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Grinding
provided Mechanics
by Universiti Teknikal and Advances
Malaysia Melaka: -UTeM
A Review
Open Journal System

Grinding Mechanics and Advances -

A Review

P. V. Vinay1*, C. S. Rao2

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

1

GVP College for Degree and PG Courses (Technical Campus),

Rushikonda, Visakhapatnam, India

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

2

Andhra University College of Engineering (A),

Visakhapatnam, India

ABSTRACT

The process of grinding involves the interaction between the grain and bond
of the wheel to the workpiece whose properties will affect the output as the
process happens. The properties of wheel which influence the creation of the
ground surface are identified and categorised as length of chip, number of
cutting points, chip thickness, surface roughness, force mechanics, abrasion
mechanics, and fracture toughness. These afore mentioned properties are
reviewed with an intention to delve upon the factors which influence the
process of grinding with an overview of the underlying mechanics involved
in the process which govern the outcome such as surface roughness, quality
of the surface with no subsurface imperfections and minimal energy
requirements.

KEYWORDS: Grinding mechanics; Length of chip; Abrasive wear;

Surface roughness; Force mechanics; Chip thickness

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Grinding is a complex abrasive cutting process where machining
happens with geometrically unspecified cutting edges. Grinding
interface involves material removal by contact, between the grinding
wheel and a random structured surface of the workpiece. Each grain
removes a chip from the surface of the workpiece material and generates
a surface with a certain roughness. Grinding also refers to material
removal by individual grains whose cutting edge is bounded by force
and a path. The interface friction conditions, the flow characteristics
of the material and the cutting speed have a significant influence on
chip formation. A consistent cutting mechanism description therefore

* Corresponding author email: vpragada@yahoo.com

ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 41

Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

comprises complex penetration relationships between two hard

materials, elasto-plastic mechanics and aspects of tribology, which all
influence the kinematics and contact condition.

2.0 LENGTH OF CHIP

The surge of grinding as a machining process has led to the mechanics
behind the process researched upon to generate enough idea about this
unpredictable and elusive but much used finishing process. This started
with the formulation of undeformed chip thickness and average chip
length which play a major role in finding the forces acting on the tool
and the workpiece (Hahn, 1962).

The average
The average chip
chip length
length lc isasgiven as
lc is given

𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = �𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 (1)

The average metal removal rate Zw= fapvw

The average metal removal rate Zw= fapvw
The average chip length lc is given as
where
f is depth of cut
where
The average chip length lc is given as 𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = �𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 (1)
dt is the grinding wheel diameter
ap is the back engagement(width)
fvThe
is depth
averageof cutremoval rate Zw= fa𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐pv=w �𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
metal (1)
w is the surface speed of the workpiece
dt is the grinding wheel diameter
awhere
Theisaverage
The the back
maximum metal chipZthickness
removal rate
engagement(width)
undeformed w= fapvw enhances the maximum force acting on each
fpis depth
active ofand
grain cut also the self-sharpening process of the grains and the wheel will tend to
vw is the surface speed of the workpiece
dwhere
t is thesofter
behave grinding
if vwwheel diameteror v is increased (Shaw, 1972).
is decreased t
afpisisdepth
the back engagement(width)
of cut
The
vdwt is maximum
is the
the surface speed
grinding undeformed
wheelofdiameter
the workpiece chip 𝐾𝐾𝑣𝑣 thickness enhances the maximum
𝑡𝑡 2 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑤𝑤 �𝑓𝑓 (2)
force
ap is theacting on each active grain 𝑡𝑡and also the self-sharpening process
back engagement(width)
The
vw is
of maximum
the surfaceundeformed
thegrains speedthe
and of thechip thickness
workpiece
wheel will tend enhances the maximum
to behave softer ifforce acting
vw is on each
decreased
where grain and also the self-sharpening process of the grains and the wheel
active will tend to
or vt is increased (Shaw, 1972).6
behave
The maximum vw is decreased
softer if undeformed 𝐾𝐾or
chip vt is increased
=thickness (Shaw,
enhances the 1972).
maximum force acting on each (3)
𝐶𝐶𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔 �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
active grain and also the self-sharpening process of the grains and the wheel will tend to
𝐾𝐾𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤
behave softer if v is decreased𝑡𝑡 2or v is increased
𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚t = 𝑣𝑣 �𝑓𝑓
(Shaw, 1972). (2)
C is the number wof active grains
g 𝑡𝑡
rg is the grain aspect ratio 𝐾𝐾𝑣𝑣
dwhere
t is the grinding wheel diameter𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑡 2 in mm = 𝑣𝑣 𝑤𝑤 �𝑓𝑓 (2)
where
𝑡𝑡
vw is the work surface speed in𝐾𝐾mm/sec = 𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟
6
(3)
vwhere 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
t is the grinding wheel surface speed in mm/sec
f is the depth of cut in mm 𝐾𝐾 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟
6
(3)
Cg is the number of active grains 𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
rFor
g iscylindrical
the grain aspect ratiothe maximum undeformed chip thickness is given as
grinding
dCtgisisthe thegrinding
number wheel
of activediameter
grains in mm
C vrgw is isisthe
the
thework surfaceratio
number speed
of active in mm/sec
𝑣𝑣grains
g
grain aspect 2𝑑𝑑�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 +𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤 �
vd is the grinding wheel
rg is the grain aspect ratio𝐶𝐶𝑔𝑔in
tt is the grinding wheel 𝑡𝑡 surface
diameter
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑤𝑤
speed
𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡
�
mm in 𝑅𝑅mm/sec (4)
𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤
fvwisisthe thedepth
workofsurface
cut in mm
speed in mm/sec
dt is the grinding wheel diameter in mm
vt is the grinding wheel surface speed in mm/sec
where
For
f isisthe cylindrical
depth ofgrinding
cut in mm the maximum undeformed chip thickness is given as
R p workpiece radius
Rw is wheel radius
For cylindrical grinding the maximum 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 undeformed
2𝑑𝑑�𝑅𝑅 +𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤 � chip thickness is given as
42d is the radial depth ISSN:of 𝑡𝑡cut
2180-1053
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = Vol. 5𝑝𝑝 No.
� 2 July - December 2013 (4)
Cg is the number of active grits 𝐶𝐶𝑔𝑔𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤

v is the grinding wheel surface speed 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 2𝑑𝑑�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 +𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤 �

where
6
𝐾𝐾 = 𝐶𝐶 Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review
(3)
𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟𝑔𝑔 �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

Cg is the number of active grains

rvgwisisthethe work
grain surface
aspect ratio speed in mm/sec
v is the grinding
dtt is the grinding wheel wheel surface
diameter in mm speed in mm/sec
vf wisisthe depth
the work of cut
surface in mm
speed in mm/sec
vt is the grinding wheel surface speed in mm/sec
fFor
is the depth of cut grinding
cylindrical in mm the maximum undeformed chip thickness is
given
For as
cylindrical grinding the maximum undeformed chip thickness is given as

𝑣𝑣 2𝑑𝑑�𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 +𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤 �
𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑤𝑤𝑣𝑣 � (4)
𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝑅𝑅𝑤𝑤

where
R p is workpiece radius
where
Rw is wheel radius
d is the radial depth of cut
R is workpiece radius
Cgp is the number of active grits
vRt wis is
thewheel radius
grinding wheel surface speed
vdwis is the radial
the work depth
surface of cut
speed
Cg is the number of active grits
Contact
vt is thelength
grindinghas been measured
wheel surfaceusing thermocouples (Verkerk, 1975), explosives
speed
(Brown and Watson, 1977) and it was measured reliably and experimentally shown by
vw is the
(Zhang
work surface speed
et al., 1993) as a relation with the elastic modulus of the wheel and found that
the length at which the forces are exerted is at the middle of the geometrical length
Contact
which length
is 0.7 times has been measured
theoretical usingin thermocouples
length and which (Verkerk,
turn is almost equal to the
1975), explosives
experimental (Brownchip
length. Smaller and Watson,
thickness 1977) and
corresponds it was
to smaller measured
pressure value
(Lindsay,
reliably (1975), p42-60). The deformation
and experimentally shown ofbyworkpiece
(Zhang and wheel
et al., reduce
1993) as the depth of
a relation
with the elastic modulus of the wheel and found that the length at
which the forces are exerted is at the middle of the geometrical length
which is 0.7 times theoretical length and which in turn is almost
equal to the experimental length. Smaller chip thickness corresponds
to smaller pressure value (Lindsay, (1975), p42-60). The deformation
of workpiece and wheel reduce the depth of cut was found that for a
specific situation
cut was found the
that for value issituation
a specific to be 0.938 times
the value thebenominal
is to depth
0.938 times of cut.
the nominal
depth of cut.
cutnew
A was relation
found thatfor
forchip
a specific
lengthsituation the value isby
was proposed to (Zhang
be 0.938 et
times
al., the
1993)nominal
and
depth
A new of cut.
relation for chip
it is compared withlength was proposed
the available by (Zhang
models and et have
al., 1993) and it is that
deduced compared
this
with the available models and have deduced that this formulation for chip length is
formulation
A new relation for chiplength
for chip length
wasisproposed
reasonably good
by (Zhang et and given
al., 1993) andasit is compared
reasonably good and given as
with the available models and have deduced that this formulation for chip length is
reasonably good and given as 𝑑𝑑
𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �1 − 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐 � (5)
𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �1 − 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐 � (5)
where equivalent wheel radius after deformation 𝑑𝑑

where equivalent wheel radius after deformation

where equivalent wheel radius after deformation �1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠2 �𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅0 �1 + 𝜁𝜁 � (6)
𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐
�1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠2 �𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅0 �1 + 𝜁𝜁 � (6)
R0 is the equivalent wheel radius before deformation 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐
ζ = constant that can be determined by a set of measured data for a class of grinding
R0 is the equivalent wheel radius before deformation
operations
νζs =is constant that ratio
the poisson’s can beof determined
the wheel by a set of measured data for a class of grinding
doperations
c is the real depth of wheel cut
Eνss is
is the
the poisson’s ratio ofofthe
elasticISSN:
modulus
2180-1053thewheel
grinding
Vol. 5wheel
No. 2 July - December 2013 43
d ’is the real depth of wheel cut
Fn is the normal grinding load per unit wheel width
c
Es is the elastic modulus of the grinding wheel
’
 withwas
cut the found
available that models
for a specificand have deduced
situation the that valuethis is𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐to =be𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑0.938
formulation 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
for�1chip
times −the �nominal
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑length is
A newofrelation
reasonably
depth cut.goodfor and chipgivenlengthas was proposed by (Zhang et al., 1993) and it is compared
with the available models
Journal of Mechanical Engineering where andequivalent
have deduced
and Technology wheel that radius this after formulation
deformation for chip length is
reasonably good and
A new relation for chip length was given as
𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 =proposed by�1 (Zhang − 𝑅𝑅 �et al., 1993) and it is compared
𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐
(5)
with the available models and have deduced that this 𝑑𝑑 formulation for �1−𝜈𝜈chip𝑠𝑠 �𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 length is
2 ′
𝑑𝑑𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅0 �1 + 𝜁𝜁 �
R reasonably
is the good and given
equivalent wheel as 𝑙𝑙radius 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
before − 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑑𝑑�
�1deformation 𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐 (5)
where0 equivalent wheel radius after deformation 𝑑𝑑
ζ = constant that canR0be determined
is the equivalent by a set
wheel radius of
𝑑𝑑 measured data for a class
𝑐𝑐 before deformation
where equivalent
of grinding operations wheel radius 𝑙𝑙
after 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
deformation
𝑑𝑑 �1
�1−𝜈𝜈 2− �𝐹𝐹 ′ � (5)
ζ = constant 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑 = 𝑅𝑅that can be determined
0 �1 + 𝜁𝜁 𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝑛
� by a set of measured data (6) for a class of grin
νs is the poisson’s ratio operationsof the wheel �1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠2𝑐𝑐�𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′
where equivalent wheelνradius the𝑅𝑅after
𝑑𝑑 =cut
deformation
𝑅𝑅0 �1ratio + 𝜁𝜁 of𝐸𝐸the � (6)
dR is the real depth ofs iswheel
c0 is the equivalent wheel radius before deformation
poisson’s
𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐
wheel
E d is the real depth of wheel cut
ζ s=isconstant
the elastic that can modulusbe cdetermined of theby grinding
a set of �1−𝜈𝜈 wheel
measured
2 �𝐹𝐹′ data for a class of grinding
R is the equivalent wheel Es is the𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑elastic
radius =
before 𝑅𝑅 modulus
�1 + 𝜁𝜁
deformation of 𝑠𝑠the 𝑛𝑛
�grinding wheel (6)
Foperations
n
0 ’ is the normal grinding ’
F is the normal load 0per unit 𝐸𝐸wheel
𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐
grinding load per unit wheel width
𝑠𝑠 width
νζs =is constant
the poisson’s that canratiobeofndetermined
the wheel by a set of measured data for a class of grinding
doperations
R c0 is
is the
the real depth ofwheel
equivalent wheelradius cut before deformation
An νss=is approximate
the ratiomodelAnthe for the model
approximate determination for the determination of chip length of chip length can becan be held viable
ζE the poisson’s
isconstantelastic modulus
that can beofof thewheel
determinedgrinding 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 by wheel a set of measured data for a class of grinding
held
Fdcn’isisthe
operations viable
the real
normal only
depth of when
grinding when
wheel load cut
1per≤ 𝐿𝐿unit 𝑁𝑁 where
≤ wheel where width Lc Lisc is modifiedmodified contact contact
length, length, Lg is geometrical contact le
𝑔𝑔
LνEsgs isis
is the
the elastic modulus
geometrical
poisson’s ratiocontact
of ofthe the grinding
length
wheel andwheel N is a finite
and N is a finite constant. And a further assertion given as the macro deformation oconstant. And a further
Fcn’isisapproximate
dAn
assertion thereal
the normal given
depthgrinding
ofas
model wheel load
the
for
wheel the
cut per
macro unit wheel
determination
workpiece deformation
system width
ofischip one length of
of the thecan wheel
most heldworkpiece
beimportant viable onlywhich contribute to
factors
E
system is the elastic
𝐿𝐿
1 ≤is𝐿𝐿 one modulus
≤ 𝑁𝑁 of of
thefor the
variation
Lcmost grinding
of contact
important wheel length
contact factors during
length, Lgwhich grinding.
cancontribute
whens 𝑐𝑐
where is modified is geometrical contactto the
length
FAn ’ approximate model
n is the normal grinding load per unit wheel width
𝑔𝑔 the determination of chip length be held viable only
variation
whenN 1is≤a finite
and 𝐿𝐿of contact
≤ 𝑁𝑁constant.
whereChip
length
LAnd
during
a further assertion grinding. given L asg the macro deformation of the
c islength
modified hascontact length, is by geometrical contact length
𝑐𝑐
been represented (Rowe, Qi et al., 1993, 1993a, 1994)
wheel
An workpiece
approximate
𝐿𝐿𝑔𝑔 systemfor
model is onethe of the most important
determination of chip factors can
length whichbe contribute
held viable toonly
the
and N is a finite constant. combination
And a further of the deformation
assertion given contact
as the lengthdeformation
macro lf and the geometric of the contact length lg
variation
Chip of
length contact length during grinding.
≤ 𝑐𝑐 ≤has beenLrepresented by (Rowe, Qi et al., 1993, 1993a, 1994)
𝐿𝐿
when
wheel 1workpiece 𝑁𝑁 where
system isc isone modified
of the contact
most length,
important L g is geometrical
factors which contact
contribute length
to the
𝐿𝐿𝑔𝑔
as a combination
variation of the deformation contact length 𝑙𝑙l𝑐𝑐2f and = 𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓2 the
+ 𝑙𝑙𝑔𝑔2 geometric
Chip
and is aoffinite
N length contact length
hasconstant.
been during
represented
And grinding.
a further by assertion
(Rowe, Qi given et as al.,the1993,macro1993a, deformation 1994) ofasthea
contact
combination
wheel length
workpiece lgdeformation
of thesystem as is onecontact of the length most important lf and the factors geometric contact
which length lto
contribute g asthe
Chip length
variation has been
of contact length Contact
duringlength
represented byin(Rowe,
grinding. grinding Qiisetdependent al., 1993,on1993a, the effects 1994)ofaselastic/plastic
a deforma
combination of the deformation between contact the rough 2 surface
length 2lf and
𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = 𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓 + 𝑙𝑙𝑔𝑔 2ofthe the grinding
geometric wheel
contact andlength the lsurface
as
g (7) of the workpiece
Chip length has been expression representedof by deformation
(Rowe, Qi contact et al., length 1993, relative
1993a, to rough1994) surfaces
as a in contact was g
as 2 2 2
combination of the deformation
Contact length in grinding is dependent on 𝑓𝑓the contact 𝑙𝑙
length
𝑐𝑐 = 𝑙𝑙 l + and𝑙𝑙 the geometric
f effects of elastic/plastic deformation
𝑔𝑔 contact length l g as(7)
Contact length in grinding is dependent
between the rough surface of the grinding wheel2 and the′ surface of the workpiece, 0.5 on the effects of elastic/plastic the
Contact length
deformation
expression in grindingcontact
between
of deformation is dependent
the rough length𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐surface ==𝑙𝑙𝑓𝑓2[𝑅𝑅
2𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐on
relative the 𝑙𝑙∗effects
+𝑟𝑟 to 2 8 ∗ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 of
of
𝑔𝑔 roughthe grinding
∗ (𝐾𝐾
surfaces 𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾
elastic/plastic ) ∗ 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 deformation
wheel was
in𝑤𝑤 contact
+ 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 ] (7)
andgiven the
between the rough surface of the grinding wheel and the surface of the workpiece, the
as
surface
expression
ofofthe workpiece,
deformation where the expressiontoofrough deformation contact length
Contact length in grindingcontact is dependent length relative on the effects of surfaces in contact
elastic/plastic was given
deformation
relative
as to rough surfaces in contact was given 𝐾𝐾the
as�1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠2 �
=𝑑𝑑surface
�1−𝜈𝜈𝑤𝑤 2�
between the rough𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 surface
= [𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟2 ∗of8 the ∗ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′grinding wheel and 𝑒𝑒 ]𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 , 𝐾𝐾
of𝑤𝑤the= workpiece, the
0.5
∗ (𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑤𝑤 ) ∗ 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 + 𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑤𝑤
(8)
expression of deformation contact length relative to rough surfaces in contact was given
as
where 𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = [𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟2 ∗ 8 ∗ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′ ∗ (𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 ) ∗ 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 + 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 ]0.5 (8)
Es , Ew are moduli of elasticity2of grinding wheel and workpiece (kN/mm2)
�1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠2 � �1−𝜈𝜈𝑤𝑤 �
νs2,νw are 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 the
= poisson , 𝐾𝐾ratios’
= of the grinding wheel and workpiece (9)
where 𝑙𝑙𝑐𝑐 = [𝑅𝑅 ∗ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′ ∗ (𝐾𝐾 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 + 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 ) ∗ 𝑑𝑑𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 ]0.5 (8)
F𝑟𝑟n’ ∗is8specific normal
𝑠𝑠2 force
𝑤𝑤 𝑒𝑒 +
(N)
where 𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 =
�1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠 �
, 𝐾𝐾 =
�1−𝜈𝜈𝑤𝑤 � 2
(9)
ae is real depth of cut𝑤𝑤 (mm) 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑤𝑤workpiece (kN/mm2)
Es , Ew are moduli of elasticity of grinding
where 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 wheel and
νs,νw are the poisson ratios’ of the grinding �1−𝜈𝜈𝑠𝑠2 � wheel �1−𝜈𝜈 and 𝑤𝑤2workpiece
�
Ens ’, is
F Ewspecific
are moduli normal force (N)𝐾𝐾of
of elasticity 𝑠𝑠 = grinding 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑠𝑠 wheel
, 𝐾𝐾𝑤𝑤 = and 𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑤𝑤workpiece (kN/mm )
2 (9)
νas,ν
e is
are the poisson
w real depth of cut (mm) ratios’ of the grinding wheel and workpiece
Fsn’, is
E Ewspecific
are moduli normal force (N)of grinding wheel and workpiece (kN/mm2)
of elasticity
E a e is real
νs,ν,w Eare are depth of
moduli
the poisson cut (mm)
of elasticity
ratios’ of the grinding of grindingwheel and workpiece wheel and workpiece (kN/
s’ w
mm F n is2
)specific normal force (N)
ae is real depth of cut (mm)
νs,νw are the poisson ratios’ of the grinding wheel and workpiece
Fn’ is specific normal force (N)
ae is real depth of cut (mm)
de is equivalent diameter of the grinding wheel (mm)
Rr is the roughness factor

44 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

 Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review

An applied power source method to measure the real contact length

was used by (Qi et al., 1997). The experimental measurement of contact
length shows that the real contact length is larger than the geometrical
length and the ratio of the previous two lengths as reported by (Makino
et al., 1966) which suggests for conventional grinding operations the
real contact length may be approximately twice the geometric length
and (Maris, 1977) are not approximately constant. Further the authors
experimented with EN9 steel ground using a CBN grinding wheel
and concluded that the contact length ratio is insensitive to depth of
cut but it increases from approximately 2.2 for dry grinding to 2.8 for
wet grinding which points out that the usage of coolant increases the
contact length. With the consideration of coolant the distribution of
normal pressure changed over the contact area due to hydrodynamic
action which led to the flattening the part of the grinding wheel in
contact with the workpiece. It was also pointed out that the table speed
has changed the contact length which in turn increased the material
removal rate and subsequently the normal force. The length of grinding
harder material as cast iron when compared with EN9 steel showed
that EN9 had a grinding length twice that of grinding cast iron, this
phenomenon cannot be explained by Hertz contact theory. A decrease
in roughness factor Rr will result in a decrease of the real contact length
according to equation (8). This length of chip has significance when
viewed with the number of cutting points that effect the material
removal from the workpiece during grinding.

3.0 NUMBER OF CUTTING POINTS AND CHIP

THICKNESS
The number of contacting or cutting points in a grinding wheel plays
an important role on the mechanics of grinding. Not all abrasive grains
on the surface of a grinding wheel participate in the grinding process.
Some may cut, others may rub or plough and a large number may
not be doing anything at all. The grinding wheel specifications like
the variety of abrasive, grain size, type of bond, hardness, structure of
the wheel, the wheel and workpiece interactions, grinding conditions
such as wheel speed, work speed, depth of cut, forces, grinding fluid,
etc. used, the stiffness and accuracy of the machine tool all play an
important role.

Estimation of the number of apparent contact points by rolling the

grinding wheel under its own weight on soot covered glass plate was
done by (Backer et al., 1952). The image is photographically enlarged
and projected on to a screen. The number of cutting points per unit area

ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 45

Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

is determined by counting the number of spots. It was reported that for

a 46-grit alumina wheel, the number of cutting grains per unit area, n
to be 299 grains/cm2 or 1930 grains/in2. Further it was pointed out that
the count is actually an estimate of the number of peaks of the abrasive
grits on the wheel surface that have penetrated the carbon film and not
necessarily the number of actual contacting or cutting grains per unit
area.

A technique of rolling the grinding wheel over a piece of Sanborn

recording paper and counting the number of contacts of a cut-off wheel
was done by (Shaw et al., 1967). Another technique of wrapping a thin
steel band (0.010 in. thick razor blade stock) around the periphery of
the grinding wheel to observe the projected image on to a screen to
count the contacting points was also discussed.

A dynamic method was developed by (Brecker and Shaw, 1974) unlike

the above ones to determine the effective number of cutting points on
the surface of a grinding wheel. It employs a thin workpiece mounted
on a special piezoelectric dynamometer of very high natural frequency
of response to measure the instantaneous forces. The workpiece is so
thin that only one grain is assumed to be in contact at a given time. The
number of chips produced in a given time is determined by counting
the number of force peaks. While there are some limitations associated
with this technique, it is by far the most accurate method for obtaining
the number of cutting points under dynamic conditions.

The grinding process of finish and cut-off grinding was analysed using
probability statistics by (Hou and Komanduri, 2003) and experimentally
found that the percentage of grains that participate in actual machining
are 0.15 in finish and 1.8 in cut-off grinding, the remaining grains rub
or plough the workpiece material.

The specific energy can be calculated by using simple mechanics

of grinding. Figure 1 shows the grinding wheel mechanism at the
workpiece interaction in order to derive the specific energy in the
grinding process.

46 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

 grinding,
of grains the
thatremaining grains
participate rub or plough
in actual machining the workpiece
are 0.15 inmaterial.
finish and 1.8 in cut-off
grinding, the remaining grains rub or plough the workpiece material.
The
Thespecific
specificenergy
energycan canbebecalculated
calculatedbybyusing
usingsimple
simplemechanics ofofgrinding. Figure 1 1
Grindingmechanics
Mechanics andgrinding.
Advances -Figure
A Review
shows the grinding wheel mechanism atatthe workpiece interaction ininorder totoderive the
The specific energy can be calculated by using simple mechanics of grinding. Figurethe
shows the grinding wheel mechanism the workpiece interaction order derive 1
specific
specificenergy
energy ininthe grinding
the grinding process.
process.
shows the grinding wheel mechanism at the workpiece interaction in order to derive the
specific energy in the grinding process.

ls ls
ls

Figure 1. Chip thickness in grinding (Mahdi and Zhang, 1999)

Figure
Figure1.1.Chip
Chipthickness
thicknessiningrinding
grinding(Mahdi
(Mahdiand
andZhang,
Zhang,1999)
1999)
Thetotal
total specific
Figure energy, u generated
1. Chip thickness byand
in grinding (Mahdi the grinding
Zhang, 1999) process as
The
The totalspecific energy,u ugenerated
specificenergy, generatedbybythe thegrinding
grindingprocess
processasaspostulated
postulatedbyby(Malkin,
(Malkin,
postulated
1989)
1989)isis by (Malkin, 1989) is
The total specific energy, u generated by the grinding process as postulated by (Malkin,
1989) is
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢==𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ
𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑢𝑢
𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ + 𝑢𝑢 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
(10)
(10)
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 + 𝑢𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ + 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 (10)
and
andthe
thespecific
specificenergy
energyofofthe
thechip
chipbeing
beingthe themain
mainconcern
concernisisgiven
givenasas
and the specific energy of the chip being the main concern is given as
and the specific energy of the chip being the main concern is given as
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝 𝐹𝐹 ∗𝑣𝑣
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢==𝑄𝑄𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝==𝑎𝑎 ∗𝑏𝑏∗𝑣𝑣
𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 ∗𝑣𝑣
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
(11)
(11)
𝑤𝑤
𝑄𝑄 𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑎 ∗𝑏𝑏∗𝑣𝑣 𝑤𝑤
𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝐹𝐹 ∗𝑣𝑣 𝑤𝑤
where
where
𝑝𝑝
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑎𝑎 ∗𝑏𝑏∗𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠
(11)
WW p pisisthe the grinding
grinding power
power
𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤
where
QQ w wisisthe volumetric material removal rate
Wp is the the volumetric material removal rate
grinding power
Fwhere
t is
F the tangential
t isisthe tangential grinding force
grinding force
Q w the volumetric material removal rate
atais isthethe true
truedepth
depth of
ofcut
cut
Ftt is the tangential grinding force
b bisisthe the width
width ofofgrinding
grinding
vW
at pisis thethetruegrinding
depth power
of cut
svis isthethe wheel
wheel speed
speed
Qb is is
s thethe width of grinding material removal rate
volumetric
vwvwis thetheworkpiece speed
vs wisis the workpiece
wheel speedspeed
Ft is the tangential grinding force
vw is the workpiece speed
at is the true depth of cut
b is the width of grinding
vs is the wheel speed
vw is the workpiece speed

The specific energy is related to the maximum undeformed chip

The specific energy is related to the maximum undeformed chip thickness hm as given
thickness hm as given by (Malkin, 1989)
by (Malkin, 1989)

3 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎 1/2 1/2
ℎ𝑚𝑚 = �𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 � 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 � �𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 � � (12)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
where
ds is the wheel diameter
where
C is active grits per unit area of wheel surface
β is the semi-included angle of the chip cross-section which can be taken as triangular
dass shown
is the in
wheel 1 and taken as 600 for calculation of hm by (Malkin, 1989).
Figurediameter
C is active grits per unit area of wheel surface
The grinding process can quantitatively be accounted for the magnitude of the specific
β is the semi-included angle of the chip cross-section which can be
energy and its dependence on the process parameters. The grinding energy is apparently
taken as mainly
expended triangular as shown
by ploughing. Thisinsuggests
Figurea1need
andfor
taken as 60ploughing
a ductile
0
for calculation
model to
of hm by
account for(Malkin,
the energy1989).
used. The analysis of the ploughing behaviour for tools having
triangular cross-sections gives results which are generally dependent on the semi-
included angle β and it is independent of the ploughing depth (Vathaire et al., 1981;
Gilormini and Felder, 1983; Torrence, 1996). However a more complex analysis for a
ISSN: 2180-1053
trapezoidal cross-section Vol. pyramidal
square based 5 No. 2 tool
Julyconducted
- Decemberby2013
(Abebe and Appl,47
1988) indicates that the specific energy should decrease with a larger ploughing depth.
Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

The specific
The grinding energy is related
process can to the maximum undeformed
quantitatively be accounted chip forthickness hm as given
the magnitude
by (Malkin, 1989)
of the specific energy and its dependence on the process parameters.
The grinding energy is apparently expended 1/2 mainly by ploughing.
3 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 1/2
This suggests a need ℎ𝑚𝑚for
The specific energy is related to the maximum
= �a𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
ductile� 𝑤𝑤 � �ploughing
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
� � model
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 undeformed chip thickness to account hm asfor the
(12)
given
energy
where used.
by (Malkin, 1989) The analysis of the ploughing behaviour for tools having
triangular
ds is the wheelcross-sections
diameter gives results which are generally dependent
C is active grits
on the semi-included per unit areaangle of wheel
3 β 𝑣𝑣and
surface 𝑎𝑎it 1/2 1/2
𝑡𝑡 is independent of the ploughing
β is the semi-included angle ℎ = �
of𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
the chip � 𝑤𝑤
� � � � (12)
depth (Vathaire etand
𝑚𝑚
al.,taken
1981; 𝑣𝑣 cross-section
Gilormini 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 and Felder, which can be taken as triangular
1983; Torrence, 1996).
0 𝑠𝑠
as
where shown in Figure 1 as 60 for calculation of h m by (Malkin, 1989).
However a more complex analysis for a trapezoidal cross-section square
ds is the wheel diameter
Cbased
The pyramidal
grinding
is active per unittool
gritsprocess can
area conducted
quantitatively
of wheel surface bebyaccounted
(Abebefor and theAppl,
magnitude 1988) of theindicates
specific
βthat
energy
is the theandspecific
semi-included energy
its dependence angleonof should
the chipdecrease
theprocess parameters.
cross-section with Thea larger
which can beploughing
grinding energy
taken as depth.
is triangular
apparently
expended
From
as inmainly
Figure by
shownexperimental 1 andploughing. as This
measurements
taken 600 for suggests of athe
calculation need for a ductile
grinding
of hm by ploughing
forces
(Malkin, and model
1989). power, to
account for the energy used. The analysis of the ploughing behaviour for tools having
it has been
triangular
found that the specific grinding energy increasestheassemi- the
The grindingcross-sections gives results be
process can quantitatively which
accounted are generally dependentofon
for the magnitude the specific
undeformed
included chip thickness is decreased (Malkin, 1989). The inverse
energy andangle β and it isonindependent
its dependence the process of the ploughing
parameters. depth (Vathaire
The grinding energy isetapparently
al., 1981;
relationship
Gilorminimainly
expended between
and Felder, 1983;
by ploughing. specific This energy
Torrence, 1996).and
suggests aHowever
need undeformed
for aa more
ductile chip thickness
complex
ploughing modelfortois
analysis a
often referred
trapezoidal
account for the energy to asused.
cross-section the ‘size
square effect’.of(Hwang
based
The analysis pyramidal tool
the ploughingand Malkin,
behaviour1999)
conducted by (Abebe
for tools modified
and Appl,
having
1988)upper
the
triangular indicates that thesolution
bound
cross-sections specific
gives resultsenergy
of (Vathaire shouldare
which decrease
et al.,with
generally 1981)a larger
by ploughing
dependent including
on the semi- depth.
the
From experimental
included angle β and measurements
it is independent of the of grinding
the forces depth
ploughing and power,
(Vathaireit haset been
al., found
1981;
effect of rounding the tip of the triangular-shaped cutting tool. In
that the and
Gilormini specificFelder,grinding energy increases
1983; Torrence, 1996). However as the aundeformed
more complex chipanalysis
thickness for ais
this approach,
decreased cross-section the
(Malkin, 1989). upper bound
Thebased inverse solution
relationship matches the
between byspecific experimental
trapezoidal square pyramidal tool conducted (Abebeenergy and Appl, and
measurements
undeformed chip of the
thickness grinding
is often specific
referred to as energy.
1988) indicates that the specific energy should decrease with a larger ploughing depth.the ‘size The shape
effect’. (Hwang of the
and cross-
Malkin,
sectional
1999)experimental
From modifiedcutting profile
themeasurements
upper boundwasof then
solution
the grindingcalculated.
of (Vathaireforces andThe
et al., results
1981)it by
power, showed
has including
been found that
the
effect
that theof specific
rounding rounding
the tip the
of tip
grinding of
a cutting the triangular-shaped
energy tool
increases can accountas thecutting for tool. In chip
an increase
undeformed this approach,
in specific
thickness the
is
upper bound
decreased solution1989).
(Malkin, matches The theinverse
experimental relationshipmeasurements
between ofspecific
the grinding energy specific
and
energy with smaller undeformed chip thickness. The undeformed chip
energy. Thechip
undeformed shape of the cross-sectional
thickness is often referred cutting
to β as profile
the ‘size was then calculated.
effect’. (Hwang and The results
Malkin,
thickness
showed that was laterthemodified
rounding tip of asolution as the
cutting tool cannot
can account be predicted accurately
1999) modified the upper bound of (Vathaire et al.,for1981)
an increase
by includingin specific
the
by
energy
effect the pyramidal
ofwith
roundingsmaller tool
tip of relationship
theundeformed chip thickness.
the triangular-shaped as givenThe bytool.
(Suh,
undeformed
cutting (1986),
In chip
this chap7).
thickness
approach, was
the
(Hwang
upper boundand
later modified as Malkin,
the βmatches
solution cannot 1999)
be modified
thepredicted
experimental the
accurately undeformed of thechip
by the pyramidal
measurements tool thickness,
grinding relationship
specific
as givenThe
taking
energy. by
into (Suh,
shape (1986),
account
of chap7).
that the
the cross-sectional (Hwang tipcutting and taken
be Malkin,
profile was 1999)
as modified
round
then the undeformed
to decrease
calculated. The results the
chip
showed thickness,
that taking
rounding into account
the tipisof that
a cutting the tip be taken as round to decrease thespecific
specific
specific energy which stated by tool (Vathairecan accountet al.,for1981)
an increase
as in
energywith
energy whichsmaller
is stated by (Vathaire
undeformed et al.,
chip 1981) asThe undeformed chip thickness was
thickness.
later modified as the β cannot be predicted accurately by the pyramidal tool relationship
𝑢𝑢 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠
as given by (Suh, (1986), chap7).=(Hwang + 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 and Malkin, 1999) modified the undeformed
(13)
𝑘𝑘 ℎ𝑚𝑚
chip thickness, taking into account that the tip be taken as round to decrease the specific
energy
where which is stated by (Vathaire et al., 1981) as
As and Bs are constants found𝑢𝑢out from
where 𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠
experiment using least squares fitting method.
𝑘𝑘
= ℎ + 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 (13)
𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 𝐴𝐴 2
As and Bs are constants found ℎ𝑚𝑚 = out (ℎ𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) (14)
�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 from experiment using least squares
where
fitting method.
As and Bs are constants found out from experiment using least squares fitting method.
An earlier version of the upper bound method developed by the same researchers was
extended by (Azarkhin et al., 1996) to𝐴𝐴𝑓𝑓find the configuration of a stress-free surface, to a
2
more complicated kinematicℎ𝑚𝑚field = and (ℎ 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) of indenter. The purpose of(14)
�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 geometry this
generalization was twofold. First, it gave more flexibility in using the results of the
friction
An earlierstudy for aofwider
version set ofbound
the upper problems,
method including
developed the by
casetheofsame
interfering asperities.
researchers was
An earlier
extended version
by (Azarkhin of 1996)
et al., the upper
to find thebound method
configuration developed
of a stress-free by tothe
surface, a
more
samecomplicated
researchers kinematic field and by
was extended geometry
(Azarkhin of indenter.
et al.,The purpose
1996) of this
to find the
generalization
configuration wasoftwofold. First, it surface,
a stress-free gave moretoflexibility in using the results
a more complicated of the
kinematic
friction study for a wider set of problems, including the case of interfering asperities.

48 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

 Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review

field and geometry of indenter. The purpose of this generalization was

twofold. First, it gave more flexibility in using the results of the friction
study for a wider set of problems, including the case of interfering
asperities. Numerical results for a row of asperities with different
degrees of penetration up to full embedment were presented. Second,
the algorithm was used to model the indentation of a rigid wheel
pressed into softer rigid-perfectly plastic material, and then dragged
through it, leaving a groove behind. The wheel may be prevented
from rotation or may be torque free. Key issues to be determined
from the analysis
Numerical
include an evaluation of localof pressures, sliding
Numerical results
results for
for aa row
row of
of asperities
asperities with
with different
different degrees
degrees of penetration
penetration up up to
to full
full
speeds,
embedment were
embedment
development
were presented. of plastic
presented. Second,
Second, the deformation
the algorithm
algorithm was and
was used
used to exposure
to model
model the of nascent
the indentation
indentation of
of
aamaterial.
rigid wheel
rigid wheelTheir numerical
pressed
pressed results
into softer
into softer have shown
rigid-perfectly
rigid-perfectly plasticthat
plastic for a and
material,
material, certain
and then range
then dragged
draggedof
parameters,
through
through it, thea ratio
leaving
it, leaving a grooveof
groove ploughing
behind.
behind. The force
wheel
The wheel maytobevertical
may be preventedforce
prevented from may
from decrease
rotation
rotation or may
or may
be
astorque
be torque free.
the local Key
Key issues
issues to
free. adhesion be
be determined
increases.
to Thefrom
determined effect
from the analysis
theof include
the prior
analysis includesaidan
an evaluation
parameters
evaluation of
of
local pressures,
local pressures, sliding
sliding speeds,
speeds, development
development of of plastic
plastic deformation
deformation and and exposure
exposure of
of
has a profound influence on the surface roughness generated on the
nascent material.
nascent material. Their
Their numerical
numerical results
results have
have shown
shown that
that for
for aa certain
certain range
range of
of
workpiece.
parameters, the ratio of ploughing force to vertical force may decrease as the local
parameters, the ratio of ploughing force to vertical force may decrease as the local
adhesion
adhesion increases.
increases. The
The effect
effect of
of the
the prior
prior said
said parameters
parameters has
has aa profound
profound influence
influence on
on
the surface
the surface roughness
roughness generated
generated on
on the
the workpiece.
workpiece.
4.0 SURFACE ROUGHNESS
The ploughing
4.0
4.0 SURFACE of workpiece with a pyramidal tool of square base if
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
ROUGHNESS
used as done by (Gilormini and Felder, 1983) is shown in the Figure
The ploughing
The ploughing of of workpiece
workpiece with
with aa pyramidal
pyramidal tool
tool of
of square
square base
base if
if used
used as
as done
done byby
2 which shows
(Gilormini
differentis heights as well as which
the angles during grinding
(Gilormini andand Felder,
Felder, 1983)
1983) is shown
shown inin the
the Figure
Figure 22 which shows
shows different
different heights
heights as
as
with
well
well as
athesingle
as the anglespoint
angles during
pyramidal
during grinding
grinding with
grain.
with aa single
single point
point pyramidal
pyramidal grain.
grain.

Figure2. Pluoghing with pyramidal Figure 3. Rounded tip groove

tool (Gilormini
Figure 2.
Figure and Felder,
2. Ploughing
Ploughing 1983) Figure
with pyramidal
with pyramidal (gilormini
Figure 3.
3. Rounded and
Rounded tip
tip Felder,
groove
groove 1983)
(Gilormini
(Gilormini
tool and Felder,
and Felder, 1983)
1983)
tool (Gilormini
(Gilormini and
and Felder,
Felder, 1983)
1983)

Figure 4. Shape
Figure
Figure 4. of the
4. Shape
Shape of scratch
of the
the scratch (Gilormini
scratch (Gilormini
(Gilormini and and Felder,
and Felder,
Felder, 1983) 1983)
1983)

The
The tool
tool if
if taken
taken to
to be
be pyramidal
pyramidal and
and having
having aa rounded
rounded tip
tip as
as shown
shown in
in the
the Figure
Figure 3
3
above then
above then the
the shape
shape of
of the
the scratch
scratch is
is parabolic
parabolic asas shown
shown inin the
the Figure
Figure 44 then
then the
the
surface roughness
surface roughness can
can be
be found
found out
out from
from the
the shape
shape of
of the
the scratch
scratch as
as
ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 49
2𝐴𝐴
2𝐴𝐴11
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅 = (15)
(15)
𝑙𝑙+𝑙𝑙1
Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

The tool if takenFigureto be4. pyramidal and(Gilormini

Shape of the scratch havinganda Felder,
rounded 1983) tip as shown in
the Figure 3 above then the shape of the scratch is parabolic as shown
Thethe
in toolFigure
if taken4tothen
be pyramidal
the surfaceand having a rounded
roughness cantip
beasfound
shown outin the Figure
from the3
above then the shape
shape of the scratch as of the scratch is parabolic as shown in the Figure 4 then the
surface roughness can be found out from the shape of the scratch as
2𝐴𝐴1
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 = (15)
𝑙𝑙+𝑙𝑙1

where
where

𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝐴𝐴1 = 2 (𝑙𝑙1 − 𝑙𝑙2 ) + 𝑧𝑧 ℎ
+ 2
(15a)
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑙𝑙 = ℎ
(15b)
ℎ𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝑙1 = �
𝑝𝑝
(15c)
0.0194
𝑝𝑝 = (15d)
�𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

The value of z can be found out by trial and error from experimentation. With the
The value ofofzzcan
enhancement be found
the surface out bytends
roughness trialtoand error
worsen withfrom experimentation.
grooving on the surface of
the workpiece.
With the enhancement of z the surface roughness tends to worsen with
grooving on the surface of the workpiece.
Surfaces except for those carefully sliced crystal surfaces tend to be rough, the
roughness being a multi-scale phenomena goes down to the atomic level was shown by
Surfaces
(Bhushan etexcept forConsidering
al., 1994). those carefully slicedofcrystal
the importance surfacesintend
surface roughness to be
engineering,
rough,
magnetic the roughness
storage beingapplications
and instrument a multi-scalemuchphenomena
effort has gone goes down to
to characterise
roughness
the atomic and level
interaction
was ofshown
rough surfaces by (Thomas,
by (Bhushan 1982).
et al., Roughness
1994). has been
Considering
described using fractal concepts by (Mandelbrot et al., 1984), (Majumdar and Bhushan,
the importance of surface roughness in engineering, magnetic storage
1991), (Brown and Savary., 1991), (Brown et al., 1996) leading to new mathematically
and instrument
convenient evaluationapplications much effort
of a variety of practical hasWhile
problems. gone to many
having characterise
tools for
roughness
the descriptionand interaction
of roughness, of less
relatively rough surfaces
work done by and
by (Pandit (Thomas, 1982).
Satyanarayanan.,
Roughness
1982), (Wang has and been
Moon,described usinginfractal
1997) has gone concepts
to understand howby (Mandelbrot
surface roughness
evolves
et al., as a result(Majumdar
1984), of natural and man-made interventions.
and Bhushan, 1991), (Brown and Savary.,
1991), (Brown et al., 1996) leading to new mathematically convenient
In grinding, the region of contact between the wheel and the workpiece consists of three
evaluation
characteristic of a variety
zones. Cuttingof occurs
practical problems.
in the While
leading zone, having
which many tools
is followed by a
for the description of roughness, relatively less work
ploughing and then by a rubbing/sliding zone (Hahn and Lindsay, 1971; done byChen
(Pandit
and
and
Rowe, Satyanarayanan.,
1996) as shown in Figure 1982), (Wang
5a. No andamount
significant Moon, of 1997)
materialhas gone in
is removed to
in the
rubbing zone situated at the trailing edge and the cutting force
understand how surface roughness evolves as a result of natural and in this zone is small. The
surface roughness,
man-made which is marked in the trailing edge of the contact zone, would thus
interventions.
appear to be influenced only marginally by the cutting force.

In grinding, the region of contact between the wheel and the workpiece
consists of three characteristic zones. Cutting occurs in the leading
zone, which is followed by a ploughing and then by a rubbing/sliding
zone (Hahn and Lindsay, 1971; Chen and Rowe, 1996) as shown in
Figure 5a. No significant amount of material is removed in the rubbing
zone situated at the trailing edge and the cutting force in this zone is
small. The surface roughness, which is marked in the trailing edge of

50 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

Figure 5b. Grit deflection during grinding (Saini et al., 1982)
Figure 5a. Stages of chip formation
(Chen and Rowe, 1996)
In grinding, the region of contact between the wheel and the workpiece consists of three
characteristic zones. Cutting occurs in the leading zone, which is followed by a
ploughing and then by a rubbing/sliding zone Grinding Mechanics
(Hahn and and Advances
Lindsay, - A Review
1971; Chen and
Rowe, 1996) as shown in Figure 5a. No significant amount of material is removed in the
rubbing zone situated at the trailing edge and the cutting force in this zone is small. The
the contact
surface zone,
roughness, would
which thusinappear
is marked to be
the trailing influenced
edge only
of the contact marginally
zone, would thus
appear
by thetocutting
be influenced
force.only marginally by the cutting force.

Figure 5b. Grit deflection during grinding (Saini et al., 1982)

Figure
Figure 5a. Stages
5a. Stages of chip
formation
of chip formation Figure 5b. Grit deflection during
(Chen and Rowe, 1996)
(Chen and Rowe, 1996) grinding (Saini et al., 1982)
Yossifon (1959) points out that for materials of high wear resistance the surface finish,
Yossifon (1959)
deteriorates pointsdepth
with increasing out ofthat forgrinding
cut as materials of high wear
is a depth-controlled resistance
process unlike
the surface
lapping finish,which
and polishing deteriorates with increasing
are force controlled processes.depth of cutbyas(Saini
Other works grinding
et al.,
is a depth-controlled process unlike lapping and polishing which are
force controlled processes. Other works by (Saini et al., 1982; Li et al.,
1997) suggest the relative insensitivity of surface finish to depth of
cut when the depth is small. At high depths of cut the grit flakes and
the heat generated at contact can cause surface damage. (Saini et al.,
1982) assumed that the elastic deflection consists of four components,
local workpiece deformation δw, grain tip deformation δg variation of
1982; Li et al.,
deflection of 1997)
the grainsuggest the relative
centre δc andinsensitivity
rotation δofrt,surface
as shown finishinto Figure
depth of 5b. cut
when the depth is small. At high depths of cut the grit flakes and the heat generated at
From their results, it was concluded that grain tip deformation δg and
contact can cause surface damage. (Saini et al., 1982) assumed that the elastic deflection
consists ofδfour
rotation rt
arecomponents,
relatively local
small. The local
workpiece workpiece
deformation deformation
δw, grain δw was
tip deformation δg
said to be
variation of just a littleofmore
deflection than
the grain 2 μm
centre δc and might be
and rotation δrt, considered as a part
as shown in Figure 5b.
of
Fromthetheir
total workpiece
results, deflection.
it was concluded that The
grain deflection
tip deformationof theδg andgrain centre
rotation δc
δrt are
relatively small. The local workpiece deformation δ was said
was found to be up to 3 μm. The variation of the deflection of the grain
w to be just a little more
than 2 μm and might be considered as a part of the total workpiece deflection. The
centre δ has a trend and scale similar to the total deflection (Saini et al.,
deflectionc of the grain centre δc was found to be up to 3 μm. The variation of the
1982). Therefore
deflection of the grain thecentre
deflection
δc has aoftrend
the and
grain centre
scale similaris to
considered as the
the total deflection
local
(Saini deflection
et al., 1982). in the simulation
Therefore of of
the deflection both the dressing
the grain and the as
centre is considered grinding
the local
process. (Nakayama
deflection in the simulationetofal.,
both1971) described
the dressing and thethe deflection
grinding process.of the grain
(Nakayama et
al., 1971)
centre asdescribed
following the the
deflection
form ofofthe grain centre
a Hertz as following
distribution as the form of a Hertz
distribution as

𝛿𝛿𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛0.666 (16)

where
where
δ is expressed in micrometers
δCcc isisaexpressed in micrometers
constant in the range of 0.08-0.25 and 0.15 is considered an average value
CFn is the normal forceinacting
is a constant the on
range of in0.08-0.25
the grain N and 0.15 is considered an
average value
Bobji et al. (1999) presented a method to generate surface roughness based on a given
roughness profile of a grinding wheel. The results pertain strictly to the first grinding
pass as the wheel envelope profile changes with each subsequent pass due to fracture
and blunting of abrasives
ISSN: as well asVol.
2180-1053 stock
5 removal. Knowing
No. 2 July the trend
- December of wheel damage
2013 51
with time the envelope profile may be updated with each pass to provide the evolution
 deflection inasthe simulation of both the dressing and the grinding process. (Nakayama et
distribution
al., 1971) described the deflection of the grain centre as following the form of a Hertz
distribution
Journal as
of Mechanical Engineering and Technology
𝛿𝛿 = 𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐹𝐹 0.666 (16)
𝑐𝑐 𝑛𝑛

where 𝛿𝛿𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶 ∗ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛0.666 (16)

Fn is the normal force acting on the grain in N
where
δc is expressed in micrometers
C is a constant
Bobji in the range
et al. (1999) of 0.08-0.25
presented and 0.15 is
a method toconsidered
generateansurface
average value
roughness
δFc isis expressed
the normalinforce
micrometers
acting on the grain in N
based
n
on a given
C is a constant roughness
in the range profile
of 0.08-0.25 of isa considered
and 0.15 grindinganwheel.
average The
valueresults
pertain
Fn is the
Bobji strictly
et normal
al. (1999) to
force the first
acting
presented on grinding
the Npass as
graintoingenerate
a method the wheel
surface envelope
roughness based onprofile
a given
changes with of
roughness profile each subsequent
a grinding pass
wheel. The due
results to fracture
pertain andfirstblunting
strictly to the grinding
Bobjiasetthe
al. wheel
(1999) envelope
of
passabrasives as presented a method
well asprofile to generate
stockchanges
removal. surface
Knowing
with each roughness
the pass
subsequent based
trend on
due of a given
wheel
to fracture
roughness
and blunting profile of a grinding
of abrasives wheel. The results pertain strictly to the first grinding
damage
pass with time theasenvelope
well as stock removal.
profile may Knowing
be the trendwith
updated of wheel
each damage
pass
with as thethe
time wheel envelope
envelope profile
profile may changes with
be updated each
with subsequent
each pass due
pass to provide thetoevolution
fracture
to
andprovide
blunting
of surface
the evolution
of abrasives
roughness with as
of surface roughness with time.
well as stock removal. Knowing the trend of wheel damage
time.
with time the envelope profile may be updated with each pass to provide the evolution
of surface roughness with time. 2
ℎ𝑝𝑝
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝 = (17)
2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
2
ℎ𝑝𝑝
𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝 = (17)
where Sp is the power spectra of the roughness
2𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙of the sample h is plastic penetration
p
given as Sp is the power spectra of the roughness of the sample hp is
where
where S is the power spectra of the roughness of the sample hp is plastic penetration
plastic ppenetration given as
given as 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
ℎ𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝐾 ℎ (17a)
𝑝𝑝
𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
where ℎ𝑝𝑝 = 𝐾𝐾 ℎ (17a)
Keq is the equivalent stiffness of abrasive-workpiece 𝑝𝑝
and binder-grit interfaces.
Kwhere
p is the stiffness of abrasive-workpiece
hKeq
is isthethe equivalent
global stiffness(mm)
displacement of abrasive-workpiece and binder-grit interfaces.
where
K is the stiffness of abrasive-workpiece
γ is a constant selected as 1.5 for phase randomisation
p
hω isis the
the global displacement
frequency (m-1) (mm)
Kγ is aisconstant
eq
the equivalent stiffness
selected as 1.5 for phase of abrasive-workpiece and binder-grit
randomisation
ω is the frequency (m-1)
interfaces.
Kp is the stiffness of abrasive-workpiece
h is the global displacement (mm)
γ is a constant selected as 1.5 for phase randomisation
ω is the frequency (m-1)

(a) (b)

Figure
Figure 6. Illustration
6. Illustration of abrasive-workpiece
of abrasive-workpiece contact
contact (Saini et al., (Saini
1982); (a) et al., configuration
actual contact 1982);
(a) actual contact configurationand (b) modeland (b)configuration
contact model contact configuration

Figure 6 shows clearly the contact of one abrasive grain with the workpiece. Due to the
contact force P, the grain in the binder deflects elastically by he. As grinding is a
displacement controlled process, the force P can be determined by the total penetration
h which is a sum of deflection of the wheel shaft hw, elastic deflection of the grit-binder
52interface hb, elastic
ISSN: deflection
2180-1053 of the grit5 ha,No.
Vol. elastic deflection
2 July workpiece hs and
of the2013
- December
plastic penetration of the workpiece hp. hw and hs are neglected as the values are small
compared to hp and (hb + ha) = (he).
 Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review

Figure 6 shows clearly the contact of one abrasive grain with the
workpiece. Due to the contact force P, the grain in the binder deflects
elastically by he. As grinding is a displacement controlled process, the
force P can be determined by the total penetration h which is a sum
of deflection of the wheel shaft hw, elastic deflection of the grit-binder
interface hb, elastic deflection of the grit ha, elastic deflection of the
workpiece hs and plastic penetration of the workpiece hp. hw and hs
are neglected as the values are small compared to hp and (hb + ha) =
(he).

The roughness factor according to (Qi et al., 1997) was reduced as

the effective roughness of the grinding wheel was reduced because
of grinding swarf getting embedded in the pores between the active
grains. The wheel wear and consequently an increase in grinding
forces were observed for the same test conditions when grinding cast
iron and EN9 steel. According to equation (8), smaller the roughness
factor, lesser the contact length, more rubbing and an enhancement of
temperature due to rubbing is observed.

Greenwood (1982) discussed the effect of load applied on rough

surfaces in contact and stated that at low loads a high proportion of
the contacts lie outside the Hertzian area, while at high loads the Hertz
area enclosed most of the contacts between rough curved surfaces.
This means that high loads diminish the effect of roughness on contact
length. In grinding, wheel wear and wheel loading make the wheel
dull which decreases the value of the roughness factor and increases
the normal force required for removing material. The above discussed
length of chip and number of cutting points and surface roughness
generated will influence the mechanics involved in the generation of
the ground surface.

Surface roughness as shown above is said to be affected by the elastic

deformation of the wheel as it works on the workpiece during grinding,
this in turn leads to the study of forces generated during the process of
grinding.

5.0 FORCE MECHANICS

Hahn (1962)
Hahn (1962) formulated
formulated theand
the work work and
wheel wheel
removal removal
rates as rates as

𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 �𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡0 � (18)

𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡 �𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡0 � (19)

while work removal parameters for workpiece was given by Lindsay (1971) as

𝑣𝑣 0.158 4𝑎𝑎
7.93𝑋𝑋105 𝑋𝑋� 𝑤𝑤�𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 � �1+� 𝑑𝑑�3𝑓𝑓 ��𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑0.58 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡
ISSN: 2180-1053
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 = Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December
0.14 0.47 0.13 1.42 𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚32013
𝑑𝑑
/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (20)53
𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 𝑅𝑅𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Hahn (1962) formulated the work and wheel removal rates as
Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology
𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 �𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡0 � (18)
𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡 = 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑡𝑡 �𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 − 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡0 � (19)
while work removal parameters for workpiece was given by Lindsay
(1971) as
while work removal parameters for workpiece was given by Lindsay (1971) as

𝑣𝑣 0.158 4𝑎𝑎
7.93𝑋𝑋105 𝑋𝑋� 𝑤𝑤�𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 � �1+� 𝑑𝑑�3𝑓𝑓 ��𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑0.58 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑤𝑤 = 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒0.14 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏0.47 𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑
0.13 𝑅𝑅1.42 𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (20)
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

0.0254
𝑑𝑑𝑔𝑔 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑚 (20a)
Vb = 1.33Hn + 2.2Sn - 8 (20b)

where
where
vw is the workpiece surface speed, m/s
vt is the wheel surface speed, m/s
vawd isisthe
thedepth of dress, msurface speed, m/s
workpiece
fd is the feed during dressing, m
vt is the wheel surface speed, m/s
de is the equivalent wheel diameter, m
aRdkcisis the depth ofhardness
the Rockwell dress, number
m of work material
fVdbisis the feed during dressing, m
the percentage volume of bond material in the wheel given by
den is the equivalent wheel diameter, m
S is the wheel structure number
RHn isisthe wheel
the hardnesshardness
Rockwell number number of work material
kc
Vb is the percentage volume of bond material in the wheel given by
There have been a number of significant models developed to analyse the overall
Sgrinding
n
is theforces.
wheelThestructure number
most significant ones are based on the work conducted by (Hahn
Hand is the wheel hardness number
n Lindsay, 1971;1971a; Lindsay, 1975;1986; Hahn, 1966;1986) describe the force
component to be an independent input into the grinding system from which all other
parameters
There have arebeen
determined. The work
a number reveals that models
of significant the forcesdeveloped
generated in to
grinding are
analyse
divided into three components: rubbing, ploughing and cutting.
the overall grinding forces. The most significant ones are based on theThis is in agreement
with other work by (Okumura (1967), p161) and (Busch, 1968). (Hahn and Lindsay,
work
1971) conducted by (Hahn
have experimentally and Lindsay,
determined 1971;1971a;
and plotted the forceLindsay, 1975;1986;
and material removal
Hahn, 1966;1986) describe the force component to be an independent
relationships, linking them to the three force components as a wheel-work characteristic
input
chart as into
shownthe grinding
in Figure 7. system from which all other parameters are
determined. The work reveals that the forces generated in grinding are
divided into three components: rubbing, ploughing and cutting. This is
in agreement with other work by (Okumura (1967), p161) and (Busch,
1968). (Hahn and Lindsay, 1971) have experimentally determined and
plotted the force and material removal relationships, linking them to
the three force components as a wheel-work characteristic chart as
shown in Figure 7.

54 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

 Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review

Z’w and
Z’s Surface Finish
(inch3/m (microinches,
in,inch) AA) and
Horsepower

F’n (lbs/inch)

Figure 7. The Hahn and Lindsay (1971) wheel-work characteristic chart

Figure 7. The Hahn and Lindsay (1971) wheel-work characteristic chart

The
The above graph
above graph shows
shows thedifferent
the three three grinding
different grinding
zones zones of
of the individual forcethe
individual
components. force components.
(Lindsay, 1986) says that(Lindsay,
the threshold1986)
force says thatoccurs
(rubbing) the threshold
where no
material
force is removed
(rubbing) belowwhere
occurs this value.
no The value in
material is ploughing
removedtransition
below zone, both
this value.
rubbing and ploughing will take place, and above this value rubbing, ploughing, and
The value
cutting will in
takeploughing
place. If the transition
threshold forcezone, bothorrubbing
is known, and
the grinding ploughing
operation has
will
cometake
to a place, anda above
steady state, this value
linear relationship rubbing,
exists ploughing,
between the andremoval
force and stock cutting
will
ratetake place.
with the slopeIfbeing
the threshold forceparameter.
the work removal is known, or the grinding operation
has come to a steady state, a linear relationship exists between the
The concept of the work removal parameter to determine the forces has been verified
force and stock
and accepted as anremoval rate with
important grinding the slope
relationship, and being
has beenthe work
used removal
by numerous
parameter.
researchers in the field (Srinivasan, 1986; Gagliardi and Duwell, 1989; Ulrich et al.,
1989; Tichy and DeVries, 1989; Cutchall, 1990).
The concept of the work removal parameter to determine the forces has
Lindsay (1971) offers two grinding force models for the specific normal force, one for
been verified
materials andEasy-To-Grind
that are accepted as(ETG),an important
which are grinding
the common relationship, and
steels used for
has been usedand
manufacturing, byone
numerous researchers
for materials that are morein the field (Srinivasan,
Difficult-To-Grind (DTG) such1986;
as
titanium alloys,
Gagliardi andhigh nickel steels,
Duwell, 1989;M Ulrich
and T categories
et al., of tool steels,
1989; Tichyetc.and
BothDeVries,
models
include the work removal parameter. ETG materials are commonly used for grinding
1989; Cutchall, 1990).
applications. For ETG materials, (Hahn, 1966) has developed the following model to
predict the specific normal forces during grinding
Lindsay (1971) offers two grinding force models for the specific normal
force, one for materials that πare * DwEasy-To-Grind
*vf (ETG), which are the
Fn = + Fno (21)
common steels used for manufacturing, WRP and one for materials that are
more
where Difficult-To-Grind (DTG) such as titanium alloys, high nickel
steels,
Fn is theMnormal
and force
T categories
per unit widthof
(N)tool steels, etc. Both models include
the
Dw work removal
is the workpiece parameter.
diameter (mm) ETG materials are commonly used for
grinding
v f is the applications. For ETG materials, (Hahn, 1966) has developed
in feed of wheel head (mm/sec)
the following model to predict the specific normal forces during
grinding

ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 55

 manufacturing, and one for materials that are more Difficult-To-Grind (DTG) such as
titanium alloys, high nickel steels, M and T categories of tool steels, etc. Both models
includeofthe
Journal work removal
Mechanical parameter.
Engineering ETG materials are commonly used for grinding
and Technology
applications. For ETG materials, (Hahn, 1966) has developed the following model to
predict the specific normal forces during grinding

π * Dw * v f
Fn = + Fno (21)
WRP
where
where
Fn is the normal force per unit width (N)
Dw is the workpiece diameter (mm)
Fn
v f isisthe
the
in normal force
feed of wheel per(mm/sec)
head unit width (N)
Dw is the workpiece diameter (mm)
vf is the in feed of wheel head (mm/sec)
WRP is the work removal parameter (mm3/s.N)
Fno is the threshold force (N)

As can be seen from the equation of (Hahn, 1966) normal force is

made up of two components. The first is the threshold force where
rubbing only occurs, and the second is for the forces developed by the
material
WRP is the removal
work removal action of the
parameter (mmgrinding
3
/s.N) wheel. (Hahn, 1966) makes
two
Fno isassumptions in the
the threshold force (N) equation, the wheel wear rate is negligible and
grinding is done in a steady state condition, designating the workpiece
As can be seen
deflection from the
velocity equation
as zero, of (Hahn,
when being1966) normal
ground byforce is made upwheel.
the grinding of two
components. The first is the threshold force where rubbing only occurs, and the second
From experimental results the model was shown to be quite accurate
is for the forces developed by the material removal action of the grinding wheel. (Hahn,
to predict
1966) makes forces at a point
two assumptions of equation,
in the time. However,
the wheel the
wearmodel is not time
rate is negligible and
dependent as a inseries
grinding is done of calculations
a steady state condition,aredesignating
necessarythe to workpiece
predict the forces
deflection
over a length
velocity as zero, of
whentime, due
being to the
ground by changing
the grindingdiameter of experimental
wheel. From the workpiece.results
the model was shown to be quite accurate to predict forces at a point of time. However,
the model is not time dependent as a series of calculations are necessary to predict the
Peters et al. (1974;1980) chip thickness model has also shown potential
forces over a length of time, due to the changing diameter of the workpiece.
for a practical model to predict grinding forces. The equivalent chip
force
Peters model is based chip
et al. (1974;1980) on the thickness
thickness model of
hasa also
continuous layerfor
shown potential of amaterial
practical
being removed
model to in the form
predict grinding forces.ofThe
a chip at a volumetric
equivalent rate per
chip force model unit width
is based on the
thickness of a continuous layer of material being removed in
by the grinding wheel. It has been shown that the chip thickness has the form of a chip at a
a
volumetric rate per unit width by the grinding wheel. It has been shown that the chip
controlling influence on the forces produced in grinding (Backer et al.,
thickness has a controlling influence on the forces produced in grinding (Backer et al.,
1952; Reichenback
1952; Reichenback et 1956;
et al., al., 1956;
Snoeys Snoeys and Decneut,
and Decneut, 1971).
1971). Peters Peters
uses this uses
parameter
this parameter
to develop to develop
a force grinding modela as
force grinding model as follows
follows

f f
v a  Q' 
Fn' = F2  w  = F2  w  (22)
 vs   vs 

where
where
F’n is the specific normal force (N/mm)
F2 is the constant (N/mm2)
F’
vwnisisthethe specificspeed
workpiece normal force
velocity (N/mm)
(mm/sec)
Fa 2isisthe depth
the of cut (mm)
constant (N/mm2)
vf wis is
the constant
the workpiece speed velocity (mm/sec)
vs is the grinding wheel speed velocity (mm/sec)
aQ’is the depth of cut (mm) 3
w is the volumetric removal rate per unit width (mm /sec.mm)
f is the constant
The quantity within the parentheses in the above equation is the equivalent chip
thickness expressed as
56 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013
vw a Q'
heq = = (23)
 where
F’n is the specific normal force (N/mm)
F2 is the constant (N/mm2) Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review
vw is the workpiece speed velocity (mm/sec)
a is the depth of cut (mm)
vf sisisthethe grinding wheel speed velocity (mm/sec)
constant
vs is the
Q’ is grinding
the wheel speed
volumetric velocityrate
removal (mm/sec)
per unit width (mm3/sec.mm)
w
Q’w is the volumetric removal rate per unit width (mm3/sec.mm)
The quantity
The quantity within
within the parentheses
the parentheses in the
in the above above
equation equation
is the is chip
equivalent the
equivalent chip thickness
thickness expressed as expressed as

vw a Q '
heq = = (23)
vs vs

This theory relates well with the grinding forces and energy. It also associates with the
This theory relates
other performance well with
characteristics like the grinding
surface roughnessforces andwear.
and wheel energy. It also
However, this
associates withpractical
model has limited the other
use forperformance
predicting grindingcharacteristics likeconstants
forces because the surface ƒ
and F2 are toand
roughness be determined
wheel wear. for every particularthis
However, wheel, workpiece,
model grindingpractical
has limited fluid and
dressing
use for conditions,
predicting as grinding
well as on the gathered
forces stock removal.
because The chipƒthickness
the constants and F2 aremodel
to
also refers to pre experimental grinding charts for characteristics of the grinding
be determined
process, as shown infor every
Figure particular
8. These relate thewheel,
obtainedworkpiece,
equivalent chipgrinding fluid
thickness on the
and dressing conditions, as well as on the gathered stock removal.
bottom of the chart to the predicted force or surface finish value on the left hand side Theof
chip thickness
the chart model
or the G ratio of thealso refers
grinding to on
wheel pre
theexperimental
right hand side ofgrinding
the chart. charts
for characteristics of the grinding process, as shown in Figure 8. These
relate the obtained equivalent chip thickness on the bottom of the chart
to the predicted force or surface finish value on the left hand side of the
chart or the G ratio of the grinding wheel on the right hand side of the
chart.

The results from this approach are specific to a fairly narrow range of
conditions. Changes in wheel size or type, coolant, workpiece geometry
or hardness will mean that a new grinding chart is required. Since it
is rather time consuming and expensive to do all the tests needed to
establish a grinding chart, it is feasible to prepare them only for jobs
where large numbers of similar workpieces are to be ground; even
then, one grinding chart will not cover all the possible variations of the
process. Both (Lindsay, 1971) and (Peters et al., 1974) models present
two unique methods in predicting the forces developed by production
level grinding.

Rubenstien (1972) segregated the force in grinding as chip formation

force, the force component arising from the finite radius of curvature of
the cutting edge, the friction force between the flank wear land and the
workpiece, force for the grains to cut the workpiece, force for the grains
to plough the workpiece and the friction force between the wheel bond
and the workpiece material. The cutting force in grinding can simply be
represented by the friction force and chip formation force by (Hahn and
Lindsay, 1971). When there is no chip formation the grinding process
becomes a pure friction process owing to the small normal force, the
grinding process becomes a pure chip formation process at which point

ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 57

 component arising from the finite radius of curvature of the cutting edge, the friction
force between the flank wear land and the workpiece, force for the grains to cut the
workpiece,
Journal force forEngineering
of Mechanical the grains to
andplough the workpiece and the friction force between
Technology
the wheel bond and the workpiece material. The cutting force in grinding can simply be
represented by the friction force and chip formation force by (Hahn and Lindsay, 1971).
When there is no chip formation the grinding process becomes a pure friction process
there is either no friction force or the friction force is much smaller than
owing to the small normal force, the grinding process becomes a pure chip formation
the chip
process formation
at which forceis which
point there either noisfriction
proven byorexperimentation
force the friction force iswhen
much
the depth
smaller than ofthecut
chipisformation
not more than
force 1.5 ismm
which andbyequivalent
proven diameter
experimentation of
when the
grinding
depth of cutwheel is about
is not more 20mm
than 1.5 mm. and equivalent diameter of grinding wheel is about
20 mm.
The normal and tangential forces for grinding in deburring process as
The normal and tangential forces for grinding in deburring process as given by (Lee et
given
al., byare
1993) (Lee et al., 1993) are

2𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = � � 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 + 2𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝐿𝐿 (24)
𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
2𝜑𝜑𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = � 𝑉𝑉 � 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 + 2𝜇𝜇𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝐿𝐿 (25)
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠

where
awhere
r is the depth of cut (mm)* burr root width (mm)
L is the width of contact between the wheel and workpiece in mm
Aarwisis the
the cross
depthsectional
of cutarea of theburr
(mm)* contact in mm2(mm)
zonewidth
root
D is equivalent wheel diameter
L is the width of contact between the wheel and workpiece in mm
Vs is wheel speed in mm/sec
VAwwisisworkpiece
the cross sectional
speed in mm/secarea of the contact zone in mm2
KDc is equivalent
is specific wheel diameter
chip formation force per area
KVfs isisspecific
wheelfriction
speedforce
in mm/sec
per area
μVis is theworkpiece
coefficient ofspeed
sliding in
friction
mm/sec
φ wis the ratio of tangential chip formation force to normal chip formation force
Kc is specific chip formation force per area
(Usuihideji, 1971) gave φ=π/(4tanθt) and θt is the half of the tip angle of the grains.
Kf is specific friction force per area
μ is the(1989)
Malkin coefficient
proposedofthat
sliding friction
grinding forces can be subdivided into cutting force and
φ is theforce,
sliding ratioand
of tangential chipcan
the cutting force formation
further beforce to normal
subdivided chip
into two formation
more forces as
chip
forceformation force and
(Usuihideji, ploughing
1971) force and as the
gave φ=π/(4tanθ ) ploughing
and θt is force
the whenofcompared
half the tip
t
with chip formation force is considerably less can be ignored. The forces are then
angle of the grains.
composed of chip formation force and sliding force.

Malkin (1989) proposed that grinding forces can be subdivided into

cutting force and sliding force, and the cutting force can further be
subdivided into two more forces as chip formation force and ploughing
force and as the ploughing force when compared with chip formation
force is considerably less can be ignored. The forces are then composed
of chip formation force and sliding force.

𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (26)

𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (27)

where
where
Ft is the tangential grinding force
Fn is the normal grinding force
FFtt,ch
is isthe
thetangential
tangential chip formationforce
grinding force
Fn,ch is the normal chip formation force
Fn is the normal grinding force
Ft,sl is the tangential sliding force
FFt,ch is the tangential chip formation force
n,sl is the normal sliding force
Fn,ch is the normal chip formation force
Specific grinding energy is subdivided into specific chip formation energy and specific
sliding energy, (Malkin and Cook, 1971) aggregated specific chip formation energy as
58 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐ℎ = (28)
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏
 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (26)
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (27)
Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review
where 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (26)
Ft is the tangential grinding force 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (27)
FFt,sl
n isisthethenormal grindingsliding
tangential force force
Ft,ch is the tangential chip formation force
Fwhere is the normal sliding force
Fn,sl is the
is the
tn,ch normal chip
tangential formation
grinding force force
Fnt,slisisthe
thenormal
tangential sliding
grinding force
force
Specific
Ft,ch grinding
n,sl is the tangential energy
normal sliding
chip force is subdivided
formation force into specific chip formation
energy
Fn,ch is the and specific
normal sliding energy,
chip formation force (Malkin and Cook, 1971) aggregated
Specific 𝐹𝐹into
𝑡𝑡 = specific
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ + 𝐹𝐹chip (26)
t,sl is thegrinding energy is force
subdivided
F tangential sliding 𝑡𝑡,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 formation energy and specific
specific chip formation energy as 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝐹 (27)
sliding
F n,sl is theenergy, (Malkin
normal slidingand Cook, 1971) aggregated specific chip formation energy as
force 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛,𝑐𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑛,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

where grinding energy is subdivided𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ

Specific 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠
𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐ℎ = 𝑉𝑉into specific chip formation energy and specific (28)
F is
sliding
t the tangential grinding force
energy, (Malkin and Cook, 1971) aggregated 𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏
specific chip formation energy as
Fn is the normal grinding force
F t,ch is V
where thes is the grinding
tangential chipwheel
formation velocity, 𝐹𝐹 V𝑉𝑉w𝑠𝑠 is the feed velocity of the work piece, ap is
force
where Vsnormal
isdepth
thechipgrinding
b is thewheel = 𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ Vw isthethe of (28)
force𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤velocity, feed velocity the
the 𝑢𝑢grinding
F n,chgrinding
is the and formation width. Taking undeformed chip thickness
𝑐𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏
work
and
F t,sl is piece,
substituting
the a
tangential
p
is
in the
the grinding
strain
sliding rate
force of depth
grinding and b
processis the
and grinding
further adding width.
up withTaking
sliding
force
the
F
where
n,sl istoV sfind
undeformed
the forces
isnormal
the inchip
grindingsurface
sliding wheel
force grinding
thicknessvelocity, asand
Vgiven by feed
the (Tang
w is substituting et al.,in
velocity 2009)
ofthe theare
strain
work rateapof
piece, is
the grinding depth
grinding process and further and b is the grinding width. Taking
adding up with sliding force the undeformed chip thickness
to find forces
1.5
and substituting
Specific �𝐾𝐾1in+energy
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡grinding the strain rate�of
is𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠subdivided grinding
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 into specificprocess and
chip
4𝛽𝛽𝑝𝑝 further
formation
0 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 adding up and
energy
1/2 withspecific
sliding
in surface
force
slidingtoenergy,
= grinding
find forces
as
𝐾𝐾2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
in surface
(Malkin and
given
0.25
𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 Cook, 0.5
𝑉𝑉grinding
𝑤𝑤
by (Tang
𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 as aggregated
1971)
et
�𝛼𝛼 al.,
+
given by (Tang
2009) � are
�𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠et al.,
specific
𝑒𝑒
chip
𝑎𝑎
2009)
𝑝𝑝 �
are energy as
formation
(29)
1/2
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠1.5
4𝛽𝛽𝑝𝑝0 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = �𝐾𝐾3 + 𝐾𝐾 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑢 =� 𝑏𝑏 + � 4𝛽𝛽𝑝𝑝 �𝑉𝑉� � � 1/2
1.5
4𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎0.25 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡,𝑐𝑐ℎ 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 (30)
(28)
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = �𝐾𝐾 1 + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 �𝛼𝛼 +𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑑 0𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤 � �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 �
𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐ℎ
0.5
𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 (29)
0.25 𝑉𝑉 0.5
𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑏𝑏
𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑘(𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶) 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒0.25
0.5 1/2
𝐾𝐾1 = (𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠 ) + 𝐾𝐾 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � 4𝛽𝛽𝑝𝑝0 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝
2 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠1.5 (31)
where Vs is 𝐹𝐹the=grinding
�𝐾𝐾 + wheel
𝐾𝐾 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 velocity,
� V 𝑏𝑏is+the
� feed �velocity
𝑉𝑉𝛾𝛾𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝
�0 w � of
� the work piece, a(30)
p is
𝑛𝑛 3 4
the grinding depth and b is the grinding width. Taking
0.25 𝑉𝑉 0.5
𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉
𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑤 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑
the undeformed
𝑒𝑒 chip thickness
where
and substituting in the strain rate of𝑘𝑘(𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶) grinding
0.5 𝑑𝑑0.25process and further adding up with sliding
us is specific
force 𝐾𝐾1 =in(𝑢𝑢surface
grinding
to find forces 𝑠𝑠 ) + 𝐾𝐾2grinding
energy 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � as
𝑒𝑒
� (31)
𝛾𝛾0 given by (Tang et al., 2009) are
K2 is a constant to be determined by experiment, K3=φ1K1, K4=φ2K2
φ1 is static normal chip formation
where 𝑉𝑉 1.5 force/static
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 tangential 4𝛽𝛽𝑝𝑝 chip
𝑉𝑉 formation 1/2 force
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = �𝐾𝐾1 + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎0.25𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉 0.5 � 𝑉𝑉 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 �𝛼𝛼 + 𝑑𝑑 0𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤 � �𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 � (29)
where
uφs2 is specific
dynamicgrinding
normal chipenergy 𝑝𝑝formation
𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 force/dynamic tangential 𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 chip formation force
K C2isisthe number to
a constant ofbeactive grits per1.5
determined by unit area
experiment, K3=φ1K1, K4=φ2K1/2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝 4𝛽𝛽𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉 𝑎𝑎𝑝𝑝
φ r 1isischip
staticwidth/chip
normal
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = thickness,
chip formation
�𝐾𝐾3 + 𝐾𝐾4energy d is equivalent
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎0.25 𝑉𝑉 0.5 � 𝑉𝑉 𝑏𝑏 + � 𝑑𝑑 0𝑉𝑉 𝑤𝑤 �chip
force/static diameter
tangential of �𝑑𝑑 � Vs isforce
� wheel,
formation wheel velocity,
(30)
us is specific grinding e
𝑒𝑒
φ ac2 is dynamic
cutting depth,
normal Vwchip
is work formation piece
𝑝𝑝 𝑤𝑤
velocity 𝑠𝑠
force/dynamic 𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
tangential chip formation force
K is a constant to be grits
C2is the number𝐾𝐾of=active
determined per unit 0.5by
𝑘𝑘(𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶)area 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒0.25
experiment, K3=φ1K1, K4=φ2K2
φ is static normal1 (𝑢𝑢chip
𝑠𝑠 ) + 𝐾𝐾 2 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 �
formation �
force/static tangential chip formation (31)
The forces in surface grinding
r 1is chip width/chip thickness, de is equivalent per unit width
𝛾𝛾0 have diameter been proposedof wheel,by Vs(Yang et
is wheel al., 2011)
velocity,
force
ac is cutting depth, Vw is work piece velocity
φwhere is dynamic normal chip formation𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘1 + 2force/dynamic tangential chip
𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤
′ 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎 1/2 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
�
u
The
2 is specific grinding energy
s forces in surface 𝐹𝐹
grinding= �
per �
unit �
width have 𝑤𝑤 +proposed
𝑣𝑣been 𝑘𝑘4 � (32)
by (Yang et al., 2011)
formation force 𝑛𝑛 𝑣𝑣
K2 is a constant to be determined by experiment,
𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 ) 1/2 −𝑘𝑘
K
3 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠=φ K , K =φ K
3 1 1 4 2 2
Cφ1isis thestaticnumber
normal chip of active
formation grits per
′ force/static
�𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘unit 𝑘𝑘 area
𝑘𝑘2 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤
1 + tangential �
𝑣𝑣 chip formation force
𝐹𝐹 = 1/2 𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣1𝑑𝑑+𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠2 𝑤𝑤 � (33)
rφ2isischip width/chip
dynamic normal chip ′ thickness,
𝑣𝑣
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 =formation
𝑤𝑤
�
𝑎𝑎
𝑡𝑡
� d�
�𝑑𝑑
e
𝑒𝑒 is
force/dynamic
−𝑘𝑘 equivalent
3 𝑣𝑣
1/2
𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠
√𝑎𝑎 + 𝑘𝑘4diameter
𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 tangential � chip formationof wheel, V(32)
force s
is
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 ) −𝑘𝑘3 𝑎𝑎
C is the number of active grits
wheel velocity, ac is cutting depth, V𝑘𝑘w2𝑣𝑣is per unit area work piece velocity
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑤𝑤
rwhere
is chip width/chip thickness, de′ is equivalent �𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑑𝑑 diameter
𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
� of wheel, Vs is wheel velocity,
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 =
𝜑𝜑piece (33)
a𝑘𝑘c is 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴,
cutting depth,
𝑘𝑘2 =in4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 V is work velocity
�𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣
−𝑘𝑘3 𝑤𝑤 √𝑎𝑎
0 , 𝑘𝑘3 = �𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁 , per 𝑘𝑘4 =unit 𝑣𝑣4𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝
w
The 1= forces surface grinding 𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒
𝑠𝑠 0width have been proposed by

(Yang et al.,
The forces
where
2011)grinding per unit width have been proposed by (Yang et al., 2011)
in surface
𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘1= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝑘𝑘2 = 4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝0 , 𝑘𝑘3 = �𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁 , 𝑘𝑘4 = 4𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝 𝑘𝑘20
𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤
𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎 1/2 𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘1 + �
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑤𝑤 �𝑑𝑑 � �(𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 )1/2 𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑤 + 𝑘𝑘4 � (32)
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘3 𝑎𝑎
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣
�𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑑𝑑2 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 �
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡′ = 𝑣𝑣
𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
(33)
�𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘3 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 √𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠

where
𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘1= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝑘𝑘2 = 4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝0 , 𝑘𝑘3 = �𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁 , 𝑘𝑘4 = 4𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝0
𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡
ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 59
 𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 𝑎𝑎 1/2 𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘1 + 2 𝑤𝑤 �
𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′ = �𝑑𝑑 �1/2 −𝑘𝑘
�(𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 + 𝑘𝑘4 � (32)
Journal of Mechanical Engineering
𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 and
𝑒𝑒 Technology
𝑒𝑒 ) 3 𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣
�𝑎𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 �𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑑𝑑2 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 �
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡′ = 𝑣𝑣
𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
(33)
�𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘3 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 √𝑎𝑎
where 𝑠𝑠

where
𝜑𝜑
𝑘𝑘1= 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝑘𝑘2 = 4𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝0 , 𝑘𝑘3 = �𝑆𝑆 𝑁𝑁 , 𝑘𝑘4 = 4𝐴𝐴𝑝𝑝0
𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡

Fn’=Fnls and Ft’=Ftls

η,ε are coefficients determined by physical and mechanical properties
of contact surface
p0 is a constant to be determined by experiment
a is the depth of cut, b is the width of grinding wheel
ϕ is the ratio of tangential force component to normal force component
of the chip formation force

The role played by force mechanics on the quality of ground surface

can be understood by contemplating how abrasion of the workpiece
takes place.

6.0 ABRASION MECHANICS

The ground surface and grinding forces are affected by the surface
of the wheel. The wheel should be dressed before the machined
surface deteriorates beyond a quality limit of surface integrity as the
deteriorated wheel will increase friction which in turn will increase
the temperature at the wheel-workpiece zone. In order to achieve the
best wheel surface, dressing parameters must be set. There have been
a number of attempts to develop and apply mathematical models of
material removal in grinding. These models use a simple energy method
(Torrance, 1990; Brenner and Torrance, 1993) or slip-line field method
(Black et al., 1993; Badger and Torrance, 1998) to predict cutting forces.
Both can predict grinding forces approximately within 20% from wheel
topography and workpiece properties. These models indicate two key
parameters to be measured on the wheel: (i) the number of active grits
per unit area and (ii) their attack angle as a function of depth of cut.

60 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

 topography and workpiece properties. These models indicate two key parameters to be
measured on the wheel: (i) the number of active grits per unit area and (ii) their attack
Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review
angle as a function of depth of cut.

Abrasive
Slip-Line
Abrasive

Soft Metal

Soft
Hodograp Abrasive

Soft Metal
Figure 8a. Slip-line field and hodograph for rigid- Figure 8b. Slip-line fields for (a) wedge formation
plastic wave formation for mild wear (Black et al., and (b) cutting for severe wear (Black et al., 1993)
1993)

When the attack angle α of the abrasive is low, it will push a plastic wave ahead of it as
When thethe
it traverses attack
surfaceangle α of as
of a metal theshown
abrasive is low,
in Figure it will
8a. (Black push
et al., a plastic
1993) showed
that a gentle
wave aheadformof itofaswear can then take
it traverses the place by low-cycle
surface of a metal fatigue. Each asperity,
as shown or
in Figure
abrasive,
8a. (Blackon et
theal.,
hard surface
1993) would induce
showed that aagentle formγ of
shear strain in awear
layer can
of depth
thenhtake
as it
passed over the soft surface. The value of γ depends on the attack angle, or slope, of the
place by low-cycle fatigue. Each asperity, or abrasive, on the hard
surface would induce a shear strain γ in a layer of depth h as it passed
over the soft surface. The value of γ depends on the attack angle, or
slope, of the asperity α and the friction factor at the sliding interface
(f); it can be calculated from the hodograph. The wear coefficient is
asperity α and as
formulated the friction factor at the sliding interface (f); it can be calculated from the
nterface (f); it can behodograph.
calculatedThe fromwearthe coefficient is formulated as
asperity α and the friction factor at the sliding interface (f); it can be calculated from the
s
asperity α andhodograph.
the frictionThe wear
factor coefficient
at the is formulated
sliding𝑛𝑛 interface (f); itascan be calculated from the
𝐾𝐾 = �𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 � ℎ (34)
hodograph. The wear coefficient is formulated𝑓𝑓as
�ℎ (34) 𝑛𝑛
𝐾𝐾 = �𝑁𝑁𝑎𝑎 � ℎ (34)
where 𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑎 𝑓𝑓
𝐾𝐾 = � � ℎ (34)
N is the number
Nff is the number
of strain cycles to𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓causeofthe
of strain cycles to cause the fracture
fracture
the layer =� 𝛾𝛾 �
2𝐶𝐶 of2
the layer =
where
2𝐶𝐶 2
cture of the layer =�γwhere is�shear strain, 2𝐶𝐶 2
𝛾𝛾 Nf Cis is
thethe
number strainhcycles
criticalofstrain, is the to depthcause = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
the fracture − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠),
of the layer =� 𝛾𝛾 �
na is the asperities per unit length
epth = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠), 2𝐶𝐶 2
γNfisis shear
the number γ isof
strain, C is
strain
shear cycles
strain, to the
the Ccritical
is cause the fracture
strain,
critical h ishof
strain, isthe
the the layer
depth depth=� == 𝛾𝛾𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
� − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠),,
n(Kapoor,
γ aisisshear
the strain,
1994) na is
asperities
C the asperities
is the
suggestedpercritical
that per
unitstrain,
there unit
length h length
will is the
be adepth = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
reversing of strain and this increment
− 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠),
naand
reversing of strainwould is the asperities
produce
this per unit failure
ratchetting
increment length according to
(Kapoor, 1994) suggested that there will be a reversing of strain and this increment
(Kapoor, 1994) would suggested
producethat that there
ratchetting failure will be a toreversing of strain and
(Kapoor, 1994) suggested there will𝑁𝑁 be𝐶𝐶aaccording
𝑓𝑓 = ∆𝜖𝜖
reversing of strain and this increment (35)
this increment would produce
would produce ratchetting failure according to 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ratchetting failure according to
(35) 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 = ∆𝜖𝜖 (35)
where 𝐶𝐶 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 = ∆𝜖𝜖 (35)
Δεxy is the shear strain increment which does not 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 reverse.
where
reverse.
where and Torrance
Yanyi Δεxy is the (1997)
shear strainhaveincrement
proved which that does not reverse. materials where
for nonferrous
where
Δε is the
unidirectional
that for nonferrous xymaterials where shear strain
sliding increment
is realistic which
the model does of not reverse.
(Kapoor, 1994) proved to be good.
Yanyi and Torrance (1997) have proved that for nonferrous materials where
Kapoor, 1994) proved to be good.
Yanyi
For severeandwear unidirectional
Torrance
when (1997)
cutting sliding isplace
have
takes realistic
provedaccordingthethatmodel ofnonferrous
toforFigure(Kapoor,8a the 1994) provedwhere
materials
wear coefficient to be
is good.
Δ εxy
is the shear strain increment which does not reverse.
ding to Figure 8a the unidirectional
given sliding
wearascoefficient is is realistic the model of (Kapoor, 1994) proved to be good.
For severe wear when cutting takes place according to Figure 8a the wear coefficient is
Yanyi and
For severe wear Torrance
givenwhen (1997)
as cutting takes have
place
�𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
proved
2 𝛼𝛼+according
1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼�
that for nonferrous
to Figure materials
8a the wear coefficient is
given as 𝐾𝐾 = 2
(36)
𝛼𝛼� 2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼) 1
(36) �𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝛼𝛼+ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼�
) ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 52 1No. 𝐾𝐾 = 2
2 2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼)
July - December 2013 61 (36)
The force calculations according to the �𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠hodograph
𝛼𝛼+ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼� in Figure 8b are given as
𝐾𝐾 = 2
(36)
ph in Figure 8b are given as 2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼)
 (Kapoor, 1994) suggested that there will be a reversing of strain and this increment
γ is shear strain, C is the critical strain,𝑁𝑁h is=the𝐶𝐶 depth = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠), (35)
would produce ratchetting failure according 𝑓𝑓 to𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
n(Kapoor,
a is the asperities per unit length
1994) suggested that there will be ∆𝜖𝜖 a reversing of strain and this increment
Journal of Mechanical Engineering
would produce ratchetting failure according to𝐶𝐶 and Technology
where
(Kapoor, 1994) suggested that there will 𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 =be∆𝜖𝜖 a reversing of strain and this increment (35)
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Δε
would is the shear strain increment which
produce ratchetting failure according does not reverse.
𝑁𝑁𝑓𝑓 = to
xy 𝐶𝐶
(35)
where
where unidirectional sliding is realistic
∆𝜖𝜖𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 the model of (Kapoor, 1994)
Yanyi
proved
Δεxy is the and
to Torrance
be
shear good. (1997) have
strain increment which𝑁𝑁 proved
does notthat
𝐶𝐶 for nonferrous materials where
reverse. (35)
𝑓𝑓 = ∆𝜖𝜖
where
unidirectional sliding is realistic the model of (Kapoor,
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 1994) proved to be good.
Δεxy is the
Yanyi andshear strain increment
Torrance (1997) which proved
have does notthat reverse. nonferrous materials where
For
where
For severe wear when cutting takes placetofor according 8a thetowear
Figure 8a the
unidirectional sliding is realistic the model of (Kapoor, Figure
severe wear when cutting takes place according 1994) proved to be coefficient
good. is
wear
Δε
Yanyi
given is coefficient
the shear is
strain given
increment as which does not
xy as and Torrance (1997) have proved that for nonferrous materials where reverse.
unidirectional
For severe wear sliding
wheniscutting
realistic the model
takes place accordingof (Kapoor, to 1994)
Figureproved
8a the to be good.
wear coefficient is
Yanyi and Torrance (1997) have �𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2proved
1
𝛼𝛼+ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼� that for nonferrous materials where
given as 𝐾𝐾 = 2
(36)is
unidirectional
For severe wear sliding
wheniscutting
realistic the model
takes place of (Kapoor,
according
2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼) to 1994)
Figureproved8a the to be good.
wear coefficient
given as 1
�𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝛼𝛼+ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼�
For force
The severecalculations
wear whenaccording
cutting takes
𝐾𝐾to=the place according
hodograph2 to Figure
in Figure 8b 8a arethe wear
given as coefficient is
(36)
The
given force as calculations according �𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝛼𝛼+to
2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼)
1
the
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼� hodograph in Figure 8b are
𝐾𝐾 = 2
(36)
given
The force as calculations𝐹𝐹according
𝑡𝑡 = �𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼)
to the 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝜀𝜀
hodograph
1
− 𝛼𝛼)� in ∙Figure
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝑘𝑘8b
𝑠𝑠 are given as (37)
2
�𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼+ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼�
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = �𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾 to
= the+ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜀𝜀 2 − 𝛼𝛼)� ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (38)
(36)
The force calculations according hodograph
2√3(1+𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝛼𝛼)
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 in Figure 8b are given as
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = �𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝜀𝜀 − 𝛼𝛼)� ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (37)
(39)
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛
The force calculations 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 =
according�𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
to the
𝑛𝑛 = �𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜀𝜀
hodograph
+ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝜀𝜀 − 𝛼𝛼)�
− 𝛼𝛼)� ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
in Figure ∙ 𝑘𝑘
∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝑘𝑘8b𝑠𝑠 are given as (38)
(37)
𝑡𝑡 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠
where 𝜇𝜇 =
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = �𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜀𝜀 − 𝛼𝛼)� ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (39)
(38)
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 = �𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝜀𝜀 𝐹𝐹 − 𝛼𝛼)� ∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 ∙ 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (37)
𝜇𝜇 𝜋𝜋= 𝑡𝑡 (39)
where 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = �𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
= 1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜀𝜀 �2𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛+ 2𝜀𝜀 −− 2𝜂𝜂∙ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝛼𝛼)� − 2𝛼𝛼∙ 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 (40)
(38)
where 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑡𝑡
𝐹𝐹
(39)
kwhere
s is the shear yield strength of the soft 𝜋𝜋
material
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛
𝐴𝐴 = 1 + �2 + 2𝜀𝜀 − 2𝜂𝜂 − 2𝛼𝛼 (40)
where 𝐴𝐴 = + 𝜋𝜋�2 + 2𝜀𝜀 − 2𝜂𝜂 − 2𝛼𝛼
1arccos(f) (40)
ks is the shear yield strength of 2ε the=soft material (41)
𝜋𝜋� + 2𝜀𝜀 − 2𝜂𝜂 − 2𝛼𝛼 (40)
ks is the shear yield strength of𝐴𝐴the
where = 1 +material
2ε =soft arccos(f) 2 (41)
fkiss
is the
friction shear
factor yield
which strength
is shear of
strength the of soft material
interface/shear strength of metal
ks is the shear yield strength of the 2ε =soft material
arccos(f) (41)
where
f is friction factor which is shear strength of interface/shear strength of metal
where 2ε = arccos(f) (41)
f is friction factor which is shear strength of interface/shear strength of metal
where
f is friction factor which is shear strength of interface/shear strength of metal
where

f is friction factor which is shear strength of interface/shear strength of

metal

The force relationships and equivalent chip thickness according to

(Torrance, Buckley,and
The force relationships 1996) with lachip
equivalent as the length
thickness of the arc
according of cut and
to (Torrance, σy as
Buckley,
1996) with l as the length of the arc of
the yield strength of the work piece are
a cut and σy as the yield strength of the work piece
are

𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 . 𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 . 𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 (42)

𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡′ = 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 . 𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 . 𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 (43)
𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
(44)

where
where
ba is the fraction of the wheel surface in contact with the work piece
p is the average contact pressure over the arc of cut as Pn*ba
μ is the summation of the slope of friction
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡
α as = = ∑ 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (44a)
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛
62 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013
K is the overall wear coefficient = ∑ 𝐾𝐾𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (44b)
 1996) with la as the length of the arc 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′of=cut 𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 . 𝑙𝑙σ𝑎𝑎y as the yield strength of the work(42)
𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 .and piece
Theareforce relationships and equivalent 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡′chip
= 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡thickness
. 𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 . 𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 according to (Torrance, Buckley, (43)
1996) with la as the length of the arc of cut and 𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹′ σGrinding Mechanics
as the yield and Advances
strength - A piece
of the work Review
ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ′= 𝑛𝑛 y (44)
are 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 = 𝑃𝑃𝜎𝜎 𝑦𝑦 . 𝑏𝑏 . 𝑙𝑙
𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 (42)
𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡′ = 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 . 𝑏𝑏𝑎𝑎 . 𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 (43)
bwhere
is the fraction of the wheel surface 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 . 𝑏𝑏in 𝑎𝑎 .𝑛𝑛contact
𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹 ′
𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 with the work piece(42)
a ℎ = (44)
pbaisis the
the fraction
average of the wheel pressure
contact surface 𝐹𝐹in𝑡𝑡′ contact
𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
=over with
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 . 𝑏𝑏𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎the the of
𝑦𝑦. 𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑎 arc work
cutpiece
as Pn*ba (43)
p is the average contact pressure over the arc𝐾𝐾𝐹𝐹 of𝑛𝑛′ cut as Pn*ba
μ is the summation of the slope ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒of=friction (44)
μ iswhere
the summation of the slope of friction 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
ba is the fraction of the wheel surface in contact with the work piece
where
p is the 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡
average
α as
𝑃𝑃
= 𝑡𝑡contact ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿over the arc of cut as Pn*ba
= ∑ 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼pressure (44a)
ba μisisthe 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛
fraction 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛 the wheel
of
the summation of the slope surface in contact with the work piece
of friction
p is the average contact pressure over the arc of cut as Pn*ba
μ is the K is the𝐹𝐹overall
summation 𝑃𝑃 wear
α as 𝑡𝑡 = of𝑡𝑡 the= ∑slope
coefficient
𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ∙ of
𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 friction
∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
= ∑ 𝐾𝐾𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (44b)
(44a)
𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛
A two-body𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡abrasive 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 wear model was presented by (Zum Gahr, 1988) of abrasive
α harder
as 𝐹𝐹 =than ∑ 𝜇𝜇𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
=the (44a)
A two-body
particles abrasive
K is𝑛𝑛 the𝑃𝑃overall
𝑛𝑛 wear
wearing
wear model
material.=was
coefficient He 𝛼𝛼presented
∙ 𝑃𝑃𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿the by
∑ 𝐾𝐾proposed (Zum Gahr,
mechanisms 1988)
in which the
(44b)
abrasive particles will interact with the workpiece
of abrasive particles harder than the wearing material. He proposed as shown in Figure 9(a).
K is the overall
theA mechanisms
two-body abrasiveinwear
wear
which coefficient
model = ∑ 𝐾𝐾
was
the abrasive 𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝑃𝑃particles
𝛼𝛼 ∙ 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿by (Zum
presented willGahr, 1988)with
interact (44b)
of abrasive
the
particles harder than the wearing material. He proposed the mechanisms in which the
workpiece
A abrasive as
two-bodyparticles shown
abrasive in
willwear Figure
model
interact withwas9(a).
the presented
workpiece by (Zum in
as shown Gahr, 1988)
Figure 9(a).of abrasive
particles harder than the wearing material. He proposed the mechanisms in which the
abrasive particles will interact with the workpiece as shown in Figure 9(a).
Micro-ploughing Micro-cutting

Micro-ploughing Micro-cutting

Micro-ploughing Micro-cutting
Micro-fatigue Micro-cracking
(b)
(a)

Figure 9.Micro-fatigue
(a) Interaction between abrasive particles and the wearing surface (Zum Gahr, 1988) and (b)
Micro-cracking
Cross-section through a wear (b)
(a) groove produced by a sliding abrasive particle, defining the areas used for
calculating f (Zum
Micro-fatigue
ab Gahr, 1988)
Micro-cracking
Figure 9. (a) Interaction
Figure 9. (a) Interaction
between abrasive particles(b)and the wearing
(a) between abrasive particles and the wearing surface (Zum Gahr, 1988) and (b)
surface (Zum Gahr, 1988)
Cross-section through a wear groove and (b) Cross-section
produced by𝐴𝐴 a−(𝐴𝐴
sliding through
abrasive particle,adefining
wear groove
the areas used for
1 +𝐴𝐴2 )
for and(45)
𝑉𝑉
produced
calculating f by
(Zum a sliding
Gahr, 1988) abrasive𝑓𝑓 particle,
=
Figure 9. (a) Interaction between abrasive particles and 𝐴𝐴
ab 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 the defining the areas
wearing surface (Zum Gahr,used1988) (b)
𝑉𝑉
Cross-section through a wear calculating
groove producedfabby(Zum Gahr,
a sliding 1988)
abrasive particle, defining the areas used for
calculating fab (Zum Gahr, 1988)
where 𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 −(𝐴𝐴1 +𝐴𝐴2 )
fab is the amount of volume loss with 𝑓𝑓respect 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = to 𝐴𝐴the volume of the wear groove as (45) a
𝑉𝑉
result of the four above illustrated abrasive wear 𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉 −(𝐴𝐴processes
1 +𝐴𝐴2 )
AVwhere
is the cross-sectional area of the wear =
𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 groove (45)
𝐴𝐴𝑉𝑉
A1 fand A
ab is the
2 is the amount of material pushed to each side by plastic deformation
amount of volume loss with respect to the volume of the wear groove as a
where
result of the four above illustrated abrasive wear processes
where
fab AisV is
thetheamount of volume
cross-sectional loss
area withwear
of the respectgroove to the volume of the wear groove as a
result
A1 andof the
A2 four
is theabove illustrated
amount abrasive
of material pushed wearto eachprocesses
side by plastic deformation
fAabV is
is the
thecross-sectional
amount of volumearea of theloss
wearwith groove respect to the volume of the wear
A1 and A2as
groove is the amountofofthe
a result material
fourpushed
abovetoillustrated
each side byabrasiveplastic deformation
wear processes
AV is the cross-sectional area of the wear groove
A1 and A2 is the amount of material pushed to each side by plastic
deformation

When fab = 0, ideal micro-ploughing (zero wear) happens, whereas fab

= 1, ideal micro-cutting with the worn volume directly proportional to

ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 63

Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

When
the fab = 0, ideal micro-ploughing
cross-sectional area of the (zero
wearwear) happens,
groove. whereas
Linear wearfab = 1, ideal micro-
intensity W1/s
cutting with the worn volume directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
was formulated as
wear groove. Linear wear intensity W was formulated as
1/s

𝑝𝑝
𝑊𝑊1�𝑠𝑠 = 𝜑𝜑1 ∗ 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝐻𝐻 (46)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where φ1 is the shape factor dependent on the geometry of the abrasive particle, p is the
where φ1 is the shape factor dependent on the geometry of the abrasive
applied surface pressure, Hdef is the hardness of the wear debris. (Zum Gahr, 1988)
particle, p isthe
corroborated the applied
fact surface
that increased fab pressure, Hdefinisincreased
values resulted the hardness of the
occurrence wear
of micro-
debris. (Zum Gahr, 1988)
cutting by experimental data. corroborated the fact that increased f ab
values
resulted in increased occurrence of micro-cutting by experimental
When f = 0, ideal micro-ploughing (zero wear) happens, whereas f = 1, ideal micro-
data.
ab ab
Abrasion mechanics
cutting paved
with the worn a way
volume for the
directly finding to
proportional thetheway in which
cross-sectional cutting can happen
area of the
instead ofgroove.
ploughing and intensity
wedge Wformation and this along with the formulation of
Abrasion mechanics paved a1/s way for the finding the way in which
wear Linear wear was formulated as
fracture toughness of the workpiece leads to finding the method in which we can grind a
cutting can happen
given workpiece instead
to a certain 𝑊𝑊1�𝑠𝑠 =of
surface 𝜑𝜑1 ploughing
finish.
∗ 𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝐻𝐻
𝑝𝑝 and wedge formation (46) and
this along with the formulation of fracture toughness of the workpiece
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

leadswhere
to finding thefactor
φ1 is the shape method in onwhich
dependent we can
the geometry of thegrind
abrasive a given
particle, p isworkpiece
the
applied
7.0a certain surface pressure,
FRACTURE Hdef is the hardness of the wear debris. (Zum Gahr, 1988)
TOUGHNESS
to surface finish.
corroborated the fact that increased fab values resulted in increased occurrence of micro-
cutting by experimental data.
Moore and King (1979) cited that the rate of material removal and the wear process is
determined
7.0 by
FRACTURE
Abrasion appliedpaved
mechanics load, material
TOUGHNESS
a way hardness
for the finding andinratio
the way which of fracture
cutting toughness to
can happen
material hardness.
instead The ratio
of ploughing is lowformation
and wedge for higher andloads and the
this along withwear rate was high
the formulation of and the
debrisfracture
Moore and
was toughness
King
formed of
by the
(1979)workpiece
fracture.cited leads
that
Figure to finding
the
10(a) the method
rate
below of in which
material
shows we can grind abetween
removal
the relationship and thea
given workpiece to a certain surface finish.
wear process is determined by applied load, material hardness and(Gahr,
material’s fracture toughness and wear resistance under abrasive conditions. ratio
1978) reported that abrasive particles initiated both micro-ploughing and crack
of fracture
propagation
toughness
of the wearing
to material hardness. The ratio is low
material only when the exerted load was above the critical
for higher
7.0 FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
loads and the
value given by Pwear rate was high and the debris was formed by fracture.
crit. Further fracture toughness of the material influenced the critical
Figure
load and 10(a)
Moore and below
hence King shows
(1979)
the wear thetherelationship
cited that
resistance. between
rate of material removal a material’s
and the wear process isfracture
determined by applied load, material hardness and ratio of fracture toughness to
toughness and wear
material hardness. resistance
The ratio under
is low for higher abrasive
loads and the wearconditions. (Gahr,
rate was high and the 1978)
reported that abrasive particles initiated both micro-ploughing
debris was formed by fracture. Figure 10(a) below shows the relationship between a and
material’s fracture toughness and wear resistance under abrasive conditions. (Gahr,
crack1978)
propagation of the wearing material only when
reported that abrasive particles initiated both micro-ploughing and crack
the exerted load
was above theof critical value given Pcritexerted
by the . Further fracture
above thetoughness of
Increasing hardness

Increasing pressure

propagation the wearing material only when load was critical

value given by P . Further fracture toughness of the material
the material influenced the critical load and hence the wear resistance.
crit influenced the critical
load and hence the wear resistance.
Increasing hardness

Increasing pressure

(a) (b)

Figure 10. (a) Wear resistance and fracture toughness for ceramics and metals (Zum Gahr, 1978) and (b)
Asperity deformation for materials of different toughness and applied pressures (Hornbogen, 1975)
(a) (b)

Figure 10.(a)(a)
Figure 10. WearWear resistance
resistance and fracture
and fracture toughness for ceramicstoughness
and metals (Zumfor
Gahr,ceramics
1978) and (b) and
metals
Asperity(Zum Gahr,
deformation 1978)of and
for materials (b)
different Asperity
toughness deformation
and applied for materials
pressures (Hornbogen, 1975) of
different toughness and applied pressures (Hornbogen, 1975)

64 ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013

 Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review

Hornbogen (1975) proposed a model that related increased wear rates

to decreasing fracture toughness of materials as shown in Figure 10(b).
The model was based on the concept of strain that happened during
asperity interaction (εd,eff) and the critical strain at which crack growth
was initiated (εc,eff). Range I wear regime was said to be when applied
Hornbogen
strain was(1975)
smallerproposed
than acritical
model strain
that related
thenincreased
wear ratewearwas
ratesindependent
to decreasing
fracture toughness of materials as shown in Figure 10(b). The model was based on the
of fracture toughness and wear coefficient was constant and wear
concept of strain that happened during asperity interaction (εd,eff) and the critical strain at
resistance
which crack increased
growth was proportionally with
initiated (εc,eff). Range hardness.
I wear Range
regime was said IIto was the
be when
one where the applied strain was larger than the critical strain
applied strain was smaller than critical strain then wear rate was independent of fracture of the
material and the probability of crack growth was enhanced, which
toughness and wear coefficient was constant and wear resistance increased
proportionally
led to higher with
wearhardness.
rate. aRange
The II wasrate
wear the one where the
relation wasapplied
given strain was larger
Hornbogen (1975) proposed model that related increased wear ratesfor Range
to decreasing II
than the critical strain of the material and the probability of crack growth was enhanced,
materials
fracture as
toughness of materials as shown in Figure 10(b). The model was based on the
which led to higher wear rate. The wear rate relation was given for Range II materials as
concept Hornbogen
of strain that (1975) proposed
happened during a model
asperitythat related increased
interaction (εd,eff) and wear rates strain
the critical to decreasing
at
whichfracture
crack growth toughness wasofinitiated
materials(εc,eff
as ).shown
𝜀𝜀𝑑𝑑,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒Range
∗𝑃𝑃
in IFigure
wear 10(b).
regimeThe wasmodel wasbebased
said to whenon the
applied concept
strain was of strain thatthan
smaller 𝑊𝑊critical
happened= 𝐾𝐾0during asperity interaction
rate was (ε d,eff) and theof (47)
critical strain at
𝜀𝜀strain
𝑐𝑐,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∗𝐻𝐻
then wear independent fracture
toughnesswhich and crackwear growth was initiated
coefficient was (εc,eff ). Rangeand
constant I wear
wearregime was said
resistance to be when
increased
whereapplied strain
proportionally with was smaller
hardness. than II
Range critical
was the strain onethen where wear therate was independent
applied of fracture
strain was larger
than toughness
the critical and
strain ofwear
the coefficient
material and the was constant
probability of and
crack wear
growth resistance
was increased
enhanced,
where
K 0 is the wear coefficient, defined as the probability of wear particle formation εd,eff is
proportionally
whichatledasperities
strain with
to higherundergoing hardness.
wear rate. The
plastic Range
wear rate relation was given for Range II materials as larger
deformation II was the one where the applied strain was
than the critical strain of the
εc,eff is the strain associated with crack growth material andwithinthe probability
asperities of crack growth was enhanced,
K0 iswhichthe wear led to coefficient,
higher wear rate.defined
The wear
𝜀𝜀𝑑𝑑,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 asrate
∗𝑃𝑃 the probability
relation was givenof forwear
Rangeparticle
II materials as
P is the applied pressure 𝑊𝑊 = 𝐾𝐾0 (47)
formation
H is the material ε , is
hardness
d eff
strain at asperities
𝜀𝜀 𝑐𝑐,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∗𝐻𝐻 undergoing plastic deformation
𝜀𝜀𝑑𝑑,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∗𝑃𝑃
εc,eff is the strain associated with 𝑊𝑊 = crack 𝐾𝐾0 growth within asperities (47)
where 𝜀𝜀𝑐𝑐,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ∗𝐻𝐻
P is
This the
model applied
was on the pressure
assumption that crack growth determined the wear behaviour in
K0 is the wear coefficient, defined as the probability of wear particle formation εd,eff is
the
H isRangethe
where II regime and
material assumed that in Range I in addition to plastic deformation of
hardness
strain at asperities undergoing plastic deformation
asperities, sub-critical crack growth was active.
εc,eff isKthe
0 isstrain
the wear coefficient,
associated defined
with crack growth as the probability
within asperities of wear particle formation εd,eff is
This
P strain
is themodel at
appliedwas asperities
pressureon undergoing
the assumption plastic deformation that crack growth determined the
Studies onisfracture,
εc,eff the strain using plasticwith
associated indentation
crack growth to determine fracture toughness
within asperities of brittle
H is the
wear material
behaviour hardness
in the Range II regime and assumed that in Range I in
materialsP is were done and
the applied the relationship for fracture toughness KIC of brittle materials
pressure
addition
was given
H is the
This model
byto
was
plastic
(Evans.,
material deformation
Charles,
on thehardness
1976) of asperities, sub-critical crack growth
assumption that crack growth determined the wear behaviour in
was active.
the Range II regime and assumed that in Range I in addition to plastic deformation of
𝐶𝐶 −1.5
This sub-critical
asperities, model was crack on thegrowth
assumption was
𝐾𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0.05 that
active.∗ 𝐻𝐻crack
√𝑎𝑎 ∗ growth
𝑘𝑘 �𝑎𝑎� determined the wear behaviour (48) in
the Range II regime and assumed that
Studies on fracture, using plastic indentation to determine fracture in Range I in addition to plastic deformation of
Studies asperities,
on fracture, sub-critical
using crack indentation
plastic growth was to active.
determine fracture toughness of brittle
toughness
where of brittle materials were done and the relationship for fracture
materials
H were done and the relationship for
is hardness K of brittle materials was given by (Evans., Charles, 1976) fracture toughness K of brittle materials
toughness
was Studies onIC fracture, using plastic indentation to determine fracture toughness of brittle
IC
C is given
crack by (Evans.,
length Charles,
produced 1976)
by indentation
materials were
a is the radius of indentation done and the relationship for fracture toughness KIC of brittle materials
was given by (Evans., Charles, 𝐶𝐶 1976) 𝐶𝐶 −1.5
k is the correction factor=3.2 for𝐾𝐾𝑎𝑎𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼≥=30.05 ∗ 𝐻𝐻 √𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑘𝑘 � � (48)
𝑎𝑎
𝐶𝐶 −1.5
where et al. (1981) reported that in a𝐾𝐾single
Kakaba
where 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 0.05 √𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑘𝑘 �of𝑎𝑎�an abrasive asperity on a (48)
pass∗of𝐻𝐻sliding
metallic
H is hardness surface, three wear modes were noted as cutting, wedge formation and
C is where
ploughing.
crack
H is hardness (Kato,
length 1992)
produced said
by that the
indentation grove formation on the wearing surface resulted
from
aCisistheH radius
the ismicro-hardness
hardness
of indentation of the asperity and its attack angle. It was found that wear
crack length
C correction
is cracksize,
length
produced
produced
byindentation
indentation
𝐶𝐶bynumber
particle
ka is the shape, structure
factor=3.2 forand ≥ 3 could be determined by understanding the
is the radius
a is thewear
microscopic of
radiusmodeindentation
of indentation
which is𝑎𝑎 controlled by the microscopic fracture mode. Degree
𝐶𝐶
k ispenetration
of the the Dp of anfactor=
k isetcorrection asperity wasforincluded to relate the three-dimensional severity of
Kakaba al. correction
(1981) factor=3.2
reported that in ≥ 3 pass
a 𝑎𝑎single of sliding of an abrasive asperity on a
contact for wear and was given as
metallic surface, three wear modes were noted as cutting, wedge formation and
Kakaba
ploughing. et al.1992)
(Kato, (1981)saidreported
that 2thethatgrovein0.5
a single pass on
formation of sliding
the wearingof an abrasive asperity on a
surface resulted
metallic 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 0.5
= 𝑎𝑎 surface,
= 𝑅𝑅 �2𝑊𝑊�three �wear
ℎ 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻 modes were noted as cutting, wedge formation and
from the 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝micro-hardness of−the asperity
− 1� and its attack angle. It was found that wear (49)
2𝑊𝑊
particle ploughing.
shape, size,(Kato, 1992) and
structure said that the could
number grove beformation
determined on the
by wearing surfacethe
understanding resulted
from the
microscopic wearmicro-hardness
mode
ISSN: 2180-1053which of
is the asperity
controlled by and
the its attack
microscopic
Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 angle. It
fracturewas found
mode. that
Degree 65wear
particle shape,
of penetration Dp of an size, structure
asperity was andincluded number couldthe
to relate bethree-dimensional
determined by understanding
severity of the
contact microscopic
for wear and wear
wasmodegivenwhich
as is controlled by the microscopic fracture mode. Degree
 𝑎𝑎

where
Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology
H is hardness
C is crack length produced by indentation
a is the radius of indentation
Kakaba et al. (1981) reported 𝐶𝐶 that in a single pass of sliding of an abrasive
k is the correction factor=3.2 for 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 3
asperity on a metallic surface, three wear modes were noted as cutting,
wedge formation and ploughing. (Kato, 1992) said that the grove
Kakaba et al. (1981) reported that in a single pass of sliding of an abrasive asperity on a
formation
metallic on the
surface, wearing
three surface
wear modes wereresulted
noted asfrom the wedge
cutting, micro-hardness
formation andof
the asperity
ploughing. and
(Kato, its attack
1992) said thatangle. It was
the grove foundonthat
formation wear particle
the wearing shape,
surface resulted
size,the
from structure and number
micro-hardness could and
of the asperity be determined byItunderstanding
its attack angle. the
was found that wear
particle shape, size, structure and number could be determined
microscopic wear mode which is controlled by the microscopic by understanding the
fracture
microscopic wear mode which is controlled by the microscopic fracture mode. Degree
mode. Degree of penetration Dp of an asperity was included to relate
of penetration Dp of an asperity was included to relate the three-dimensional severity of
the three-dimensional
contact for wear and was givenseverity
as of contact for wear and was given as

0.5
ℎ 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 0.5 𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅 2 𝐻𝐻
𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅 �2𝑊𝑊� −� 2𝑊𝑊
− 1� (49)

where

a is the contact radius

h is depth of penetration
Rwhere
is radius of spherical asperity
Ha isisthe
hardness of the indented surface
contact radius
h is depth of penetration
W is the load applied
R is radius of spherical asperity
H is hardness of the indented surface
The relative
W is the shear strength parameter, f was defined as the ratio of
load applied
shear strength of the interface to the bulk material and was used to
The relative shear strength parameter, f was defined as the ratio of shear strength of the
relate frictional condition
interface to the bulk material at the
and was used abrasive particle
to relate frictional surface
condition at theinterface
abrasive and
graphically shown in Figure 11. This parameter was possible because
particle surface interface and graphically shown in Figure 11. This parameter was
possible because of the research by (Challen and Oxley, 1979).
of the research by (Challen and Oxley, 1979).

0.
Degree of Particle
Dp=h/a diameter, d
Penetration,
Dp (log scale)

0.

cutting

0.
wedge

ploughing

0 0.2 0.6 1.0

Relative Shearing Strength at Normal load per particle P (log scale)
Contact interface f
Figure 12. Plot showing the wear regimes for an
Figure 11. Abrasive wear mode diagram for metals abrading surface, over which abrasive particles
(Kato, 1992) cause plastic flow or fracture in the material. P* L
indicates the transition related to lateral fracture
(Hutchings, 1992)

(Hutchings, 1992)
(Hutchings, 1992) suggested
suggested that for that forwear
abrasive abrasive wear
a transition a transition
occurred occurred
from brittle,
from brittle, fracture-dominated
fracture-dominated behaviour
behaviour to plastic-dominated behaviour fortohard
plastic-dominated
second-phase
particles in wearing microstructure as abrasive particle size reduced. The main fracture
modes were considered to be Hertzian cracking and lateral fracture showing the
importance of fracture toughness in the finding of this transition. Lawn and Marshall
66(1978) derived ISSN:
an expression for the threshold
2180-1053 Vol. 5 No.abrasive
2 Julyparticle size, dOH 2013
- December which was
defined as the value above which Hertzian fracture occurred rather than plastic flow as
 Relative Shearing Strength at Normal load per particle P (log scale)
Contact interface f
Figure 12. Plot showing the wear regimes for an
Figure 11. Abrasive wear mode diagram for metals Grinding Mechanics and Advances - A Review
abrading surface, over which abrasive particles
(Kato, 1992) cause plastic flow or fracture in the material. P* L
indicates the transition related to lateral fracture
behaviour for hard second-phase particles in 1992)
(Hutchings, wearing microstructure
as abrasive particle size reduced. The main fracture modes were
(Hutchings, 1992) suggested that for abrasive wear a transition occurred from brittle,
considered to bebehaviour
fracture-dominated Hertzianto cracking and lateral
plastic-dominated behaviour fracture
for hardshowing the
second-phase
importance of fracture
particles in wearing toughness
microstructure in theparticle
as abrasive findingsizeofreduced.
this transition. Lawn
The main fracture
and
modesMarshall (1978) derived
were considered an expression
to be Hertzian cracking andforlateral
the threshold abrasive
fracture showing the
importance of fracture toughness in the finding of this transition.
particle size, dOH which was defined as the value above which Hertzian Lawn and Marshall
(1978) derived an expression for the threshold abrasive particle size, dOH which was
fracture occurred rather than plastic flow as
defined as the value above which Hertzian fracture occurred rather than plastic flow as

𝐾𝐾 2 𝐸𝐸
𝑑𝑑𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝛼𝛼 � 𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � (50)
𝐼𝐼 𝐻𝐻𝐼𝐼

where
Kct is fracture toughness of the wearing material
where
HI is indentation hardness of the wearing material
E is young’s modulus of the wearing material
Kct is fracture toughness of the wearing material
HI is indentation hardness of the wearing material
E is young’s modulus of the wearing material

(Hutchings, 1992) developed a graph as shown in Figure 12 describing

the mode of failure for these hard second-phase particles as a function
of abrasive grit size, and of the load these particle exerted on the second
phase particles in the microstructure.

This shows that the threshold particle size of the grain can be found out
by knowing the fracture toughness, indentation hardness and young’s
modulus of the workpiece which is brittle in nature, by which we can
find out what can be the variety of wheel we can use to get the required
surface roughness to the workpiece.

8.0 CONCLUSIONS
The length of chip varies depending on dry or wet process, hardness of
material, depth of cut, wheel speed, workpiece speed, angle of attack
and thickness of chip is also dependent on the workpiece and wheel
speeds, size and shape of grains, dry or wet process, fracture toughness
of materials.

The size and shape of the grains will decide the amount of material to
be removed and the chip thickness will influence the specific energy
required and this will affect the process of grinding on a whole. The size
of the grains if smaller or having more gaps between successive grains
has the possibility of accumulating swarf thereby reducing the depth
of cut and grinding capability and enhance rubbing. The size of the

ISSN: 2180-1053 Vol. 5 No. 2 July - December 2013 67

Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

abrasive grain in the wheel has to be decided on the fracture toughness

and hardness of the workpiece being ground, this leads to the question
can a universal abrasive be used to ground all sorts of materials or a
specific abrasive has to be experimented and the required size of grit
found for each of the workpiece.

The size of the grain, depth of cut, hardness of wheel and workpiece
will affect the finish attained of the workpiece. The knowledge of
the grit included angle and the depth of cut an estimation of surface
roughness can be had. When the roughness factor reduces the length
of the contact of the wheel and workpiece reduces increasing the force
required to cut the workpiece and the necessity of dressing is enhanced
as a loss in surface finish becomes visible and there is an increase in
temperature due to rubbing.

Forces induced in the wearing material due to the action of the abrasives
across the workpiece are occurring due to two actions of the abrasive
grains against the workpiece namely cutting and sliding. The sliding
component tends to reduce when the wheel has a good roughness
factor and is dressed properly thereby reducing the force being exerted
on the workpiece during machining.

Modelling of two-body abrasive wear again emphasizes the influence

of the wearing materials workhardening ability, fracture toughness
and hardness on the wear mechanism. For ductile materials subjected
to abrasive wear, microploughing is the most favoured mechanism,
resulting in a low wear rate, Brittle materials usually exhibit one of
the following wear mechanisms: micro-cutting; microfatigue or
microcracking.

The analysis of the size of grit and the bond material of grinding wheels
used to grind different workpieces have to be researched, and a suitable
combination has to be hammered out to get the best surface finish and
less force induced stresses on the workpiece.

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