OUTCOME 2:

Analyze time responses of first and second order systems, Derive the impulse and step
responses, Measure time domain specifications, Conduct steady state error analysis.
After deriving a mathematical model of a system, the system performance analysis can
be done in various methods. The time-domain approach is a unified method for analyzing and
designing systems modeled by either modern or classical approach.

2.1 Time response analysis

In time-domain analysis the response of a dynamic system to an input is expressed as
a function of time. It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the nature of
input and the mathematical model of the system are known.

Usually, the input signals to control systems are not known fully ahead of time. In a
radar tracking system, the position and the speed of the target to be tracked may vary in a
random fashion. It is therefore difficult to express the actual input signals mathematically by
simple equations. The characteristics of actual input signals are a sudden shock, a sudden
change, a constant velocity, and constant acceleration. The dynamic behavior of a system is
therefore judged and compared under application of standard test signals – an impulse, a step,
a constant velocity, and constant acceleration. Another standard signal of great importance is a
sinusoidal signal.

2.1.1 Time response

Time response c(t)is the variation of output with respect to time. The time response of
any system has two components: transient response and the steady-state response. Transient
response is dependent upon the system poles only and not on the type of input. It is therefore
sufficient to analyze the transient response using a step input. The steady-state response
depends on system dynamics and the input quantity. It is then examined using different test
signals by final value theorem.

2 .1.2 Types :

(i) Transient Response: The part of time response that

goes to zero after large interval of time is called transient
response ctr(t). (ii) Steady state Response: The part of
time response that remains after transient response is
called steady-state response css(t).

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2.2 Typical Test signals:

The dynamic behavior of a system is compared under application of standard test

signals – an impulse, a step, a constant velocity, and constant acceleration.

Test signal Graph R(s)

Step signal: The step signal imitates the sudden 𝐴

change characteristic of actual input signal. 𝑆

A t0
u (t )  
0 t0

If A=1, the step signal is called unit step signal

Ramp signal: The ramp signal imitates the constant 𝐴

velocity characteristic of actual input signal. 𝑆2

 At t0
r (t )  
0 t  0

If A=1, the ramp signal is called unit ramp signal

Parabolic signal: The parabolic signal imitates the 𝐴

constant acceleration characteristic of actual input 𝑆3

signal.

 At 2
 t0
p (t )   2
0 t  0
 .
If A=1, the signal is called unit parabolic signal.

Impulse signal: The impulse signal imitates the 1

sudden shock characteristic of actual input signal.

A t 0
 (t )  
0 t0
.

If A=1, the impulse signal is called unit impulse

signal.

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2.3 Order and Type of the Control System

Consider a feedback control system as shown in figure

The closed loop transfer function is given by

𝐶(𝑆) 𝐺(𝑆)
=
𝑅(𝑆) 1 + 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆)

The denominator is known as the characteristic function. If this function is equated to zero,
then it is known as the characteristics equation.

(i.e) 1 + 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆) = 0

This decides the poles of the system. The highest power of ‘s’ in the characteristics equation is
known as the order of the system. The number of poles present at the origin is known as the
Type number of the system.

2.4 Steady state error and error constants:

Steady state error ess is the difference between the input value and the actual output
response. The steady state error is the important aspect of system behavior by which system
accuracy can be measured.

2.4.1 Expression for steady state error:

Consider a close loop system as shown in below figure 1.1 .

Figure 1.1 Close loop System

From figure , E(S) =R(S) – B(S) ------------------------------[1]

But the feedback signal B(S) = H(S) X C(S)----------------[2]

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And C(S) = E(S) X G(S)----------------------------------------[3]

Substitute equation 2 &3 in 1.

E(S) = R(S) - E(S) X H(S) X G(S)

(i.e) E(S)+ E(S) X G(S) X H(S) = R(S)

E(S)[1+G(S)H(S)]=R(S)

𝑅(𝑆)
E(S) = [1+ 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆)]

The steady state error ess = lim (𝑒(𝑡))

𝑡→∞

Using final value therom,

lim (𝑒(𝑡)) = lim(𝑆𝐸(𝑆))

𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0

So

𝑅(𝑆)
Steady state error ess = lim 𝑆
𝑠→0 [1+ 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆)]

2.4.2 Steady-state error and error constants

The steady-state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady-state
error to step, ramp and parabolic inputs. For a unity feedback system,

R( s ) sR( s)
E ( s)  ,  ess  lim sE ( s)  lim .
1  G( s) s  0 s  0 1  G( s)

It is seen that steady-state error depends upon the input R(s) and the forward transfer function
G ( s) . The steady-state errors for different inputs are derived as follows:

1
1. For unit-step input: r (t )  u (t ), R ( s ) 
s
1 1 1
ess  lim sE ( s )  lim   ; k p is called position error constant.
s 0 s 0 1  G ( s ) 1  G (0) 1  k p

This will occur only in Type 0 system.

1
2. For unit-ramp input: r (t )  tu (t ), R ( s ) 
s2
1 1 1
ess  lim sE ( s )  lim  lim  ; kv is called velocity error constant.
s 0 s 0 s 1  G ( s)  s  0 sG ( s) kv

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This will occur only in Type 1 system.
1
3. For unit-parabolic input: r (t )  t 2 / 2, R ( s ) 
s3
1 1 1
ess  lim sE ( s)  lim  lim 2  ; ka
s 0 s 0 s 1  G ( s) s 0 s G ( s) ka
2 is called acceleration error
const.
This will occur only in Type 2 system.
Exercise Problems
1. Determine the Type and order of the system. Also Find the steady state error and steady
state error constant by applying unit step, unit ramp and unit parabolic signal.

10(𝑆+3) 𝑆+2
𝑎) 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆) = 𝑏) 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆) = (𝑆−4)(𝑆+0.2)
𝑆(𝑆+2)(𝑆+5)

𝐾(𝑆+4)1)
𝑐) 𝐺(𝑆)𝐻(𝑆) = 2
𝑆 (𝑆+4)(𝑆+3)

2.For the system shown ,find K so that

there is 10% error in the steady state.

2.5 Step Response of First Order System

Consider a first order control system whose block diagram is shown in figure

Figure 1.2 First Order System

The transfer function of the system is given by

1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠) 𝑇𝑠
= =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) (1 + 1 𝑋 1)
𝑇𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 1
=
𝑅(𝑠) (1 + 𝑇𝑠)
1
The output response C(s) =R(s) X (1+Ts)

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 1
For a step input, R(s) = 𝑆

1 1 1
∴ 𝐶(𝑠) = =
𝑆 1 + 𝑇𝑠 𝑠(1 + 𝑇𝑠)
By partial fraction,
𝐴 𝐵
𝐶(𝑠) = +
𝑠 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)
So , A(1+Ts)+Bs =1
Sub s=0, A(1+T *0)+B(0)=1 ⧴ A =1.
1
Sub s= - 𝑇, ⧴ B = -T.

Thus
1 (−𝑇)
𝐶(𝑠) = +
𝑠 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)
1 𝑇
= −
𝑠 (1+𝑇𝑠)
Take Inverse Laplace Transform of C(s),
1 (−𝑇)
L-1(C(s)) =L-1(𝑠 + (1+𝑇𝑠))
−𝑡
C(t) = 1 - 𝑒 𝑇 , fort ≥ 0.
−𝑡
Where transient response ctr(t)= − 𝑒 𝑇

css(t)= 1
Steady state error expression

The error in time domain: e(t) = r (t) – c(t)

for unit step r(t) = 1.

−𝑡 −𝑡
∴ 𝑒(𝑡) = 1 − (1 - 𝑒 𝑇 ) = 𝑒 𝑇
−𝑡
Steady state error e ss = lim 𝑒(𝑡) = lim 𝑒 𝑇 = 0.
𝑡→∞
𝑡→∞

The step response of the first order system is shown in below figure.

Figure 2.3 Step Response of First Order System

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2.5.1 Performance analysis
1. Time Constant(T) : Time constant is the time it takes for a step response to rise to
63% of its final value.
2. Rise time (Tr) : Time for the response to go from 10% to 90% of its final value. The
formula is Tr = 2.2 T.
3. Settling Time(Ts): time for the response to reach, and stay within ± 2% of its final
value. The settling time formula is Ts = 4T.
4. The first order system has no overshooting. but it can be stable or unstable depends on
the pole location. If the pole lies in negative side of the plane, it will be a stabe. If the
pole presents in the positive side of the plane, the system is an unstable system.

2.6 Impulse Response of First order system:

In this case, for an unit impulse input of magnitude r(t) = δ(t) and R(s) = 1.
1
So ,The output response C(s) =R(s) X (1+Ts)

1
C(s) = (1+Ts)

1 t T
c (t )  e
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get T

The response of a first order system for unit impulse signal is given in below figure.

Figure 1.4 Impulse response of First Order System

Time constant: It is the time to decay to 37% of its final value.

Steady state error expression

The error in time domain: e(t) = r (t) – c(t)

for unit step r(t) = 1.

−𝑡
1
∴ 𝑒(𝑡) = 1 - 𝑒 𝑇 )
𝑇

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 −𝑡
1
Steady state error e ss = lim 𝑒(𝑡) = lim 1 −
𝑡→∞ 𝑇
𝑒 𝑇 = 1.
𝑡→∞

2.7 Ramp Response of First order system

for an unit ramp input of magnitude r(t) =At and R(s) = 1.

1
So ,The output response C(s) =R(s) X (1+Ts)

1
Where R(s) =
𝑆2
1 1 1
∴ 𝐶(𝑠) = =
𝑆 2 1 + 𝑇𝑠 𝑠 2 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)
By partial fraction,
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = 2
+ +
𝑠 𝑆 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)

1 = A(sT+1)+Bs(sT+1)+Cs2
Sub S=0  A= 1 .
Sub A = 1  B= - T
Sub A= 1 and B= -T  C = T2

So
1 −𝑇 (𝑇 2 )
𝐶(𝑠) = 2 + +
𝑆 𝑆 (1 + 𝑇𝑠)
Take Inverse Laplace Transform of C(s),
1 −𝑇 (𝑇 2 )
L-1(C(s)) =L-1 (𝐶(𝑠) = 2
+ + )
𝑆 𝑆 (1+𝑇𝑠)
−𝑡
C(t) = t -T - 𝑇𝑒 𝑇

−𝑡
Where transient response ctr(t)= − 𝑇 𝑒 𝑇

css(t)= t – T.
Steady state error expression

The error in time domain: e(t) = r (t) – c(t)

for unit ramp r(t) = t .

−𝑡
∴ 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑡 - ( t − T − 𝑇𝑒 𝑇 )
−𝑡
Steady state error e ss = lim 𝑒(𝑡) = lim (T − 𝑇𝑒 𝑇 ) = T
𝑡→∞
𝑡→∞

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2.9 Second order system

The order of a differential equation is the highest degree of derivative present in that
equation. A system whose input-output equation is a second order differential equation is called
Second Order System.

Standard form of second order system is given by:

𝐶(𝑠) 𝑤𝑛2
=
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑆 2 +2𝛿𝑤𝑛 𝑆+𝑤 2 )

Where:
 ωn is the natural frequency
 δ is the damping ratio
 If 0< δ <1, system is named as under Damped System
 If δ =1, system is named as Critically Damped System
 If δ >1, system is named as Over Damped System.
Response of second order system for step and Impulse response.
There will be different behaviors of output signal, depending upon the value of damping
ratio.
(i) Step Responses:
Under damped System : The response of
underdamped second order system oscillates
before settling to a final value. The oscillations
depends on the value of damping ratio.

Critically damped system

The response of critically damped system have
no oscillations.

Over damped System: Figure 1.5 Step Response of Second Order

System

The response of over damped system has no oscillations but it takes longer time to reach the
final steady state value.

(ii) Impulse Response of second order system:

Normalized impulse-response of a second-order system with different damping factors
are shown graphically as follows.

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 Figure 1.6 Impulse Response of Second Order System

The responses for the step and impulse signals are given in the below table for all three
cases of damping (like under damped, critically damped and over damped) systems.

Damping Type Response of the System

ratio of
Input
Step 𝑒 −𝛿𝑤𝑛 𝑡 √(1−𝛿 2 )
0< δ <1 C(t) = 1 − sin(𝑤𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃),where θ=tan−1 (
√(1−𝛿 2 ) 𝛿

Impulse 𝑒 −𝛿𝑤𝑛 𝑡
C(t) = 1 − sin(𝑤𝑑 𝑡),
√(1−𝛿 2 )

Step C(t) =1 − 𝑒 −𝑤𝑛 𝑡 (1 + 𝑤𝑛 𝑡)

δ =1
Impulse C(t) =t 𝑒 −𝑤𝑛 𝑡

Step 𝑤𝑛 𝑒 −𝑠1𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠2 𝑡

δ >1 C(t) =1 − ( − ),where
2√(𝛿 2 −1) 𝑠1 𝑠2
𝑠1 = 𝛿𝑤𝑛 − 𝑤𝑛 √(𝛿 2 − 1 and 𝑠2 = 𝛿𝑤𝑛 + 𝑤𝑛 √(𝛿 2 − 1

Impulse 𝑤𝑛 𝑒 −𝑠1𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠2 𝑡

C(t) = ( − ) where 𝑠1 = 𝛿𝑤𝑛 − 𝑤𝑛 √(𝛿 2 − 1
2√(𝛿 2 −1) 𝑠1 𝑠2
and 𝑠2 = 𝛿𝑤𝑛 + 𝑤𝑛 √(𝛿 2 − 1
2.10 Effect of adding poles and zeros to a system.
The poles that are closest to the origin are called the dominant poles of the system.The zeros
that are closest to the origin is called the dominant zeros.

 Adding a LHP zero to the transfer function makes the step response faster (decreases
the rise time and the peak time) and increases the overshoot.
 Adding a RHP zero to the transfer function makes the step response slower, and can
make the response undershoot.

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  Adding a LHP pole to the transfer function makes the step response slower.
 If the system has a cluster of poles and zeros that are much closer (5 times or more) to
the origin than the other poles and zeros, the system can be approximated by a lower
order system with only those dominant poles and zeros.
2.11 Time domain specifications of second order system.
The transient response of a system to a unit-step input depends on the initial
conditions. For convenience in comparing transient responses of various systems, it is a
common practice to use the standard initial condition that the system is at rest initially with the
output and all time derivatives thereof zero. Then the response characteristics of many systems
can be easily compared. The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits
damped oscillations before reaching steady state.

Time Response Specifications with step-input for under-damped case

In specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control system to a

unit-step input, it is common to specify the following:

1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time.tr
3. Peak time, tp
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp
5. Settling time, ts .
These specifications are graphically
shown in figure

Figure 5 Time Domain Specifications

1. Delay time, t d : It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of the final value in
first attempt.
1 + 0.7𝛿
𝑡𝑑 =
𝜔𝑛

2. Rise time, t r : The time required by the system response to reach from 10% to 90% of the
final value for over-damped case, from 0% to 100% of the final value for under-damped case
and from 5% to 95% of the critically value for over-damped case.

𝜋−𝜃
𝑡𝑟 =
𝜔𝑑

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 √(1−𝛿 2 )
Where 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝛿 2 )
𝛿

3. Peak time, t p : It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of time response or
the peak overshoot.
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑑

4. Maximum Peak Overshoot: It is the normalized difference between the time response peak
and the steady output and the amount of max over shoot directly indicates the relative stability
of the system.
−𝛿𝜋
2)
𝑋 100
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 √(1−𝛿

5. Settling time: It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within a specified
tolerance band ( 2% or 5%) of its final value.
For 2% error band,
4
𝑡𝑠 =
𝛿𝜔𝑛
For 4% error band,
3
𝑡𝑠 =
𝛿𝜔𝑛

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Exercise Problems:
1. Find the damping frequency, rise time, peak time and maximum overshoot for the
given system.

2. A second order system with damping ratio 0.6 and natural undamped frequency 5
rad/sec. i. Write the system transfer function.
ii. If the system is subjected to a unit-step input, obtain the rise time tr , peak time tp,
maximum overshoot Mp, and settling time ts at 2% and 5% criterion.
3. A second order system has the following response when is subjected to a step input.
i. Write the system transfer function.
ii. Find the value of K and T.

100
4. For a system transfer function ,find the time domain
𝑆 2 +15𝑆+100
specifications .

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