the nature of

mathematics
As rational creatures, we tend to
identify and follow patterns
whether consciously or
subconsciously.
Recognizing patterns feels natural,
like our brain is hardwired to
recognize them.

Patterns
Patterns are regular, repeated, or
recurring forms or designs.
Example:

Tiger's Stripes and Hyena's

Spots.
Patterns are also exhibited in the
external appearances of animals.
These seemingly random designs are
believed to be governed by
mathematical equations.
According to a theory by Allan Turing,
chemical reactions and diffusion
processes in cells determine these
growth patterns.
1. What number comes next in 1, 3,
5, 7...? 9
2. What number comes next in 1, 4, 9,
16, 25...? 36

Early Humans recognized the

repeating interval of day and
night, the cycle of the moon, the
rising and falling of tides and the
changing of seasons.
Packing Problems The Sunflower
Packing problems involve finding the There is a definite pattern of clockwise
optimum method of filling up a given and counterclockwise arcs or spirals
space such as a cubic or spherical extending outward from the center of
container. the flower.
An example of a packing problem is the This arrangement allows the sunflower
structure and shape of a honeycomb. seed to occupy the flower head in a
It is observed that such formation way that maximizes their access to
enables the bee colony to maximize light and nutrients.
their storage of honey using the
smallest amount of wax.

Honeycomb
It is observed that such formation
enables the bee colony to maximize
their storage of honey using the
smallest amount of wax.

The Snail's Shell

Snails are born with their shells, called
protoconch, which start out as fragile
and colorless.
The figure on the bottom is called an
equiangular spiral, follows the rule
that as the distance from the center
Flower Petals increases, the angles formed by the
If you look more closely, you will note radii to the point and the tangent to
that different flowers have different the point remain constant.
numbers of petals.
Flowers with five petals are said to be
the most common.
Symmetry Rotational Symmetry and
Symmetry indicated that you can the Angle of Rotation
draw an imaginary line across an Rotational Symmetry is the property
object and the resulting parts are a shape has when it looks the same
mirror images of each other. after some rotation by a partial turn.
The figure to the right is The smallest that a figure can be
symmetric about the axis indicated rotated while still preserving the
by the dotted line. This type of original formation is called the angle
symmetry as line, line or bilateral of rotation.
symmetry.
360°
Angle of Rotation =
n
where n is the order of rotation.

Example: Find the angle

rotation for the following

The Vitruvian Man

Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man Angle of Rotation =
360° =
120°
3
shows the proportions and 360°
Angle of Rotation = = 72°
symmetry of the human body. 5
360°
Angle of Rotation = = 90°
4

Sequence
A sequence is an ordered list of
numbers, called terms, that may have
repeated values. The arrangement of
these terms is set by a definite rule.
Example:
Analyze the given sequence for its rule and
identify the next 3 turns.

Other Types of Symmetry a. 1, 10, 100, 1000, ... 10000, 100000, 1000000
There are other types of symmetry b. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20, ... 27, 35, 44
depending on the number of sides Example:
of faces that are symmetrical. Analyze the given sequence for its rule and
identify the next three terms.

a. 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024

b. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34
 Fibonacci Sequence has many
interesting properties.
The Ratio of successive Fibonacci
numbers approach the number Phi(),
also known as the Golden Ratio.

Mathematics for Our World

Mathematics for Organization
Mathematics for Prediction
Mathematics for Control
Mathematics is Indispensable

Mathematics for
Organization
Fibonacci Sequence
It is named after the Italian mathematician
Leonardo of Pisa, who was better known by
his nickname Fibonacci.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144,...

We define Fib(n) be the nth term of the

Fibonacci sequence, with
We need mathematical tools to help us
Fib(1)=1, Fib(2)=1, Fib(3)=2, Fib(4)=3,.... make sound analysis and better decisions.

Example: A particular store can gather data

on the shopping habits of its customers and
make necessary adjustments to help drive
sales.

Geometrically, it can also be visualized

as a rectangle perfectly formed by a
square and another rectangle, which
can be repeated infinitely inside each
section.

Scientists can plot bird migration

routes to help conserve endangered
animal populations.
Mathematics for Prediction • Whether you are on your way to
becoming a doctor, an engineer, an
entrepreneur, or a chef, a forester, a
knowledge of mathematics will be helpful.

We can use mathematical models

using existing data to generate
analysis and interpretations, we
can also use them to make
predictions.

Examples: Applying the concept of

probability, experts can calculate the
chance of an event occurring. The
weather is a prime example.

Based on historical patters,

meteorologists can make forecasts to
help us prepare for our day-to-day
activities.

Mathematics for Control

The observations of nature, as well as
their interactions and relationships,
could be more elegantly described by
means of mathematical equations.

"With a few symbols on a page you can

describe a wealth of physical
phenomena"- Brian Greene

Mathematics is
Indispensable.
"How is it possible that mathematics, a
product of human thought that is
independent of experience, fits so
excellently the objects of reality." -
Albert Einstein
Mathematical Language
and Symbols
Characteristics of the MATHEMATICS: Expressions
Language of Mathematics versus Sentences
The language of mathematics makes it The mathematical analogue of a 'noun' will
easy to express the kinds of thoughts be called an expression.
that mathematicians like to express. It The mathematical analogue of a 'sentence'
is: will also be called a sentence. A
•PRECISE (able to make very fine mathematical sentence, just as an English
distinctions); sentence, must state a complete thought.
•CONCISE (able to say things briefly);
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
•POWERFUL (able to express complex
thoughts with relative ease). NOUN (person, EXPRESION
Name place, thing) Examples: 5,
The language of mathematics can be given to
Examples: 2+3, 1/2
learned, but requires the efforts and
needed to learn any foreign language. Carol, Idaho,
object
book
ENGLISH: Nouns versus SENTENCE SENTENCE
A Examples:The Examples:
Sentences 3+4=7
complete capital of Aurora
English, nouns are used to name thought is Dipaculao. The 3+4=8
things we want to talk about (like capital of Aurora
people, places, and things); whereas is Baler.
sentences are used to state complete
thoughts. EXAMPLE.
Classify the entries blow as: an English
ENGLISH SENTENCES
Noun(EN), or a Mathematical
A typical English sentence has at least Sentence(ME), English Sentence(ES), or a
one noun, and at least one verb. For Mathematical Sentence(MS)
example, consider the sentence.
1.cat EN
Example:
2. 2 ME
Carol loves mathematics. 3. The word 'cat' begins with the letter
Here, 'Carol' and 'mathematics' are 'k. ES
nouns; 'loves' is a verb. 4. 1+2=4 MS
5. 5-3 ME
6. 5-3 2 MS
7. The cat is black. ES
8. x ME
9. x=1 MS If you read the sentence as 'three plus four
10. x-1=0 MS is equal to seven', then it's easy to 'hear' the
11. t +3 MS verb. Indeed, the equal sign '=' is one of the
12. t+3=3+t MS most popular mathematical verbs.
13. This sentence is false. ES
14. x+0=x MS NUMBERS HAVE
15. 1.x=X MS DIFFERENT NAMES
Truth of Sentences Since people frequently need to work with
numbers, these are the most common type
Sentences can be TRUE or FALSE. of mathematical expression.

The notion of truth (i.e., the property of For example, the expressions
being true or false) is of fundamental
importance in the mathematical language; 5 2+3 10÷2
this will become apparent as you read the (6-2)+1 1+1+1+1+1
book.
all look different, but are all just different
EXAMPLE. names for the same number.

1. cat
2. 2 Meaning of is.
3. The word 'cat' begins with the letter 'k' Symbols
FALSE 5 is the square root
4. 1+2 4 FALSE 5 = √25
of 25
5. 5-3
6. 5-3=2 TRUE 3 is less than 10 3 < 10
7. The cat is black. TRUE
8. x 7 is a whole number 7ЄW
9. x=1 Sometimes True, Sometimes False
10. x-1=0 Sometimes True, Sometimes False
8 is an even number 8 Є{2n: n Є Z}
11. t +3
12. t+3=3+t TRUE
13. This sentence is false. Sometimes True, Mathematical Symbols
Sometimes False
Symbols Meaning
14. x +0 = x TRUE
15. 1-x=x TRUE
Σ the sum of

Ideas Regarding Sentences:

Sentences Have Verbs
∃ there exists

Just as English sentences have verbs, so do ∀ for every (for any)

mathematical sentences.
Є is an element of
In the mathematical sentence '3 + 4 = 7',
the verb is'='.
Meaning of is.
Symbols

5 is the square root

5 = √25
of 25

3 is less than 10 3 < 10

7 is a whole number 7ЄW

8 is an even number 8 Є{2n: n Є Z}

Mathematical Symbols
Symbols Meaning

Σ the sum of

∃ there exists

∀ for every (for any)

Є is an element of
 Symbols Meaning Translate each of the following phrases
into mathematical expressions.
⊆ is a subset of
Phrases Expressions

1. The sum of 2 and a

R set of real numbers 2+x
number

Z set of integers 2. Twice a number 2x

Q set of rational numbers 3. Five more than a x+5

number
N set of natural numbers 4. Three less than a
x-3
number

If... then 5. Three is less than a

→ 3<x
number
Translate each of the following 6. the sum of the
x² + y²
sentences into mathematical symbols. squares of x and y
7. the square of the
Sentence Symbols (x + y)²
sum of x and y
1. 5 is an integer. 5ЄZ
8. The product of x and y xy
2. 4 is a rational ¼ЄQ
number. 9. The difference of x and y x-y
3. The square of a
x² > 0
number is positive.
4. The values of y
2≤ y ≤5
ranges from 2 to 5.

Write as English sentences

English Sentence

For every real number x, the

1. ∀x Є R, x² ≥0 square of x is greater than or
equal to zero
There exists integer m and n such
∃
2. m, n Є Z , m − n ≤ m + n that the difference of m and n is
less than or equal to their sum.
For every real numbers x and y,
3. ∀x, y Є R,(x+y)²=x²+y² the square of the sum of x and y is
equal to the sum of their squares.
 PRoblem Solving
Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
Example 1:
All men are mortal.
Ram is a man.
} Premises
Therefore, Ram is mortal. True Conclusion
Example 2:
All even numbers are divisible by 2.
22 is even.
Therefore, 22 is divisible by 2.
Example 3:
Reasoning
Marvel Comic characters are fictional. Iron
is the drawing of inferences or
Man is a Marvel Comics character.
conclusions from known or
Therefore, Iron Man is a fictional character.
assumed facts.
Example 4:
All musical instruments make sounds.
Jeepneys make sounds. Therefore, jeepneys
are musical instruments.

Deductive Reasoning
The process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general ideas called
“premises” Inductive Reasoning
The process of reaching a general
𝑎→𝑏 conclusion by examining specific
observations.
𝑏→c

∴𝑎→𝑐
Syllogism is form of deductive
reasoning where you arrive at a
specific conclusion by examining two
other premises or ideas.
Transitive property of equality:
If a = b and b = c, then a = c
 4. My father has a black hair. My brother
has a black hair. Therefore, everyone I am
related to has black hair. Inductive
Reasoning
5. The Game of Thrones TV series was a
worldwide success. Therefore, any sequel
for the series will probably be successful.
Inductive Reasoning

Examples
Polya’s Steps in Problem
Example 1:
Solving and Problem Solving
Premises

Yesterday morning. Ysa went jogging

This morning, she jogged again.
} Strategies
Therefore, Ysa will jog tomorrow morning.
Probable Conclusion
Example 2:
Draw the next figure in the pattern.

"Mathematical problem solving is

Determine the kind of reasoning used in each finding a way around a difficulty, around
argument. an obstacle, and finding a solution to a
problem that is unknown." - George Polya
1. The teacher used Google Classroom in the
few classes. Therefore, the teacher will use Polya’s Four-Step Process
Google Classroom tomorrow. Inductive
Reasoning
for Problem Solving
1. Understand the problem
2. All licensed drivers are 17 years old and
2. Devise a plan
above. Marcus has a driver’s license.
3. Carry out the plan
Therefore, Marcus is at least 17 years old.
4. Look back
Deductive Reasoning
Step 1: Understand the problem
3. All spiders have eight legs. Black widows Look for the information given
are spiders. Therefore, black widows have Visualize the information
eight legs. Deductive Reasoning Organize the information
Connect the information
Step 2: Devise a plan t + t + t = 30
Make a Representation t + c + c = 18
- draw a diagram c–s=2
- make a systematic list t+c+s=x
- Use equations
Make a Calculated Guess
- guess and check Step 2.1: Devise a plan
- Look for a pattern Let 𝑡 = 𝑐= 𝑠= 𝑥 = missing value
- make a suppositions 3t = 30
Step 3: Carry out the plan t + 2c= 18
Use mathematical knowledge c–s=2
Use mathematical skills t+c+s=x
Use logical thinking
Step 4: Look Back
Step 3: Carry out the plan
Check solution
Improve and seek alternative solution if t + t + t = 30 t + c + c = 18 c–s=2
necessary. 3t = 30 t + 2c = 18 4–s=2
3 3
10 + 2c = 18 4–2=s
t = 10
Example: 2c =18 –10 s=2
2c = 8
2 2
c=4
t+c+s=x
10 + 4 + 2 = 𝑥
𝑥 =16
Step 4: Look Back

Step 1: Understand the problem

Shapes represent
numbers. 16
The first three
equations are
clues.
Find the missing
numbers to solve
the last equation.

Step 2: Devise a plan

Let 𝑡 = 𝑐= 𝑠= 𝑥 = missing value
Problem Solving Strategies Look for a Pattern
Guess and Check

6+1=7
7+2=9
9 + 3 = 12

Make an Orderly List or

Process of Elimination
Table
Jason, Zach, Billy, Triny and Kimberly are a
Sheldon has asked his girlfriend Amy to group of superheroes.
make all the decisions for their date on her
a. Zach is younger than Triny.
birthday. She will pick a fast-food chain
b. Zach is not the youngest in the group.
and an activity for the date. Sheldon will
c. Only one superheroes is older than
choose a gift for her. The local chains
Kimberly.
include Jollimee, Mang Inasar, and
d. Kimberly is younger than Billy.
Chowkingyan. The activities she can 1 2 5 3
choose from are bowling and videoke. Arrange Jason, Zach, Billy, Triny and
4
Kimberly in order of increasing age.
Sheldon will buy her either a bag or
flowers. How many outcomes are here for
Work Backwards
these three decisions?
Martina got on the school bus. At the stop
after Martina’s, 4 students got on. Seven
students got on the bus at the next stop. At
the last stop before the school, 9 students
got on. When the bus arrived at school, 41
students got off. How many students were
already on the bus when Martina got on?
41 – 9 – 7 – 4 – 1 = 20 Students
Draw a Picture/Diagram/Model
Mr. Yoso built a square fence around his
property. He used 7 vertical posts on each Using Variables in Problem
side of the fence. How many posts did he Solving
use altogether? 24
A variable is a symbol used to represent
either a quantity which is unknown or a
quantity which may change.

Letters: a, b, c, A, B, C
Letters and Numbers: 𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑦1, 𝑦2 Greek
Letters: 𝛼, 𝛽, y
 English Example
Phrase Example 1: A number is doubled and then
increased by seven. The result is ninety-
three. What is the original number?
2x + 7 = 89
2x + 7 -7 = 89 -7
Mathematical
2x = 82
Expression 2 2
x = 41
Key words Example 2: Raj sold half of his comic books
Operation Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division and then bought sixteen more. He now has
Key added to subtracted from multiplied by divided by 36. With how many did he begin?
Words plus minus times quotient of
and sum of difference of product of x + 16 - 16 = 36 -16
Phrases more than less than twice 2
increased by decreased by of
total of fewer than 2(x2 )= (20) 2
and take away
x=40
Equal Sign: is, are, was, were, will be,
gives, yields, sold for, equals Example 3: Mary is six years older than
Jane. The sum of their ages is 20. How old is
Translate each phrases into a
Mary?
mathematical expression.
x = Mary Mary is 6yrs older than Jean
1. The sum of a number and nine. 𝑛 + 9
y = Jane
2. The product of two numbers.
Therefore:
(𝑛)(m)
Mary's age = Jean's age + 6
3. The product of -1 and a number.
(−1 )n = −n x=y+6
4. One-half times the sum of two the sum of their ages being 20, that also
numbers. 1/2 (𝑛 + 𝑚) implies that:
5. Twice a number. 2𝑛 Mary's age + Jean's age = 20
6. A number less 8. 𝑛 − 8 x + y = 20
7. Five less than a number. 𝑛 − 5
find "y" that is Jean's age by substituting
8. Six more than a number. 𝑛 + 6
x = y + 6 into x + y = 20;
9. Five more than three times a
y+6+y=20
number. 3𝑛 + 5
10. The square of the sum of five and a 2y = 20 -6
number . (5 + 𝑛)² 2y =14
11. The sum of the squares of two 2 2
y=7
numbers. 𝑛² + 𝑚²
12. There are twice as many boys as x=y+6
there are girls. 𝐵 = 2G x=7+6
x=13; Therefore, Mary is 13yrs old
 data management
Basic Concepts in Statistics ✓ height
✓ weight
Statistics
✓ household size
It is a collection of methods for
planning experiments, obtaining data,
✓ number of registered cars
and then analyzing, interpreting, and Quantitative Variables
drawing conclusions based on the data. classified as:
Basic Terms in Statistics
Data are the values that the
variables can assume.
A variable is a characteristic that
is observable or measurable in
every unit of the universe.
Population is the set of all possible
values of a variable.
Sample is a subgroup of a
population.

Classification of Variables
Discrete Variables
data that can be counted
✓ number of days
✓ number of siblings
✓ usual number of text messages sent
in a day
Qualitative Variables ✓ usual daily allowance in school
words or codes that represent a Continuous Variables
class or category. It can assume all values between any
express a categorical attribute two specific values like 0.5, 1.2, etc. and
✓ gender data that can be measured.
✓ religion ✓ weight
✓ marital status ✓ height
✓ highest educational attainment ✓ body temperature
Quantitative Variables Levels of Measurement
number that represents an
Nominal Level
amount or a count.
This is characterized by data that
numerical data, sizes are
consists of names, labels, or categories
meaningful and answer questions
only.
such as “how many” or “how
✓gender
much”.
✓most preferred color
✓usual sleeping time
✓civil status
Ordinal Level Measures of Central
This involves data that is arranged in
some order but differences between Tendency for Ungrouped
data. Data
✓happiness index for the day
✓highest educational attainment
Mean

✓the rankings of tennis player

The mean is the most commonly used

✓Academic Excellence Awards

measure of central tendency. When we
speak of average, we always refer to the
Interval Level mean. It is the sum of all items or terms
This is the same in ordinal level, with divided by the total number of items or
an additional property that we can terms.
determine meaningful amounts of where: = the mean
differences between the data.
✓ body temperature
= the sum of the scores

✓ Intelligence Quotient
n = the total number of scores
Example 1:
Ratio Level Six friends in a biology class of 20 students
This is an interval level modified to receives test grades of 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, and
include the inherent zero starting 90. Find the mean.
point.
Solution:
It possesses a meaningful absolute,
Scores: 92, 84, 65, 76, 88, 90
fixed zero point and allows all
n: 6
arithmetic operations.
✓ number of siblings
✓ weight
✓ height

Basic Methods of Sampling

Random Sampling - this is done by Example 2:
using chance or random numbers. The ages of five contestants in a Statistics
Systematic Sampling - this is done Quiz Bee are the following: 18, 17, 18, 19 and
by numbering each subject of the 18. Find their average age.
population and then selecting nth Solution:
number. Ages: 18, 17, 18, 19, 18
Stratified Sampling - if a population n: 5
has distinct groups, it is possible to
divide the population into these
groups and to draws SRS’s from each
of the groups.
Cluster Sampling - this method uses
intact groups called clusters. = 18
Median Mode
The median is the midpoint of the data The mode is the value that occurs most
array. Before finding this value, the often in the data set. The
data must be arranged in order, from number/value/observation in a data set
least to greatest or vice versa. The which appears the most number of times.
median will either be a specific value 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 5, 5, 5, 8, 8, 8, 9, 9, 10
or will fall between two values. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23.
If N is odd number, Example 5:
If N is even number, Find the mode of the given data set: 15, 28,
25, 48, 22, 43, 39, 44, 43, 49, 34,22, 33,27, 25,
22, and 30.
Example 3: Solution:
There are nine students in a classroom Arrange the data in ascending or
with ages 18, 19, 21, 21, 18, 20, 17, 22 and descending order:
23. Determine the median. 15, 22, 22, 22, 25, 25, 27, 28, 30, 33, 34, 39 43,
Solution: 43, 44, 48, 49
Arrange the data in ascending or
In the given data, the number that
descending order:
appeared the most number of times is 22.
17, 18, 18, 19, 20, 21, 21, 22, 23
The data set is said to be unimodal.
= 20
Example 5:
The median is the fifth observation The speed of ten stenographers in typing
which is 20. per minute are as follows: 121, 110, 120, 119,
Here, we can say that there are 4 112, 121, 118, 115, 017, 115.
students younger than 20 and 4
Solution:
students older than 20.
Arrange the data in ascending or
Example 4: descending order:
Eight books were randomly selected 107 110 112 115 115 118 119 121 121
and the numbers of pages were
recorded as follows: 415, 398, 401, 400, Thus, the data set has two modes: 115 and
420, 415, 407, 425. Find their median. 121. The data set is said to be bimodal.

Solution: Measures of Central

Arrange the data in ascending or Tendency for Grouped Data
descending order:
Mean of Grouped Data
398, 400, 402, 407, 415, 415, 420, 425
where: = the mean
f = the frequency
x = the midpoint of the class interval
n = the total number of scores

= 411
Example:
Calculate the mean score of 60 students in
Assessment.

Mode of Grouped Data

Median of Grouped Data

where: = the mode

LL = the lower limit of the modal class
where: = the median = the difference between the frequency
LL = the lower limit of the modal class and that of the
cf = the cumulative frequency of the frequency above the modal class
preceding class = the difference between the frequency
f = the frequency of the class interval of the modal class and that of the
n = the total frequency frequency below the modal class
𝑖 = the size of class interval 𝑖 = the size of class interval
Example: Example:
Calculate the mean score of 60 students in Calculate the mean score of 60 students in
Assessment. Assessment.
Measures of Dispersion Variance
Variance of the population:
for Ungrouped Data
Variability
Variability means “Scatter” or
“Spread”. Thus measures of variability Variance of the sample:
refer to the scatter or spread of scores
around their central tendency.
The measures of variability indicate
where, 𝑠² = variance
how the distribution scatter above and
x = individual score
below the central tendency.
= mean
n = number of score
Example:
Compute the variance of the following data.
The numbers were obtained by sampling a
population:
Range 7, 10, 18, 20, 14, 13, 16 n=7
Range is the simplest measure of 1. Find the mean.
variability. It is the difference between
largest value and the smallest value. It
is the most commonly used measure of
central tendency.
Range = Highest Score - Lowest Score
R=H-L
= 14
Example:
2. Complete the table.
The following are the daily wages of 10
workers of two steel corporation. Find
the range of salaries in peso (Php).
Steel Corp A: 450, 400, 520, 350, 480,
490, 570, 450, 600, 430
Steel Corp B: 400, 460, 520, 380, 480,
495, 575, 450, 580, 620
Standard Deviation
A: H = 600; L = 350 Standard deviation differentiates sets of
R=H–L scores with equal averages, but the
= 600 – 350= 250 advantage of standard deviation over mean
B: H = 620; L = 380 deviation is that it has several applications
R=H–L in inferential statistics.
= 620 – 380= 240
These ranges tell us that the wages of
workers of A are more scattered than
the wages of workers of B.
where, s = standard deviation 4. Add 𝑓𝑥 of each interval to get ∑ 𝑓𝑥.
x = individual score 5. Compute the mean using the formula 𝑥̅=
= mean ∑ 𝑓𝑥 /∑ f
n = number of score 6. Calculate the deviation (𝒙 − 𝒙̅) by
Example: subtracting the mean from each midpoint.
Find the standard deviation of the 7. Square the deviation of each interval to
following data. The numbers were get (𝒙 − 𝒙̅) 𝟐 .
obtained by sampling a population: 8. Multiply frequency (f) and (𝒙 − 𝒙̅)𝟐.
8, 14, 11, 20, 11, 13, 15, 12 n=8 Find the sum of each product to get
∑𝒇(𝒙−𝒙̅)2
1. Find the mean.
9. Calculate the variance (v) using the
formula
Range
Example 1: Find the range of the given
grouped data. Scores of students in
= 13 mathematics performance task.
Range = Upper Class Boundary – Lower
2. Complete the table.
Class Boundary
Ub = 40 + 0.5
Ub = 40.5
Lb = 11 – 0.5
Lb = 10.5
Range = Ub – Lb
= 40.5 – 10.5
Range, Variance, and Range = 30
Standard Deviation for
Variance
Grouped Data Example 2: Find the variance of the given
Formula: data set. Scores of students in mathematics
Range = Upper boundary of highest summative test.
interval – Lower boundary of lowest
interval
Variance =

Standard Deviation = s =
𝒙̅ = 25.9
Steps in Calculating Variance:
1. Prepare a frequency distribution with
appropriate class interval and write the
corresponding frequency.
2. Get the midpoint (𝑥) of each class
interval.
3. Multiply frequency (𝑓) and midpoint (𝑥)
of each class interval to get 𝑓𝑥.
Standard Deviation
Example 2:
Formula:
Find the 9th decile (𝐷₉). Scores of 40
Students in a 60–point Quiz.

Measures of Position for

Grouped Data
Formula:

where,
𝐿 – lower boundary
𝑛 – total number of observations
𝑐𝑤 – class width
𝑐𝑓 – cumulative frequency of the
preceding class Example 2:
𝑓 – frequency of the class Find the 70th percentile (𝑃₇₀). Scores of 40
𝑖 = 4 (quartiles) Students in a 60–point Quiz.
𝑖 = 10 (deciles)
𝑖 = 100 (percentiles)
Example 1:
Find the 1st quartile (𝑄₁). Scores of 40
Students in a 60–point Quiz.

𝑃₇₀ = 33.3
Measures of Relative For a grade of 75:

Position (z – scores)
z – score
A z score measures the distance between
an observation and the mean, measured in
units of standard deviation.
Formula:

Therefore, the position in the Algebra test

Population:
is higher than the position in the Geometry
test.
Sample:

If the z score is positive, the score is

above the mean.
If the z score is 0, the score is the same
as the mean.
If the z score is negative, the score is
below the mean.
Example 1:
An IQ test has a mean of 105 and a
standard deviation of 20. Find the
corresponding z-scores foreach IQ.
a) 88 b) 122 c) 110

Example 2:
Which of the following exam grades has a
better relative position? A grade of 43 on
an Algebra test with 𝒙̅ = 40 and 𝑠 = 3 or a
grade of 75 on Geometry with 𝒙̅= 72 and
𝑠=5
For a grade of 43: