Liquid Alkaline Electrolysis

Techno-Economic Review
Strategic Analysis Inc.
Presentation to:
US DOE “Experts Meeting on Advanced Liquid Alkaline Water Electrolysis”

Brian D. James
Jennie Huya-Kouadio
Yaset Acevedo
Kevin McNamara

January 26, 2021

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 Outline
• Why TEA?
• Alkaline Design Evolution
• DFMA Design Basis
• Comparison of Systems (LA, PEM, AEM)
• Market projections
• Comparison of Cost Results
• Cost Reduction Opportunities

• LA = Liquid Alkaline
• PEM = Proton Exchange Membrane
• AEM = Anion Exchange Membrane
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 TEA Methodology
• Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) is a tool to evaluate an entire system; evaluating the interactions between
technical performance and cost.

Create System Identify Key Estimate System Evaluate Post

Conduct Processes and Key Cost of H2 Analysis
Model Mass/Energy Capital Cost
-Process Flow Equip. Info. -Input capital Process
Balance -Use DFMA®* to
cost, operating
Diagram -Unit capacity volume evaluate cost for -Review results
-Identify product production cost, efficiency,
-Identify key materials, manufact., & -Conduct
feed, and etc. into H2
process steps and -Process Equipment labor for key sensitivity
product output Analysis (H2A)
variables pricing components analysis
tool

3 STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. *Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA®) 3

 Opportunities for TEA
• Provide analysis that is transparent, detailed, and made publicly available to the technical community
• Use Hydrogen Shot Target $1/kg to guide pathway technical targets
– Top-down approach of setting a cost target and determining the bounds of key performance or cost
parameters that “must be” achieved
• Incorporate performance and durability modeling to determine cost-optimal operating conditions and
system configuration
– Example cases under investigation: Anion Exchange Membrane Electrolysis
1. Establish performance model with BOL and EOL operating curves based on degradation
2. Determine constant voltage (efficiency) vs constant current (production) operation
3. Determine most impactful parameters and establish interaction between H2A model and performance model
4. Run through range of specified operating conditions to determine lowest H2 cost

PEM
Electrolysis
EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE EXAMPLE

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 4

 LA Configuration Overview
Finite Gap Vs. Zero Gap

Source: Phillips & Dunnill, 2016 [13]

Traditional/Old-Style LA had a 2-3mm gap between the electrodes and the diaphragm [12].
Modern Zero-Gap Designs press electrodes against the diaphragm.
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
Elastic Elements (for Zero Gap Design) to Press Electrode into Diaphragm

Flexible Electrode (with catalyst (10)

Elastic Element (cathode) (11)
Expanded View of Elastic Elements

Anode
Cathode Shell (5)
Shell (2)

Rigid Current Collector (12)

Electrode
(with
catalyst
(8) Diaphragm/Separator (14)
Source: [14] (2013 DeNora patent) Source: [14] (2013 DeNora patent)

DeNora-Style electrodes (LA & Chlor-Alkali) use an Elastic Element to maintain a constant gap between electrodes.
Traditional designs use a metal box/pan/flange to collect bubbles and route them away from the electrodes.

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.

Frame Seal Elements to Seal Against the Porous Diaphragm
Explored view of Sealing Area
Gasket
Frame (3)
Gasket Frame (3) (Optional)
Sealing
Cord (5)

Membrane (8)
Gas Diffusion Electrode (6)
Porous Material (9) (Ti Foam or other)
Source: [16] (2016 DeNora patent)
Source: [16] (2016 DeNora patent)

A Frame Gasket (with contours) can be used to seal the porous diaphragm.
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 SA Baseline Alkaline Cell Design
(SA-representation of traditional LA electrolysis cell)
• Cross-sectional view of single Alkaline electrolysis cell
• Generic cell design: does not exactly match any one company (but is representative of key features)

Centerline
Water and O2 Evolution
Ni wire elastic element: 3.5mm compressed
O2 Gasket Seal: 1mm thick Ni BPP: 0.762mm thickness thickness, 7mm uncompressed thickness,
die cut PEN sheets 0.15mm wire diameter
Bipolar Plate Fine Ni mesh anode substrate: 50 micron
O2 Cell Frame: 1.55mm thick
injection molded PEEK Gasket Seal thickness, 18 micron wire diameter, 350
Cell Frame
Elastic Element micron opening width
O2 Gasket Seal: 1.25mm thick NiMo catalyst: 5 mg/cm2
die cut PEN sheets Gasket Seal Anode
Diaphragm OH– Transport Zirfon (ZrO2/polysulfone) diaphragm: 500
H2 Gasket Seal: 1.25mm thick micron thickness
die cut PEN sheets Gasket Seal Cathode
Cell Frame Fine Ni mesh cathode substrate: 50 micron
H2 Cell Frame: 1.55mm thick Elastic Element thickness, 18 micron wire diameter, 350
injection molded PEEK Gasket Seal micron opening width
H2 Gasket Seal: 1mm thick NiFe(OH)2 catalyst: 5 mg/cm2
die cut PEN sheets
H2 Evolution
SA design used for Baseline Cost Analysis.
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 NREL and Hydrogenics (~2017) Alkaline Design
(Both are simplified, PEM-like construction)

Hydrogenics Cells (from [18]) Layers of Repeat Cell:

• Bipolar plate
• Seal
• Structural ring (cell frame)
• Seal
• Pre-electrode (Ni mesh or foam)
• Cathode (catalyst layer)
• IMET membrane (diaphragm)
• Anode (catalyst layer)
• Pre-electrode (Ni mesh or foam)
• Structural ring (cell frame)
• Seal

LA Electrolyzer Designs seem to be moving toward simplified, PEM-like fabrication:

• reduced part count
• easily assembled
• non-metal structural frames
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 SA Future Alkaline Cell Configuration
• Cross-sectional view of single ALK electrolysis cell
• Generic cell design: does not exactly match any one company (but is representative of key features)

Centerline
Ni-coated SS BPP: 0.76mm thick SS (0.2mm etched flow
fields depth) with 25nm PVD Ni coating on both sides
O2 Gasket Seal: 50µm thick
die cut PET sheets
H2 flow channels: 0.2mm
Bipolar Plate O2 PTL anode: 1mm thick sintered porous Ni
O2 Cell Frame: 1.0125mm Gasket Seal (50% porosity)
thick injection molded PEEK Anode O2 PTL
Cell Frame CCM: 250µm thick Zirfon (ZrO2/polysulfone)
Subgasket: 125µm thick PET diaphragm membrane with decal-transfer
Subgasket Diaphragm
sheet abutting the diaphragm - anode (NiMo catalyst: 5 mg/cm2)
- cathode (NiFe(OH)2 catalyst: 5 mg/cm2)
Cell Frame
Cathode H2 PTL
Gasket Seal H2 PTL cathode: 1 mm thick sintered porous
H2 Cell Frame: 1.0125mm Bipolar Plate Ni (50% porosity)
thick die cut HDPE sheets
O2 flow channel depth: 0.2mm
(modeled as 0.2mm depth but likely to be deeper)
H2 Gasket Seal: 50µm thick die cut PET sheets
(alternatively, could insertion mold gaskets on Distinguishing Features:
both sides of BPP at high volume) • No elastic elements • Ni Foam PTL • CCM
• Ni-coated SS BPP • Simplified gaskets • Improved CD (1.2A/cm2, 1.8V)
10 STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 SA PEM Cell Configuration
• Cross-sectional view of single PEM electrolysis cell
• Generic cell design: does not exactly match any one company (but is representative of key features)
BPP: 0.76mm thick Ti (0.2mm etched flow

Centerline
fields depth) with 25nm PVD Au coating on
H2 side and 25nm PVD Pt coating on O2 side Water and O2 Evolution
O2 Gasket Seal: 50µm thick
die cut PET sheets H2 flow channels: 0.2mm
Bipolar Plate O2 PTL: Sintered porous Ti 1mm thick
Gasket Seal (50% porosity) with 100nm PVD Pt coating
O2 Cell Frame Anode O2 PTL
O2 Cell Frame: 925µm thick CCM: 200µm thick ePTFE-supported PFSA
injection molded HDPE Subgasket membrane with slot die coated catalyst
H+ Transport O2 side: 2mg Ir/cm2 of IrO2 on TiO2
MEA
Subgasket H2 side: 1mg Pt/cm2 at 30% Pt/C + 0.1mg
Subgasket: 100µm thick PET Pt/cm2 for GRC catalyst
sheets encasing membrane H2 Cell Frame Cathode H2 PTL (GDL)
using 3M roll-to-roll process Gasket Seal
H2 GDL: 150µm thick (105µm carbon fiber
Bipolar Plate
substrate with 45µm thick MPL)
O2 flow channel depth: 0.2mm
H2 Cell Frame: 75µm thick (modeled as 0.2mm depth but likely to be deeper)
die cut HDPE sheet H2 Evolution
H2 Gasket Seal: 50µm thick die cut PET sheets
(alternatively, could insertion mold gaskets on
both sides of BPP at high volume)

11 STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.

 Liquid Alkaline Electrolysis Alternatives & Advanced Features
Diaphragm Catalysts
• Thinner diaphragm thickness • Baseline: Ni-Mo and Ni-Fe(OH)2
• Alternative to Zirfon Perl UTP 500 (polysulphone with ZrOx) • Pt/Ru/Rare-Earths [1], RuO2 [29]
• IMET • No noble metals
• PBI: m-PBI [18], ion-solvating/ KOH-doped PBI [8] • No catalyst on anode/OER side [1]
Elastic Elements Electrodes (Supports)
• Eliminate entirely • Eliminate via applic. directly to membrane (CCM) or PTL
• Use only on one electrode [21] • Alternatives to fine woven Ni mesh
• Alternate materials • Foams [7]
• Alternate coiling/construction • Possibly with graded porosity [13]
Frames • Microfibrous felts [7]
• Alternate metals • Nanowire felts [7]
• Resins (vinyl chloride, PE, PP, PPS, PSF, Epoxy, etc.) [14] • Ni-coated steel [11]
• Injection Moldable: PPS-40GF, PEEK [18] • Porous carbon paper [13]
Seals • Catalyst coated Perforated Ni sheet [13]
• Teflon, EPDM, PEN Bipolar-Plate/Separate-Plate
PTL/Current Distributors • Ti, Ni, SS/Mild-Steel with Ni coating [30]
• Ni Foam, Ni Mesh • Flow fields or no flow fields
• Expanded metal (Thyssenkrupp Chlor-A) [5] Other Ideas
• Plastic mesh (coated) [20] • Plastic Stack (use of plastic-framed cartridges, melt-
welded to form a sealed stack [20]
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.
 Asahi Kasei Illustration of an Advanced LA Cell
(For Chlor-Akali operation)
Source: [30] (Asahi Kasei 2009)

Illustrates:
• Zero-Gap cell
• Advanced catalyst (RuO2 cathode)
• Applied via thermal decomposition
• Fine Ni mesh electrode substrate
• “Mattress” Elastic Element (on only one side)
• Current Collector
• Cell Frame
• Gaskets against membrane

13 STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.

 System Diagrams
LA Electrolysis System PEM Electrolysis System

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC.

 Advantages & Disadvantages of Electrolysis Technologies
Technology Pros Cons
• Stronger current market position • Perceived limited technical improvement
• Lowest CAPEX, ~equal OPEX, (maturity) LA response is “slow”
Liquid longest lifetime • Limited dynamic operation (~s), slow compared to PEM. But is it
start-up (~0.5 h) fast enough for Renewable
Alkaline • Mature technology with expanding
manuf. base • Lower product purity (with hybridization)?
• No obvious supply chain concerns • KOH handling
• Excellent operating characteristics: • Higher CAPEX, no clear OPEX
dynamic response ~ms, <5 min SU advantage
• Higher product purity and • Precious metal costs & supply chain
(theoretically) pressure concerns
PEM
• Expected technical advances • Shorter lifetime than ALK
• Lower system footprint
• Pure water system/No KOH
• Expected lower catalyst and • Lifetime/membrane durability AEM research focus is on
membrane cost • Low current density (both on pure water pure-water operation. But
AEM • Use of SS (instead of Nickel) and in 1M KOH) KOH improvement in CD
• Low/No use of KOH (improved handling, and lifetime may be worth
materials compatibility, safety) it.

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 15

 Current and 2030 Polarization Curves

Most customers are agnostic about how H2 is produced:

care about price, pressure, purity, and footprint

Operating point selected for each system independently

and depends on application conditions
• Hydrogen refueling station using grid energy might choose low
voltage (high electrical efficiency) while a solar-associated
system might select high current density (low capital cost)
• The entire system is designed around the expected conditions
and operating point: can lead to orthogonal development
directions
• Current “standard” operating points:
• Alkaline: 0.4 – 0.8 A/cm2, 1.9 – 2 V/cell

*Shaded areas show expected operating ranges STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 16

 Current and 2030 Polarization Curves

Most customers are agnostic about how H2 is produced:

care about price, pressure, purity, and footprint

Operating point selected for each system independently

and depends on application conditions
• Hydrogen refueling station using grid energy might choose low
voltage (high electrical efficiency) while a solar-associated
system might select high current density (low capital cost)
• The entire system is designed around the expected conditions
and operating point: can lead to orthogonal development
directions
• Current “standard” operating points:
• Alkaline: 0.4– 0.8 A/cm2, 1.9 – 2 V/cell
• PEM: 2 – 2.5 A/cm2, 1.9 – 2 V/cell

*Shaded areas show expected operating ranges STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 17

 Current and 2030 Polarization Curves

Most customers are agnostic about how H2 is produced:

care about price, pressure, purity, and footprint

Operating point selected for each system independently

and depends on application conditions
• Hydrogen refueling station using grid energy might choose low
voltage (high electrical efficiency) while a solar-associated
system might select high current density (low capital cost)
• The entire system is designed around the expected conditions
and operating point: can lead to orthogonal development
directions
• Current “standard” operating points:
• Alkaline: 0.4 – 0.8 A/cm2, 1.9 – 2 V/cell
• PEM: 2 – 2.5 A/cm2, 1.9 – 2 V/cell
• AEM: ~0.4 – 0.5 A/cm2, 1.8 – 2 V

*Shaded areas show expected operating ranges STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 18

 Electrolyzer Market Outlook
• Future growth largely driven by EU: combination of government Annual Electrolyzer Capacity (2020-2030)
policy & investment money and firm decarbonization pledges 110
100
New Capacity
• Manufacturing base expanding rapidly: multiple gigawatt/year-

Rated Capacity (GW)

90
80 Installed Base
scale factories in development 70
• ITM: 0.35/1/2 GW, PEM, ThyssenKrupp: 5GW, LA, NEL: 0.5/2GW, 60
50
LA, PlugPower/IGW: ~1GW, PEM, McPhy: 1GW, LA, 40
Enapter: ~5GW, AEM 30

• Majority of electrolyzer projects paired with renewable 20

10
electricity generation: wind, solar, hydro 0
2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
PEM vs. Alkaline?
Strategic Analysis Internal Projection based on
Framework 1: compilation of public data
• LA is currently much less expensive and produced in higher quantities
• Maintains its cost lead over PEM and is the dominant technology in 2030 and beyond
Framework 2:
• PEM has more technology-improvement potential
• Superior dynamic response allows PEM to captures most/all of electrolysis market linked to renewable energy
• Scaling reduces costs to lower/equal to LA
• PEM captures equal or greater total market share in 2030 and beyond
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 19
 Learning Curve Approach Suggests <$500/kW System Prices
for Both LA and PEM
• Renewable energy learning rate estimates:
• Wind Energy: 19% (BloombergNEF)
• Solar PV Modules: 24% (BloombergNEF)
• Lithium-ion battery packs: 20% (Ziegler & Trancik, 2020)
• Bloom SOFC: 28% (company presentation)
• Plug Power PEM: 25% (2019 company presentation)
Learning rate cost estimate model inputs:
Technology Cumulative MW Cumulative 2020 Costs
to date*(est.) 2030 MW (est.) ($/kW)
Alkaline 600* 60,000 $800
PEM 50 40,000 $1,380
*included pre-1975 alkaline systems at a 50% discount

Estimates shown combine learning rate assumptions with

manufacturer & expert price projections (Not based on DFMA)

PEM and Alkaline electrolyzer Sprice

TRATEGnear-parity
I C A N A L Y S I S , is
I Nexpected
C. in 10-15 years. 20
 System Price Projections from Variety of Sources
System Price Projections
2500

2014 E4Tech
2000 Nouryon
• These are Prices, not Costs
System Price ($/kW)

Learning Curve
• Trend-line is downward
1500 Public System Price Data
• Lowest priced ~2020 systems
tend to be Chinese
1000
• Full details & assumptions are
not known. (That’s why we are
500 doing a full DFMA-style
analysis)
0
2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Year

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 21

Nouryon Projects Future LA Electrolysis to be <$100/kW Stack and <$1000/kW System
Nouryon, formerly AzkoNobel, is a Dutch multinational specialty chemical company

2019 Nouryon Projections

Current Costs:
Stack $115 - $700/kW
BOP $230 - $460/kW
Other $1,150/kW
Total $1,700 – $2,300/kW

Future Targets:
Stack $<115/kW
BOP minimize ~$500 to
Other minimize 700/kW
Total ~$600-$800/kW

Source: [30] (Nouryon 2019)

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 22
 Electrolyzer Stack Cost Breakdown
(from 2014 E4tech Report to FCHJU [32])
Cost “breakdowns shown are very generic, as system designs are manufacturer-specific”

Liquid Alkaline PEM

Structural
Membrane Rings Cathode
Catalyst

Anode Catalyst
Cathode BPP Membrane
BPP

Anode

Electrodes & BPP ~56% PEM Bipolar Plate cost ~50% of stack cost.
(broadly consistent with Note: Anode/OER catalyst cost is modest
Nouryon projection of 67%) but the analysis pre-dates recent 10x spike in Iridium price
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 23
 LA Electrolyzer Stack DFMA
Preliminary Results: DFMA Analysis in Progress
Baseline: 5MW Stack (500 MW/year) Future/Advanced: 5MW Stack (500 MW/year)

~$300/kW Cost ~$70/kW Cost

(not price) (not price)
Bipolar Plates
Bipolar Plates
Cell Frames
Cell Frames
Diaphragm
Electrodes Diaphragm Electrodes

Trends:
Both Stacks: 1m2 active area • Large cells and large stack powers are cost-favored
Baseline: 0.4 A/cm2 at 1.8 V/cell
Future: 1.0 A/cm2 at 1.8 V/cell • Simplified cell design reduces cost
• Higher power density reduces cost
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 24
 LA Electrolyzer Balance of Plant (BOP) Analysis
Preliminary Results: Cost Analysis in Progress

2014 E4tech BOP Cost Breakdown [32] Preliminary SA BOP Cost Breakdown: 25MW BOP Module

~$455/kW ~$180/kW Cost

30% (based on $1512/kW system (uninstalled, based on scaled price
Power price, 40% gross margin, Electrical quotes/estimates (not DFMA))
40%
Electronics 50% stack cost fraction) Subsystem
Balance
Of Plant 30%
Gas
Conditioning

Preliminary observations:
• Electrical subsystem (rectification) is a major BOP cost contributor
• Economies of scale observed: what is largest practical BOP sizing?
• Use of BOP modularity will reduce cost but it is hard to reliably quantify
• Economies of manufacturing rate are less-beneficial when BOP-module size is large
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 25
 Cost Reduction Strategies/Thoughts (1)
2014 E4tech Recommendations/Assessment [32] SA Thoughts
Zero-Gap Configuration Improves performance
Scale-Up Cell Size Lower waste
Scale-Up Stack Size Looking at 5MW (or greater) stacks
Scale-Up BOP
Benefits to 500kW – 1MW, then flatter curve Benefits to ~25MW (under review)
Components
Examine out to 10GW/year.
Scale-Up
Compare many small stacks or systems
Manufacturing Rate
vs. fewer large stacks (Enapter approach)
Already high efficiency. Focus on reducing cost of high-
System Efficiency
efficiency systems
Already high lifetime (>60kh). Focus on reducing cost of
Lifetime
high-lifetime, high-efficiency, low-cost systems
Need dynamic operation to provide grid services and Can be a key factor in market capture
Dynamic Operation
capture that revenue stream (vs PEM) and competitive LCOH
To improve effective electrode area. Options include:
Bubble Reduction
centrifugal, magnetic fields, ultrasound, microwave
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 26
 Cost Reduction Strategies/Thoughts (2)
2014 E4tech Recommendations/Assessment [32] SA Thoughts
Stack/System Anticipate incremental improvement in stack and
Improvements system engineering and manufacturing
Demo of multi-MW stacks and systems with reduced 3MW+ stacks already demonstrated.
Multi-MW Systems
footprints and easier commissioning Is 10MW stack practical?
To achieve increased current densities, controlled
Advanced Catalysts morphologies, physiochemical properties, and
stability in alkaline environments
Membrane Lower crossover rates, increased life Can H2 purity be increased?
(Further) manufacturing cost
Factory Builds reduction via streamlined factory
builds
(Further) manufacturing & installation
cost reduction via increased
Modularity
modularity and commonization of
parts/subsystems
Does poor AL turn-down limit
Turn-Down
STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. operations & markets? 27
 Cost Reduction Strategies/Thoughts (3)

From 2019 “Perspectives on Low-Temperature Electrolysis…” Ayers, Pivovar et al [33]

Materials Replace high-cost interconnect materials
Integration Component integration
Cell Design Advanced cell designs to enable higher current density at the same voltage.
Stack Design For pressurized systems: rotation of the stacks for improved gas separation

Improve efficiency via:

Improved Efficiency • Improve gas and water management with cell via optimization of electrode
porosity and additives to improve wetting
• higher–activity catalyst on both electrodes

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 28

Thank You!

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 29

 References
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https://www.denora.com/dam/jcr:3e2377ae-20bf-492f-9c14-80b129364bf5/AWE.pdf?refid=a085adc6-c26f-4d27-8018-82db0dab4b64
[2] “Separator Membranes For Alkaline Electrolysis.” AGFA-Gevaert N.V. 19 Jan. 2022.
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https://denora.com/products/applications/energy-storage/alkaline-water-electrolysis.html
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p_chlor_alkali_brochure_web.pdf
[6] Barros, Décio. “Zero-Gap Cathode Technology.” De Nora do Brasil. CLOROSUR Technical Seminar. 13 Nov. 2014.
http://clorosur.org/technicalseminar/wp-content/uploads/2-Zero-Gap-CLOROSURRev1.pdf
[7] Yang, Feichen, et al. "Alkaline Water Electrolysis at 25 A cm−2 with a Microfibrous Flow‐through Electrode." Advanced Energy Materials 10.25
(2020): 2001174.

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 30

 References
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https://pocharitechnologies.com/2021/06/15/reduced-capex-alkaline-electrolyzers-using-commercial-off-the-shelf-component-cots-design-
philosophy/

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 31

 References
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[24] Pletcher, Derek, and Xiaohong Li. "Prospects for alkaline zero gap water electrolysers for hydrogen production." International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy 36.23 (2011): 15089-15104.

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS, INC. 32

 References
[25] Li, Xiaohong, Frank C. Walsh, and Derek Pletcher. "Nickel based electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution in high current density, alkaline water
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[26] Noaki, Yasuhide, Yousuke Uchino, and Keiji Miyoshi. "Bipolar alkaline water electrolysis unit and electrolytic cell." U.S. Patent No. 9,683,300. 20
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