + as
where ao ≠ 0 and where each as is non negative and less
than k. Furthermore, this representation of n is unique; it is
called the representation of n to the base k.

Example 3.1
In the decimal system, 209 stand for 2·102 + 0·101 +
9·100
Similarly, for 4129 stand for 4·103 + 1·102 + 2·101 +
9·100

Example 3.2
In binary notation, we write 23 as 10111, which
stands for 1·24 + 0·22 + 1·22 + 1·21 + 1·20, and 36
ahs the form 100100 which stands for 1·25 + 0·24 +
0·23 + 1·22 + 0·21 + 0·20.

Example 3.3
Let A=10; B=11; C=12; D=13; E=14 and F=15.
using these symbols, we write three hundred to the base
sixteen as 12c that is 1.16 2+ 2.16 = 12.160.

THEOREM 3.2
An integer n is even iff its last decimal digit is even.

THEOREM 3.3
Let n
Example 3.4
We ant to know if 3/78162
7+8+1+6+2 = 24 since 3/24
Therefore 3/78162

THEOREM 3.4
Let n = a
Is the integer consisting of the last m decimal digits of n, then 2
m/n

Example 3.5
25 I

2/7148 since 2/8

2/7148 since 2/48
2 and 7148 since 2 and 148
2 and 7148 since 2 and 7148

THEOREM 3.5

Example 3.6
97,450
5/97450 since 5/0
5/97450 since 5/50
5/97450 since 5/450
Also 5/97450 since 5/450

THEOREM 3.6
Let n =

Example 3.7
62541
6+2+5+4+1 = 18 since 9/18
Therefore 9/62541

THEOREM 3.7
Let n =

Example 3.8
90816
(9+8+6) – (0+1) = 23 – 1 = 22
Therefore 11/90816

EXERCISES 3.1

1. Write the numbers twenty-five, thirty-two and fifty-six to the

base five.
2. Write the numbers forty-seven, sixty-eight, and one hundred
twenty-seven to the base 2.
3. What is the least number of weights required to weight any
integral number of pounds up to 63 pounds if one is allowed
to put weights in only one pan of a balance?
4. Write 12345 in base – 7 notations using Euclidean Algorithm.
5. Solve the problem of Bachet de Meziriac from 1624. A
merchant had a 40-pound weight that broke into 4 pieces.
When the pieces were weighed, it was found that each piece
Benjier H. Arriola 26

was a whole number of pounds and that the four pieces could
be used to weigh every integral weight between + and 40
pounds. What were the weights of the pieces?
6. Using Exercise 3.2.1, determine the least number of weights
required to weigh any integral number of pounds up to 80
pounds if one is allowed to put weighs in both pans of
balance.

EXERCISE 3.2

1. Prove that each integer may be uniquely represented in the

form
2. Prove that if

Is a representation of n to the base k, then 0 < n ≤ k - 1

3. Without using theorem 3.1, prove directly that two different

representations to the base k represent different integers.
[Hint: Use Exercise 3.2.2]

III. PRIME NUMBERS

I. Primes

DEFINITION 2.1 (Prime)

. An integer p > 1 is a prime if the only positive divisors of p are
1 and p

Example 2.1
Clearly 2,3,5,7,11 are all prime, while 15 is not a
prime since it is divisible by 3 as well as 1 and 15.

DEFINITION 2.2 (Composite)

An integer n is composite if n is not a prime.

Example 2.2
15 is composite since 15 is not a prime.

DEFINITION 2.3 (Relatively Prime)

We say that a and b are relatively prime if (a,b) = 1.
27 I

Example 2.3
The positive divisors of 7 are 1 and 7. The positive
divisors of 27 are 1,3,9 and 27. Since 1 is the only positive
common divisor of 7 and 27, then these two integers are
relatively prime.

THEOREM 2.1
Every integer greater than 1 can be expressed as a product of
prime.
 The Phrase “ a product of prime’ allows the possibility of
only one term accruing in a product; thus a prime
number is already “ a product of prime”

Example 2.4
20 = 4 x 5 = 2 x 2 x 5

THEOREM 2.2
There exist infinitely many prime.

DEFINITION 2.4 (Prime Factorization)

For an integer n > 1, we say that a product of primes P1, P2 ….Pk
is a prime factorization of n if:
a. n = Pa-P2 …Pk
b. Pa ≤ P2≤ … ≤ Pk

Example 2.5
A prime factorization of 20 is 2.2.5
THEROEM 2.3 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)
For each integer n >1, there is exactly one prime factorization
for n.

THEOREM 2.4
Let p be a prime and let n be any integer
(n,p) = { P if p/n
{1 if p and n

Example 2.6
(5, 25) = 5 since 5/25
(7, 26) = 1 since 7 x 26
THEOREM 2.5
Let p be a prime, If P/ab, then either p/a or p/b

Example 2.7
2/8.9 so 2/8 but 2 x 9

THEOREM 2.6
Benjier H. Arriola 28

Let p be a prime and A1, A2, … An be integers. If p/A1, A2, An.

Then p/a; for some 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

Example 2.8
7/(33.56.65) so 7/56
13/(33.56.65) s0 13/65

THEOREM 2.7
Let n ≥ 2 be an integer with Canomical representation n =
_____________. An integer m ≥ 1 is a positive divisor of n iff m =

Example 2.9
If n = 3 5 13 and m =15 then m/n and m = 3.5 = 3 5
13

2. THE SIEVE METHOD

A well-known process for finding all primes less than a
fixed positive integer. It is known as the sieve of Eratosthenes (~ 200
B.C)

THEOREM 2.8 (Test for Primality)

If n > 1 is not a prime, then n has a prime divisor p ≤ n

Example 2.10
29 I

Suppose n=43.Since 6 = 36 < 43. Thus if 43 is not

prime, it will have a prime divisor that is less than 6. We
want to test if 43 is prime. Since 2,3, and 5 is the only
prime less than 6. so we test if 2,3, and 5 divides 43
respectively. Thus2 x 43, 3 x 43 and 5 x 43. Hence 43 is
prime.

Example 2.11
The following are steps of Sieve of Eratosthenes:
1. Write in order the list of consecutive odd integers
beginning with 3.
2. Remove every p+h number following the p, wherein p
is the smallest unused remaining prime number in the
list.
3. Now if at any stage of this algorithm one has just
removed every qth number following the smallest
surviving number of which is necessary prime, then all
surviving numbers in the list as far as but not including
q2 are prime numbers.
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23
25
27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47
49
51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71
73
75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95
97
99

Thus, the prime less than 100 are

3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,41,42,47,53,59,61,67,71,
73,79,83,89 and 97.

THEOREM 2.9
Let n be a consecutive natural numbers beginning with 2. If d
does not exceed n +1, K=d is divisible by d, where k is the least
common multiple of n; however, more than the n consecutive numbers
so obtained may be composite.

Example 2.12
To obtain six consecutive composite numbers, note
that the LCM of the six natural numbers 2,3,4,5,6,7, is 420.
Hence 420+2 is divisible by 2, 423 is divisible by 3, 424 is
divisible by 4,425 is divisible by 5, 426 is divisible by 6,
427 is divisible by 7.
Benjier H. Arriola 30

3. FORMAT FACTORIZATION
This method for finding all ways of factoring an odd integer
into two unequal factors was invented by Pierre de Fermat, a brilliant
17th century mathematician.
1. If n > 0 is an odd integer, make a table consisting of (n-1)/2
rows, obtained by successively adding consecutive odd
integers to n. Note which rows of the table contain perfect
squares.
2. If the 5th row contains t2, then (t+s)(t-s) = n and all factoring
of n into two distinct factors are produced in this manner.

Example 2.13
Let n = 21
Row Number
1 21 + 1 = 22
2 22 + 3 = 25 = 52
3 25 + 5 = 30
4 30 + 7 = 37
5 37 + 9 = 46
6 46 + 11 = 57
7 57 + 13 = 70
8 70 15 = 85
9 85 + 17 = 102
10 102 + 19 = 121 =
112
Note 10 = (21-1)/2

The second row contains 5. Thus (5+2)(5-2) =

(7)(3) = 21. Also , the tenth row contains 11. Thus
(11+10)(11-10) = (21)(1) = 21. Note that these are
the only such ways in which 21 can be factors
[ignoring trivial variation such as (3)(7) = 21 or (-7)(-
3) = 21].
Of course, it is silly to apply this method to a
small number like 21. However, for a large n such as
100, 117, it becomes a feasible method.

4. FACTOR TABLES
The Sieve of Eratosthenes provides a factor table, as well
as a list of prime numbers. If one underlines every third number
following 3, if one over lines every fifth number following 5, if one
prefixes the * to every seventh number following 7, if one suffixes
(places after) the * after every eleventh number following 11, if one
prefixes the ‘ before every thirteenth number following 13, one obtains
31 I

a table of numbers as far as 289 which shows all factors of the

composite numbers. The unmarked numbers are prime numbers. If one
prefixes “before every seventeenth number following 17, the table
may be extended as for as 361.
There are accordingly, 72 prime numbers less than 361,
including the 2.

Notations:
a = divisible by 3 a* = divisible by 11
a = divisible by 5 a = divisible by 13
*a = divisible by 7 “a = divisible by 17

3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55
57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73
75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91
93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109
111 113 115 117 119 121 123 125 127
129 131 133 135 137 139 141 143 145
147 149 151 153 155 157 159 161 163
165 167 169 171 173 175 177 179 181
183 185 187 189 191 193 195 197 199
201 203 205 207 209 211 213 215 217
219 221 223 225 227 229 231 233 235
237 239 241 243 245 247 249 251 253
255 257 259 261 263 265 267 269 171
273 275 277 279 281 283 285 287 289
291 293 195 297 299 301 303 305 307
309 311 313 315 317 319 321 323 325
327 329 331 333 335 337 339 341 343
345 347 349 351 353 355 357 359 361 = 192
Benjier H. Arriola 32

5. EULER’S FORMULA FOR PRIME NUMBERS

A simple formula yielding only prime numbers does not
exist. But certain formulas, for a limited number of integral values of n,
namely, 0,1,2, … do yield only prime numbers. These formulas are n2
+ n + A = a prime number from n=0 to n=A-2; for n=A-1 the formula
yields A2. The three simplest formulas occur for a=11,17 and 41. For
A=41, the formula n2 + n + 41 is called Euler’s Formula.

Example 2.14
Let A = 11, n = 11-2 = 9

6. PERFECT NUMBERS

A perfect number is a natural number that is equal to the

sum of all its exact divisors excluding the number itself.

THEOREM 2.10 (Euclid Proposition)

If 2n – 1 is a prime number for any natural number n, then
the product (2n – 1) x 2 n-1 is a perfect number.

Example 2.15
Let n=3, so 23-1=7 is a prime
Therefore (23-1) x 22 =7x4=28 is a perfect number
To check 28, we have to find all divisors of 28
We know that 1,2,4,7,14 are divisors of 28, then
1+2+4+7+14=28

7. SOME UNSOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Two consecutive odd natural numbers that are prime numbers are
called twin primes, such as (11,13), (17,19),(29,31),(41,43), etc…
Do such twin primes continue to occur without end in the list of
prime numbers? The answer is unknown (The twin primes)
2. Many prime numbers occur that are equal to the 1 plus a square
number, such as 22 + 1 or 5; 62 + 1 or 37; 162 + 1 or 257, etc… Do
33 I

such prime numbers continue to occur in the list of prime

numbers? The answer is unknown.
3. Al least one prime number seems to occur between consecutive
square numbers. Is this always true for all pairs of consecutive
square numbers? The answer is unknown.
4. It appears that every even numbers, beyond 2 can be expressed
as the sum of two prime numbers. Thus 4 = 2+2, 6=3+3, 8=5+3,
10=3+7, or 5+5, etc… Is this true fro all such even numbers? The
answer is unknown. At this date (Goldbach’s Conjecture)
5. For some primes p, 2p – 1 is also a prime. This occur with p =
5,7,13,19,937. Prime numbers of the form 2p – 1 where p is prime
are called Mersenue Primes. It is not known whether or not there
are infinite numbers of Mersenue primes. The primes 2 217101 + 1
is the largest known Mersenue prime.

EXERCISE 2.1

1. Find prime decomposition for each of the following integers

a. 49,500 c. 12,500
b. 38,712 d. 10,083
2. How can the Sieve of Eratosthenes be used to find all prime
divisors of 168?
3. Use Fermats Factorizations technique to find all ways of
factoring n = 63 into two factors. Do the same for n=126?
4. Find all pairs of twin primes less than 100.
5. Determine all integers n such that b, n+2, and n+4 are all
primes.
6. Find the smallest positive valued of n such that n2 + n + 41 is
not prime.
7. Using Sieve Method find all primes between 420 and 500
8. Find the 10 smallest primes of the form x2 + x + 1.
9. By use of Sieve of Eratosthenes, obtain the complete
factorization of the following numbers:
a. 105 d. 315 g. 277
b. 279 e. 351 h. 594
c. 273 f. 323
10. Examine the formula n2 + n + A for A =5. How many prime
numbers does it yield?
11. Obtain the sum of the exact divisors of (24 – 1) x 23
Why is this number not a perfect number?
12. Verify that every even integer between 4 and 100 can be
expressed as the sum of two pairs.
13. Verify that 25 – 1 and 27 – 1 are primes, while 211 – 1 is not.
Benjier H. Arriola 34

14. Determine all integers n such that n, n+2 and n+4 are
composite.

EXERCISE 2.2

1. Let a > 1 be an integer such that 12/a. Show that 2 and 3

occur in the prime factorization of a .
2. Let p and q be distinct primes such that p/a and q/a. Show
that pq/a. (Hint: look at the prime decomposition of a)
3. Show that none of the four consecutive numbers
5 ! + 2, 5 ! + 3, 5 ! + 4, 5 ! + 5,
Is prime number.
4. Prove that every integer of the form 4k +3 has a prime
divisor of the form 4k+3. (Hint: Observe that any prime
greater than 2 is of the form 4n + 1 or 4n + 3)
5. Let a and b be nonnegative integers not both 1. Show that
if k is an odd positive integer, k ≥ 3, Then a k + bk is not
prime.
6. Show that if n2 + 2 is prime, then 3/n/
7. Prove: If 2k +1 is a prime for some integer k ≥ 1, then k =
2t for some t ≥ 1. (Hint: Write k = 2tm, where 2+m. Apply
Exercise 2.2.5)
8. Show that if an – 1 is prime, then n is prime. (Hint: If n= Ik,
use long division to divide an – 1 by aI – 1)
9. Show that the only prime p such that 3p +1 is a perfect
square is p =5.
10. Let n > 1 be a non square odd integer. Show that n is
prime if and only if the smallest positive value of k for
which n+1+3+5+7+……+ (2k=1) is perfect square is
k=(n-1)/2.
35 I

11. Prove that the Sieve of Eratosthenes finds all primes (and
only primes) between 1 and the given integer k.
12. Let a and b be integers, and let sa + tb = 1 for s,t, in
Prove that a and b are relatively prime.
13. Prove that if (r,m) = 1 = (r’,m), then (rr’,m) = 1
14. If Fn denotes the nth term of the Fibonacci Sequence
0,1,2,3,5,8, … prove that (Fn-1, Fn) = 1 v n ≥ 1.

IV. CONGRUENCES

DEFINITION 4.1

Let m be a positive integer. If a,b,c, £, we say that a ≡ b

mod m (read “a is congruent to b module m) provided that m/ca – b).

Example 4.1
We see that 8≡2 mod 2 since 218-2 but 8≠3
mod 2 since 2X8–3. Similarly, 17≡12 mod 5 since
5/17-2 and 100≡-40 mod 20 since 20/100-(40).

THEOREM 4.1 ( Properties of Congruence)

Let m be a positive integer
a. For any integer a, a ≡ a mod m.
b. If a ≡ b mod m and c ≡ d mod m, then a + c ≡ b + d mod
m.
c. If a ≡ b mod m and c ≡ d mod m, then ac ≡ bd mod m.
d. If c ≡ d mod m, then - c ≡ - d mod m
e. If a ≡ b mod m and c ≡ d mod m, then a – c ≡ b – c mod
m.
Benjier H. Arriola 36

f. If a ≡ b mod m and b ≡ c mod m, then a ≡ c mod m.

g. If a ≡ b mod m, then b ≡ mod m.
h. If a ≡ b mod m., then ac ≡ bc mod m.
i. If a ≡ b mod m, then aⁿ ≡ bⁿ mod m V n≥1.

Example 4.2
Let m = 6 and consider the expression 3-19+8-11-
14= N. Let us find a number r between 0 and 5 such that N
≡ r mod 6.

a. First, 19 ≡ 1 mod 6 and by (a), 3 ≡ 3 mod 6, so by

(c)
3∙19 ≡ 3-1 mod 6, hence 3∙19 ≡ 3 mod 6
b. Next, 8 ≡ 2 mod 6, so using (i) with n=3, we have
8 ≡ 2 mod 6 → 8 ≡ 8 mod 6, hence 8 ≡ 2 mod 6
c. We have 11 ≡ 5 mod 6 and 14 ≡ 2 mod 6, so by
(c)
11∙4 ≡ 10 mod 6. Since 10 ≡ 4 mod 6, we have
11∙4 ≡ 4 mod 6
d. The final step is to combine a), b) and c) using
theorem 4.1 thus
3∙19 ≡ 3 mod 6, 8 ≡ 2 mod 6, 11∙14 ≡ 4 mod 6 so
( 3∙19+8 ) -11∙4 ≡ ( 3+2 ) -4 mod 6.
Hence 3∙19+8 -11∙14 ≡ 1 mod 6. Therefore r= 1.

THEOREM 4.2
Let m>0 and suppose that ab ≡ ac mod m. If (a,m) = 1,
then b ≡ c mod m.

Example 4.3
50 ≡ 5 mod 3 → 10∙5 ≡ 1∙5 mod 3
Since (5,3) = 1 so 10 ≡ 1 mod 3.

THEOREM 4.3
Let a, m Є ≡ with m>0. Then there is an integer c such that ac ≡
1 mod m iff (a,m) =1.

Example 4.4
Looking again at a = 5, m = 26, we had c =
21.Since 5∙21 ≡ 1 mod 26. However, 21 is not a
possibility. For instance, 5∙(-5) ≡ 1 mod 26 and 5∙73
≡ 1 mod 26. Notice, though, that -5 ≡ 21 mod 26 and
37 I

73 ≡ 21 mod 26 and so, mod 26, 21 is not a different

answer that -5 or 73.

DEFINITION 4.2 (Least Positive Residue)

If m is a natural number and b is an integer, let b=qm+r where 0

≤ r ≤ m – 1. We say that r is the least positive residue of b mod m.

Example 4.5
35 = 4(8) + 3, so 3 is the least positive residue
of 35 mod 8 or 35 = 3 mod 8.

1. LINEAR CONGRUENCES

DEFINITION 4.3 (Linear Congruences)

If a,b and m are integers such that a ≠ 0 mod m and x is

unknown, then the congruence ax = b mod m is called a linear
congruence mod m.

Example 4.6
Solve the Linear Congruence 3x = 1 mod 5
Let x = 0,1,2,3,4
3(0) ≠ 1 mod 5
3(1) ≠ 1 mod 5
3(2) ≠ 1 mod 5
3(3) ≠ 1 mod 5
3(4) ≠ 1 mod 5
So the solutions are x = 5k + 2 where k ЄZ

THEOREM 4.4
The congruence ax=b mod m has at least one solution iff (a,m)/b

Example 4.7
9x = 3 mod 12 has solutions
Since (9,12) = 3 and3/3
THEOREM 4.5
Let d = (a,m), If d/b then the congruence ax=b mod m has
exactly d solutions mod m. If d+b, then the congruence has no
solution.

Example 4.8
8x=12 mod 20 has 4 solutions since (8,20) =4
and 4/12 but 3x =2 mod 6 has no solution since
(3,6)=3 and 3+2.
Benjier H. Arriola 38

Example 4.9
Solve the congruence 7x=2 mod 37
Solving the GCD we have (7,37) =1
So there is exactly one solution.
1. Use Euclidian Algorithm to find he GCD of 7
37 = 5(7) + 2
7 = 3(2) + 1
2. Find u since that au+mv=d=1
1 = 7-3(2)
1 = 7-3[37-5(7)]
1 = 7 -3(37) + 15 (7)
1 = 16(7) – 3 (37)
3. Therefore the solution is x=2(16) mod 37 which is
equivalent to x =32 mod 37.

Example 4.10
Solve the congruence 8x = 6 mod 10
1. (8,10) = 2 and 2/6, so there are 2 solutions
2. Reduce the given congruence
8x = 6 mod 10 = 4x = 3 mod 5
2 2
3. Find the unique solution of the reduced
congruence. Using the procedure in example 4.9,
The unique solution is x = 2 mod 5
4. Therefore the solutions are
X1 = 2 +0 (5) mod 10 = x1 = 2 mod 10
X2 = 2 +1(5) mod 10 = x2 = 7 mod 10

THEOREM 4.6
Let a, m ЄZ with m > 0. Then there exist a positive integer d
such that ad = 1 mod m if and only if (a,m) = 1.

Example 4.11
Since (3,4) = 1, so
4=1 mod 3 = 44 = 1 mod 3
= 48 = 1 mod 3
= 49 = 1 mod 3

THEOREM 4.7
Let p be a prime and let n be a positive integer. If m ≥ 0 and if Ʃ
= a1+a2+a3+…+a5 for which a1, a2, a3, …a5 are the digits of m in base p,
then nm= nƩ mod p.

Example 4.12
39 I

What is the remainder after dividing 3 12345 by

7? Solving Exercise 3.1.4, 12345 = 50664 in base –
7. Therefore
312345 = 350664 mod 7 = 312345 = 321 mod 7.
= 3 12345 = 33 mod 7 = 312345 = 6 and 7
Hence the remainder is 6.

2. LINEAR DIOPHANTINE EQUATION

THEOREM 4.8

Let a, b € z not both zero and let d= (a, b).

a. The equation ax + by=c has solutions if and only if d/c.
b. If x=r ,y=s is a solution of ax + by=c and if a=d u, b=d v,
then for any k €Z ,x=v=v k, y=s-u k is also a solution of the
Diophantine equation ax + by=c. conversely, if x, y is any
solution of ax + by = c, then there is an integers k such that
x, = r + v k, y, = s- u k.

Example 4.13
Solve the Diophantine equation
21x + 12y = 36
We first calculate (21,12) = 3, then click that
36 = 3(12). Thus 3/36; hence solutions exist. Next we
express 3 as a combination of 21 and 12:
3 = (21) (-1) + 12(2)
Multiplying by 12 gives
(21)(-12) + 12(24)= 36

So one solution to the equation is r= -12,

s=24.to complete the problem we describe all
other solutions. In the notation of Theorem 4.7,
we have u= 7 and v= 4, since a= 21= 3 x 7
and b= 12= 3 x 4. Therefore, all solutions are
given by x= -12 + 4k, y= 24 – 7k, where k€ Z.

THEOREM 4.9

Let a, b, c € Z and d= (a, b)

a. If d x c, then ax + by = c has no solutions.
b. If d/c, then ax + by = c has infinitely many solutions, and they
are given by x = x0 + (b/d) t, y= y0 – (a/d) t, where x0,y0 is a
solution and t is an integer.

Example 4.14
Solve the Diophantine Equation
Benjier H. Arriola 40

15x + 21 y = 18
(15, 21) = 3, 3/18
3(15) - 2 (21) =3
(15) (18) + (21) (-12) = 18
Thus x0 = 18, y0 = -12
Hence, all solutions are given by
X= 18 + 7t, y= -12 + 5t, where t €Z

THEOREM 4.10

Let a, b, c €Z and (a, b) = 1. Suppose ax=c mod b

represent a Diophantine
equation. If x= x 0 mod b is the solution to the
congruence ax = c mod b,
then the solutions to the Diophantine equation ax + by
= c is given by x = x0 + b t,
y = y 0 – at, where y0 = (c-ax0)/b and t € Z.

Example 4.15
Solve the Diophantine equation
6x + 11y = 41
6x = 41 mod 11 → 6x = 8 mod 11→ 3x = 4
mod 11→x=5 mod 11, so x=5
Therefore, x = 5 + 11t
y0= 41-6(5) = 11 = 1, so y= 1-6t.
11 11
Hence, all solutions are given by
X = 5 + 11t, y = 1-6t, t € Z

3. SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION

THEOREM 4.11
Consider the system of congruence
a1x = c1 mod m1
a2x = c2 mod m2

a k x = ck mod m k
and let d i = (a i, mi) for I =1,2,. . .,k. if for some j e € , 1 ≤
j ≤ k, d j + c j,
then no simultaneous solutions exist.

Example 4.16

The congruence
G x ≡ 4 mod 8
G x ≡ 3 mod 12
41 I

are solvable congruence.

The first has solution set
{x1x≡2 mod 4} while the solution
set {x1x ≡3 mod 4}, as you can easily verify. It
is clear that no x can
satisfy both congruence, since there are no
integers that are congruent to
both 2 and 3 modulo 4. the theorem imply that
if you cannot have
solutions for one congruence, you certainly
should not expect to be able
to solve a system that includes this
congruence.

THEOREM 4.12

For the system of congruence

a1x≡c1, mod m1
a2x ≡c2 mod m2
≡
A k x≡ c k mod m k
let d i = (a , mi) for 1≤i≤k, and suppose that x i is a
solution of the I th congruence,
for 1 ≤I ≤ k. then x is a simultaneous solution of the
system if and only if x is a
Solution of the ff. system:
x ≡ x1 mod (m 1/d1)
x≡ x2 mod (m2/d2)
≡
x≡ y k mod (m k /d k)

Example 4.17
Consider the two congruence
X ≡ 7 mod 11
X ≡ 10 mod 18

Noticing that (11, 18) = 1, we reason as follows:

If we are to have x ≡ 7 mod 11, then x=11t, +7 for
some t1€. If also x ≡10
mod 18, , then 11t, +7 ≡ 10 mod 18. Thus 11t, ≡ 3
mod 18, since (11, 18)
= 1, the previous methods assures us that there
are such integers t1, and
give us ways of finding them. For instance, since
the inverse of 11 modulo
Benjier H. Arriola 42

18 is 5, that is5-11 ≡ 1 mod 18, we see that t 1 ≡

(5.8)t1 ≡5.3 ≡ 15 mod 18.
hence, all such t 1 are given by the expression t 1 =
18t2 = 15 ,t2€z.

Since x = 11t, +7, we have x=11 (18t 2=15) =7

=(11.18)t2 + 172. Therefore
as t 2 varies through z, this gives all the solutions to
our pair of
congruence. Of course, we could also express these
solutions as x= 172
mod (11.18).

DEFINITION 4.4 (Pair wise relatively prime)

We say that the integers m1, m2,…, m k are pair

wise relatively prime if for each pair of distinct
subscript i, j we have (m I , m j ) = 1.

Example 4.18
11, 18 and 7 pair wise relatively prime, but
15, 7, and 18 are not since
(15, 18) =3≠1.

Example 4.19
All prime numbers are pair wise relatively
prime.

THEOREM 4.13 (The Chinese remainder theorem)

Suppose that the positive integers m 1, m2…, m k are

pair wise relatively prime.
Then for integers c 1,c 2,…, ck, the system of congruence
X1 ≡ c1 mod m1
X2 ≡c2 mod m2
≡
X k ≡ ck mod m k
Has a solution. Furthermore, if x o is one solution, then
all solutions are given by
X ≡ xo mod m1 m2…m k

THEOREM 4.14
43 I

Suppose m 1, m2,…m k are k integers and pair wise

relatively prime. Let
M=m 1, m 2…m k, and suppose that a1, a2,…a k are integers
such that (a i, m j ) =1 for
each i. then the k congruence
a1x ≡ b1 mod m1
a2x ≡ b2 mod m2
≡
A k≡ b k mod m k
Have a simultaneous solution that is unique modulo M.

Example 4.20
Solve the system of linear congruence
x≡ 3 mod 5, x≡ 2 mod 6 and x≡ 4 mod 7.
Given: m 1=m 2=6,m k= 7
(5, 6, 7) =1
So M=5x6x7=210 and n k =m/m k.
n1 = 210/5 = 42
n2 =210/6 = 35
n3 =210/7 = 30
Now n 1x1 ≡ 1 mod 5 = 42x1 ≡ 1 mod 5 = 2x1,≡ 1 mod 5 =
x1 ≡ 3 mod 5 so x1 = 3.
N 2x2 ≡ 1 mod 6 = 35x 2 ≡ 1 mod 6 = 5x 2 ≡ 1 mod 6 = x2 ≡5
mod 6; so x2 =5
N3x3 ≡1 mod7=30x3≡1 mod 7= 2x3≡ 1 mod 7= x3≡ 4 ≡ 7,
so x3=4.
Thus x ≡ (n1x1a1+n2x2a2+n3x3a3) mod M
N1x1a1 + n2x2a2 +n3x3a3 = 42.3.3+35.5.2+ 30.4.4 =1208
Therefore x ≡ 1208 mod 210= x ≡158 mod 210
Hence, all solutions are given by x= 210t +158, t €
Z.

3. Fermat’s little theorem

DEFINITION 4.5

Let m>o and let {r1, r2,…,r k} and {s1,s2,…,s k}be two set of
integers each containing the same (finite) number of distinct
elements. We say that {r1r2,...r k } ≡ {s1s2,…s k } mod m, if there is
a rearrangement of r1, r2,…,r k call it t1,t2…,t k, such that t1 ≡ s,
mod m,…t k ≡ s k mod m.
Example 4.15
With m= 6 we have {3,1} ≡ {7,27}mod 6, since
rearranging 3,1as 1,3, we get 1 ≡ 7 mod 6 and 3
≡27mod 6. similarly,{1,2,11,-2} ≡{5,8,-14,1} mod 6
since rearranging 1,2,11,-2 as 11, 2,-2,1 we get 11 ≡
Benjier H. Arriola 44

5mod6, 2 ≡8mod 6, -2 ≡ 14 mod 6 and 1 ≡1 mod 6.

on the other hand, {1,2,3,} {8,4} mod6, since the
sets contains different numbers of elements. Also
{1,2,3,} ≠ {8,7,10 } mod 6, since 3 is not congruent
to any of 8,7 or 10 mod 6. Finally, {2,8}≠{14,15}
mod 6, since 15 is not congruent to either 2 or 8
mod 6.
THEOREM 4.15
If m>0 and if {r 1, r2,…,r k} ≡ {s1,s2,…,s k } mod m, then r1, r2,…,r k
≡ s1,s2,…,s k mod m.

Example 4.22
{3,1} ≡ {7,27} mod 6 from example 4.21.now
3.1 ≡ 7.27 mod 6.

THEOREM 4.16 (Fermat’s little theorem)

If p is a prime and a € z with (a, p) =1, then a p-1 ≡ 1 mod p.

Example 4.23
3 ≡ mod 17, since (3, 17) =1.
16

Example 4.24
In example 4.12 we are ask to find a remainder
after dividing 312345 by 7.
since (3, 7 )= 1,so applying Fermat’s little
theorem 3 ≡1 mod 7.
6

Applying the properties of congruence (Theorem

4.1) part (i), we have

(36)2057 ≡ 12057 mod 7

3 12342 ≡ 1 mod 7
3 3 ≡ 27 mod 7
3 3 ≡6 mod 7

Therefore by theorem 4.1 part © 312342. 33 ≡ 1.6 mod

7.
Hence 3 12345 ≡ 6 mod 7, so 6 is the remainder.

5. EULER’S THEOREM

THEOREM 4.17
45 I

Let m>0. if there are n>0 distinct integers c 1,…,cn

each of which is relatively prime
to m and an integers such that {ac 1,ac2,…,can} ≡ { c1c2…,c n
} mod m then an ≡ 1 mod m.

THEOREM 4.18
If m>0 and if u ≡ v mod m, then (u, m) =1 if and only if
(v, m ) =1.

Example 4.25
20 ≡ 3 mod 17, so (20, 17) = 1 and (3, 17) =1.

DEFINITION 4.6
If m > 1, let 6 (m) denote the number of positive integers which
are less than m and relatively prime to m. that is, cp (m) is the
number of the elements in the set {c €Z 1≤m-1 and (c, m) =1}.
Example 4.26
If m=2, 6(m) = 1, since 1 is the only positive integer
less than 2 and (1, 2) = 1.
if m=6, then 6 (m) = 2.since 1 and 5 are relatively
prime to 6 while 2,3,4 are
not. If m= 12, then 6(12) =4.

THEOREM 4.19 (EULER’S THEOREM)

If m>o and (a, m)=1, then a 6(m) ≡ 1 mod m.

Example 4.27
In example 4.26, 6(12) =4,+ a=13 by Euler’s theorem
13 ≡ 1 mod 12 since
4

(13, 12 )= 1.similarly, let a= 17, 17 4 ≡ 1 mod 12.

6. WILSON’S THEOREM

THEOREM 4.20 (Wilson’s theorem)

For an integer p>1, p is a prime number if and only if (p-
1)!+ 1 ≡ o mod p.

Example 4.28
3 is a prime, since (3-1)! +1 ≡0 mod 3.

THEOREM 4.21
Let p be an odd prime. X 2 ≡ a2 mod p if x ≡ +
mod p.

Example 4.29
Benjier H. Arriola 46

If x 2 ≡ 4 mod 11 then x ≡2 mod 11 and x ≡-2

mod 11.

THEOREM 4.22
If p is an odd prime, then the congruence x 2 ≡ -1 mod p has
the solutions x ≡ + (p- 1/2)! Mod p if p ≡ 1 mod 4 and has
no solution if p ≡ 3 mod 4.

Example 4.3
Let p = 13, (13-1/2)! = 6! = 720
Now 720 ≡ 5 mod 13, so the solutions are x ≡ +5
mod 13.on the other
Hand , x 2 ≡-1 mod 19 has no solution, since 19 ≡
3 mod 4.

THEOREM 4.23
If p is an odd prime, pla 2+ b2 and (a, b) = 1 then p ≡ 1 mod
4.

Example 4.31
Theorem 4.22 is a tool or a test if the congruence
x2 ≡ -1mod p has solution
or no solution. For example 13/20 2 + 92, since 202
+9 =48 =13.37, and (20,
2

9) = 1, thus 13 ≡ 1 mod 4. Hence x2 ≡ -1 mod 13

has solutions.

EXERCISES 4.1
1. Determine whether or not the ff. congruence are
true:
a) 7 ≡ 3 mod 4 d) 325 ≡-8 mod 13
b) 325 ≡-1 mod 37 e) 7 ≡7 mod 4
c) 7 ≡-3 mod 4 f)-42 ≡-11 mod 16
2. Find all positive integers m for which the ff. are true.
a) 13 ≡ 5 mod m c)-7 ≡ 6 mod m
b) 10 ≡ 9mod m d) 100 ≡-5 mod
m
3. Find the least nonnegative residue modulo m of each
of the ff. congruence
a) -157 ≡ b mod 11 d) 2 6 ≡ b mod 7
b) 442 ≡ b mod 26 e)7 19 ≡b mod 31
c) 6! ≡ b mod 7
4. Prove the ff. divisibility using congruence
a) 11/2335 +1
b) 31/1510-1
47 I

5. Solve the ff. linear congruence

a) 8x ≡ 12 mod 20 e) 12x ≡-18
mod 39
b) 6x ≡ 3 mod 7 f) 7x ≡-4 mod 9
c) 4x ≡ 22 mod 15 g) 21x ≡ 12
mod 15
d) 44x ≡61 mod 7 h) 413x
≡58mod 412
6. Determine how many solutions exist modulo m for
each of the ff. congruence.
a) 3x ≡11 mod 17 e) 3x ≡11 mod
15
b) 3x ≡12 mod 15 f) 7x ≡-4 mod
9
c) 8x ≡-24 mod 12 g) 12x ≡68
mod 40
d) 49x ≡21mod 35 h) 121x ≡185
mod 77
7. Find a solution to each of the ff. congruence
a) x ≡ 13mod 33 f) x ≡ 6 mod
10
x ≡ 35 mod 35 x ≡ 11 mod
25
b)x ≡-1 mod 4 g) x ≡3 mod
15
x ≡ 2 mod 6 x ≡9 mod
18
c) x ≡6 mod 10 h) x ≡12 mod
14
x ≡11 mod 25 x ≡8 mod
10
x ≡16 mod 15 x ≡33 mod
35
d) x ≡11 mod 30 i) x ≡ 18
mod 21
x ≡23 mod 42 x ≡12 mod
15
x ≡51 mod 70 x ≡ 25 mod
35
x ≡86 mod 105 j)2x ≡2 mod
8
e)x ≡13 mod 33 3x ≡ 9
mod 10
x ≡35 mod 35 5x ≡2 mod
7
x ≡24 mod 77
Benjier H. Arriola 48

9. Find the general solution (if it exist) of each of the ff.

linear Diophantine
Equations:
a)2x +3y =4 d)23x=29y
=25
b) 17x+19y=23 e) 10x -
8y=42
c) 15x +51y = 41 f) 121x - 88y
= 572
10. a man pays $1.43 for some apples and pears. If
pears cost 17¢ each, and
Apples 15¢ each, how many of each did he buy?
11. Find a number x, 0≤x≤0, such that k 3 + 6k2-24 ≡ x
mod 11 for each of the ff.
Values of k.1, 12, 3,-8,-5, 1, find a number x,
0≤x≤10 such that k +6k2-24 ≡
3

x Mod 11.
12. Given that k = 16 mod 11, find a number x
0≤x≤10 such that k3 + 6k2-24
= x mod 11.
13. Determine which of the ff. statements are true.
a. {2, -3} ≡ {10, 5} mod 8
b) {17,8} ≡ {-3,6} mod 11
c) {6,13} ≡ {-18,42} mod 24
d) {4,6,12} ≡ {-3,14,10} mod 3
e) {19, -18,70,-8,22,32,-348} ≡ {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
mod 7
14. Find a set {r 1r2,…,r7} such that for each i,0 ≤ ri≤ 9
and {r1r2,…,r7} ≡
{12,- 35,-9,46,-12,20,24} mod 10.
15. For p=7, verify Fermat’s little theorem for each
of the ff. values of a:0,
2,-3,-6,3,12,6.
16. Use Fermat’s little theorem to solve for in each of
the ff.
a) 2 11 ≡ x mod 3, 0 ≤ x ≤ 12
b) 2 11 ≡ x mod 7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
c) 3 44 ≡ x mod 7, 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
d) 11 70 ≡ x mod 13, -25 ≤ x ≤ -13
17. Evaluate: φ (15), φ (21), φ (24), φ (32).
18. Use Euler’s theorem to solve for x in each of the
ff.
a) 2 14 ≡ x mod 15, 0 ≤ x ≤ 14
b) 517 ≡ x mod 21, 21 ≤ x ≤ 41
c) (29) 25 ≡x mod 24,-23 ≤x ≤0
d) (-533) 18 ≡ mod 32, 160 ≤x ≤ 191
49 I

19. Verify that 12+ 11! +1. Does this Violates

Wilson’s Theorem?
20. Find an m>0 and d>o with d/G (m) such that d
is not the order of any
Modulo m 1 (a1m) =1.

EXERCISES 4.2
1. Show that a ≡b mod 1 for any a and b.
2. Show that if a ≡ b mod m and n is a positive divisor
of m, then a ≡ b mod n.
3. Prove: if (a, 2)=1, then a2 ≡ 1 mod 4.
4. Let p be a prime number, show that if a, b €Z such
that a b ≡ c mod p or b≡ 0 mod p.
5. Let p be a prime number. Show that if x€ Z such
that x2≡ 1 mod p,or x≡-1 mod p.
6. Prove: if p is an odd prime, then either p ≡ 1 mod 4
or p ≡ 3 mod 4.
7. If a ≡ b mod m and d € Z such that a= Ad, b=Bb,
m=M d, then A≡B mod M.
8. Prove: If ac ≡ b c mod m and d= (c, m) then a ≡ b
mod (m/d).
9. Prove: If a ≡ b mod m, then (a, m) = (b, m).
10. Show that if a ≡b mod p for all primes p 1 then
a=b.
11. Let p>2 be a prime. Show that if (a, p) =1,
then either a (p-1)/2 ≡ 1 mod p or a (p-1)/2 ≡ -1 mod p.
12. Let p and q be distinct primes. Show that p q-1+
qp-1 ≡ 1 mod pq. (hint: Fermat ; note that (p, q)=1.
13. Prove: if m is not a prime and m>1, then
G(m)<m-1.
14. Let p be a prime; calculate G(p2).
15. (a) Show that if an integer x is the sum of two
squares, then x≠ 3 mod 4.
(b) Show that if x € Z is the sum of three squares,
then x≠7 mod 8.
16. (a) Show that the equation 3x+2=y 2 has no
integer solutions.
(b) Show that the equation 5x+3=y2 has no integer
solutions.

MULTIPLICATIVE FUNCTIONS
1. THREE SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

THEOREM 5.1
Let m and n be positive integers with (m, n) = 1. Then φ (m
n) = φ (m) φ (n).
Benjier H. Arriola 50

Example 5.1
φ (210)= φ (35) φ (6)

THEOREM 5.2
Let p be a prime and e€ Z with e≥1. Then G(p e)=pe-1(p-1).

Example 5.2
φ (9)= φ (32) = 3(2) = 6
φ (4) = φ (22) = 2(1) =2

Example 5.3
Suppose m is a prime, so G(m) =m-1.for instance
m=3, then φ (3) =2.

THEOREM 5.3
Let m € Z with m≥2.if the canonical representation of m is
m=p1e1,p2 e2…p k e k, then φ φ (m) =[p1e-1p-1)] [p2e-1(p2-1)]…[pkek-1
(pk-1)].

DEFINITION 5.1
a. a function f define on the positive integers and
taking values in Z is called
multiplicative.
b. an arithmetic function is called multiplicative if for any
positive integers m
and n with (m, n)=1, we have f(m n)= f(m)f(n).

Example 5.4
F(n) =an is arithmetic function but not
multiplicative since f(2) f(3)= 4..6=24,
while f (2.3)= f(6) = 12. g (n)=n/2 is not arithmetic
since g(3)=3/2 € Z.

Example 5.5
The function of G is arithmetic, and theorem 5.1
tells us that φ is
multiplicative.

DEFINITION 5.2
Or any n ≥ 1, let ‫( ﺡ‬n) denote the number of positive
divisors of n and let ó (n)
denote the sum of the positive divisors of n.

Example 5.6
51 I

τ (1) =1, τ (6) = 4, since 1, 2, 3, 6 are the divisors

of 6.
THEOREM 5.4
IF n ≥2 is an integer with canonical representation of n=
p1a1p2a2…pkak .then the
number of the positive divisors of n is given by the
expression
(a1+1)(a2+1)…(ak+1).

Examples 5.7
C (20) =6, Since 20= 2 2.5.

THEOREM 5.5
The C is multiplicative function.

THEOREM 5.6
Let m and n be positive integers w/ (m,)=1. then ó (m n)=
ó(m) ó(n).

Example 5.8
Ó(2.3) = 12, Since the positive divisor of 6 are 1,2,3
and 6 and the sum is12.
ó(3)=3, since the positive divisors of 3 are 1 and 3.
thus ó(6)= ó(2) ó(3)=12.

THEOREM 5.7
If m = p 1e1p2e2…pkek, then ó(m)=[ p1e1+1-1

Example 5.9
Let m= 30, so m= 30=2x3x5.thus
Ó (30) = (
(3/1)(8/2)(24/2) = 3x4x6
= 72

2. PERFECT NUMBERS

DEFINITION 5.3
An integer n ≥ 1 is said to be a perfect number if ó(n)
=2n.

THEOREM 5.8 (Euler theorem)

Benjier H. Arriola 52

If n is an even perfect number, then n= 2 k-1(2k-1),

where 2k-1 is a prime
number.

EXAMPLE 5.10
28 is a perfact number from example 2.15 6 is a
perfect number since ó(6)
=12=2(6).

3. MOBIUS INVERSION
Suppose that f is an arithmetic function and at this
pointwe do not insist that it
be multiplicative. We construct another arithmetic
function in the ff. manner.
For n ≥1, let d 1d2,…dr be all of the positive divisorsof
n. then defined f(n) to be
f(d)+f(d 2)+f(dr). In order to keep the notation short,
we use sigma notation to
abbreviate this sum. That is, Σdln f(d)=f(d)
+f(d2)+f(dr)= f(n).
As an example, we point out that the function ó can
be constructed in this
way. For if we start with the identity function f(n)=
n, and if the positive
divisors of n are d,d 2,…dr= ó(n).
THEOREM 5.9
Let f be a multiplicative function and for n ≥ 1 let f (n)
=Σdlnf(n). then f is
multiplicative.

DEFINITION 5.4
Let n>1 and let n=p 1e1p2e2…pses be the prime
decomposition of n. define M(n) i

the ff. way;e 1=e2=es = 1, then let M(n)= (-1) s. if,

however, any of e,es, are
greater than 1, then letM(n)=0. finally let M(1)=1.

EXAMPLE 5.11
M(6)= (-1)=1 since 6=2 1.31, M(12)=0 since 12 =22.3;
M(42)=(-1) =-1 since
3

42=2.3.7; and M(250)= 0 since 250 =2.5 3.

THEOREM 5.10
The function M is a multiplicative function.
53 I

THEOREM 5.11
If n≥1, then Σ dlnM(d) f(n/d).

THEOREM 5.12 (Mobius inversion formula)

Let f be an arithmetic function and for n≥1, let f(n)=
Σdln f(d), then f(n)=
ΣdlnM(d) f(n/d).

EXAMPLE 5.12
It is instructive to first see how 5.12 works with
n=12. we consider table 5-1,
whose rows and columns are both labeled by the
positive divisors of 12.
In table 5-1. the space in d row, c-column is left
empty if dcx12, and contains
M/(d)f( c ) if dc/12. for example, the space in the 3-
row , 3 column is blank
Because 3.3x12.
We will add together all the entries in this table, by
summing each row and
then totaling these row sums. For example ,if we
sum the 2-row we get M(2)
f(1)+M(2)f(2)+M(2)+f(6)= M(2[f(1)+f(2)+f(3)+f(6)].
Now 1,2,3, and 6 are
all the positive definition f(1)+f(2)+f(3)+f(6)= F(6).
Thus the sum of the 2
row is just M(2)F(6)=M(2)F(12/2).

1 2 3 4 6 12
1 M(1)f(1) M(1)f(2) M(1)f(3) M(1)f(4) M(1)f(6) M(1)f(12
)
2 M(2)f(1) M(2)f(2) M(2)f(3) M(2)f(6)
3 M(3)f(1) M(3)f(3) M(3)f(4)
4 M(4)f(1) M(4)f(4)
6 M(6)f(1) M(6)f(6)
12 M(12)f(1
)

Similarly the sum of the elements in the d –row is

quickly seen to be
M(d)F(12/d). Now totaling these row sums as d
ranges over 1,2,3,4,6,12 we
get
M(1)f(12/1)=M(2)≠f(12/2)+M(3)f(12/3)+M(4)f(12/4)+M(6)f(12/6)+M
(12)f(12/12)= Σdl
Benjier H. Arriola 54

M(d)f(12/d). this then is the sum of all the elements

12
in our table.

THEOREM 5.13
Let f be an arithmetic function and let F be arithmetic
function defined by
F(n)= Σ dln f(d). if F is multiplicative, then f is
multiplicative.

THEOREM 5.14
For any integer n≥1, Σ dln M(d) ‫( ﺡ‬n/d) =1.

EXERCISES 5.1
1. Calculate the ff.
a) φ (7) d) Ó (7) g) )7( ‫ﺡ‬
b) φ (55) e) Ó(55) h) )55( ‫ﺡ‬
c) φ (108) f) Ó(108) i) )108( ‫ﺡ‬

2. Verify that φ (nm) = φ(n) φ(m) for the following pairs

of relatively prime integers n=5, m=7; n=5, m=14;
n=15, m=14.
3. Proceed as in 5 / 4 replacing φ by Ó and φ by‫ﺡ‬.
4. evaluate the following expressions = Σd/15 φ(d),
5. Find all positive integers in such that φ(2m) =
2φ(m).
6. are there any positive integers such that Ó(m)= (m)?
Ó(m)= φ(m).?
7. let Ó,be the function defined by Ó 1 (m)= Σ dln Ó (n).
by theorem 5, 9, Ó is
multiplicative. Evaluate Ó(6), Ó,(20), Ó(24). Can you
find an expression for Ó,(n) in terms of the prime
factorization of n?
8. proceed as in exercise 5.1.7 replacing Ó b‫ﺡ‬.
9. sssuppose that φ(n)= Σdln φ(d). compute φ (1), φ(2),
φ(3), φ(6),φ(9) and φ(18).
10. Suppose that φ2(n)= Σdlnφ(n) with φ as in
exercise 5.1.9. compute φ2(3), φ2(6) and φ(9).
11. Verify that M (m n)= M (m)M(n) for each of the
ff. relatively prime pairs
Of integers; m=6, n=35;m=5,n=21, and m=14,
n=25.
12. verify theorem 5.11 for n=2,n=4,n=6, and
n=24.
13. by calculating both sides of the equation, verify
that the mobius inversion formula holds for f=6,F=φ
55 I

as defined in exercise 5.1.9 and n=18. that is, verify

that φ(18)= Σd/18M(d) φ(18/d).
14. Verify theorem 5.14 for n=6, n=12,n=18.

EXERCISES 5.2
1. Give examples to show that φ(m n)≠ φ(m) φ(n),
Ó(mn)≠ Ó(m) Ó(n), and mn≠ (m) (n).
2. Call a function f, defined on positive integers, a
additive function if f(a+b)= f(a)+(b) for all a and b.
are any of φ, Ó, or additive?
3. Show that if m>2, then φ(m) is even.
4. show that if m=p1e1p2e2…pkek then φ(m)= m (1-1/p)
(1-1/pk)
5. show that if a/b, then φ(ab)=a φ(b). is the converse
true?
6. let f be the function defined by f(d)=d for all
positive integers d. show that f is a multiplicative
function and use thi fact to deduce theorem 5.6
from theorem 5.9.
7. deduce theorem 5.5 from theorem 5.9.
8. show that if p is a prime, then for any integer e≥1,
Σφ(d)=pe. dlpe
9. use exercise 5.2.8 and theorem 5.9 to show that Σ
d/lnφ for all positive intesers n.
10. let f and g be multiplicative function such that
f(pk)= g(pk) for all primes p and all integers k≥1.
11. let f and g be multiplicative functions and let fg
be the function defined by (fg)(n)=f(n)g(n) for all
positive integers n.
A show that fg is multiplicative.
b. can you express H(n)= Σd/ln(fg)(d) in terms
ofF(n)= ΣdLnf(d) and
G(n)= Σd/n g(d)?
12. an integer n is triangular if n=1+2+ ..+k for
some integer k≥1 (the 1st 4 triangular numbers are
1,3,6 and 10). Show that every even perfect
number is triangular.
13. prove that Σd/nM(d) Ó(n/d) =n.
14. prove that ifφ (m)/m-1, then there exists no
prime p such that p2/m.
15. Prove that if m is not a prime and φ(m)/m-1,
then m has atleast 4distinct prime factors.
16. Prove that there are infinitely many integers n
for w/c φ(n) is a perfect square.
17. Prove that (n) is odd if n is a perfect
square.18.
Benjier H. Arriola 56

18. Prove that if n=p1e1p22…pre.., then Ó(n) φ(n)=

n2(1-p,-a-1)…(1-pr-ar-1) and
Φ(n) Ó(n)>n2(1-1/p12)(1-1/p22)…(1-1/pr2).
19. Prove that φ(n)= (m)(mod 2) where m is the
largest odd factor of n.
20. if Ó(n)=2n,n is a perfect number. Prove that if
n is a perfect number, then Σd/n 1/d=2.
21. Prove that φ(n) Ó(n)+1/n is an integer if n is a
prime, and that it is not an integer if n is divisible
by the square of a prime.
22. Show that Gldbach’s conjecture (see some
unsolved problems chapter 2, section 7; #4) implies
that for each even number 2m there exist integers
m, and m2 such that Ó(m1)+Ó(m2)=2m.
23. Prove that for each integer n1 here exist
integers n1 and n2 such that d(n1)+d(n2)=n.

VI – PRIME FUNCTIONS
1. GREATEST INTEGER FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION 6.1
If x is a real number. Let n be the unique integer such that
n ≤ x ≤ n + 1. then we say that n is the integer part of x
and we write [x}] = n.

EXAMPLE 6.1
[4.6] = 4; [√5] = 2; [1/2] = 0; [7] =7; [-2,7] =-3

THEOREM 6.1 (Properties of Greatest Integer Functions)

a. [x] = x iff x is an ineteger
b. [x+n] = [x]+n,
c. If x ≤ y, then [x] ≤ [y]
d. [x] + [y] ≤ [x+y] ≤ [x] + [y] + 1
e. If x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0, then [x][y] ≤ [xy]

EXAMPLE 6.2

a. [3] = 3; [5] = 5; [-4] = -4

b. [3+2] = [3] + 2; [5,6 + (-3)] = [5,6] + (-3)
c. 5 < 7 so [5] < [7]
d. [1] [2] = [1.2]

THEOREM 6.2

If x is real number and n is a natural number, then [[x]/n] = [x/n].

57 I

EXAMPLE 6.3

[√10/2] = [√10/2] = [3.14/2] = [[3.14]/2] = [3/2] = 1

THEOREM 6.3

If d and n are natural numbers then

[n/d]-[n-1/d]= }1 if d/n
0 if dXn
THEOREM 6.4
For any natural number n we have
n!= pΣsk=1[n/pk], wher s is the largest number I such that p k ≤
n.

EXAMPLE 6.4
10! =2a 3b5c7d where
A= [10/2] =[10/4]= [10/8] =5+2+1 =8
B=[10/3]+[10/9] = 3+1= 4
C=[10/5] =2
D=[10/7] =1
That is 10!= 28 345271

EXAMPLE 6.5
The power to which 5 enters into the product 25! Is
[25/5]=[25/25] =5+1 =6

2. PRIME COUNTING FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION 6.2
For any n≥2, let (n) denote the number of primes ≤ n.

EXAMPLE 6.6
Fom the table of primes we see that Π(50) =15 and
Π(1000)=168.

THEOREM 6.5
Let a={[n/p1]+[n/p2]f..+[n/pr]}+ {[n/ p1 p2]}+..[n/ pr-1pr]}
-{[n/ p 1 p2p3]+[n/ pr-2 pr-1 pr]}+…{[n/ p1 p2… pr-1pr]}
Then Π(n) = n-1 +a+ Π( n).

EXAMPLE 6.7
Find the number of primes less than 100.
Benjier H. Arriola 58

Π(100) = 100-1+ Π(10)-

{[100/2]+[100/3]+100/5]+[100/7]}
+
{[100/6]+[100/10]+[100/14]+[100/15]+[100/21]+[100/35]}
-{[100/30][100/42]+[100/70]+[100/105]}
+{[100/210]}
= 99+4-(50+33+20+14)+(16+10+7+6+4+2)
-(3+2+1+0)+(0)
=103-117=45-6 =25

EXERCISES 6.1
1. Compute that n!/ n/ Π(a+i). hint;n/ Π(a+i) =(a+n)!/a!
Substituting this in the problem, we must show (a+n)/a!n!! is
an integer.
2. let ø(x) be the sum of the logarithms of all the primes not
exceeding x. prove that ø(x) ≤ Π(x) logex.
3. find the prime factorization of 20!=
2,432,902,008,176,640,000
4. prove that 0 ≤[nx]-n[x] ≤ n-1 for each real number x and
each integer n ≥1.

Vii POLYNOMIAL CONGRUENCES

After a study of linear congruences, it is natural to
examine congruences of the
Form
F(x)= 0 mod m,
Where f(x)= a 0xn + a1xn-1+…+an
(a 0≠ 0; all the ai are integers ). The function f(x) is
called a polynomial of degree
n w/ integral coefficients.

THEOREM 7.1
If f(x) is a polynomial of degree r w/ integral coefficients
that is, if f(x)=
(a 0xr + a1xr-1+…+ar), and if is a prime such that pXa 0,
then the congruence f(x)= 0
mod p has at most n mutually incongruent solutions
modulo p.

THEOREM 7.2
Let f(x) be a polynomial w/ integer coefficients and
degree r ≥ n.let p be prime,
n ≥ 1. let y be a solution of f(x) = mod p n+1. then y=
(xi+tpn) mod pn+1 where
0 ≤x i< pn, and xi is a solution of f(x)= 0 mod p n such
that 0 ≤t ≤p-1 and t satisfies
59 I

The congruence tf 1(xi) = -f(xi)/ pn mod p. furthermore if b

is the number of
solutions of the congruence then
b={1 if pXf 1(xi)
0 if p| f 1(xi) and pn+1X f(xi)
P if p| f 1(xi) and pn+1| f(xi)

EXAMPLE 7.1
To solve the congruence x 3+2x+2= 0 mod 49.
First we solve x 3+2x+2= 0 mod 7 by trial and error, the
only solutions are x1=2
And x2= 3.by calculus, we have the ist derivative
Let f(x) = x 3+2x+2, so
F(x) = 3x 2+ 2
a)let x1 = 2
f(2)= 2 3+2(2) +2 = 14
f(2) = 3(2) 2 +2= 14
we want to check if there is a slution to exist. 7||14 but
72X 14, so there is no
solution to the congruence tf 1(2) = -f(2)/7 mod 7.
b) let x2 =3
f(3) = 33+2(3)+2 = 35
f1(3) = 3(3)2+2 = 29
7X29, so there is a unique solution
T f1(3)= -f(3)/p mod pn
= 29t= -35/7 mod 7
= 29 t =-5 mod 7
= 29t = 2 mod 7
Therefore we obtain one corresponding solution of
congruence x +2x+2= 0
3

Mod 49, such solution is y= 3+2(7)= 17 mod 49.

EXAMPLE 7.2
x3+3x+2=5= 0 mod 9
1. trial and error for x3+3x+2=5= 0 mod 3
03 +3(0) +5 ≠ 0 mod 3
13 +3(1) +5 = 0 mod 3
23 +3(2) +5 ≠ 0 mod 3
2. f(x)= x3+3x+2
f1(x)= 3x2+3
3.f(1) = 13+3(1)+5=9
F1= 3(1)2 +3=6
5. 3|6 and 9|9, so there are 3 solutions to the given
congruence.
5. solve for t such that t f1(x)= -f(x) mod pn
P
Benjier H. Arriola 60

Tf(1)= -f(1) mod 3

3
6t= -9/3 mod 3
6t = 0 mod 3
Since (6, 3)= 3 and#/0, so there are 3 solutions for t.
solving for t we have t=0,
1,2.
6. hence the solutions are
Y=1+0(3) mod 9 = y1= 1 mod 9
Y2=1+1(3) mod 9 = y2= 4 mod 9
Y3=1+2(3) mod 9 = y3= 7 mod 9

EXERCISES 7.2
1. Prove that if f(x)= a0xr + a1xr-1+…+ar and m ias an
integer ,then k!|f(k) is the kth derivative of f.
2. from calculus recall that the taylor series for the
polynomial
f(x)= a0xn + a1xn-1+…+an is
f(x+h) = f(x)+f1(x)h+ f11(x)h2 +…+ f(n) (x)h2
2! n!
Prove that if a 0, a1, an, m, r are integers and p is a
prime, then f(m+rp2) =
R psf1(m) mod ps+1.
3.suppose that f(m) = 0 mod p s and that p†f1(m), where p
is a prime. Use exercise
7.2.2 to prove that there exists an r (unique modulo p)
such that f(m+rps) =
0 mod ps+1
4.
use exercise 7.2.3 to determine the number of solutions of
the congruence
X7+x+1 = mod 343

VIII- SUMS OF SQUARES

1. PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES
DEFINITION 8.2 (Pythagorean triple)
A Pythagorean triple is a triple of positive
integers(a,b,c) is a Pythagorean triple, then each of a and b is
said to be a leg of the triple.

EXAMPLE 8.1
Since 3 2+42= 52, we see that (3,4,5) is a Pythagorean
triple whose legs are 3
and 4.pythagoras is credited w/ noting that if n isa
positive integer, then (an+1
an2+2n,2n2+2n+1) is a Pythagorean triple.
61 I

THEOREM 8.1
For each integer a> 2 there exists integers b and c such
that (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple.

THEOREM 8.2
A triple (a, b, c) is a pythagorean triple if there exists
integers u and v w/c
satisfy the ff. conditions;
a) υ> ν >0
b) υ= ν mod 2
c) υ ν is a perfect square
d) a= ,b= (υ- ν )/2, c=( υ+ ν)/2

EXAMPLE 8.2

Let us find all Pythagorean triples that have 30 as one

of their legs. Certainly, if
(x, 30,Z)is also. Thus it is enough to find all Pythagorean
triples (a, b, c)
a=30. now we want to find all pairs of integers υ and ν
satisfying conditions
(a),b and c of theorem 8.2 and such that a= =30,and
υ ν= 302.and υ ν 75 even, thus both υ and ν must be even
and υ ν = 302. next we claim that υ>30.
For if υ ≤30, then by condition a we would have 30≥ υ>v>0,
so 302> υ ν is 302.
Thus our problem have been reduced to that of finding
integers υ and ν such that
(1) υ/302; (2) υ>30, (3) υ is even (4) ν = 302/ υ is even
because 302= 22.32.52 it is now an easy matter to find all such
υ. They are υ=2.32.52= 450, υ=2.32.5=90, υ
=2.3.52=150, and υ=2.52=50. with ν=302/ υ. We get the ff.
pairs (υ, ν):
(450, 2),(90, 10),(150,6) and (50, 18)
Following the recipe in theorem 8.2 and forming a= , b=(
υ- ν)/2 and c=( υ+ ν)/2
With each of the pairs gives us the four Pythagorean triples
930, 224, 226) (30, 40, 50), (30, 72, 78), and (30, 16, 34).

THEOREM 8.3
Let p be the number of Pythagorean triples w/a given leg a.
if a is odd, then p=(τ[a2]-
1)/2. if a is even, then p = (τ[a/2)2]-1)/2.
Benjier H. Arriola 62

EXAMPLE 8.3
We know that there are four Pythagorean triples for w/c
one leg is 30. we want to
check by theorem 8.3 since 30 is even we have
p=( τ[252)-1)/2 = (τ(225)-1)/2
=(9-1)/2 = 8/2 = 4.
Similarly, to find how many Pythagorean triples for a= 25 ,
we have
P = (τ(252)-1)/2= (τ(625)-1)/2 = (5-1)/2=4/2 = 2
There are only 2 for such triples.

DEFINITION 8.2 (PRIMITIVE PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLE)

The Pythagorean triple (a, b, c) and (5, 12, 13) are
primitive since (3, 4)= 1 and
(5, 12)=1. the set (6, 8, 10) is not primitive since (6, 8) =
2.

THEOREM 8.4
Suppose that (x, y, z) is a Pythagorean triple and let d=
(x,y). then d/Z. further if a,
B, and c are integers such that x= ad, y= bd, and z= cd,
then (a, b, c) is a primitive
Pythagorean triple.

EXAMPLE 8.5
The set (6, 8, 10) is not primitive since (6, 8)=2, so 6=3x2,
8= 4x2 and z= 5x2,
. therefore the set (3,4, 5) is a primitive Pythagorean triple.

THEOREM 8.5
If (a, b, c) is a primitive Pythagorean triple, then c is odd
and a≠ b mod 2.

THEOREM 8.6
Let a, b, c be positive integers w/ a even. Then (a, b, c) is
a primitive Pythagorean
Triple if and only if there exist integers x and y such that
1. x> y>0.
2. x≠ y mod 2
3. (x, y) =1
4. a= 2xy, b=x2-y2, and c= x2+y2.

EXAMPLE 8.6
Let x =3, y= 2, by theorem 8.6 the three conditions hold
to find (a, b, c)
63 I

1. 3>2>0
2. 3≠ 2 mod 2
3. (3, 2) =1
Since the three conditions hold so we have
A = 2(3)(2) = 12, b=32-22 = 5, and c= 32+22= 13.
Therefore, 122 + 52 = 132.

2. GENERALIZED PYTHAGOREAN NUMBERS

DEFINITION 8.3 ( Generalized Pythagorean numbers)
Any set of more than three natural numbers in w/c
the square of one is equal
to the sum of the squares of the others are called
Generalized Pythagorean
numbers.

EXAMPLE 8.7
The sets (2, 3, 6 7) and (1, 4, 8, 12, 15) are
Generalized Pythagorean numbers,
Since 22+32+62 = 72 and 12+42+82+122 = 152

THEOREM 8.7
Let a 1, a2, a3,…, an be positive integers. Then the
formulas for Generalized
Pythagorean numbers. The ff. are the extension:
a12+,a22,+a32 =a42… a12+,a22,+a32+…+ an-12=an2
if if
a1= ,p 12,-p32 a1= ,p 12,-p22 –p33-…-p2n-2
a2= 2 p 1 p2 a2= 2 p 1 p2
a3= 2 p 1 p3 a3= 2 p 1 p3
a4 = 2 p 1 + p2 +p3
2 2 2
a 4 = 2 p 1 p4
an-1= 2 p 1 pn-2
an= p 12+ p22+p32+…+p2n-1
EXAMPLE 8.8
Let p1= 7, p2 = 4, p3= 3, p4 = 1
A1= 72- 42-32-12 = 23
A2= 2(7)(4) = 56
A3= 2(7)(3) = 42
A4 = 2(7)(1) = 14
A5 = 72 +42=32+12 = 75
562 +232 +422+142 = 752

3. SUM OF TWO SQUARES

THEOREM 8.8
If s, b, c d € Z, then (a 2 +b2)(c2+d2) = (a c + b d)2 + (ad-
bc) 2
Benjier H. Arriola 64

In particular, if each of n and m is a sum of two squares,

then n m is a sum of
two squares.

EXAMPLE 8.9
Let a = 1, b = 2, c= 3, d=4
(12+ 22 )(32 +42) = (1.3 +2.4)2+(1.4-2.3)2
(5)(25) = 112 + (-2)2
125= 112+22

THEOREM 8.9
If p is a prime integer and p=1 mod 4, then p can be
written as the sum of two
squares.

EXAMPLE 8.10
5 can be written as a sum of two squares since 5 =1
mod 4. that is, 5=22 +12.

THEOREM 8.10
A Positive integer n can be represented as a sum of two
squares if its
factorization into powers of distinct primes contains no
odd powers of prime
congruent to 3 modulo 4. by theorem 8.10, 315 cannot
be represented as a sum
of two squares.

EXAMPLE 8.11
315 = 3 2.5.7, Since 3 = 3 mod 4, 5=1 mod 4, and 7= 3
mod 4, therefore 315
contains an odd power of a prime congruent to 3 modulo
4.by theorem 8.10,
315 cannot be represented as sum of two squares.

EXAMPLE 8.12
The factorization of 3185 =5.7 2.13 contains no odd
power of a prime congruent
to 3 modulo 4. hence 3185 is representable as a sum of
two squares. To find two
squares that sum to 3185, we first represent 5, 7 2 and
13.
5=2 2+ 12
72=72+ 02
132=32+ 22
Therefore, 3185 = 5.72.13= (22+ 12)(72+ 02)( 32+ 22)
65 I

= (14 2+ 72)2 +(32+ 32)

= (14.3+ 7.2) 2 + (14.3- 7.3)2
= 562 + 72

THEOREM 8.11
Let p be a prime integer with p = 1 mod 4. then there
is an integer k with 1 ≤ k
p such that
x 2 + 1 = kp
has a solution.

DEFINITION 8.4 (Square free)

The integer n is a square free if for each prime p , p 2 †
m.

EXAMPLE 8.13
70 = 2.5.7 IS Square-free as are 77.7.11 and 30 =
2.3.5. however, 20= 22.5 and
270 = 2.3 3.5 are not square-free, since 2 2/20 and
3 /270. notice that 1 is a
2

square-free.

THEOREM 8.12
Let n be a positive integer. Then, there is a unique
way of writing n= k2m with
k and m positive integers, and m square-free.

EXAMPLE 8.14
20 = 2 2.5 and 5 is a square-free; 270 =
2.3 .5=3 (2.3.5 ) and 2.3.5 is a square-
3 2

free ; 567,000= 2 3.34.53.7 =23.34.53.

(2.5,7)=(2.3 .5) (2.5.7) is square-free;
2 2

and 36 = 62=62.1 and 1 is square-free.

THEOREM 8.13 (Theorem 8.10 revisited)
Let n > 1 be an integer with n = k 2 m, where k and m
are positive integers,
n being square-free. Suppose that the prime
decomposition of m is m = p1p2..
pt. then m is a the sum of two squares if p i ≠ 3 mod 4
for each i=1,2,…t.

3. SUM OF FOUR SQUARES

THEOREM 8.14
Benjier H. Arriola 66

If a 1, a2, b1, b2, c1 c2, d1 d2 € Z, then (a12+ b12+c12+ d12).(

a22+ b22+c22+ d22)
= e 12+ e22+e32+ e42, where
E 1= , a1a2+b1, b2+ c1 c2+ d1 d2
E 2= a1b2-b1, a2+ c1 d2- d1 c2
E 3= a1c2-b1, a2+ d1 b2- b1 d2
E 4= a1d2-d1, a2+ b1 c2- c1 b2
In particular, if n and m are each of the sum of four
squares, then nm is the sum
. of four squares.

THEOREM 8.15
If p >2 is a prime integer, then there is an integer k
with 1≤k<p such that
X2+y2+1 = kp
Has a solution.

THEOREM 8.16
Let p be a prime iteger. Suppose that k is an integer
and that
X 2+y2++z2+w2 = k p
Has a solution. If k is even, then
X 2+y2++z2+w2 =(k/2)p
Has a solution.

THEOREM 8.17
Every positive integer is a sum of four squares.

EXERCISES 8.1
1. For each of the ff. Pythagorean triples find integers υ
and ν that satisfies the conditions of theorem 8.2.
a. (6, 8, 10) d.(16, 30, 34)
b. (14, 48, 50) e. (16, 63, 65)
c.(4961, 6480, 8161)
2. for each of the ff. choices of a, find all Pythagorean
triples having a as their first leg.
a. 5 b. 33 c. 8 d. 7

3. find all primitive Pythagorean triples having each of

the ff. choices of a as
Their first leg.
a.5 c.25 e. 6 g. 72
b. 15 d. 105 f. 12
4. are there any Pythagorean triples (a, b, c)
With a=b?, a=1?, and a= 2?
67 I

5. use theorem 8.8 to write 1105 = 5.13.17 as the sum of

two squares. Do the
same for 2465 = 5.17.29 and 1885= 5.13.29
6. use theorem 8.13 to predict w/c integers n between 40
and 60 can be written
as the sum of two squares. Then for each such n, find
two squares having n
as their sum.
7. for w/c of the ff. values of c can you find a
Pythagorean triple (a, b, c) ?
C= 3;c=5, c=7,c=6; c= 10;c= 14, c= 9; c= 15
8. Represent274625 = 5 3. 133 as the sum of two integral
squares.
9. Represent 333 as the sum of two integral squares.
10. obtain five primitive sets of generalized Pythagorean
numbers for four
numbers in each set; for five numbers in each set;
for six numbers in each
set.

EXERCISES 8.2
1. Let a 2 + b2 + c2 = d,2 in w/c a, b, c, d are integers
having no other factor
Other than 1.(that is a, b, c,d are a primitive set of
generalized Pythagorean
numbers .)
Prove that:
a. the integer g must be odd; of a, b, c, one is odd, two
are even.
b. Twelve is the greatest number that divides a,b,c,d.
c. If 3/d, 3†abc.
d. If 3†d, 3/abc.
e. If d= 4k-1, 8†abc
f. If d= 4k+1, 16/abc
2. verify that if n is a positive integers, then(2n+1,
2n2+2n,2n2+2n+1)is a
Pythagorean triple.
3.show that if (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple and k is any
positive integer then
(ka, kb, kc) is a Pythagorean triple.
4. are there positive integers a and k such that (a, ka, c) is
a Pythagorean triple.?
5. show that if (a, b, c) is a Pythagorean triple such that
2/a but 4†a then 816.

IX. PRIMITIVE ROOTS

Benjier H. Arriola 68

DEFINITION 9.1 (order)

Let m > o and suppose that (a,m) = 1. the least
positive integer d such that ad
= 1 mod m is called the order of a modulo m.

EXAMPLE 9.1
Choose m = 14. the positive integer less than 14 and
relatively prime to 14 are
1, 3, 5, 9,11, and 13. now
a. 1=1 mod 14, 1 2 =1 mod 14 so 1 is the order of 1
mod 14.
b. 3 1=3, 32=9, 33=13, 34=11, 35=5, and 36=1, so the
order of 3 modulo 14 is 6.
c. 5 1=5, 52=11, 53=13, 54=9, 55=3, 56=1 so the order
of 3 modulo 14 is 6.
d. 91=9, 92=11, 93=1, so the order of 9 modulo 14 is 3.
e. 11 1=11, 112=9, 113=1, so the order of 11 modulo 14
is 3.
f. 131=13,132=1, so the order of 13 modulo 14 is 2.

DEFINITION 9.2 (Primitive root)

Suppose that m is a positive integer and a€ Z w/
(a,m)=1.
We say that a is a primitive root of m if the order of a
modulo m is ip(m).

EXAMPLE 9.2
If m=11, you can easily check that each of the integers
2,6,7,8 has order 10=
φ (11) modulo 11. thus, these four integers are each
primitive roots of 11.
in contrast for m=8 there are no primitive roots,
since4(8) =4 and none
of 1,3,5 and 7 have order 4 modulo 8, w/c again is
easily checked.

THEOREM 9.2
Suppose that the positive integer m has a primitive root.
If d is a positive integer
And d/φ (m) =1 and the order of b modulo m is d.

THEOREM 9.2
Let m> 0 and assume that a is a primitive root of m. if
(b, m) =1, then there is an
integer k≥ 1 such that b= a k mod m.
69 I

EXAMPLE 9.3
A. Choose m= 14. the positive integer less than 14 and
relatively prime to 14 are
1,3,5,9,11 and 13. thus φ (14)=6. now modulo 14,
31=3, 32=9, 33=13, 34=11, 35=5,and 36=1,
Therefore, the order of 3 modulo 14 is 6= φ (14) so 3
is a primitive root of 14.
b. if we wish to solve a congruence such as
9x = 5 mod 14
We might argue that 9= 3 2 mod 14 and 5 = 35 mod
14,
So that
3 2x = 35 mod 14
Because (32, 14)=1, we may cancel andd arrive at
X= 3 3=13 mod 14
As the solution.
c. if we were faced w/ the congruence
x4 = 9 mod 14
we would say that 9= 32 mod 14 and so we want
x4 =32 mod 15
since (3, 14 )= 1, we must have (x, 14)=1 and x must
be congruent to some positive power of 3 modulo 14.
let us suppose hat x=3 mod 14. then
k

34k =32 mod 14

And so canceling 32nwe arrive at
34k-2 =1 mod 14
Now 3 has order φ(14)= 6 so by theorem on order 6/4k-2. put
another way,4k=2 mod
6. from previous chapter we know all about solving this
congruence.
It has two solutions modulo 6;
K=2, k=5 mod 6
Thus substituting these two values in x= 3 k mod 6, we obtain
the two solutions
X=32 = 9 and x= 35= 5 mod 14
d. had you started w/ the congruence
x4= 13 mod 14
then, since 13= 33, you would wind up having to solve the
congruence
4k= 3 mod 6
As you can see, there are no solutions to this congruence, so
there are no solutions to
The congruence x4 = 13 mod 14.

THEOREM 9.3
Benjier H. Arriola 70

If a is a primitive root, then the congruence

X2 = 1 mod m,
Has exactly two solutions; namely x= 1 mod m and x= -1 mod m.

EXAMPLE 9.4
Consider the congruence
X2 = 1 mod 15
Since 42 =1 mod 15 and 4≠ 1 mod 15. theorem 9.3 tells us
that 15 does not have a primitive root.

THEOREM 9.4
Let m be an integer that has a primitive root. Then m
has the form 2, 4, pn w/
P an odd prime and n ≥1.

THEOREM 9.5
Let p be an odd prime and n≥1. if a is a primitive root
of p , then either a or
n

A+pn is a primitive root of 2pn.

EXAMPLE 9.5
We know from, example 9.2 that 2 is a primitive root
of 11. by theorem 9.5
The root of 2.11=22 is either 2 or 2+11. that is 2 or 13
by checking 210 ≠ 1 mod
22 but 13 10= 1 mod 22. therefore 13 is a primitive root
of 22.

THEOREM 9.6

Let m >1 and let b and c be integers with (b, m)=1= (c,
m). if the order of b
Modulo m is k and the order of c modulo m is n and if (k,
n)=1. then the order of
Bc modulo m is kn.

EXAMPLE 9.6
From example 9.1 the order of 5 modulo 14 is 6 and the
order of 9 modulo 14 is
3, so the order of 35.9 modulo 14 is not equal to 6.3
since(6, 3) ≠ 1.
from example 9.1, the order of 13 modulo 14 is 2, so 13.9
modulo 14 has order
3.2=6, sincr (3, 2) =1.

THEOREM 9.7 (Generalization of theorem 9.6)

71 I

Let m be a positive integer and b 1,..,br I integers such

that (bi, m)=1 for i=1, 2
r. if b i has order di modulo m and (di, dj)=1 for i≠j , then
bi, b2,…br has order
di, d2,…dr.

THEOREM 9.8
Let p be a prime . then p has a primitive root.

THEOREM 9.9
If p is a prime, then p 2 has a primitive root.

THEOREM 9.10
Let p be an odd prime and let n≥ 1. then p n has a
primitive root.

EXAMPLE 9.7
121 has primitive root, since121 = 11 2 and 11 is a
prime.

THEOREM 9.11
If h is the order of modulo m and (k, h)=d, then h/d is
the order of ak modulo m.

EXAMPLE 9.8
From example 9.1. 6 is the order of 3 modulo 14. let k=
2, so (2, 6)=2.
Therefore 6/2 is the order of 3 2 modulo 14. that is 3 is
the order of 9 modulo
14.

THEOREM 9.12
If a is a primitive root of m, then a r is a primitive root of
m iff (r, φ (m)) =1.

EXAMPLE 9.9
We know that 3 is a primitive of 14, since (5, 6)= 1
therefore 3 is a primitive
5

root of 14.

THEOREM 9.13
If there any exist any primitive roots modulo m, there
are exactly φ (φ (m))
mutually incongruent primitive roots.

EXAMPLE 9.10
Benjier H. Arriola 72

Let m= 10. THEOREM 9.3 tells us that there are φ (φ

(10))=6(4)=2
mutually incongruent primitive roots modulo 10.

EXERCISES 9.1
1. Find all primitive roots (if any) for each of the ff.
integers= 5,7,10,12,13,15.
2. show that 3 is not a primitive rootof 11, although it is a
primitive root of 7.
3. Find a primitive root of 18 and verify theorem 9.2.
4. use the techniques illustrated in example 9.3 to solve
the ff. congruences.
a) 5x = 3 mod 14 c) x 11= 9 mod 14
b) x9= 5 mod 14 d) x 9 = 9 mod 14
5. verify theorem 9.5 by finding an odd primitive root of
7. and checking that it is also an odd primitive root of 14.
do the same for 11 and 22 as well as 13 and 26.
6. show that 18 is not a primitive root of 25 = 5 2, ,
although it is a primitive root of 5. use 18 to find a
primitive root of 25.

EXERCISES 9.2
1. assume that a is a primitive root of p 2, where pis a
prime. Show by example
that a + p may or may not be a primitive root of 25.
2. let m >0 and suppose that a is a primitive root of m.
if (b, m)=1, then there
is a positive integer k such that b = a k mod m. the
least such k is called the
index of b (w/ respect to a and m ) and is denoted
by inda1m(b).
calculate the ff.
a)ind2,5(3) b) ind 2,5(-121)
c) ind3,14(3) d) ind 3,14(13)
3. show that the ff. statements are true for any b, c
such that (b, m)=(c, m)=1.
a) b= c mod m if by inda1m(b) = inda1m(c) mod φ (m).
b) inda,m(bc) = inda,m(b)+ inda,m(c) mod φ (m).
c) inda,m (bt) = t by inda,m(b) mod φ (m).
4. assume that m has a primitive root and let c be
relatively prime to m. if n
≥ 1 and d = (n, φ (m)), show that the congruence xn
= c mod m either has no
Solutions or else has exactly the solutions modulo m.
in the second case
73 I

Describe the pattern the solutions form , in terms of

the powers of the
primitive root.
5. let m >0 and suppose that (b, m)= (c, m) = 1. Show
that if the order of b
modulo m is k and the order of c modulo m is [h, k]
= the least common
multiple of h and k.
6. let p be a prime and let p-1 = q t m ,where q is a
prime and (q, m)= 1.
Let c € Z w/ (p, c) = 1 and let b= c m. show that the
order of b modulo
p divides q t. what restriction on c ensures that the
order of b is qt.?
7. using the notation of exercise 9.2.6, show that if the
order of b modulo p is
qt ,, then c is not the solution of the congruence x (p-1)/q
= mod p.
8. prove Wilson’s theorem (theorem 4.19) using the fact
that every prime has
a primitive root.
9.let be a primitive root of the primep. Show that the set
{a2, a4…ap-1}
Represents a complete set of quadratic residues
modulo p.
10. Prove that if a is odd and n≥ 3. then a 2n-2 = 1 mod
2.
n

[hint; use mathematical induction on n , together w/

the equality
(an-3)2= a2n-2.]
11. use exercise 9.2.10 to prove that the only powers
of 2 having primitive
Roots are 2 and 4.
12. Prove that if g is a primitive root modulo p ( p an odd
prime) and gp-1=
1 mod p2, then (g + p)p-1 ≠ 1 mod p2.
13. Prove that if (a, p)= 1, then a pm pm-1 = 1 mod pm,
where p denotes an
odd prime.

X QUADRATIC CONGRUENCES
1. EULER’S CRITERION
DEFINITION 10.1 (Quadratic residue)
If congruence x 2 = a mod p where p is a prime has
solutions, then we say that
A is Quadratic residue modulo p.
Benjier H. Arriola 74

EXAMPLE 10.1
3 Is a Quadratic residue mod 11, because 5 2 = 3
mod 11.
Also 2 is a Quadratic residue mod 17, because 6 2 = 2
mod 1

DEFINITION 10.2 ( Quadratic non residue)

If congruence x 2 = a mod p, where p is a prime has no
solution, then we say
That a is a Quadratic non residue modulo p.

EXAMPLE 10.2
2 is a quadratic non residue mod 5.
3 is a quadratic non residue mod 7.

THEOREM 10.1
If p is an odd prime then there are ½ (p-1) quadratic
non residue modulo p.

EXAMPLE 10.3
Let p = 7, then there are ½ (7-1) = ½(6) = 3
residues and also 3 non residues.

THEOREM 10.2 (Euler’s Criterion )

The number a is a quadratic residue mod p if
A (p-1)/2 = 1 mod p.

EXAMPLE 10.4
From example 10.1, 3 is a quadratic residue mod
11.by theorem 10.2, 35=1
Mod 11. then 9 is a Quadratic residue.

2. THE LEGENDRE SYMBOL

DEFINITION 10.3 (legendre symbol)
If p is an odd prime, then
1 if a is a Quadratic residue modulo p
(a/p)= { 0 if pla,
-1 otherwise
THEOREM 10.3 ( properties of legendre symbol)
Let p > 2 be a prime and a, b € Z w/ (a, p)= (b,
p)=1.
a) if a = b mod p , then (a/p)= (b/P)
b) (a 2/p) = 1
c) (ab/p) = (a/p)(b/p)
75 I

d) a (p-1)/2
= (a/p) mod p

EXAMPLE 10.5
(3/11)= 1, since 3 is a Quadratic residue mod 11.
(a/3) = 0, since 3/9
(2/5) = -1, since 2 is a Quadratic non residue mod
5.

THEOREM 10.4
Let p > 2 be a prime and a, b € Z w/ (a, p)=
(b,p)=1.
a. if a and b are Quadratic residue mod p,then ab is a
quadratic residue mod p.
b. if a is a Quadratic residue mod p and b is a Quadratic
non residue mod p.
c. if a and b are quadratic non residues mod p, then a b
is a Quadratic residue mod p.

EXAMPLE 10.6
A. we know that 3 and 4 are Quadratic residues mod 11,
so 3x4 = 12 is a
Quadratic residue mod 11.
b. 3 and 6 are Quadratic residue and non residur=e
respectively, so 3x6=18 is a quadratic non residue mod
11.
c. 2 and 6 are quadratic non residue mod 11, therefore
2x6 = 12 is a Quadratic residue mod 11.
THEOREM 10. 5
Let p > 2 be a prime. If p = 1 mod 4, then (-1/p)=1
while
If p=3 mod 4, then (-1/p) = -1

EXAMPLE 10.7
Let us tabulate a few values of (-1/p)
P (-1/p) reason
3 -1 Quadratic residue
is= 1.
5 1 2 2 = -1 mod 5
7 -1 Quadratic residue
are= 1. 4,2
11 -1 Quadratic residue
are = 1, 4, 9, 5, 3
13 1 5 2 = -1 mod 13
17 1 4 2 = -1 mod 17
Now observe if p is any prime, p> 2, then p= 1 mod 4
or p= 3 mod 4, since p
Benjier H. Arriola 76

Is odd. Also, 5, 13, and 17 are congruent to 1 modulo 4,

while 3, 7 and 11 are
Congruent to 3 modulo 4.
THEOREM 10. 6
Let p ≠ 2 be a prime and suppose that (a, p) =1. if
p=1 mod 4 , then (a/p)=
(p-a/p). if p= 3 mod 4, then
(a/p) = - (p-a/p).
EXAMPLE 10.8
If we wish to know if (1678/2503) has value1 or -1
(note: 2503 is a prime ), we might start by using
theorem 10.6 since 2503 – 1678
= 825 and 2503 = 3 mod 4, we have
(1678/ 2503) = -(825/2503)
Furthermore, 825 = 3.5 2.11; Hence by theorem 10.3
(1678/ 2503) = -(825/2503) = - (3/2503)
(52/2503)(11/2503)
By (b) of theorem 10.3,( 5 2/2503)= 1,so
(1678/ 2503)= - (3/2503) (11/2503)
This however is about as far as our present knowledge
will take us. While we
might feel more comfortable with the smaller numbers
3 and 11, frankly it is not
much easier to calculate (3/2503), then (1678/2503).

3. THE QUADRATIC RECIPROCITY LAW

DEFINITION 10.4 (least residue)

If n is any integer, then at least residue of n modulo m is
the integer x in the
interval (-m/2, m/2) such that n = x mod m.we denote
the least residue of n modulo
m by LRm(n).

EXAMPLE 10.9
The set {-5,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5} is a complete set of
least residue modulo m. thus
LR 11(21) = -1, since 21 =-1 mod 11; similarly, LR 11(99) =
0, and LR11(60)= 5.

DEFINITION 10.5 (signum)

We define sgn(x)(read signum of x) by
1 if x > 0,
Sgn(x) = } 0 if x = 0
-1 if x < 0.
In general, we note that x=1x1 sgn (x)
77 I

THEOREM 10.7 (Gauss’s lemma)

Let (m ,p) = 1 where p is an odd prime, and let δ be
the number of integers
in the set
{m, 2m, …,1/2(p-1)m }
Whose least residue modulo p is negative. Then
(m/p)= (-1) δ

THEOREM 10.8 (Quadratic reciprocity law)

Let p and q be distinct odd primes. If p = 3 mod 4 and
q=3 mod 4,
then (p/q)=-(q/p).
4. APPLICATIONS OF THE QUADRATIC RECIPROCITY LAW

THEOREM 10.9
If p is an odd prime and(a, p)=1 then the congruence
X 2 = a mod pn
Has solution if and only if (a/p)=1.

EXAMPLE 10.10
Suppose X2 = 15 mod 89
Now (15/89)=(3/89)(5/89)=(89/3)(89/5)
= (2/3)(4/5)= (-1)(1) = -1.
Therefore the given congruence has no solution.
EXAMPLE 10.11
Consider the congruence X 2 = 12 mod 2989.
Since 2989 = 7 2.61, where both 7 and 61 are primes, the
Chinese remainder theorem
tells us that the given congruence has the solution if X 2 =
12 mod 7 and X2 = 12
mod 61 have solutions. now
(12/61)=(4/61)(3/61)=(3/61)=(61/3)=(1/3)=1 and
(12/7)=(4/7)(3/7)= (3/7)= -(7/3)= -(1/3)= -1
Hence, X 2 = 12 mod 7 has no solutions, and therefore the
given congruence has no
Solutions.

5.QUADRATIC CONGRUENCES
CONSIDER AY 2 + BY + C= 0 mod p
(10.1)
Let the discriminant of the quadratic polynomial that
appears in the above
Congruence be
D= b 2 – 4ac
Benjier H. Arriola 78

Multiplying both sides of the congruence (10.1) by 4a and

then adding
B2- 4ac. We have
4a 2y2 + 4aby +b2 = b2 -4ac mod p
(10.2)
That is, (2ay + b) 2 = d (mod p)
(10.3)
Now let a be the least positive residue d mod p. this
yields the pure quadratic
Congruence
X 2 = a mod p
(10.4)
Where 0 ≤ a < p. if a =0, then congruence 10.4 has the
unique solution
X = 0 mod p.

EXAMPLE 10.12
Solve the congruence 3y 2 + 2y + 3 = 0 mod 11
Given; a =3,b = 2, c= 3, so d= 2 2-4 (3)(3) = -32
Let x = 6y +2, we get
X2 = -32 mod 11
X2 = 1 mod 11
Since (1/11)=(12/11) = 1, so there is a solution to
congruence X2 = 1 mod 11.
By investigating the solution, we have
X = 1 mod 11 = x= 1, 10 mod 11
We have, therefore 6y +2 = 1,10(mod 11), from w/c it
follows that
Y= 5,9 mod 11.

6. LINEAR CONGRUENCES OF TWO UNKNOWNS

THEOREM 10.10
Ax + by + c = o mod m has no solution if (a, b, m) † c, and
has (a, b, m) m
solutions if (a, b, m) 1c.

EXAMPLE 10.13
Solve the congruence for x and y;
19x + 7y +19 = 0 mod 15 → (1)
Finding the GCD, we have (10, 7, 15) = 1 so there are 1.15
= 15 solutions.
We note that (10, 15) = 5.also, we see 10x + 7y +19
=15t for some integer
t= 7y +19 = 5(3t +2x). Thus 7y +19 =o mod 5.here (7.5)
=1, so there is 1 solution,
79 I

namely y = 3.(certainly any number congruent to 3

modulo 5 is also a solution,)
hence, y= 3 +5t for some t. we have
y = 3 mod 15 when t = 0
y = 8 mod 15 when t = 1
and y = 13 mod 15 when t = 2
as solutions to y in congruence (1)
now substituting in (1), we obtain
10x + 21 +19= o mod 15 = 10x + 40= 0 mod 15
10x + 56 +19= o mod 15 = 10x + 75= 0 mod 15
10x + 91 +19= o mod 15 = 10x + 110= 0 mod 15
Since (10, 15) = 5 and 5140, 5/75, and 5/110, we see
that each of the last three
congruence has five solutions for x. we solve each of this
separately for x.
10x + 40= 0 mod 15 10x + 75 = 0 mod 15 10x+110 =
0 mod 15
2x + 8 = 0 mod 3 2xx + 15 = 0 mod 3 = 2x + 22= 0
mod 3
X = 2 mod 3 X = 0 mod 3 X = 1 mod 3
Thus, x = 2 + 3t and x = 0 + 3t and x= 1+3t, where t is
an integer. Hence, (letting
T = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4) we obtain the ff. solutions
X=2 x= 0 x=1
x= 5 x= 3 x= 4
x= 8 mod 15 x= 6 mod 15 x= 7
mod 15
x= 11 x= 9 x= 10
x= 14 x= 12 x= 13
hence, solutions will be any number x and y such that :
x = 2 mod 15 and y = 3 mod 15
x = 5 mod 15 and y = 3 mod 15
x = 8 mod 15 and y = 3 mod 15
x = 11 mod 15 and y = 3 mod 15
x = 14 mod 15 and y = 3 mod 15
x = 0 mod 15 and y = 8 mod 15
x = 3 mod 15 and y = 8 mod 15
x = 6 mod 15 and y = 8 mod 15
x = 9 mod 15 and y = 8 mod 15
x = 12 mod 15 and y = 8 mod 15
x = 1 mod 15 and y = 13 mod 15
x = 4 mod 15 and y =1 3 mod 15
x = 7 mod 15 and y = 13 mod 15
x = 10 mod 15 and y = 13 mod 15
x = 13 mod 15 and y = 13 mod 15
Benjier H. Arriola 80

EXERCISES 10.1
1. Use Gauss’s lemma to show that 17 is a quadratic
residue modulo 19.
2. does the congruence x 2 = 631 mod 1093 have any
solutions? [Hint ; if m =
P 1p2…pk where the pi are odd primes (not necessarily
distinct ), then (n/m)=
(n/p1)…(n/pr)
This extended symbol is called the jacobi symbol.]
3. Does x2 = 17 mod 29 have a solution?
4. Does 3x2 = 12 mod 23 have a solution?
5. Does 2x2 = 27 mod 41 have a solution?
6. Does x2 + 5x = 12 mod 31 have a solution? [ hint;
completing the square.]
7. Does x2 = 19 mod 30 have a solution? [ hint; use the
Chinese remainder theorem.]
8. use Euler’s criterion to determine whether a is a
quadratic residue modulo p in each of the ff.
instances.
a) a = 2, p = 5; b) a = 3, p = 11;
c) a = 4, p = 7; d) a = 6, p = 13.
9. find the distinct (n0n zero) quadratic residues of the
ff. primes; 11, 19, 23, 29.
10. using the results of the exercise 10.1.9, evaluate the
ff.;
a) (4/19) b) (5/29) c)
(17/23)
d) (143/ 8243) e) (3/11) f)
(3/29)
11. Verify theorem 10.3 © by calculating (15/29) in
two ways.
Repeat for (6/11) and (21/23).
12. Evaluate; (2/3),(2/5),(2/7),(2/11),(2/13),(2/17),
(2/19) and (2/23).
Can you see a pattern?
13. Verify that theorem 10.6 holds for each pair of p
= 7, a =2; p=11, a =4,;
And p = 13, a = 7.
14. Verify that quadratic reciprocity law (theorem 10.8)
holds for each pair
Of p = 5, q = 7; p= 5, q= 17; p=7, q= 19; and p=
13, q = 5.
15. Following the examples in the text, calculate;
a) (7/21) b) (10/19) c)
(10/37)
81 I

d) (148/8243) e) (30/101) f)
(170/1667)
16. Use Euler’s criterion (theorem 10.2) to show that
(5/17) = -1, (2/31) = 1, (-1/19)= -1
17. solve; 12x + 10y = 6 mod 42
18. solve; 5x + 3y – 2 = 0 mod 7

EXERCISES 10.2
1. Derive theorem 10.3 ( c) and theorem 10.5 from
Euler’s criterion.
2. prove that if b and c are odd, then (a/bc)=(a/b)(a/c).
3. Prove that if c is odd, then (-1/c) = (-1) 1/2(c-1)
4. Using the quadratic reciprocity law, prove that
(3/p)= } 1 if p = 1 or 11 m0d 12.,
-1 if p = 5 or 7 mod 12
For each odd prime p.
5. is it possible that (n/m) = 1 while the congruence
x2 = n mod m has no solution? Prove your answer.

XI DATES AND DAYS

Congruence can be use to determine on which day of
the week a given date falls.
For example, on what day of the week was July 4, 1776?
Let us now seek a calendar formula. For easier
calculation, we choose 0000
As our reference year, even though there was no year
zero. Assign a number to
Each day of the week, according to the ff. scheme;
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Saturday
0 1 2 3 4 5
6
Similarly, March 1, 0002, has number a + 2, and March
1, 003, has number a +3.
However, March 1, 0004, has number a+ 5, for
february29, 0004, fell between
March 1, 0003 and march 1, 0004 and so 366 = 2 mod
7 days had elapsed since
the previous March 1. We see therefore, that every
common year adds 1 to the
Previous number for march 1, while each leap year adds
2. Thus, if March 1, 0000
has number a, then the number a of march 1, year y is
a 1 = a+ y + L mod 7,
where L is the number of leap years from year 0000 to
year y. to compute
Benjier H. Arriola 82

L, count all those years divisible by 4 then throw away

all the century tears,
and then put back those century years that are leap
years. Thus,
L = [y/4]-[y/100]+[y/400].
Therefore we have
A1 = a + y + L
= a + y + [y/4] – [y/100] + [y/400] mod 7.
We can actually find a 1 by looking at a calendar.
Since march 1, 1994, fell on
Tuesday
2 = a + 1994 + [1994/4] – [1994/100] +
[1994/400]
= a + 1994 498 – 19 + 4 mod 7
And so
A = -2475 = -4 = 3 mod 7.
(that is, march 1, year 0000, fell on Wednesday). One
can now determine the
day of the week on w/c march 1 will fall in any year y
> 0, namely, the day
corresponding to
3 + y + [y/4] – [y/100] + [y/400] mod 7.
Let us now analyze February 28. for example,
suppose that February 28, 1600
Has number b. as 1600 Is a leap year, February 29,
1600, occurs between
February 28, 1600 and February 28, 1601, hence 366
days have elapsed
between these two February 28’s, so that February
28, 1601 has number b+2.
February 28, 1602 has number b+3, February 28,
1603 has number b+4,
February 28, 1604 has number b+5 but February 28,
1605 has number b+7
(for there was a February 29 in 1604).
Let us compare the pattern of behavior of February
28, 1600, namely, b,
b+2, b+3, b+4, b+5, b+7,…w/ that of some date in
1599. if may 26,1599 has
number c, then may 26, 1600 has number c+2, for
February 29, 1600 comes
between these two may 26’s and so there are 366=
2 mod 7 intervening days.
The numbers of the next few may 26’s beginning w/
may 26 1601, are c+3,
83 I

c+4, c+5, c+7. we see that the pattern of the days

for February 28, starting in
1600, is exactly the same as the pattern of the days
for May 26, starting
in 1599; indeed the same is true for any date in
January or February, thus,the
pattern of the days for any date in January or
February of the year y is the same
as the pattern for a date occurring in the preceding
year y-1; a year preceding
a leap year adds two to the number for such a date,
where as all other years add
1. therefore, we revert to the ancient calendar by
making new year’s day fall
On march 1; any date in January or February is
treated as if it had occurred
In the previous year.
How do we find a date corresponding to a date
other thah march 1?
Since march 1, 0000 has number 3 (as we have seen
above),April 1, 0000 has
Number 6, for march has 31 days and 3+31 = 6 mod
7. since April has
30 days, May 1, 0000 has number 6+ 30 = 1 mod 7.
here is the table giving the
Number of the first day of each month in year 0000;

march 1, 0000, has number 3 3

May 1 6
June 1 4
July 1 6
August 1 2
September 1 5
October 1 0
November 1 3
December 1 5
January 1 1

February 1, 0000, has number 4

Remember that we are pretending that March is month 1, April is
Month 2, etc. let us denote these numbers by 1+J(M), where J(M), for
M= 1,2,…,12, is defined by J(M)=2503

It follows that month m, day 1, year y has number

1+j (m) + q(y) mod 7,
Where
Benjier H. Arriola 84

Q(y) = y+[Y/4] - [Y/100] + [Y/400]

THEOREM 11.1 (Calendar Formula)

The date w/ month m, day d, year y has number
d+j(m)+g(y)mod 7
Where
J(m)=2,50,3,5,1,4,6,2,4,0,3,
(Match corresponds to m=1, April to m=2,…, February to m=12)
and g(y)=y+[y/4]-
[y/100]+[y/400].

EXAMPLE 11.1
Let us use the calendar formula to find the day of
the week on w/c August 1,
2003, fell. And y = 2003.Subtituting in the formula we
obtain the number
1 + 1 + 2003 +500 – 20 + 5 = 2490 = 5 mod 7;
Therefore, August 1, 2003 fell on Friday.
Most of us need paper and pencil (or a calculator) to
use the calendar formula
in the theorem . here are some ways to simplify the formula
so that one can do the
calculation in one’s head and amaze one’s friends.
One mnemonic for j (m) is given by
J (m) = [2.6m – 0.2], where 1≤ m ≤ 12.
Another mnemonic for j (m) is the sentence;
My uncle Charles has eaten a cold supper; he eats nothing
hot.
2 5 7=0 3 5 1 4 6 2 4 7=0
3

THEOREM 11.2
The date with month m, day d, year y= 100c + n, where 0
≤n ≤99, has number
D + j(m)+ N+ [n/4]+[c/4] -2c mod 7,
Provided that dates in January and February are treated as
having occurred in the
Previous year.

EXAMPLE 11.2
The birthday of Amalia, the grandmother of Danny and Ella
is December 5, 1906;
on what day of the week was she born?
If A is the number of the day, then
A = 5+4+6+[6/4] + [19/4] – 38 mod 7
= 15+ 1+ 4 -38 mod 7
85 I

-18 mod 7
3 mod 7
Amalia was born on a Wednesday.