WAVES IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

17
Questions and Problems

17.1. An approaching train emits waves that travel through air and the track; those traveling through air spread out
spherically, while those traveling in track remain (largely) confined to the track, making the vibrations they cause
detectable at greater distance. Also, the speed of vibrations through steel is greater than the speed of sound through air.

17.2. Because the material is stiffer in the x direction, waves will propagate more quickly in the x direction than in
the y direction. The result would be ellipsoidal wavefronts as shown below.

17.3. As long as the sound is free to spread over a sphere centered at the professor’s mouth, yes, the amplitude
would roughly drop off like 1/ r. But large lecture halls (like concert halls) are often designed to make use of the
reflection of sound off of walls. Chances are that the amplitude won’t drop off quite that quickly.

17.4. (a) The sound energy that reaches your ear drops off like 1/r 2 where r is the distance from you to the cannon.
(b) The first estimate is higher than the second. If you assume there is no dissipation, then the only reason for the
sound energy to become small is for the cannon to be very far away. If some of the decrease in sound energy can be
explained by dissipation, then the cannon need not be quite so far away.

17.5. When a person whispers at one focus, the sound will travel some distance r1 before hitting the wall. A wave
that bounces off the wall and reaches the other focus will travel a distance r2 from the wall to the second focus. Note
that the definition of an ellipse is the set of all points such that the sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse
to the two foci is constant. That means that r1 + r2 is a constant no matter what path the sound takes to go from the
first focus, reflect off a wall, and reach the second focus (see figure next page). If two sound waves travel different
paths, they may end up interfering with one another in a constructive or destructive way. But if they travel exactly the
same distance, then peaks in the wavefunction of one sound wave will line up with peaks in the wavefunction of the
other sound wave and they will interfere constructively. In an elliptical room, any sound waves that travel from one
focus to a wall and then to the other focus will all travel the same distance and all such waves will thus interfere
constructively. This will increase the amplitude and make the sound quite audible.

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17-1
17-2 Chapter 17

17.6. We know from PRIN Chapter 17.2 that humans can hear sounds in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz. We also know
that sounds that differ by one octave have frequencies that differ by a factor of two. Thus we write
20 Hz(2 N ) = 20 kHz, where N is the number of octaves. Rearranging, we find N = ln(1000)/ ln(2) = 10. So there
are 10 octaves in the human audible-frequency range.

17.7. Bats can still feel compression of the air around them, just as we can feel the rumbling from a passing truck or
from a small tremor. Bats and humans can still feel vibrations that are outside their range of hearing.

17.8. In a tube that is open at both ends, each end will be analogous to a free end of a string in the context of
standing waves on strings. That is, we expect an antinode at each end. There could be any integer number of nodes in
nλ
the tube, between these two antinodes. This means there could be wavelengths in the tube of length , or
2
2
equivalently λ = . Thus λ1 = 2 L (fundamental, or first harmonic), λ2 = (second harmonic), λ3 = 2 /3 (third
n
harmonic).

17.9. (a)

(b)

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-3

17.10. Increased frequency creates more nodal lines, so the lines get closer together.

17.11. Nodal lines become antinodal lines, and vice-versa.

17.12. No stationary nodal lines are formed. Since one wave undergoes more oscillations each second than the
other, the phase difference between the two waves at any given point is always changing.

17.13. A wall behind the speaker will allow a good deal of sound to be reflected back into the room. If the geometry
of the speaker or room is such that a dead zone forms, it is very unlikely that sound coming from a different location
(the wall behind the speaker) will also form a dead zone in exactly the same spot.

17.14. Choose the + x axis to point from the left source to the right source. Half-way between the two sources along
the x axis, the phase difference between the two sources would be zero if the sources themselves were oscillating in
phase. This is the minimum phase difference. The phase difference would also be zero at any point along the
perpendicular bisector of the line connected the left and right sources, forming a line of antinodes along what we will
call the + y axis. At a point on the − x axis to the left of the left source, waves from the right source must travel 2.5
additional wavelengths compared to waves coming from the left source. So the waves are out of phase by 2.5 full
oscillations. Thus, there will be a nodal line along the − x axis. Note that the phase difference must change smoothly
from zero (along the + y axis) to 2.5λ (along the − x axis), meaning at some angle the phase difference must pass
through 0.5λ and 1.5λ , yielding two more nodal lines. The same must be true between the − x axis and the − y
axis. Thus, to the left of the y axis there are five nodal lines. By symmetry, there must be the same number of nodal
lines to the right of the y axis. Thus there are 10 nodal lines.

17.15. The ripples are two-dimensional surface waves. Vibration causes the cup interior to act like a chain of
sources. Because waves propagate away from sources, wavefronts are parallel to the cup interior and therefore
circular.

17.16. The figure shows the geometry of the problem.

Using the small angle approximation makes θ t ≈ θ b ≈ θ . If the distances travelled by the two interfering sound waves
( L1 and L2 ) differ by a full number of wavelengths, then the sound heard by the microphone will be loud. This
means ds sin(θ ) = nλ. Since the angle can be assumed to be small, sin(θ ) ≈ tan(θ ) = xb / d m . This means that one
could write the position of two adjacent microphones that each hear a loud sound as:
xb = d m nλ / ds
xt = d m ( n − 1)λ / ds
Taking the difference of the two equations yields: Δ x = xb − xt = d m λ / ds .

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17-4 Chapter 17

17.17. (a) Consider the geometry in the figure below.

Clearly the path length difference 1 − 2 = d sin(θ ). If this path length difference is to produce a point on a nodal
⎛ 1⎞
line to the perpendicular bisector, then we can set the path length difference equal to ⎜ m + ⎟ λ . Thus we write
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 1⎞ c ⎡ ( m + 12 )c ⎤
d sin(θ ) = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ = ⇒ θ = sin −1 ⎢ ⎥ , m = 0,1,2,…. (b) The process is exactly the same as in part (a),
⎝ 2⎠ 2f ⎣ df ⎦
except that now the path length difference has to make up for the phase difference. The phase difference corresponds
to a certain fraction of one wave being emitted before the other wave, and the fraction is φ /2π . Thus
⎛ 1⎞ φ
− = d sin(θ ) = ⎜ m + ⎟ λ − λ in order for destructive interference to occur. Thus θ=
π
1 2
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
⎡⎛ 1 φ ⎞ c ⎤
sin −1 ⎢⎜ m + − ⎥ , m = 0,1,2,…
⎣⎝ 2 2π ⎟⎠ df ⎦

17.18. Let us consider the waves from the three sources at a particular point x0 , which we require must be on a
nodal line. Let the three sources to behave like:
y1 ( x = x0 , t ) = A sin(ω t)
y2 ( x = x0 , t ) = A sin(ω t + δ )
y3 ( x = x0 , t ) = A sin(ω t + 2δ )
Here A is the amplitude of the oscillation and δ is the phase shift inside the sine functions that results from the
additional distance each subsequent source must travel. Call the angle θ the angle between this nodal line and the
perpendicular bisector of a line connecting the three sources. It is easy to see geometrically that the path length
difference between two adjacent sources is Δ = d sin(θ ). This corresponds to a phase of δ = d sin(θ )2π / λ .
If we picture adding phasors, it is easy to see that the only way for these displacements to sum to zero is if the phase
⎛ mc ⎞
shift δ = 2π m /3. This corresponds to 2π m/3 = d sin(θ )2π /λ or θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ , where m is any integer.
⎝ 3df ⎠

17.19. Sound waves she emitted diffracted around corner and reached your ears.

17.20. Yes, because sound waves diffract around panel edges and reach microphone.

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-5

17.21. (a)

(b)

(c) The positions of nodes and antinodes have switched. One easy position to spot this change is along the
perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two sources. In part (a), since all points on this line are equidistant from
the two sources, antinodes occurred along this line. In part (b), the sources started out of phase, so that they remained

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17-6 Chapter 17

out of phase after travelling equal distances from the sources to the perpendicular bisector. Hence, in part (b) nodes
occur on this line.

17.22. Adding phasors for the two constituent waves helps us see that the magnitude of the
resultant phasor (and amplitude of the combined waves) is A = ( A1 + A2 cos(φ2 )) 2 + ( A2 sin(φ2 )) 2 =

((1.00 × 10−8 m) + (0.600 × 10−8 m)cos(π /3))2 + ((0.600 × 10−8 m)sin(π /3))2 = 1.40 × 10−8 m.
Similarly, we see that the phase is given by
⎛ A2 sin(φ2 ) ⎞ −1 ⎛ (0.600 × 10−8 m)sin(π /3) ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = tan ⎜ ⎟ = 0.380
⎝ A1 + A2 cos(φ2 ) ⎠ ⎝ (1.00 × 10 m) + (0.600 × 10 m)cos(π /3) ⎠
−8 −8

P P (140 W)
17.23. Using equation (17.2) we can write I = = = = 5.0 × 10−6 W/m 2 .
A 4π r 2
4π (1.5 × 103 m) 2

P P P (90 W)
17.24. Using equation (17.2) we can write I = = ⇒r= = = 1.1 m.
A 4π r 2 4π I 4π (5.70 W/m 2 )

17.25. We can determine the intensity of the sound from one mosquito from the sound level given using equation
⎛ β1 mosquito ⎞
⎜⎜ 10 dB ⎟⎟
(17.5): I1 mosquito = I th 10⎝ ⎠
. Clearly the intensity of sound due to 100 such mosquitoes is I100 mosquitoes =
⎛ β1 mosquito ⎞ ⎛ β100 mosquitoes ⎞ ⎛ β100 mosquitoes − β1 mosquito ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 10 dB
= I th 10 ⇒ 10 = 100. Taking the decadic logarithm of both sides yields
⎠ ⎝ 10 dB ⎠ ⎝ 10 dB ⎠
(100 I th )10
β100 mosquitoes = 2(10 dB) + β1 mosquito = (20 dB) + (15 dB) = 35 dB.

⎛ β10 children ⎞
⎜ ⎟
17.26. Using equation (17.5) we can write the intensity of the sound from 10 children as I10 children = I th10⎝ 10 dB ⎠
.
Similarly, we require an unknown number of children producing a sound level of 82 dB, such that
⎛ β N children ⎞
⎜ ⎟
I N children = I th 10⎝ 10 dB ⎠
. Clearly the intensity of sound will scale with the number of children such that we can write
I N children N
= . Taking the ratio of the two intensity expressions above, we find
I10 children 10
⎛ βN children ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎛ βN − β10 ⎞ ⎛ (82 dB) − (80 dB) ⎞
I N children N I th 10⎝ 10 dB ⎠
children children
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
= = ⎛ β10 children ⎞
⇒ N = 10 × 10⎝ 10 dB ⎠
= 10 × 10⎝ 10 dB ⎠
= 16 children
I10 children 10 ⎜ ⎟
I th 10⎝ 10 dB ⎠

17.27. Call the side length of the cubical room . The distance to the nearest wall is /2 and the distance to the
corner of the room is 3/2. We can write the ratio of the intensities using equation (17.2)
⎛ P ⎞
⎜ ⎟
4π rwall
2 2 2
= ⎝ ⎠ = rcorner = 3( /4) = 3
I wall
I corner ⎛ P ⎞ rwall 2 2
( /4)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4π rcorner ⎠
2

Similarly, we can write the ratio of the intensities in terms of sound levels using equation (17.5) to obtain
⎛ β wall − β corner ⎞
I wall ⎜ ⎟
= 3 = 10⎝ 10 dB ⎠
⇒ β wall − β corner = (10 dB)log10 (3) = 4.8 dB
I corner

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-7

17.28. Using equations (17.2) and (17.5) we can write the power as
P = IA = I (4π r 2 ) = (4π r 2 ) I th (10β /10dB ) = (4π (3.0 m) 2 )(10−12 W/m 2 )(10(80 dB)/10 dB ) = 11 mW

17.29. The intensity is fixed, meaning

Ptotal Preceived P A (12 W)(400 mm 2 ) (1 m 2 )
I= = ⇒ Preceived = total receiver = 2
× = 0.60 mW
Atotal Areceiver Atotal (8.0 m ) (106 mm 2 )

17.30. (a) We determine the intensity of each source of sound rearranging equation (17.5) and then add the
intensities.
(β
I = I baby + I music = I th 10 baby + I th 10( βmusic /10 dB) = I th (10((75 dB)/ (10 dB)) + 10((80 dB)/ (10 dB)) ) = 1.3 × 10−4 W/m 2
/10 dB)

(b) We use the result of part (a) to determine the sound level using equation (17.5)
β = (10 dB)log10 ( I/I th ) = (10 dB)log10 ((1.32 × 10 −4 W/m 2 )/(10−12 W/m 2 )) = 81 dB

17.31. (a) The intensity is related to the intensity level through equation (17.5). I = I th × 10( β /(10 dB)) =
(10−12 W/m 2 )10((95 dB)/ (10 dB)) = 3.2 × 10−3 W/m 2 . (b) The intensity found in part (a) is related to the power of the
source through equation (17.2): P = IA = I (2π r 2 ) = (3.16 × 10−3 W/m 2 )(2π (20 m) 2 ) = 7.9 W.

17.32. (a) We first determine the power of the source (the sound production of the jet engines) using equation (17.5)
to determine the intensity and then equation (17.2) to relate this intensity to the power of the source.
P = I (4π r 2 ) = I th (10β / (10 dB) )(4π ri 2 ) = (10−12 W/m 2 )(10(140 dB) / (10 dB) )(4π (50 m) 2 ) = 3.14 × 106 W
Now that we know the power, let us write the sound intensity level at the hotel parking lot in terms of the power and
unknown distance from the hotel to the airport.
⎛ P ⎞
β = (10 dB) log10 ( I/I th ) = (10 dB)log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4π rhotel I th ⎠
2

P −( β (3.14 × 106 W/m 2 ) − ((125 dB) / (10 dB))

Or, rearranging, we find rhotel = = = 2.8 × 102 m. (b) The
/ (10 dB))
10 park 10
4π I th 4π (10−12 W/m 2 )
intensity is related to the sound intensity level through equation (17.5):
I room = I th (10( βroom / (10 dB)) ) = (10−12 W/m 2 )(10((50 dB)/ (10 dB)) ) = 1.0 × 10−7 W/m 2

17.33. We first determine the intensity of sound in the empty library, and then compare this intensity to the intensity
in a full library (with 120 students):
(β
I empty = I th × 10 empty = (10−12 W/m 2 )10((20 dB) / (10 dB)) = 1.0 × 10−10 W/m 2
/ (10 dB))

I full = I th × 10( βfull / (10 dB)) = (10−12 W/m 2 )10((70 dB) / (10 dB)) = 1.0 × 10−5 W/m 2
I full − I empty
Comparing the two intensities, we see that each student contributes an intensity of I student = =
120
(1.0 × 10−5 W/m 2 ) − (1.0 × 10−10 W/m 2 )
= 8.33 × 10−8 W/m 2 . Thus we expect an intensity with 60 students equal to
120
I 60 students = 60 I student = 5.00 × 10−6 W/m 2 . Finally, we calculate the intensity level with 60 students:
β 60 students = (10 dB)log10 ( I/I th ) = (10 dB)log10 ((5.00 × 10−6 W/m 2 )/(10−12 W/m 2 )) = 67 dB

17.34. (a) The intensities of the 16 cars will add. So first we find the intensity of a single car at that distance by
rearranging equation (17.5): I1 car = I th (10( β1 car / (10 dB)) ) = (10−12 W/m 2 )(10((90 dB) / (10 dB)) ) = 1.0 × 10−3 W/m 2 .
Thus the intensity of 16 such cars a distance 1.0 m away is I16 cars = 16 I1 car = 1.6 × 10−2 W/m 2 . Finally, we find the
intensity level corresponding to this intensity using equation (17.5) again. β16 cars = (10 dB)log10 ( I/ I th ) =
(10 dB)log10 ((1.6 × 10−2 W/m 2 )/(10−12 W/m 2 )) = 1.0 × 102 dB. (b) The power output is independent of the distance

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17-8 Chapter 17

from the cars. We can find the power output from the intensity we found in part (a). Applying equation (17.2), we
can write P = IA = I (4π r 2 ) = (1.6 × 10−2 W/m 2 )(4π (1.0 m)2 ) = 0.20 W. (c) Using the power from part (b), we first
P (0.201 W)
determine the intensity 300 m away: I = = = (1.78 × 10−7 W/m 2 ). Now we apply equation (17.5)
4π r 2
4π (300 m) 2
to determine β = (10 dB)log10 ( I/ I th ) = (10 dB)log10 ((1.78 × 10−7 W/m 2 )/(10−12 W/m 2 )) = 52 dB.

17.35. (a) Applying equation (17.5) we find β = (10 dB)log10 ( I/I th ) = (10 dB)log10 ((9.0 × 10−6 W/m 2 )/
(10−12 W/m 2 )) = 70 dB. (b) We rearrange equation (17.2) to find P = IA = I (4π r 2 ) = (9.0 × 10−6 W/m 2 )
(4π (2.3 × 103 ) 2 ) = 6.0 × 102 W. (c) We first use equation (17.5) to determine the intensity of sound required to
produce an intensity level of 100 dB: I = I th (10( β / (10 dB)) ) = (10−12 W/m 2 )(10((100 dB) /(10 dB)) ) = 1.0 × 10−2 W/m 2 .
I N whales (1.0 × 10−2 W/m 2 )
Dividing this intensity by the intensity of a single whale’s song, we find N = = =
I1 whale (9.0 × 10−6 W/m 2 )
1.1 × 103 whales.

17.36. (a) We determine the power output by rearranging equation (17.2): P = IA = I (4π r 2 ) =
(0.050 W/m 2 )(4π (12 m) 2 ) = 90 W. (b) We assume the distance remains 12 m. Then the intensity is given by
P (92 W)
applying equation (17.2): I = = = 0.051 W/m 2 .
4π r 2
4π (12 m) 2

17.37. Let us first consider how the locations of these points affects the intensity observed at a given point. For
some arbitrary point P (not necessarily R or Q) call the distance from P to source 1 d P1 , and call the distance from P
to source 2 d P2 . From the discussion of travelling waves in Chapter 16 of PRIN, we know that the energy carried in
any wave is proportional to its amplitude squared. The intensity is proportional to the power of the source, so we
write I ∼ a 2 or I = κ a 2 , where κ is an unknown constant with units W/m 4 . Relating this to equation (17.2) lets us
write
P
I= = κ a2 (1)
4π r 2
Equation (1) should hold for any source. We also know the principle of superposition, which says we can add the
displacements due to the waves from sources 1 and 2. Thus, we write the total amplitude of the resulting wave as the
sum (in the case of constructive interference) or the difference (in the case of destructive interference) of the two
amplitudes due to each source:
P1 P2 P ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
atotal = a1 ± a2 = ± = ⎜ ± ⎟
4πκ d P1
2
4πκ d P2
2
4πκ ⎝ d P1 d P2 ⎠
Now we apply equation (1) to this sum or difference of amplitudes to obtain an expression for the intensity of the
superposition of the two waves:
2
⎛ 1 1 ⎞P
I total = κ atotal
⎜
2
±= ⎟ (2)
⎝ P1
d d 4π
P2 ⎠

We will use equation (2) to determine all required intensities, but we must first determine the possible values of d P1
and d P2 for the two points in question (P = R and P = Q). Let us begin with point R. Because point R is on a line of
maximum destructive interference, we know that the waves from the two sources must be out of phase by half an
oscillation at point R. Since the waves are produced in phase, the only way for them to be half an oscillation out of
⎛ 1⎞
phase is for the distance d R2 to differ from d R1 by ⎜ n + ⎟ λ. Thus, the possible values of d R2 are
⎝ 2⎠
7.5λ , 8.5λ , 9.5λ , or 10.5λ. Note that because the sources are separated by a distance of 2λ , the minimum distance

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-9

that is geometrically possible for d R2 is 7λ and the maximum possible value of d R2 is 11λ , thus giving us only the
above mentioned possible values. Thus, the possible intensities at the point R are:
2
P ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
IR = ⎜ − ⎟ where d R2 = 7.5λ , 8.5λ , 9.5λ , or 10.5λ
4π ⎝ (9.0λ ) d R2 ⎠
The process is similar for point Q. Because it is along a line of maximum constructive interference, d Q2 must differ
from d Q1 by and integer number of wavelengths nλ . Again, considering the separation between sources, this gives
us possible values of d Q2 equal to 4λ , 5λ , 6λ , 7λ , or 8λ. The only other difference for point Q is that here the
amplitudes due to sources 1 and 2 are added in equation (2), rather than subtracted. Thus the possible intensities at
the point Q are:
2
P ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
IQ = ⎜ + ⎟ where d Q2 = 4λ , 5λ , 6λ , 7 λ , or 8λ
4π ⎜ (6.0λ ) d Q2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

17.38. We can use equation (17.2) to write the power of your stereo in terms of the intensity of sound in your living
room: P = IA = I living room (4π rliving
2
room ). We can also write the intensity of sound in the living room in terms of the
( β living room / (10 dB))
intensity levels given using equation (17.5): I living room = I th (10 ), such that the power emitted by your
( β living room / (10 dB))
stereo can be written P = I th (10 )(4π r 2
living room ). Applying this expression to the instants before and after
you turn down your stereo, we can calculate the difference in the power output of your stereo:
( β living room,f / (10 dB)) (β
Δ P = Pf − Pi = I th (4π rliving − 10 living room,i
2 / (10 dB))
room )(10 )
= (10−12 W/m 2 )(4π (8.0 m)2 )(10((45 dB) / (10 dB)) − 10((50 dB) / (10 dB)) ) = − 5.5 × 10−5 W
Thus, you reduced the power output of your stereo by a magnitude of 5.5 × 10−5 W.

17.39. You hear both frequencies because a frequency difference of Δf = 20 Hz should be easily discernable. You
would also hear 20 beats of louder and quieter sound each second. That is much too fast for a person to count the
beats, or even recognize them as beats. In fact, any oscillation with a frequency greater than 20 Hz is recognized by
the human ear as a separate sound. Thus you would hear a very low tone in addition to the two frequencies
mentioned previously.

17.40. Equation (17.8) tell us f beat = f1 − f 2 = (355 Hz) − (350 Hz) = 5 Hz.

1
17.41. You are hearing the average of the two frequencies, so f av = ( f1 + f 2 ), and we know from equation (17.8)
2
that f beat = f1 − f 2 . Solving, we find f1 = 198 Hz and f 2 = 194 Hz.

17.42. Because you hear four beats per second, you know the unknown frequency must differ from 762 Hz by 4 Hz.
If the frequency were 758 Hz, it would not be detectable by the detector. This leaves us with the answer of 766 Hz.

17.43. Increasing frequency A causes beat frequencies to increase, no matter which other frequency is played. This
mean that the difference f A − f other increases for any other frequency, meaning frequency A must be greater than any
other frequency. Similarly, increasing the frequency of B increases the beat frequency when frequency C is also
played. This tells us frequency B is greater than frequency C. But increasing frequency B causes the beat frequencies
to decrease when either frequency D or A is also played. Thus, frequency B is less than frequency D (and also less
than frequency A, which we already knew). Collecting these results, we find C < B < D < A.

17.44. When you place modeling clay on a tuning fork, you increase the amount of mass that oscillates back and
forth. You do nothing to the rigidity of the fork that drives the oscillation (the restoring force). Thus, you must
decrease the frequency of the oscillation. When you did this, it caused the beat frequency to increase, meaning you

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17-10 Chapter 17

must have lowered the frequency of the tuning fork that already had the lower of the two frequencies. Otherwise, if the
clay had been placed on the higher frequency fork, lowering the frequency would have brought its frequency closer to
that of the other fork and the beat frequency would have decreased. Thus, you placed the clay on the 524 Hz fork.

17.45. The possible beat frequencies are equal to the pairwise differences between the three frequencies being
emitted. These are f1 − f 2 = (262 Hz) − (264.3 Hz) = 2 Hz, f 2 − f3 = (264.3 Hz) − (258 Hz) = 6 Hz, and
f3 − f1 = (258 Hz) − (262 Hz) = 4 Hz. So the possible beat frequencies are 2 Hz, 4 Hz, and 6 Hz.

17.46. We are not told which is larger: the beat frequency or the average frequency. Let us first question whether it
is possible that the beat frequency might be twice the average frequency. Then we would write
2 f av = f beat ⇒ ( f1 + f 2 ) = ( f1 − f 2 ), which has no solution other than f 2 = 0. We thus proceed with the calculation
1
noting that the average frequency is the larger of the two. We have f av = 2 f beat ⇒ ( f1 + f 2 ) = 2( f1 − f 2 ), where we
2
f 5
have arbitrarily assigned f1 to be the higher of the two frequencies. Then ( f1 + f 2 ) = 4( f1 − f 2 ) ⇒ 1 = . It is not
f2 3
f2 3
specified that we must give the ratio of the higher frequency to the lower, so the answer = is also perfectly
f1 5
valid.

c 1 T
17.47. We can write the frequency of either violin string as f = = . Nothing changes about the linear mass
λ 2 μ
density or the length of the string as the tension is increased. Thus, we can write
1 Tf
ff 2 μ T T
= = f ⇒ ff = fi f
fi 1 Ti Ti Ti
2 μ
Thus, the difference between the two frequencies can be written
⎛ T ⎞ ⎛ (102 N) ⎞
f beats = f f − fi = f i ⎜ f − 1⎟ = (660 Hz) ⎜ − 1⎟ = 6.6 Hz
⎜ Ti ⎟ ⎜ (100 N) ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

17.48. (a) The beat frequency is 2.5 Hz, so f 2 − f1 = 2.5 Hz. By definition, the average frequency must differ from
each of the two combining frequencies by the same amount. Clearly, the two frequencies are given by
(3500 Hz) ± (1.25 Hz). This gives us frequencies of 3499 Hz and 3501 Hz. (b) We can add the intensities from the
2P 2(60 W)
two sources to obtain I = I1 + I 2 = = = 0.042 W/m 2 .
4π r 2
4π (15 m) 2

17.49. The shift magnitude decreases. The discussion of the Doppler effect involves the speed at which a source
approaches a listener or detector. Unless you are standing directly on the tracks (not recommended) the velocity of
the train is not directed toward you. Rather there is some component of the velocity directed toward you. The speed
with which the train “approaches” you refers only to this component. If you stand very near the tracks, the velocity of
the train will be almost directly toward you. As you move away, the component of the velocity that is directed toward
you becomes smaller and smaller, reducing the magnitude of the Doppler effect.

17.50. (a) We apply equation (17.14) because the source (your car horn) is approaching the observer (your friend).
Thus
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (360 Hz) = 382 Hz
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (19.4 m/s) ⎠

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-11

(b) Once we pass the friend, the source will be receding away from the listener. In this case, we use equation (17.15)
to obtain
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (360 Hz) = 341 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (19.4 m/s) ⎠

17.51. We use equation (17.17), because the observer (you) is approaching the source (the bells). Thus
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) + (4.47 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (400 Hz) = 405 Hz
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) ⎠

17.52. We start with equations (17.13) and (17.14) to obtain expressions for the frequencies you observe when the
car is approaching you, and receding from you. Since the frequency must be higher as the car approaches you than
when it recedes, and since one octave difference corresponds to a factor of two, we can write
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞
f o,approaching = 2 f o,receding ⇒ ⎜ ⎟ fs = 2 ⎜ ⎟ f s or vs = c/3 = ( 343 m/s ) /3 = 114 m/s
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ c + vs ⎠
We are asked to estimate. So we know the magnitude of the speed of the car is approximately 1 × 102 m/s.

17.53. (a) Let the percentage by which we wish to change the observed frequency by p. Since the observer is
⎛ ⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎞
moving away from the source, we use equation (17.19) to write f s − f o = ⎜ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ f s = pf s , or vo = pc. So for
⎝ ⎝ c ⎠⎠
the case p = 0.01, we have vo = pc = (0.01)(343 m/s) = 3 m/s. (b) In part (a) we showed that for a reduction in
observed frequency of percent p, the speed required is vo = pc. In this case vo = pc = (0.10)(343 m/s) = 34 m/s. (c)
In part (a) we showed that for a reduction in observed frequency of percent p, the speed required is vo = pc. In this
1
case vo = pc = (343 m/s) = 172 m/s.
2

17.54. We have two unknowns: the speed of the float and the frequency being played by the flute. We can write
equations describing the Doppler shift in the frequency as the float approaches and recedes from the observer using
equations (17.13) and (17.14):
⎛ c ⎞
f o,approaching = ⎜ ⎟ fs (1)
⎝ c − vs ⎠
⎛ c ⎞
f o,receding = ⎜ ⎟ fs (2)
⎝ c + vs ⎠
Solving equation (1) for the frequency of the source, and inserting the expression into equation (2), we obtain
⎛ c − vs ⎞
f o,receding = ⎜ ⎟ f o,approaching
⎝ c + vs ⎠
Or equivalently
(f − f o,receding ) ((352 Hz) − (347 Hz))
vs = o,approaching c= (343 m/s) = 2 m/s
( f o,approaching + f o,receding ) ((352 Hz) + (347 Hz))

17.55. (a) Because both the source and the observer are in motion, we use equation (17.21):
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (2.70 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (300 Hz) = 299 Hz
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (2.00 m/s) ⎠
(b) We can continue using equation (17.21) in this case, but we insert zero for the speed of the observer. This yields
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (0) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (300 Hz) = 298 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (2.00 m/s) ⎠

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17-12 Chapter 17

17.56. Call the direction of your motion the + x direction. Since the cars cover the 200 m between them in 3.0 s, the
(200 m)
one component of the relative velocity of the two cars is vyou,x − vpolice,x = = 66.67 m/s. We know the x
(3.00 s)
component of your velocity is vyou,x = 26.94 m/s, which means the x component of the police car’s velocity is
vpolice,x = vyou,x − (66.67 m/s) = (26.94 m/s) − (66.67 m/s) = − 39.72 m/s. Now we use equation (17.21) to relate the
observed frequency to the emitted frequency. We note that the signs in equation (17.21) are not necessarily the same
as the signs of the x components of the velocities. The signs in equation (17.21) are determined either by reviewed
the description in Principles, or by noting whether each motion should serve to increase or decrease the frequency. In
this case, we have
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ c − vs ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (39.72 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs ⇒ fs = ⎜ ⎟ fo = ⎜ ⎟ (310 Hz) = 254 Hz
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ c + vo ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (26.94 m/s) ⎠

17.57. (a) We apply equation (17.21), because both the source and the observer are in motion relative to the
medium (air). The signs in equation (17.21) are determined either by reviewed the description in Principles, or by
noting whether each motion should serve to increase or decrease the frequency. In this case, we have
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) + (25 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (400 Hz) = 4.5 × 10 Hz
2

⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (18.1 m/s) ⎠

(b) The solving process is identical to that in part (a), but now the signs in equation (17.21) will change:
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (25 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (400 Hz) = 3.5 × 10 Hz
2

⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (18.1 m/s) ⎠

17.58. (a) We apply equation (17.17) because here the observer is approaching a stationary source. Thus
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) + (5.89 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (150 Hz) = 153 Hz
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) ⎠
(b) We apply equation (17.19) because here the observer is receding away from a stationary source. Thus
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ f ⎞ ⎛ (149 Hz) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs ⇒ vo = ⎜1 − o ⎟ c = ⎜1 − ⎟ (343 m/s) = 2.29 m/s
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ fs ⎠ ⎝ (150 Hz) ⎠

17.59. (a) The electronic machine gun on A emits 300 rounds per minute. So a burst that lasts 10 seconds according
to pilot A will consist of 50 rounds. That is the total number of pulses emitted, and that number cannot be different
for different observers. Pilot B agrees that there are a total of 50 sound pulses in that burst. (b) We use equation
(17.21) to relate the frequencies of sound pulses heard by the two pilots, which can trivially be rewritten in terms of
the period of one sound pulse:
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ c − vs ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (79.17 m/s) ⎞ ⎛ 10 s ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ f s ⇒ To = ⎜ ⎟ Ts = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.124 s
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ c + vo ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (81.94 m/s) ⎠ ⎝ 50 ⎠
So the duration of 50 such pulses is 50To = 50(0.124 s) = 6.2 s.

17.60. (a) This is a simple case of a source receding from the observer, so we use equation (17.15):
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (560 Hz) = 532 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (18.0 m/s) ⎠
(b) It may seem like this situation is physically the same as in part (a). But sound waves propagate through the air, so
the relevant speeds are those relative to the air. So we use vo = 12.0 m/s and vs = 6.0 m/s, and equation (17.21) to
write
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (12.0 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (560 Hz) = 531 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (6.0 m/s) ⎠
The difference between (a) and (b) is small, but they are not the same. (c) The speed of the buzzer relative to the
surrounding air is 6.0 m/s. But we do not know where the person by the tracks is standing (ahead of you or behind
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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-13

you). We do not know if the source is approaching the observer or receding from the observer. Thus we find two
possible answers. If the person is standing such that the buzzer approaches him or her, we have
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (560 Hz) = 570 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (6.0 m/s) ⎠
If the buzzer is thrown such that it recedes away from the person, then the frequency heard by the person is
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (560 Hz) = 550 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (6.0 m/s) ⎠

17.61. The highest frequency that is audible to humans is approximately 20 kHz. Clearly, we can only lower the
frequency heard from a stationary source by moving the observer away from the source. We can apply equation
(17.21), inserting zero for the speed of the source. We find
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ fo ⎞ ⎛ (20 kHz) ⎞
fo = ⎜ ⎟ fs ⇒ vo = ⎜1 − f ⎟ c = ⎜1 − (21 kHz) ⎟ (343 m/s) = 16 m/s
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ s ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
So, you must move at a speed of 16 m/s away from the source in order for the whistle to become audible.

17.62. This problem involves reflection, which can be tricky. Initially, waves are approaching the submarine, and
we are interested in how many pulses of sound strike the hull each second. From this perspective, the submarine
plays the role of an observer (in that it is receiving a sound signal) that is receding away from the source. Let us call
this intermediate frequency with which the sound reaches the submarine fint . Clearly, through equation (17.19)
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛c−v⎞
f int = ⎜ ⎟ f s = ⎜ c ⎟ f . But as waves are absorbed and re-emitted by the hull in the reflection process, the
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
submarine then acts as the source of waves. Now the source is receding and the frequency detected by a stationary
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ c−v ⎞
observer will be f ' = ⎜ ⎟ f int = ⎜ ⎟ fint or, equivalently f ' = ⎜ ⎟ f.
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝c+v⎠ ⎝c+v⎠

17.63. This problem involves reflection, which can be tricky. Initially, waves are emitted by the device and approach
the stationary flat surface. From this perspective, the device plays the role of a source that is approaching the observer
(in the sense that the flat surface can be considered an observer, as it receives the sound signal). Let us call this
intermediate frequency with which the sound reaches the flat surface fint . Clearly, through equation (17.13) f int =
⎛ c ⎞
⎜ ⎟ f s . But as waves are absorbed and re-emitted by the surface in the reflection process, the surface then acts as
⎝ c − vs ⎠
the source of waves, and the moving device acts as an observer approaching a stationary source. Using equation (17.17),
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) + (22.2 m/s) ⎞
we see the device will detect a frequency f ' = ⎜ ⎟ fint = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (700 Hz) =
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (22.2 m/s) ⎠
8.0 × 102 Hz.

17.64. (a) This is a case of a moving source approaching a stationary observer, so we apply equation (17.13) and
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
find f int = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (680 Hz) = 713 Hz. (b) This is also a case of a moving source
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (16.0 m/s) ⎠
⎛ c ⎞
approaching a stationary observer, so we again apply equation (17.13): fint = ⎜ ⎟ fs =
⎝ c − vs ⎠
⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
⎜ ⎟ (670 Hz) = 701 Hz. (c) We are not told which beat frequency we are to find: the beat
⎝ (343 m/s) − (15.0 m/s) ⎠
frequency detected by student A or the beat frequency detected by student B. We calculate both, and we start with
student A. Student A hears the sound emitted by the football that he just threw (call this football A), as an observer
hearing a sound from a receding source. So we can apply equation (17.15) to write

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17-14 Chapter 17

⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
f AA = ⎜ ⎟ fA = ⎜ ⎟ (680 Hz) = 649.7 Hz
⎝ c + vA ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (16.0 m/s) ⎠
Student A similarly hears the sound from the ball thrown by student B (call this football B) as an observer hearing a
sound from an approaching source. So we can apply equation (17.14) to write
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
f AB = ⎜ ⎟ fB = ⎜ ⎟ (670 Hz) = 700.6 Hz
⎝ c − vB ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (15.0 m/s) ⎠
Thus, the beat frequency detected by student A is f beat,A = f AA − f AB = (649.7 Hz) − (700.6 Hz) = 51 Hz.
Performing exactly the same processes, we find the frequencies detected by B due to footballs A and B respectively
are:
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
f BA = ⎜ ⎟ fA = ⎜ ⎟ (680 Hz) = 713.3 Hz
⎝ c − vA ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (16.0 m/s) ⎠
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
f BB = ⎜ ⎟ fB = ⎜ ⎟ (670 Hz) = 641.9 Hz
⎝ c + vB ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (15.0 m/s) ⎠
This means the beat frequency detected by student B is f beat,B = f BA − f BB = (713.3 Hz) − (641.9 Hz) = 71 Hz.
So the beat frequencies are 51 Hz (detected by student A) and 71 Hz (detected by student B). Note that neither
student actually hears beats, because the beat frequencies are in the range of normal human hearing as separate tones.

c (343 m/s)
17.65. Using equation (17.22), we can write vs = = = 4.7 × 102 m/s.
sin(θ ) sin(47 °)

⎛c⎞ − 1 ⎛ (20.1 km/h) ⎞

17.66. Using equation (17.22), we can write θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 24.8°.
⎝ s⎠
v ⎝ (48.0 km/h) ⎠

17.67. Using equation (17.22), we can write c = vs sin(θ ) = (73.0 km/h)sin(14.3 °) = 18.0 km/h or, equivalently
5.00 m/s.

17.68. The plane travelling at mach 1.5 is heard first. Because the plane travelling at mach 1.5 is the slower of the two,
it will have a wider angle to its Mach cone. It is easy to see geometrically that this wave will reach you first. Another
way to understand this is to think about the sound that will reach your ears first. It is not sound that was produced by the
jets as they flew over your head (those sounds will reach you at the same time, because sound propagates at the same
speed from each source). The sound that reaches your ears first is sound that was emitted a short time before the jets
passed over your head. For any time interval before the jets passed overhead, the faster jet was farther away.

17.69. Drawing a diagram of this setup verifies that the angle between your line of sight and the horizontal is an
opposite interior angle to the angle of the Mach cone at the front of the jet. Thus, those two angles are the same, and
⎛c⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
we can write θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 50.3 °.
⎝ s⎠
v ⎝ 1.30 ⎠

17.70. As the plane emits sound, this sound disturbs the surrounding air, causing turbulence, and even the
condensation of water. The region of disturbed air and water droplets moves out away from the plane at the speed of
sound. As the plane passes the speed of sound, it catches up to this region of turbulence. Once the jet passes the speed
of sound, the jet moves forward faster than the region of turbulence and water droplets, such that this region no
longer has any adverse effect on the ride.

17.71. The reasoning is invalid because it is based on the sonic boom being created at only one instant, the instant
the plane attains Mach 1 speed. A sonic boom is continuous at all speeds above Mach 1.

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-15

17.72. Imagine a line perpendicular to the shock wave of the plane and passing through the woman’s position on the
ground. This can also be thought of as a line from the woman to the part of the shock wave that will strike her.
Simple geometry shows that the angle between this line and vertical is also 30°. If we call the height of the plane h,
then the length of this line is = h cos(30 °) = (20,000 m)cos(30 °) = 17.3 km. This line is the path that sound will
1.73 × 104 m
travel to the woman, so we can determine the time as Δ t = = = 50 s.
c 343 m/s

⎛c⎞ −1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
17.73. (a) We determine the angle by simply applying equation (17.22): θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ ⎟ = 28°. (b)
⎝ vs ⎠ ⎝ 2.1 ⎠
Imagine a line perpendicular to the shock wave of the bullet and passing through the position of the microphone. This
can also be thought of as a line from the microphone to the part of the shock wave that will strike it. Simple geometry
shows that the angle between this line and vertical is also 28.4° . If we call the vertical height of the bullet above the
microphone h, then the length of this line is = h cos(28.4°). This line is the path that sound will travel to the
h cos(28.4 °) cΔ t (343 m/s)(0.0021 s)
microphone, so we can equate c = = , such that h = = = 0.82 m.
Δt Δt cos(28.4 °) cos(28.4°)

17.74. (a) Imagine a line perpendicular to the shock wave of the plane and passing through your position on the
ground. This can also be thought of as a line from you to the part of the shock wave that will strike you. Simple
geometry shows that the angle between this line and vertical is also 42°. If we call the height of the plane h, then the
length of this line is = h cos(42°) = (3,000 m)cos(42 °) = 2.23 km. This line is the path that sound will travel to
2.23 × 103 m
you, so we can determine the time as Δ t = = = 6.5 s. (b) We use equation (17.22) to determine the
c 343 m/s
c (343 m/s)
speed of the jet: vs = = = 513 m/s. Thus d = vΔ t = (513 m/s)(6.50 s) = 3.3 × 103 m.
sin(θ ) sin(42 °)

17.75. Let us choose axes such that the car move along the + y direction. Call the perpendicular distance from you
to the car’s path Δ x. Imagine a line perpendicular to the shock wave of the plane and passing through your position
on the ground. This can also be thought of as a line from you to the part of the shock wave that will strike you.
Simple geometry shows that the angle between this line and the y axis is also 37.0°. The length of this line is
= Δ x cos(37.0°). This line is the path that sound will travel to you, so we can relate this distance to the time
Δ x cos(37.0 °) cΔ t (343 m/s)(0.045 s)
required using the speed of sound: Δ t = = ⇒ Δx = = = 19 m.
c c cos(37.0°) cos(37.0°)

17.76. One hears no sound from the jet before the sonic boom. After the sonic boom one hears basically normal
sound from the rear of the plane, although the frequency of the sound would be Doppler shifted.

17.77. No. The boom arises because the object moves faster than sound. This means the source emits sound from
many positions, and the sound waves from all these positions combine into a high-amplitude (very loud) sound. This
effect exists for all speeds greater than Mach 1. But exceeding Mach 2 does nothing to the sonic boom, except
narrow the angle of the Mach cone.

17.78. Yes, the pilots can hear each other. The speed of sound is given relative to the motion of the medium. Since
the air inside the cockpit is at rest relative to the pilots, they have no problem hearing each other. If one tried to fly at
supersonic speeds with an open cockpit (which would present many other problems) the pilot in front would not be
able to hear the pilot in the rear.

b (2512 s −1 ) d (2575 s −1 )
17.79. (a) f1 = = = 399.8 Hz and f 2 = = = 409.8 Hz (b) Taking the difference of
2π 2π 2π 2π
the two frequencies in part (a) yields f beat = f1 − f 2 = (399.8 Hz) − (409.8 Hz) = 10.0 Hz.

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17-16 Chapter 17

17.80. The highest frequency the driver will hear corresponds to the moment when the car is moving directly
toward the spectator (the air horn). At this point, we can apply equation (17.17) to find
⎛ c + vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) + (97.2 m/s) ⎞
f o,max = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (400 Hz) = 513 Hz
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) ⎠
The lowest frequency will be head by the driver as the car recedes away from the air horn. In this case we can use
equation (17.19) to find
⎛ c − vo ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) − (97.2 m/s) ⎞
f o,min = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (400 Hz) = 287 Hz
⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) ⎠
As the driver passes the spectator, the velocity of the car is no longer directed exactly toward or away from the air
horn. Rather the velocity has some component toward or away from the air horn, and this component changes
continuously. So the frequency heard by the driver will sweep continuously from the maximum to the minimum.
Thus the driver will hear all frequencies between 287 Hz and 513 Hz.

17.81. Hyperbola. The hyperbola can be defined using two points (foci) f1 and f 2 , as the set of all points P such
that the difference between the distances from P to f1 and from P to f 2 is constant.

17.82. The edges of any aperture act as sources for the sound. If the edges are separated by a distance that is close to
the wavelength of the sound being emitted, there may be many dead zones in front of the speaker. Higher frequency
sounds have shorter wavelengths. The large aperture of the woofer would put sources of high-frequency sound so far
apart that they could interfere with each other destructively in several places in front of the speaker. Using a
“tweeter” ensures that the sources of the sound are never so far apart as to produce many dead spots.

2π R π (27.0 m)
17.83. The speed of the children around the Ferris wheel is v = = = 3.534 m/s. The highest
T (24.0 s)
frequency will be heard from a child moving directly toward you, and the lowest will be heard from a child moving
directly away from you. Because the children are on opposite sides of the Ferris where, you can hear the maximum
and minimum frequencies at the same time. We calculate these Doppler shifted frequencies using equation (17.21),
inserting zero for the speed of the observer:
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
f o,max = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (600 Hz) = 606.2 Hz
⎝ c − vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) − (3.534 m/s) ⎠
⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ (343 m/s) ⎞
f o,min = ⎜ ⎟ fs = ⎜ ⎟ (600 Hz) = 593.9 Hz
⎝ c + vs ⎠ ⎝ (343 m/s) + (3.534 m/s) ⎠
These frequencies will produce a beat frequency of f beats = f o,max − f o,min = (606.2 Hz) − (593.9 Hz) = 12 Hz, or
12.4 beats per second.

P
17.84. Call the distance from one row to the next row d. For a given position, we can write =I =
4π r 2
I th (10( β / (10 dB)) ). We apply this to the two relevant positions: a distance 4d from the stage, and a distance Nd from
the stage, and we take the ratio of the two expressions:
⎛ P ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
I 4th row ⎝ 4π (4d ) ⎠ I th (10( β4th row / (10 dB)) )
= =
I Nth row ⎛ P ⎞ I th (10( β Nth row / (10 dB)) )
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4π ( Nd ) ⎠
2

Or
N = 4 10(( β4th row − β Nth row ) / (10 dB)) = 4 10(((100 dB) − (80 dB))/ (10 dB)) = 40
You want to sit in the 40th row.

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 Waves in Two and Three Dimensions 17-17

17.85. Let us use the information given to determine the maximum distance from a radio station at which the signal
would still be sufficient for you to detect it with your dish. The power you must pick up in your dish can be written in
2
⎛d⎞
terms of the intensity at the location of your dish and the dish’s surface area: Pdish,min = I min Adish = I minπ ⎜ ⎟ . We can
⎝2⎠
⎛ Pstation ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞2
write this minimum intensity in terms of the power of the radio station, such that Pdish,min = ⎜
⎜ 4π rstation,max ⎟⎟ π ⎜ ⎟ .
⎠ ⎝2⎠
2
⎝
Pstation (50 W)
Rearranging, we find rstation,max = d = (0.60 m) = 3.4 km. Your current setup would
16 Pdish,min 16(1.0 × 10−7 W)
only allow you to pick up radio stations 3.4 km down the road, or 2.1 miles. You might try using a larger dish to
detect more distant signals.

17.86. Call the frequency heard by the engineer f eng and the frequency you hear f. Call the angle away from the line
perpendicular to the track to the train θ . If we draw the velocity vector of the train, it is easy to decompose this into
components: one along a line directly toward you and one perpendicular to that. Then simple geometry shows that
the component of the train’s velocity directed toward you (as it approaches) is vtrain sin( θ ), where the absolute value
is there only to avoid confusion between negative signs in the Doppler effect, and possible negative values of an
angle. Then, as simple application of equation (17.21) shows us that the frequency you hear is related to the
⎛ c ⎞
frequency that the engineer hears according to f = f eng ⎜ ⎟ , where c = 343 m/s is the speed of sound in
⎜ c − v sin( θ ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ c ⎞
air. Once the whistle has passed you and is receding away, the expression would become f = f eng ⎜ ⎟.
⎜ c + v sin ( θ ) ⎟
⎝ ⎠

© Copyright 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.