Chapter 2

Sets and Maps

2.1 Set
Definition 2.1. A set is a collection of objects. These objects are called the elements of the
set.

Example 2.1. • We denote N by the set of natural numbers N = {0, 1, . . .}.

• The set E = {0, 1}.

Definition 2.2. A set is said to be empty when it contains no elements and is denoted as ∅ or
{}.

Definition 2.3. We call the cardinal of a set E, the number of elements in E denoted by
card(E) or |E|.

Remark 2.1. The concept of cardinal does not apply to infinite sets, such as N, Z, Q and R.

Example 2.2. 1. Consider the set E = {0, 1}, we have card(E) = 2.

2. Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, we have card(A) = 4.

3. If A = ∅, then card(A) = 0.

Definition 2.4. The power set of E, denoted as P(E)), is the set of all subsets that can formed
from E, and we have card(P(E)) = 2card(E) .
 2.2. The Relationships between sets

Example 2.3. Let E = {1, 2}, the set P(E)) = {∅, {1}, {2}, E} and card(P(E)) = 22 = 4.

2.2 The Relationships between sets

2.2.1 Inclusion

Let A and B be two subsets of a set E. We say that A is included in B (A is a subset of B),
and denote this as A ⊂ B, if all the elements of a set A are elements of set B.

A ⊂ B ⇐⇒ (∀x ∈ E, x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B) .

Example 2.4. 1. We denote R as the set of real numbers. We have : N ⊂ R.

2. We denote Z as the set of integers, and Q as the set of rationals we have:

N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.

Remark 2.2. • We have ∅ ⊂ E and E ⊆ E.

• If A, B and C are subsets of E, then:

1. A ̸⊂ B ⇐⇒ (∃x ∈ E : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈
/ B).

2. (A ⊂ B ∧ B ⊂ C) =⇒ (A ⊂ C).

2.2.2 Equality

Let’s consider two sets, A and B which are subsets of E. We say that A and B are equal,
denoted as (A = B) ⇐⇒ [(A ⊂ B) ∧ (B ⊂ A)], when (∀x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B). Otherwise, we
state that they are distinct, also noted as A ̸= B.

2.2.3 Union

Definition 2.5. Let’s consider two sets, A and B which are subsets of E. The union of A and
B is the set of elements that are in A or B, and is denoted by :
2. Sets and Maps

A ∪ B = {x ∈ E : x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.

(x ∈ A ∪ B) ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B).

Example 2.5. Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, x, y}. Then

A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, x, y}.

Remark 2.3. (x ∈
/ A ∪ B) ⇐⇒ (x ∈
/ A∧x∈
/ B).

2.2.4 Intersection

Definition 2.6. Let’s consider two sets, A and B which are subsets of E. The intersection
of A and B is the set of elements that are both in A and in B, denoted by A ∩ B.

A ∩ B = {x ∈ E : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

(x ∈ A ∩ B) ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B).

Remark 2.4. (x ∈
/ A ∩ B) ⇐⇒ (x ∈
/ A∨x∈
/ B)

Example 2.6. Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, x, y}. Then

A ∩ B = {1}.

Properties Let A, B and C be three sets :

1. A ⊂ A ∪ B, B ⊂ A ∪ B.

2. A ∩ B ⊂ A, A ∩ B ⊂ B.

3. A ⊂ B ⇒ A ∪ B = B.

4. A ⊂ B ⇒ A ∩ B = A.

5. A ∩ B ⊂ A ∪ B.

6. A ∩ A = A, A ∪ A = A.
 2.2. The Relationships between sets

7. ∅ ⊂ A, ∅ ∩ A = ∅, ∅ ∪ A = A.

8. A ∩ B = B ∩ A (commutativity of intersection).

9. A ∪ B = B ∪ A. (commutativity of union).

10. (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) (associativity of intersection).

11. (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)(associativity of union).

12. (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)(distributivity of intersection with respect to union ).

13. (A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∪ C) ∩ (B ∪ C)(distributivity of union with respect of intersection).

2.2.5 Complement

Definition 2.7. Let A be a subset of E. The complement of A in E, denoted as Ac , CE A or

A is defined as:

Ac = {x ∈ E/x ∈
/ A}.

Remark 2.5. 1. x ∈ Ac ⇐⇒ x ∈
/ A.

2. A ∪ Ac = E.

3. A ∩ Ac = ∅.

4. If E and A they are finite, we have:

card(Ac ) = card(E) − card(A).

Example 2.7. Let E = {1, 2, 3, 5} and A = {3, 5}, then Ac = {1, 2}, and card(Ac ) = card(E)−
card(A) = 2.
2. Sets and Maps

2.2.6 Set difference - Symmetric difference

Definition 2.8. Let A and B be two sets in E. The set difference of A and B is the set of
elements in A that are not in B, denoted as A \ B or A − B and read as A minus B

A \ B = A ∩ B c = {x ∈ E : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

Proposition 2.1. 1. A \ B = ∅ ⇔ A ⊂ B.

2. If A and B are finite we have: card(A \ B) = card(A) − card(A ∩ B).

Definition 2.9. Let E be a non-empty set and A, B ⊂ E, the symmetric difference between
two sets, A and B, is the set of elements that belong to A \ B or B \ A noted A△B

A△B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)
= (A ∪ B) \ (B ∩ A)
= (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (Ac ∩ B)

x ∈ A△B ⇐⇒ {x ∈ (A \ B) ∨ x ∈ (B \ A)}.

Proposition 2.2. 1. (A△B)△C = A△(B△C).

2. A△B = ∅ ⇔ (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) = ∅ ⇔ A = B.

3. If A and B are finite, we have: card(A△B) = card(A) + card(B) − 2card(A ∩ B).

Properties Let A and B be two subsets of a set E, we have

1. (Ac )c = A.

2. (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c Morgan’s law.

3. (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c Morgan’s law.

4. (A ⊂ B) ⇐⇒ (B c ⊂ Ac ).

5. A \ A = ∅.

6. A \ ∅ = A.
 2.2. The Relationships between sets

2.2.7 Cartesian product

Definition 2.10. Let A, B be two sets. The cartesian product of A and B is the set of pairs
such that a ∈ A and b ∈ B. This set will be denoted by A × B

A × B = {(a, b) / a ∈ A et b ∈ B}.

Example 2.8. 1. R2 = R × R = {(x, y) | x, y ∈ R} .

2. [0, 1] × R = {(x, y) | 0 ⩽ x ⩽ 1, y ∈ R}

Remark 2.6. 1. More generally, if A1 , A2 , . . . , An are n sets,

A1 × A2 × . . . × An = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) / ai ∈ Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.
n
The set A1 × A1 × . . . × A1 is also denoted as Ai and (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is called n-tuple
Q
i=1
of A1 × A1 × . . . × A1 .

2. If A1 = A2 = . . . = An , we denote

A1 × A1 × . . . × A1 = A × A × . . . × A = An .

Example 2.9. Let E = {1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, x, y}, A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 9}

1. • A ⊂ E and B ⊂ E.

• A ̸⊂ B because (3 ∈ A) ∧ (3 ∈
/ B).

• B ̸⊂ A because (9 ∈ B) ∧ (9 ∈
/ A).

2. • A ∩ B = {1, 2}.

• A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 9}.

3. • A \ B = {3}.

• B \ A = {9}.

4. A △ B = {3, 9}.

5. A × B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 9), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 9), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 9)}.
2. Sets and Maps

2.2.8 Cardinal of a finite set

Definition 2.11. The number of elements in a finite set is called the cardinal of A. This
number is denoted by Card(A) or |A|.

Example 2.10. 1. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then Card(A) = 4.

2. If A = ∅, then Card(A) = 0.

Remark 2.7. The concepts of cardinality does not apply to infinite sets, for example N, Z, Q
et R.

2.3 Map ( Application )

Let E and F be two sets.

Definition 2.12. An application f : E −→ F is defined for each element x ∈ E, a unique

element of F noted f (x), where E is the domain set and F is the codomain set.

Example 2.11. 1.
f : R −→ R
x 7−→ f (x) = x
f is an application

2.
g : N −→ N
n 7−→ g(n) = n − 1.
g is not an application
 2.4. Direct and reciprocal (inverse) images

Remark 2.8. 1. The graph of f : E −→ F is

Γf = {(x; y) ∈ E × F / y = f (x)}.

2. Let f : E −→ F and g : G −→ H two applications. f = g if and only if E = G and

F = H and ∀x ∈ E, f (x) = g(x).

3. Let f : E −→ F an application. Let’s fix y ∈ F , every element x ∈ E such that : y = f (x)

is a pre-image

notation 2.1. 1. We denote F(E, F ) as the set of all applications from E to F.

2. We denote id the identity application.

id : E −→ E
x 7−→ id(x) = x

2.4 Direct and reciprocal (inverse) images

Let E and F be two sets.

Definition 2.13. ( Direct image ) Let A ⊂ E and f : E −→ F , The direct image of A by f is

the set:

f (A) = {f (x) / x ∈ A} ⊂ F.

Definition 2.14. ( Inverse image ) Let B ⊂ F and f : E −→ F , The inverse image of B by f

is the set:

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E / f (x) ∈ B} ⊂ E.

Example 2.12. 1. Let f an application

f : N −→ N
n 7−→ f (x) = 2n + 1
2. Sets and Maps

Let A = {0, 1, 2}, then

f (A) = {f (n) / n ∈ A}
= {f (0), f (1), f (2)}
= {1, 3, 5}.
Let B = {5}, then

f −1 (B) = {x ∈ E / f (x) ∈ B}
= {x ∈ E / f (x) = 5}
= {2}.

Properties 2.1. Let f : E −→ F be an application. Let A1 and A2 be two subsets of E. Then,

1. f (A1 ∪ A2 ) = f (A1 ) ∪ f (A2 ).

2. f (A1 ∩ A2 ) ⊂ f (A1 ) ∩ f (A2 ).

3. A1 ⊂ A2 =⇒ f (A1 ) ⊂ f (A2 ).

4. A1 ⊂ f −1 (f (A1 )).

Let B1 and B2 be two subsets of F.

1. f −1 (B1 ∪ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∪ f −1 (B2 ).

2. f −1 (B1 ∩ B2 ) = f −1 (B1 ) ∩ f −1 (B2 ).

3. B1 ⊂ B2 =⇒ f −1 (B1 ) ⊂ f −1 (B2 ).

2.5 Injection
Definition 2.15. Let f : E −→ F be an application. We say that f is injective if every element
of F has at most one pre-image, i.e.,

∀x, x′ ∈ E : f (x) = f (x′ ) =⇒ x = x′ .

Or
 2.6. Surjection

∀x, x′ ∈ E : x ̸= x′ =⇒ f (x) ̸= f (x′ ).

Example 2.13. 1.
f : N −→ N
n 7−→ 2n + 1
f is injective because:

∀n, n′ ∈ E : f (n) = f (n′ ) =⇒ 2n + 1 = 2n′ + 1

=⇒ 2n = 2n′
=⇒ n = n′ .

2.
g : R −→ R
x 7−→ 5x + 3
g is injective because:

∀x, x′ ∈ E : g(x) = g(x′ ) =⇒ 5x + 3 = 5x′ + 3

=⇒ 5x = 5x′
=⇒ x = x′ .

2.6 Surjection
Definition 2.16. Let f : E −→ F be an application. We say that f is surjective if every
element of F at least he has a pre-image, i.e.,

∀y ∈ F, ∃x ∈ E : f (x) = y.

Example 2.14. 1.
f : N −→ N
n 7−→ 2n + 1
f is not surjective, indeed if we assume that it is surjective , that is

∀y ∈ N, ∃n ∈ N : f (n) = y =⇒ 2n + 1 = y
=⇒ n = y−1
2
̸∈ N contradiction .
2. Sets and Maps

2.
g : R −→ R
n 7−→ 5x + 3
g is surjective because:

∀y ∈ R, ∃x ∈ R : g(x) = y =⇒ 5x + 3 = y
=⇒ x = y−3
5
∈ R.

2.7 Bijection
Definition 2.17. Let f : E −→ F be an application. We say that f is bijective if it is both
surjective and injective,

∀y ∈ F, ∃! x ∈ E : f (x) = y.

Meaning that every element in F has a unique pre-image by f.

Example 2.15. 1.
f : N −→ N
n 7−→ 2n + 1
f is not bijective because it is not surjective.

2. g is bijective.

2.8 The composition of applications

Definition 2.18. Let E, F, G three sets and f, g be two applications such that:

f g
E→
− F →
− G

One can deduce an application from E to G, denoted as g ◦ f and called the composition of f
and g, by

∀x ∈ E, (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).

 2.8. The composition of applications

Example 2.16. Let

f : R −→ R+
x 7−→ x2 + 1
and
g : R+ −→ R
√
x 7−→ x,
then
g ◦ f : R −→ R
√
x 7−→ x2 + 1.

Proposition 2.3. Let f : E −→ F and g : F −→ G be two applications.

1. The composition of two injections is an injection, i.e,

( If f and g are injective, then g ◦ f is injective).

2. The composition of two surjections is an surjection, i.e,

If f and g are surjective, then g ◦ f is surjective).

3. The composition of two bijections is bijection, i.e,

(If f and g are bijective, g ◦ f is bijective).

4. If f and g are bijective. Then

(g ◦ f )−1 = f −1 ◦ g −1 .

Proof. 1. Let’s assume that f and g are injective, and let’s show that g ◦ f is injective.

∀x1 , x2 ∈ E, (g ◦ f )(x1 ) = (g ◦ f )(x2 )

Since g is injective, we will have:

g(f (x1 )) = g(f (x2 )) =⇒ f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),

Since g is injective, thus :

2. Sets and Maps

(g ◦ f )(x1 ) = (g ◦ f )(x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 ,

then g ◦ f is injective.

Proposition 2.4. 1. If g ◦ f is injective, then f is injective.

2. If g ◦ f is surjective, then f is surjective.

3. If g ◦ f is bijective, then f is injective and g is surjective.

Remark 2.9. When an application f is bijective, it means that the inverse application f −1
exists, and f −1 is also bijective from F to E and (f −1 )−1 = f .

Proposition 2.5. If f : E −→ F is a bijection, then

f −1 ◦ f = IdE and f ◦ f −1 = IdF .