SIGNALS SPECTRA REVIEWER

Signal is a single-valued function of time that conveys information.

A signal is a description of how one parameter varies with another parameter. For instance,
voltage changing over time in an electronic circuit, or brightness varying with distance in an
image.

Continuous signals are usually represented with parentheses, while discrete signals use
brackets.

the input signal is called: x(t) or x[n], while the output is called: y(t) or y[n]

A system is any process that produces an output signal in response to an input signal.

It may:

• involve signal processing,

• it can be linear/non-linear and
• also include software.

Algorithm is the method or set of rules for implementing the system by a program that performs
the corresponding mathematical operations.

TYPES OF DOMAIN

Time Domain simply means that the independent variable is measured in time.

The frequency domain is exactly the same as the time independent variable except that the
frequency becomes the independent variable.

Spectra describes the frequency content of the signal.

Spatial domain - is exactly the same as the time domain description, except that the spatial
becomes the independent variable. Spatial typically describes a distance.

Signal processing - is extracting information from a signal, conditioning signal for subsequent use,
signal transformation, or altering a signal structure.

ELEMENTS OF SIGNAL PROCESSING

Analog Signal Processing - the signal is processed directly in its analog form.

Digital Signal Processing - the signal is converted to digital before processing and converted
back to analog.
ADVANTAGE OF DSP OVER ANALOG:

• Flexibility
• Accuracy
• Cheaper
• Easy storage

LIMITATIONS:

1. speed of operation

2. bandwidth considerations

DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP )

is the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals.
The algorithms required for DSP are sometimes performed using specialized computers, which
make use of specialized microprocessors called digital signal processor.

DSP is the mathematics, the algorithms, and the techniques used to manipulate these signals
after they have been converted into a digital form.

APPLICATIONS OF DSP:

• audio signal processing

• audio and video compression
• digital image processing
• speech processing and speech recognition
• digital communication

Most DSP techniques are based on a divide-and conquer strategy called superposition.

Classification of Signals

ACCORDING TO CHANNEL:

Single Channel - generated by single source.

Multiple Channel - generated by multiple sources or multiple sensors

ACCORDING TO DIMENSION:

ONE DIMENSIONAL - a function of single or independent variable

MULTI-DIMENSIONAL (M DIMENSIONAL) - has M-independent variables

EXAMPLES

1. S(t) = A sin 3t

2. S(t) = t² + 4t – 8

3. S(x, y) = 4x² + 9xy – 13y³

4. S(t) = S1(t) S2(t) S3(t)

ACCORDING TO THE SIGNAL VALUE:

(a) real

(b) complex

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CHARACTERISTICS OF TIME VARIABLE AND THE VALUE

THEY TAKE:

A. CONTINUOUS–TIME SIGNALS OR ANALOG SIGNALS - are defined for every value of time
they take on continuous interval (a, b), where a can be – and b can be .

B. DISCRETE–TIME SIGNALS - are defined only at certain specific values of time. These time
instants needs not to be equidistant, but they are often equally spaced intervals.

CONTINUOUS–VALUED SIGNALS - if a signal takes on all possible values on infinite or

infinite range.

DISCRETE–VALUED SIGNALS - if the signal takes on values from a finite set of possible
values.

NOTE: A discrete-time and discrete-valued signal refers to digital signal.

ACCORDING TO THE SIGNAL MODEL

• DETERMINISTIC SIGNAL - a signal that can be uniquely described by an explicit

mathematical expressions, table of data or a well-defined rule. All past, present and future
values of the signal are known precisely without uncertainty.
• RANDOM SIGNAL - signals that cannot be described by explicit mathematical
formulas.
Consider the example equation of harmonic oscillation formula of a signal:

Xa(t) = A cos (t + ), –  < t < 

where:

A → amplitude

f → frequency

 →radian frequency ➔ 2f

 →phase

PROPERTIES:

(a). For every fixed value of frequency, f:

Xa(t) is periodic → Xa(t + Tp) = Xa(t)

PERIODIC SIGNALS → a signal is periodic if it completes a pattern with in a measurable time frame,
and repeats that pattern over identical subsequent periods.

APERIODIC or NON-PERIODIC SIGNALS → if the signal changes constantly without exhibiting a

pattern or cycle that repeats over time.

(b). Continuous-time sinusoidal signals with distinct frequencies are themselves distinct.

(c). Increasing the frequency, f, result in an increase in the rate of oscillation of the signal, in the
sense that more periods are included in a given time interval.

EXAMPLE:

If Xa(t) = 20 cos100t, determine its periodic time (Tp).

Given: Xa(t) = 100 sin200t

(a)Find Tp.

(b) For Xa(t) = 100 sin400t, Find Tp.

(c) at 50ms, how many cycles does Xa(t) of (a) and (b) will take
DISCRETE SIGNALS TIME SINUSOIDAL

Consider the example equation of a signal:

X[n] = A cos (n + )

where:

n → nth time (any integer)

PROPERTIES :

(a). A discrete-time sinusoid is periodic if its frequency, f, is a rational number:

X[n + N] = X[n]

where:

N → the smallest value of N in the fundamental period

(b). Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by an integer multiple of 2 are
identical.

(c). The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is attained

when:  =  ( = -) or f = ½ (f = -½ )

HARMONICALLY RELATED COMPLEX EXPONENTIALS → these are sets of periodic complex

exponentials with fundamental frequencies that are multiples of a single positive frequency.

CONTINUOUS-TIME EXPONENTIALS:

Sk (t)= e^jkot = e^jk2fot (kth harmonics)

where: k → 0, 1, 2, 3 …..

EXAMPLE:

1. Identify the whether signal is periodic or non-periodic:

a) cos 0.3 n

b) sin 56n

2. Consider the signal Xa (t) = 10 cos 60t. Find the 6th and 10th harmonic and the fundamental
period of each.
ANALOG DIGITAL (A/D) AND DIGITAL ANALOG (D/A) CONVERSION

SAMPLING - the conversion of a continuous–time signal into a discrete-time signal

In order to properly sample an analog signal the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem must be
satisfied. In short, the sampling frequency must be greater than twice the bandwidth of the
signal.

QUANTIZATION - the conversion of a discrete–time continuous valued signal into a discrete–time

discrete valued signal (digital).

CODING - in communication system, it’s the altering of the characteristics of a signal to make the
signal more suitable for an intended application. In DSP, it’s the process where each discrete
value Xq[n] is represent by a b–bit binary sequence.