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 Agriculture Science: Research and Review Volume VI
(ISBN: 978-93-91768-17-1)

Editors
Dr. Parashurama T. R Dr. Y. Linthoingambi Devi
Panchavati Research Academy for Nature Department of Genetics and Plant

(PRANA), Kalamaji, Breeding, College of Agriculture, IGKV,

Central Western Ghats, Shimoga Raipur, Chhattisgarh

Mr. Asif Mohi Ud Din Rather Mr. Sachin Kumar Yadav

Division of Vegetable Science, Department of Entomology,

Sher-e-Kashmir University of Chandra Shekhar Azad University of

Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Agriculture & Technology Kanpur,

Kashmir U.P.

2022
First Edition: June, 2022
ISBN: 978-93-91768-17-1

 Copyright reserved by the Editor

Publication, Distribution and Promotion Rights reserved by Bhumi Publishing, Nigave Khalasa,
Kolhapur
Despite every effort, there may still be chances for some errors and omissions to have crept in
inadvertently.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically,
mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
publishers.
The views and results expressed in various articles are those of the authors and not of editors or
publisher of the book.

Published by:
Bhumi Publishing,
Nigave Khalasa, Kolhapur 416207, Maharashtra, India
Website: www.bhumipublishing.com
E-mail: bhumipublishing@gmail.com
Book Available online at:
https://www.bhumipublishing.com/books/
 PREFACE

We are delighted to publish our book entitled "Agricultural Science:

Research and Reviews Volume VI". This book is the compilation of esteemed articles

of acknowledged experts in the fields of basic and applied agricultural science.

The Indian as well as world population is ever increasing. Hence, it is

imperative to boost up agriculture production. This problem can be turned into

opportunity by developing skilled manpower to utilize the available resources for food

security. Agricultural research can meet this challenge. New technologies have to be

evolved and taken from lab to land for sustained yield. The present book on agriculture

is to serve as a source of information covering maximum aspects, which can help

understand the topics with eagerness to study further research. We developed this

digital book with the goal of helping people achieve that feeling of accomplishment.

The articles in the book have been contributed by eminent scientists,

academicians. Our special thanks and appreciation goes to experts and research

workers whose contributions have enriched this book. We thank our publisher Bhumi

Publishing, India for taking pains in bringing out the book.

Finally, we will always remain a debtor to all our well-wishers for their

blessings, without which this book would not have come into existence.

Editors
 CONTENT

Sr. No. Book Chapter and Author(s) Page No.

1. POTENTIAL OF TRICHOGRAMMA AS A PARASITOID: 1 – 14

PRESENT STATUS AND PERSPECTIVES
J. Komal, Aarthi Nekkanti, Sujatha G S, Aradhana Panda,
Nikita Negi and Deepak Kumar Mahanta
2. TERMINAL HEAT STRESS: CURRENTLY A MAJOR ISSUE 15 – 26
AFFECTING FIELD CROPS SUSTAINABILITY
Mehak Nagora, Sharad Nagora, Lalit Kumar,
Pardeep Kumar and Renu
3. A REVIEW ON FACTORS AFFECTING ADSORPTION OF 27 – 33
CARBOFURAN PESTICIDE IN SOILS
Nisha Sharma
4. NANO FERTILIZERS 34 – 48
A. Tharun Kumar, M. Yasodha, Sushma Sannidi,
Madhurya D and Vidhyashree B. S.
5. BIO-FORTIFICATION OF CROPS: 49 – 62
THE NUTRITIONAL REVOLUTION
Nitika Kalia, Narender Pal, Garima Sethi and Pooja Verma
6. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PLANT PATHOGENS 63 – 70
ABHISHEK SINGH, VIVEK SINGH AND H. K SINGH
7. FORWARD AND BACKWARD LINKAGES IN FARMER 71 – 76
PRODUCER ORGANIZATIONS
S. Moghana Lavanya and K. Mani
8. POSTHARVEST DISEASE MANAGEMENT OF FRUITS AND 77 – 89
VEGETABLES
Manasranjan Rout, Tapas Ranjan Das,
Lipilipsa Priyadarshini and Aurobindo Mohanta
9. DROUGHT PRONE TECHNIQUES: AN IMPORTANT TOOL FOR 90 – 95
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO DRY FARMING
Divya Nigam
10. PRECISION FARMING: AN APPROACH TOWARDS 96 – 107
SUSTAINABILITY AND ADVANCEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
Kavita, Preetam Kumar and Shweta
11. FORECASTING OF AREA, YIELD ANḌ PRODUCTION OF 108 – 118
NIGER IN OḌISHA
Gourav Sahu, Abhiram Dash,
Akhilesh Kumar Gupta and Manoranjan Sen
12. BIOCHAR: A VALUABLE SOIL AMENDMENT 119 – 132
Kushal Sachan, Kritagya Gangwar, Drishty Katiyar,
Rahul Dev Behera, Prasun Sachan and S. B. Pandey
13. PHYTOPHTHORA STEM BLIGHT OF PIGEON PEA 133 – 142
[CAJANUS CAJAN (L.) MILLSP.]- AN OVERVIEW
Prince Kumar Gupta, Manpreet Kaur and Rajshree Verma
 Agriculture Science: Research and Review Volume VI
(ISBN: 978-93-91768-17-1)

POTENTIAL OF TRICHOGRAMMA AS A PARASITOID:

PRESENT STATUS AND PERSPECTIVES
J. Komal1, Aarthi Nekkanti2, Sujatha G S3, Aradhana Panda4,
Nikita Negi2 and Deepak Kumar Mahanta3*
1Department of Entomology,
Navsari Agricultural University (NAU), Gujarat-396450
2Department of Entomology,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, Chhattisgarh-492012
3Department of Entomology,
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Agriculture University, Pusa, Bihar-848125
4Department of Entomology, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology, Wadura, Sopore, Jammu and Kashmir-193201
*Corresponding author E-mail- deepakmahanta36@gmail.com

Abstract:
Over the last 50 years, significant advances have been made to the release of
Trichogramma for biological control of lepidopterous pests. To be economically successful, all
Trichogramma initiatives must meet the four factors listed below. The best population is chosen
based on inter- and intraspecific variation, as well as existing criteria of parasitoid quality.
Although mass rearing includes both host and parasitoid components, the emphasis is currently
on constructing artificial systems. Trichogramma distribution requires supported extension and
improved technologies. Field strategies differ depending on the intended strategy (inundative or
inoculative), the timing, frequency, and rate of release, and the numerous elements that effect
release, including as weather, crop, host, predation, pesticides, and dispersion. The previous
difficulties in analysing Trichogramma efficacy should be alleviated by new rules for
harmonising terminology and metrics.
Keywords: Trichogramma, inundative, inoculative, release
Introduction:
For more than a century, biological control technologies have been used to provide long-
term control of a variety of key agricultural pests. Trichogramma egg parasitoids (Hymenoptera:
Trichogrammatidae) are employed globally for inoculative and inundative releases against
lepidopteran pests, and mass-production facilities have been built in numerous countries.
Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has been successfully controlled using
Trichogramma spp. on cotton and tomato in India. Farmers are advised to employ Trichogramma
spp. against this pest both as a single biocontrol agent and as part of an integrated pest
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management programme. In India, a variety of business companies and governmental institutes

have begun to sell biocontrol agents such as Trichogramma spp. since 1981. Trichogramma egg
parasitoids have been employed effectively in many regions of the world, mostly by inundative
releases. Trichogramma species parasitize insect eggs, particularly lepidopterous pest eggs, and
are mostly used in biological control programmes. Before causing any damage to the host plants,
they examine the abundance of insect pests at the egg stage. Trichogrammatidae members are
extremely small, measuring between 0.2 to 1.0 mm in length. Trichogramma egg parasitoids are
easily distinguished because adult females have antennae with a 2-segmented funicle and one
segmented club, fore wings with sigmoid venation, and vein track RS1. Westwood (1833)
established the genus Trichogramma based on the type species, Trichogramma evanescens.
Based on discal ciliation of the fore wings, Ashmead (1904a) classified the Trichogrammatidae
as a family and further separated it into two subfamilies: Trichogramminae and Oligositinae.
Trichogramma spp. have been identified as possible egg parasitoids of numerous major insect
pests of agricultural crops and forest tree species, including teak, poplar, and shisham defoliators.
Quality control of mass manufactured Trichogramma spp. has garnered increasing attention in
recent years, particularly in Western Europe and North America.
Historical view
Trichogramma release for biological control of lepidopterous pests has been discussed for
more than a century, but mass breeding of these hymenopterous parasitoids was not advocated in
North America until the 1920s. During the 1930s, Flanders' work (1930) sparked interest, but
with the development of chemical pesticides, this interest faded. Trichogramma was primarily
developed as a biological control agent by scientists in the former Soviet Union (from 1937) and
China (from 1949). In the 1960s, Europeans and Americans revived Trichogramma research; in
the 1970s, they began mass-rearing and release. (Bigler, 1986). Although the genus
Trichogramma is not the only one employed in this method, investigations with these minute egg
parasitoids have contributed significantly to our understanding of inundative release.
Simultaneously with Stinner's review. The establishment of a worldwide research compendium
marked the beginning of an interchange of knowledge among scientists in North America,
Europe, the former Soviet Union, and China. This interaction sparked an outpouring of study that
is still going on today. Since 1982 (Voegelt et al., 1988), international symposia with published
proceedings have been organised every four years, and informal discussions have been
conducted at the last three International Congresses of Entomology. There have also been eight
international symposia on quality control (Bigler, 1991). Wajnberg and Hassan (1994) study
critically examines and connects research from the mid-1970s because Trichogramma, the

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parasitoid world's Drosophila, has created a vast volume of material. The emphasis here is on
how we have used this fundamental knowledge to develop effective field initiatives.
Applicability of Trichogramma
The majority of Trichogramma releases have occurred in the last 50 years; attempts
before to 1975 were targeted at controlling lepidopterous pests in sugarcane and corn. Cotton,
sugarbeet, vineyard, cabbage, plum, apple, woods, tomato, and rice pests were also addressed
between 1975 and 1985. Numerous crops have been studied since 1985, and the list is expanding
(Hassan, 1993).
Crop Target genera Trichogramma species
Corn Osrinia brassicae
nubilale
ostriniae
evanescens
Cotton Cnephasia evanescens
Ostrinia pretiosum
Helicoverpa pretiosum
confusum
Sugarcane Helicoverpa pretiosum
Chilo evanescens
Chilotraea chilonis
Diatraea chilonis
Tomato Helicoverpa pretiosum
Trichoplusia pretiosum
Manduca pretiosum
Rice Cnaphalocrocis japonicum
Cabbage Mamestra evanescens
Pieris evanescens
Plutella evanescens
Apple Cydia dendrolimi
Adoxophyes embryophagum
Forests Dendrolimus 15 different species
Peanut Cadra pretiosum
Plodia pretiosum
Fruit Adoxophyes dendrolimi
Citrus Cryptophlebia toidea cryptophlebiae
Pomogranate Deudorix chilonis pomegra

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Corn has received the most attention and has had the most consistent results. In crops
such as cotton and rice, where, despite extensive study, the use of pesticides to treat numerous
pest issues diminishes Trichogramma activity, inconsistent outcomes have been discovered
(King et al., 1986). Inundative releases for the control of lepidopterous pests are now being
researched in over 50 countries and are reported to be employed commercially on over 32
million hectares per year. This acreage is overstated because some places in the former Soviet
Union receive repeated applications (Filippov, 1990). Trichogramma are regarded as financially
efficient in the former Soviet Union and China, and they compete well with pesticides for
commercial control of corn borer in Europe, despite the fact that certain prices are subsidised
(Newton, 1993). Eastern nations and certain Asian and South American countries have a longer
history, but Australia and North and Central American countries have only lately begun to
examine Trichogramma's possibilities (Ciochia, 1990). In North America, they find a niche in
organically cultivated crops and locations where pesticide resistance has evolved. Despite the
large number of crops and regions where inundative releases have occurred, only a few pest and
Trichogramma species have been researched. The majority of trials have begun against the
primary pests, Ostrinia spp. and Helicoverpa zea, with rare releases against different pyralids,
tortricids, noctuids, oleuthrids, and pierids, in decreasing order. Even in the former Soviet Union,
Trichogramma is only utilised to control roughly seven pest species (Gusev and Lebedev, 1988).
The following Trichogramma species have been utilised in most studies, in decreasing order:
evanescens, dendrolimi, pretiosum, brassicae (=muidis), and nubilale. Ten other species have
been used occasionally. Because of their versatility in environment and host selection, the first
three species have dominated the investigations in general. Although many publications mention
commercial accomplishments, the majority of papers address specific scientific problems. To be
commercially viable, all Trichogramma initiatives must handle four issues: the selection of the
proper population to release, a mass rearing method, parasitoid dissemination, and a field release
plan.
Selection of parasitoids based on interspecific and intraspecific variation to release
In selecting the best parasitoid for release, start with the best species. Since the genus has
more than 145 species, there is considerable interspecific variation, and the taxonomy of the
genus is still not fully understood (Pinto and Stouthammer, 1994). Various orders of insects,
including Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Heteroptera, Hymenoptera, and Neuroptera, host the
genus' polyphagous egg parasitoids. It has been observed, however, that species are becoming
more specialized as they are discovered. Taxonomy of this genus may be clarified by recent
molecular studies (Pintureau, 1993). In most cases, the local species is selected for release based
on ecological considerations such as climate, habitat, and host conditions (Voegelt, 1988). It has

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(ISBN: 978-93-91768-17-1)
been reported that at least six species of Trichogramma have been used in the control of Ostrinia
species. Among their native species, T. nubilale and T. pretiosum most commonly occur in the
United States, T. ostriniae and T. dendrolimi most commonly in China, and T. evanescens and T.
brassicae (=maidis) most commonly in Europe. Inundative theory suggests the use of local
species, which is contraindicated only if there is no native species, or if preintroduction screening
indicates otherwise. There are different species of Trichogramma that compete with one another
(Pak and Oatman, 1982). The introduction of non-native species into diverse habitats could lead
to the extinction of local species or strains (Howarth, 1991). Before parasitoids are released, it is
important to survey local species, since the natural level of parasitism can range from 40-100%.
Recent actions taken by some countries to restrict the importation of organisms for biological
control make it even more important to identify native species that are effective, especially
during the first screening. Following the selection of a species, it is necessary to determine the
population (= strain) to be released. Trichogramma exhibits both interspecific and intraspecific
variations in biology and behaviour, which are heavily impacted by environmental variables.
These variances further complicate the selection process, and various research have focused on
phenotypic differences across strains (inter populations). The development, fertility, egg
absorption, sex ratio, lifespan, host age selection, oviposition, host choice, and activity of these
populations have been compared (Pak et al., 1986), as well as their responsiveness to
environmental variables (Pak, 1986). A few studies have also looked at the incidence of
thelytokous (all female offspring) or deuterotokous (nearly all female offspring) populations, as
well as their fitness or fertility in comparison to the more prevalent arrhenotokous (50-751
female children) strains (Stouthamer and Luck, 1993). The final strain will be chosen based on
how it ranks in terms of biological characteristics considered favourable for the habitat into
which it will be released, as well as the manner of release to be carried out (e.g., inundative or
inoculative). The third part of selection is that of founding populations, or where and how many
collections (both individuals and populations) are required to start a healthy colony. This is one
of the least studied fields since it is reliant on population genetics, and nearly little is known
about Trichogramma genetics. Several studies have investigated the genetic variability of traits
such as reproductive capacity (Pintureau et al., 1981), responsive distance, walking behaviour
(Limburg and pak, 1991), and sex allocation, however the genetic basis for biological differences
between or within populations (intra populations) has received little attention. Traditional
knowledge recommends that a minimum of 500-1000 individuals should be utilised to establish a
population with high levels of heterozygozity; this strategy was applied in the former USSR.
Trichogramma are haplodiploid organisms (most females develop from fertilised diploid eggs,
while most males develop from unfertilized haploid eggs), with high rates of sib-mating and

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inherently low heterozygozity. This characteristic shows that the degree of heterozygosity
generally necessary to establish a strong Trichogramma species colony may be less than
predicted, and that healthy colonies can be created with less than 500 individuals.
Selection of parasitoids based on Parasitoid Quality
Population variation enables for the selection of high-quality parasitoids. Populations for
inundative release are frequently chosen based on high fertility, emergence, sex ratio (% of
female progeny), life-span, host choice for the target species, host-searching activity, and
adaptability to local weather conditions. Because these qualities are thought to be ecologically
relevant for these parasitoids when distributed inundatively, a population with these
characteristics is described as a parasitoid of "high quality." Characteristics like as development
rate, oogenesis, and competitive ability are also significant for those employed in inoculative
releases. Regrettably, one variant is rarely outstanding in all aspects, and it is sometimes
uncertain if high-quality variants in the laboratory are equivalent with efficient parasitoids in the
field. Furthermore, some of the characteristics that make the parasitoid efficient in the field may
not be useful in mass rearing (e.g., those that prefer the target species may be more difficult or
impossible to raise on a factitious host), therefore trade-offs in terms of the desirable qualities
must be made (Lenteren, 1991). Numerous authors have examined individual components of
quality, including fecundity (Bai et al., 1995), development rate, oogenesis (Tavares and
Voegelt, 1990), emergence, sex ratio, longevity, host acceptance and preference, host searching
and activity, and the effect of the environment.
System for mass rearing production of host as well as parasitoid
Host rearing
The species to utilise (including artificial host eggs) and whether the eggs may be kept to
extend the facility's production period are two significant biological considerations of host
rearing. Until now, the option in host rearing has been confined to species that produce either
tiny or big eggs. Flanders provided a little host egg, the Angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga
cerealella, which is now used by growers in slightly more than half of the world. Because of
improved productivity from the rearing medium, ease of automation, and improved sanitation
conditions, some nations, notably France and Canada, have shifted to the Mediterranean flour
moth, Ephestia kuehniella. The rice meal moth, Corcyra cephalonica, is the third tiny egg
species employed in several Asian nations due to its local availability. There have been no
studies that compare parasitoids produced from Corcyra to parasitoids grown from other tiny egg
species. However, repeated tests have demonstrated that Trichogramma growing from either
Ephestia or Sitotroga are field comparable. Ephestia parasitoids have shown slightly greater
performance in the laboratory, presumably because to their slightly bigger size (Bigler et al.,

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1987). Trichogramma has been reared using four major host egg species of Lepidoptera, three of
which are from China. Silkworm hosts are regarded commercially feasible since their eggs are a
byproduct of silk manufacturing, but Ostrinia nubilule has largely been employed for research
(Burbutis and Koepke, 1981). Trichogramma wasps raised on large host eggs may be of greater
quality (larger size and higher percentage of females) than those raised on tiny host eggs. As a
result, facilities can generate either a large number of little (low-quality) parasitoids or a limited
number of large (high-quality) parasitoids on a continuous basis. Despite the potential for higher
parasitoid quality, the practicality of utilising species that deposit big host eggs in commercial
production has not yet been compared to that of species that lay tiny host eggs. In vitro
production on artificial host media is a relatively new technique in Trichogramma rearing
(Grenier, 1994). Since 1975, China has been doing research in this field. There have been two
methods. The native insect egg hemolymph is partially replaced with egg yolk and milk solids in
the first technique. The second strategy involves creating a wholly artificial diet based on
biochemical analyses of the insect and its egg (Nettles et al., 1985). In various kinds of artificial
medium, eighteen Trichogramma species have already been raised from egg to adult. The closest
technique to commercial production was established in China for T. dendrolimi using insect
hemolymph. This diet was packaged in plastic host egg-cards (made at a rate of 1200 egg-cards
per hour), and the parasitoids produced were deployed over more than 1300 hectares with
parasitism equivalent to parasitoids produced from natural host eggs (Dai et al., 1990). The
creation of totally artificial hosts is an essential aim that, if completed, would result in significant
reductions in facility size, product cost, and modifications in field application approach.
Parasitoid rearing
To assure good product quality and minimise contamination, facilities typically raise only
a few parasitoid strains or species at any given time (Gusev and Lebedev, 1988). Improved
approaches for rapidly identifying various populations using DNA markers are being developed,
and their incorporation into facilities may aid in screening for such rearing issues (Sappal et al.,
1995). The ratio of parasitoids to host eggs in parasitization units is also significant. High ratios
can result in superparasitism, a large number of male offspring, and poor product quality,
whereas low ratios can result in poor parasitization and wasteful utilisation of host eggs.
Trichogramma accepts and allocates offspring in host eggs based on host density, and parasitoid
fecundity or clutch size is regulated based on host availability relative to abundance (Fleury and
Boulttreau, 1993), host egg size (Schmidt and Smith, 1987), and spacing between eggs (Schmidt
and Smith, 1985). Once consistent parasitism of host eggs has been accomplished by light and
temperature manipulation, their emergence must be controlled. Programming can be as basic as
permitting the parasitoids to grow at a specific temperature and photoperiod or as sophisticated

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as manipulating environmental parameters to accomplish synchronisation, long-term storage, and

delayed emergence. In general, keeping at low temperatures (6-12°C) during the pupal stage is
preferred for Trichogramma (Jalali and singh, 1992), though such storage has never been
continued for more than two weeks without parasitoid quality losses (Vieira and Tavares, 1995).
Species that are more cold resistant, such as T. brussicue (=maidis), ostriniue, evunescens, and
dendrolimi, and/or go through diapause (caused by temperature and photoperiod effects on the
maternal generation and developing larvae, as well as probable host egg impacts), may withstand
extended storage (Boivin, 1994, Laing and Corrigan, 1995). The particular circumstances that
enhance parasitoid storage and diapause are being aggressively explored in order to allow rearing
facilities to save money and improve the genetic quality of their stock. Superparasitism and
intrinsic competition are two further elements that may influence the spread of emergence. The
preservation of parasitoid quality is crucial to a manufacturing facility's reputation, and the
quality may be jeopardised after maintaining Trichogramma for many generations under
consistent circumstances and on an uncommon host. Loss of tolerance to natural physical
extremes and loss of predilection for the target host are two significant alterations that can occur.
The initial modification has received little attention, despite the fact that raising the parasitoid in
temperature fluctuations is indicated to preserve tolerance. Unfortunately, in a commercial
raising facility, this proposal is difficult to implement. The loss of preference for the target host
is a controversial subject, since it has been established for some Trichogramma species but not
for others. Approaches used to counteract this impact include limiting the number of generations
that may be reared in the facility, moving the parasitoids to various hosts on a regular basis, or
both. In France, 100 female T. brussicue are gathered annually and maintained in isofemale lines
for three generations before being combined together for a maximum of 20-25 generations. T.
brussicue is raised on Ephestia for a maximum of six generations in Switzerland; if kept longer,
it is moved to the target host. This switching to the target or any fictitious host is likewise
suggested in Germany, Australia, and the former USSR, though parasitization issues might arise
during the first generation.
Timing, frequency, and rates of release
The technique used determines the time, frequency, and rate of release. With inoculative
releases, just a few parasitoids are needed early in the season, perhaps irrespective of the pest's
ovipositional phase. In contrast, inundative releases necessitate enormous numbers that are
tightly timed with the initiation of oviposition of a uni- or bivoltine pest (Smith, 1994). The
earlier oviposition can be anticipated, the better it is for the raising facility and the field
programme. If a significant quantity of parasitoids are required quickly, certain facilities may
demand many weeks or months' notice. To synchronise inundative releases with the onset of host

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oviposition, several approaches such as calendar date, plant growth, pheromone or light traps,
egg-laying, and developmental degree-days have been utilised. Unless it is tied to pest
phenology, plant development is the least reliable technique (Burbutis and Koepke, 1981).
Although it is currently too variable to be utilised alone, the degree-days technique provides for
the most accurate forecasting (about one month); this method has the potential to be the most
helpful (Neil et al., 1990). Because they gather adult moths before oviposition, light traps (Bigler
and Brunetti, 1986) and, when accessible, pheromone traps (Maini et al., 1988) appear to be the
best predictors (especially pheromone traps). Comparing trap capture, oviposition, and
effectiveness has repeatedly revealed that the best outcomes are obtained when the
Trichogramma are released a few days before, rather than at the beginning of, oviposition
(Kanour and Burbutis, 1984). Synchronization with the host also implies that parasitoid
emergence must be programmed. Although most facilities export parasitoid material that is ready
to emerge and the majority of releases employ material that emerges within hours of release, this
is not always the case. Some critical tactics combine multiple stages of Trichogramma growth,
delaying emergence, especially if only one or a few releases are possible. This strategy assures
that certain females are constantly actively searching during host oviposition. In practise, this
method is restricted if the released eggs are preyed upon or subjected to high temperatures. The
first release is frequently timed immediately before host oviposition in order to produce high
levels of parasitism while also allowing released material to proliferate in natural host eggs. This
method assures that a steady supply of high-quality parasitoids is generated from the target pest
in the field.
Eficacy of releases
Various simulation methodologies have been employed over the last 50 years to increase
the efficacy of Trichogramma releases. The majority of these techniques have focused on the
timing or quantity of parasitoids required to reduce host density (Goodenough and Witz, 1985,
Knipling and McGuire, 1968), parasitoid seeking area, and disappearance rate. Regarding the
pest's population dynamics. Two more models have been created to predict host population
damage (Witz et al., 1985) as well as searching efficiency and parasitism in relation to the field.
Models for application rates and timing imply the following: 1. more than 80% parasitism is
required to diminish pest populations; 2. the rate of release increases proportionately with leaf
surface area and disappearance rate; and 3. the rate can be lowered in half if parasitoids emerge
at different times (Smith and You, 1990). The majority of these predictions have been confirmed
by field research. Simulation models deserve much more improvement because they have all
boosted our comprehension and pointed to areas that require more study focus. The
heterogeneity with which Trichogramma releases are recorded is one of the problems in

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measuring their efficacy, as does the variable with which application rates are reported. Some
studies merely mention parasitism, whereas others mention larval populations, infection levels,
and product weight or volume. Furthermore, some papers simply discuss differences in these
levels between control and treated regions, increases in parasitism and product, or decreases in
pest, infestation, or damage. A major issue in several research is the use of insecticide-treated
plots as "control" plots. True, untreated controls are never utilised in other investigations (Zhou,
1988). When the target host produces eggs in clusters (e.g., Ostrinia, Choristoneura, and
Dendrolimus), reports of parasitism without mention to the cluster exist. Bin and Vinson, 1990
provide a compelling case for standardising nomenclature in reporting parasitism. Most studies
evaluate effectiveness by quantifying egg parasitism, often of eggs deposited in the field by the
target host. However, unless these collections are collected towards the conclusion of oviposition
after enough time has passed for all parasitized eggs to be detected (e.g., become black), this
strategy may underestimate parasitism. One solution is to post sentinel eggs (e.g., factitious or
target host eggs on cards) of known age in the field for a certain period of time. This method
measures daily parasitism, but new research reveals that it may potentially underestimate
parasitism, especially if the monitor eggs are more appealing than normal host eggs. This issue
highlights the importance of compensating for this disparity before final evaluation.
Future prospects and needs
Trichogramma usage has advanced significantly in the last 50 years, which speaks well
for the coming decades. Significant commercial gains have been realised with Trichogramma, as
with Bt and chemical pesticides, wherever strong scientific attention has been directed (e.g., corn
borer control). These accomplishments imply that we have a good probability of succeeding in
additional undiscovered host/parasitoid systems. The taxonomy of this genus is currently being
worked out. This study is critical since it serves as the foundation for further investigations.
Although much information on phenotypic diversity is accessible, additional work has to be done
on its genotypic basis to assess if the selection of a super strain is conceivable. Similarly, despite
the fact that we have generated a vast quantity of data on parasitoid biology and behaviour, we
now need to compress this data into some cohesive, standardised idea of parasitoid quality with
proper prediction methods. Although large-scale commercialization of raising facilities has
occurred, there is still a need to investigate various rearing hosts and artificial diets in automated
systems in order to make significant progress. One of the most significant areas in the future will
be the development of extension support to offer the product to the user and allow them to enter
the field in a way that has an impact. The product should offer instructions on where, when, and
how to release it in various grower scenarios. This package, which will offer a service rather than
just a commodity, might come from the producers, government extension, or private

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consultation. In the past, skilled professionals who provided this mix of biology and economic
decision making yielded the best outcomes with Trichogramma. Stinner (1987) finished his
assessment by emphasising the need of combining Trichogramma with other control strategies.
The situation is no different now, except that we now have a better understanding of how to
accomplish this integration. Trichogramma has been used as a substitute for chemical pesticides
much too often in the past. Inoculative releases must be created in conjunction with specific
insecticides (chemical or biological), other parasitoids, and nectariferous plants such as refugia.
Although Trichogramma release is presently one of the most benign pest management methods,
greater attention must be made to the pest's population dynamics, other natural mortality
mechanisms at work, and the native complex of natural enemies, particularly native
Trichogramma species. This method will ensure a better knowledge of the impact of pest release
on biodiversity and a less disruptive approach to pest management.
References:
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control of forest lepidoteran deroliators. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 75:135-43
Bigler F, Brunetti R. (1986). Biological control of Ostrinia nubilalis Hbn. by Trichogramma
maidis Pint. et Voeg. on corn for seed production in southern Switzerland. J. Appl.
Entomol. 102:303- 8.
Bigler F, ed. (1991). Proc. Workshop of the IOBC Global Working Group, 5th. Quuliry Conrrol
of Mass Reared Arrhro- PO&. Wageningen, The Nether1ands: Int. Org. for Biological
Control. 205 pp.
Bigler F, Meyer A, Bosshart S. (1987). Quality assessment in Trichogramma maidis Pintureau et
VoegelC reared from eggs of the factitious hosts Ephestia kuehniella Zell. and Sitotroga
cerealella (Olivier). Appl. Enromol. 1. 340-53
Bin F, Vinson SB. (1990). Efficacy as- sessment in egg parasitoids (Hym.): Proposal for a
unified terminology. 206, pp. 175-80
Burbutis PP, Koepke CH. (1981). Eure pean corn borer control in peppers by Trichogmmma
nubilale. J. Econ Entomol. 74246-47
Burbutis PP, Koepke CH. (1981). Eurepean corn borer control in peppers by Trichogmmma
nubilale. J. Econ Entomol. 74246-47
Ciochia V. (1990). Some aspects of the utilization of Trichogramma sp. in Romania. See Ref.
206, pp. 181-82
Dai K J, Ma ZJ, Zhang LW, Cao AH, Zhan QX, et al. (1990). Research on technology of
industrial production of the artificial host egg of Trichogramma. pp. 137-41

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Filippov NA. (1990). The present status and future outlook of biological control in the USSR.
Acta Entomol. Fenn 53: 11-18
Fleury F, Boulttreau M. 1993. Effects of temporary host deprivation on the reproductive
potential of Trichograrnma brassicae. Enromol. Exp. Appl. 68:203- 10
Goodenough JL, Witz JA. (1985). Modeling augmentative releases of Trichogmmma pretiosm.
Southwest. Enromol. 8: 169-89
Grenier S. (1994). Rearing of Trichogramma and other egg parasitoids on artificial diets. pp. 73-
8
Gusev GV, Lebedev GI. (1988). Present state of Trichogramma application and research. pp.
477-83
Hassan SA. (1993). The mass rearing and utilization of Trichogramma to control lepidopterous
pests: Achievements and outlook. Pesric. Sci. 37:387-91
Jalali SK, Singh SP. (1992). Differential response of four Trichogmmma species to low
temperatures for short term storage. Entomophaga 37: 159-65
Kanour WW. Burbutis PP. (1984). Trichogmmma nubilule (Hym. Trichogrammatidae) field
releases in corn and a hypothetical model for control of European corn borer (Lep.:
Pyralidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 77:103-7
King EG, Bouse LF. Bull DL, Coleman RJ, Dickerson WA, et al. (1986). Management of
Heliothis spp. in cotton by augmentative releases of Trichogramma pretiosum Ril. J. Appl.
Entomol. 101:2- 10
Knipling EF, McGuire JU. (1968). Population models to appraise the limitations and
potentialities of Trichogramma in managing host insect populations. US Dep. Agric.
Technol. Bull. 1387:144.
Laing JE, Corrigan JE. (1995). Diapause induction and post-diapause emergence in
Trichogmrnma minutum Riley (Hym.: Trichogrammatidae): The role of host species,
temperature, and photoperiod. Can. Entomol. 127:103-10
Limburg H, Pak GA. (1991). Genetic variation in the walking behaviour of the egg parasite
Trichogmmma. pp. 47-55.
Maini S, Burchi C, Gattavecchia C, Celli G, Voegeld J. (1988). Trichogrammu maidis Pint. &
Voeg. in Northern Italy. Augmentative releases against Ostrinia nubilulis HB. pp. 519-24
Neil KA, Specht HB. (1990). Field re- leases of Trichogmmmn pretiosum Riley (Hym.:
Trichogrammatidae) for suppression of corn earworm, Heliothis zea (Boddie) (Lep.:
Noctuidae), egg populations on sweet corn in Nova Scotia. Can. Entomol. 1221259-66

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Nettles WC, Morrison RK, Xie Z-N, Ball D, Shenkir CA, Vinson SB. (1985). Effect of artificial
diet media, glucose, protein hydrolyzates, and other factors on oviposition in wax eggs by
Trichogramma pretiosum. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 38:121-29
Newton PJ. (1993). Increasing the use of trichogrammatids in insect pest management: A case
study from the forests of Canada. Pestic. Sci. 37:381-86
Pak GA, Berkhout H, Klapwijk J. (1990). Do Trichogramma look for hosts? pp. 77-81
Pak GA, Oatman ER. (1982). Comparative life table, behavior and competition studies of
Trichogrumma brevicupillum and T. pretiosum. Enromol. Exp. Appl. 32:68-79
Pak GA. (1986). Behavioural variations among strains of Trichogramma spp.: A review of the
literature on host-age selection. J. Appl. Enromol. 101:55-64
Pinto ID, Stouthammer R. (1994). Systematics of the trichogrammatidae with emphasis on
Trichogramma. pp. 1-37
Pintureau B, Babault M, Voegel J. (1981). Etude de quelques facteurs de variation de la fkonditt
chez Trichogramma maidis Pint. et Voeg. (Hym. Trichogrammatidae). Agronomie 1:315-
22
Pintureau B. (1993). Enzymatic analysis of the genus Trichogramma (Hym.:
Trichogrammatidae) in Europe. Entomophaga 38: 411-31
Ridgway RL. Vinson SB, eds. (1977). Biological Control by Augmentation of Natural Enemies.
New York: Plenum. 480 pp.
Sappal, N, Jeng RS, Hubbes M, Liu F-H. 1995. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms in
PCR-amplified ribosomal DNA’s of three Trichogramma species (Hym.:
Trichogrammatidae). Genome 38:419-25
Schmidt JM, Smith JJB. (1985). The mechanism by which the parasitoid wasp Trichogramma
minutum responds to host clusters. Entoml. Eap. Appl. 39:287-94
Schmidt JM, Smith JJB. (1987). Measurement of host curvature by the parasitoid wasp
Trichogrumma minutum, and its effect on host examination and progeny allocation. J. Exp.
Biol. 12
Smith SM, You M. (1990). A life system simulation model for improving inundative releases of
the egg parasite Trichogmmma minutum against the spruce budworm. Ecol. Modelling 51:
123-42
Smith SM. (1994). Methods and timing of releases of Trichogrumma to control lepidopterous
pests. pp. 113-44
Stinner RE. (1977). Efficacy of inundative releases. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 225 15- 31
Stouthamer R. Luck RF. (1993). Influence of microbe-associated parthenogenesis on the
fecundity of Trichogramma deion and T. pretiosum. Enromol. Exp. Appl. 67: 183-92

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Tavares J, Voegelt J. (1990). Interspecific competition between three species of the Genus
Trichogramma (Hym., Trichogrammatidae). pp.45-49
van Lenteren JC. (1991). Quality control of natural enemies: Hope or illusion? pp. 1-15
Vieira V, Tavares 1. (1995). Rearing of Trichogramma cordubensis Var. & Cab. (Hym.:
Trichogrammatidae) on Mediterranean flour moth cold-stored eggs.
Voegelt J, Waage J, van Lenteren JC, eds. (1988). Trichogramma and Other Egg Parasites. Inr.
Symp. on Trichogramma 2nd. Guangzhou, PR China. Paris: Les Colloques de I’INRA No.
43 644 PP
Voegelt J. (1988). Reflections upon the last ten years of research concerning Trichogramma
(Hym., Trichogrammatidae). pp. 17-33
Wajnberg E, Hassan SA, eds. (1994). Biological Control with Egg Parasitoidr. Oxon, UK CAB
International. 286 pp
Witz JA, Hartstack AW, King EG, Dickerson WA, Phillips JR. (1985). Monitoring and
prediction of Heliothis spp. Southwest. Entomol. 856-71.
Zhou LT. (1988). Study on parasitizing efficiency of Trichogramma confusum Vig. in
controlling Heliothis armigera Hub. and its modelling. pp. 641-44.

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 Agriculture Science: Research and Review Volume VI
(ISBN: 978-93-91768-17-1)

TERMINAL HEAT STRESS: CURRENTLY A MAJOR ISSUE AFFECTING FIELD

CROPS SUSTAINABILITY
Mehak Nagora*1, Sharad Nagora1, Lalit Kumar2, Pardeep Kumar1 and Renu3
1Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,
2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding
3Department of Agrometeorology
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana
*Coreesponding author E-mail: mehaknagora4@gmail.com

Abstract:
In India, for instance, the Green Revolution has significantly increased food grain output.
Since the middle of the 1990s, cereals output has typically exceeded domestic demand, leading
to a rise in grain exports. In the previous fifty years, rice yield increased by 145 % and wheat
output by 270 %. Despite these achievements, agricultural labour productivity remains less than
a third of that in China and less than 1% of that in frontier nations. However, there is mounting
evidence that yield increase has plateaued and there is a risk of future yield losses due to global
climate change and unsustainable food production techniques in light of environmental
degradation. Stress is currently one of the greatest hazards to agriculture. Stresses induce a vast
array of plant responses, including changes in gene expression, cellular metabolism, growth rates
and crop yields. Plants are exposed to two types of environmental stressors, which may be
characterised as biotic and abiotic stress. Abiotic stress such as drought, waterlogging, severe
temperatures (cold, frost, heat), salt and mineral toxicity significantly effect plant growth,
development, yield and seed quality. Terminal Heat Stress (high temperature stress), an element
of the physical environment, is one of the most significant factors restricting crop productivity
throughout the globe. Therefore, the heat stress tolerance mechanism is essential for establishing
an effective strategy for managing yield levels under conditions of heat stress and climate
change. To produce heat-tolerant, high-yielding crops, it is necessary to comprehend the
metabolic and developmental processes connected with heat stress and energy control. There is
still a need for a deeper knowledge of the biochemical and molecular foundation of heat
tolerance in order to increase crop yields in future warmer settings. It is vital to emphasise that
molecular research confirms an increase in commercial crop production, but crop-level yield
assessment is necessary for the full manifestation of yield potential.
Keywords: Climate change, green revolution, molecular, unsustainable and yield potential.

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Introduction:
The developing world has undergone an exceptional era of food crop production rise
during the past 50 years. Although populations had more than quadrupled, cereal crop output
tripled over this time period despite just a 30% increase in cultivated land area. The Green
Revolution was characterised by the introduction of high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, the
widespread use of fertilisers, herbicides and insecticides and the expansion of irrigation.
In India, for instance, the Green Revolution has significantly increased food grain
output. Since the middle of the 1990s, cereals output has typically exceeded domestic demand,
leading to a rise in grain exports. In the previous fifty years, rice yield increased by 145 % and
wheat output by 270 %. Despite these achievements, agricultural labour productivity remains
less than a third of that in China and less than 1% of that in frontier nations.
However, there is mounting evidence that yield increase has plateaued and there is a
risk of future yield losses due to global climate change and unsustainable food production
techniques in light of environmental degradation. Stress is currently one of the greatest hazards
to agriculture. Stress in plants refers to environmental factors that inhibit plant growth,
development or output. Stresses induce a vast array of plant responses, including changes in gene
expression, cellular metabolism, growth rates and crop yields.
Typically, a plant stress is the result of abrupt changes in environmental conditions.
Agricultural crops are exposed to a variety of environmental factors that degrade and restrict
their yield.
Plants are exposed to two types of environmental stressors, which may be characterised as shown
in Figure 1.

Abiotic stress Biotic Stress

Stress • Abiotic stress imposed • Biotic stress exposed
• Abiotic on plants by to the crop plants is
• Biotic environment may be a biological unit like
either physical or diseases, insects, etc.
chemical ways.

Figure 1: Types of stress affecting crop yield

Living organisms, particularly viruses, bacteria, fungus, nematodes, insects, arachnids
and weeds, induce biotic stress in plants. The agents that cause biotic stress directly deplete their

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host of nutrients, which can result in the demise of plants. Due to pre and post-harvesting losses,
biotic stress can become severe.
The biotic stress is totally different from abiotic stress, which is imposed on plants by
non-living factors such as salinity, sunlight, temperature, cold, floods and drought having
negative impact on crop plants. It is the climate in which the crop lives that decides what type of
biotic stress may be imposed on crop plants and also the ability of the crop species to resist that
particular type of stress. Many biotic stresses affect photosynthesis, as chewing insects reduce
leaf area and virus infections reduce the rate of photosynthesis per leaf area.
On the other hand, Abiotic stress such as drought, waterlogging, severe temperatures
(cold, frost, heat), salt and mineral toxicity significantly effect plant growth, development, yield
and seed quality. Future abiotic stress will likely intensify. To maintain food security and safety
in the next years, it's urgent to produce abiotic stress-resistant crop cultivars. A plant's roots
defend it against abiotic stress. Healthy, biologically varied soil helps plants survive adverse
situations. Abiotic stressors influence plant production globally. Interconnected abiotic
challenges include osmotic stress, ion distribution problems and plant cell homeostasis. Changes
in gene expression impact growth and productivity. Identifying abiotic stress-responsive genes is
crucial to understand agricultural plant stress response processes. Figure 2.
plant stressors.

Drought: The distribution of

Cold stress as abiotic stress has
rainfall is uneven due to the change
proved to be the main abiotic
in climate which acts as an
stresses that decrease
important stress as drought. The
productivity of agricultural crops
soil water available to plants is
by affecting the quality of crops
steadily increased due severe
and their post-harvest life
drought conditions and cause death
of plants prematurely.

Abiotic
Heat Increase in temperature Stress
Soil salinity: Salt stress reduces
throughout the globe has become
growth of crops and yield in
a great concern, when plants
many ways. Two primary effects
encounter heat stress the
are imposed on crop plants by
percentage of seed germination,
salt stress; osmotic stress and ion
photosynthetic efficiency and
Figure 2: Types of Abiotic stress toxicity.
yield declines.

Terminal Heat Stress (high temperature stress), an element of the physical environment,
is one of the most significant factors restricting crop productivity throughout the globe. Since the
turn of the century, ambient temperatures have increased and it is anticipated that this trend will
continue due to climate change. This temperature increase can induce heat stress, especially if it

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happens during the reproductive and grain filling periods (Farooq et al., 2011). The question now
is, what is meant by terminal heat stress?
Definition:
High temperature after anthesis is known as terminal heat stress, and continuous stress is
encountered when the average daily temperature in the season's coldest month surpasses 17.5 °C.
Heat stress is a result of the amount, pace, and duration of exposure to elevated temperatures
(Wahid et al., 2007). Continuous heat stress affects roughly 7.0 million hectares of wheat in
developing nations, but terminal heat stress affects around 36.0 million hectares in 40 % of the
temperate environment, and the significance of high temperature stress is projected to expand in
the coming years (Reynolds et al., 2001). The duration of the grain filling phase, kernel size,
biomass and the number of tillers are all reduced by heat stress, which has a negative effect on
crop yield, especially wheat. In the current, 2020, and 2050 scenarios, simulations indicate that
terminal heat stress will lower wheat output by 18.1 per cent, 16.1 per cent and 11.1 per cent,
respectively (Dubey et al., 2020).
Plant Response to terminal Heat Stress:
As sessile creatures, plants cannot shift to more favourable habitats in response to abiotic
or biotic challenges; as a result, plant growth, development and production are significantly
impacted (Lippmann et al., 2019). In recent decades, global warming has exacerbated the rise in
air temperature, which is a significant stressor (Hedhly et al., 2009). Consequently, the methods
by which plants adapt to high temperatures are of considerable importance (Figure 3). Plants
subjected to high temperatures (heat stress, HS) have severe and occasionally fatal negative
consequences. Plants have evolved complex systems to respond to HS in order to survive in such
environments. Several fundamental physiological activities of plants, like as photosynthesis,
respiration and water metabolism, are responsive to HS (Liu et al., 2020).

Plant growth and

Photosynthesis Respiration
Development

Cell membrane
Heat stress Water relation
Thermostability
effects

Oxidative Damage Transpiration

Yield

Figure 3: Agro-physiological effects of Heat Stress

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Adverse effect of Heat stress as follows:
Growth and Development: Among plant growth phases, germination is the first to be impacted.
During seed germination, several crops are negatively impacted by heat stress. Reductions in
germination rate, plant emergence, aberrant seedlings, seedling vigour and radicle and plumule
development of geminated seedlings have been identified as prominent effects of heat stress in
several cultivated plant species. At extremely high temperatures (45 °C), the germination rate of
wheat was strongly inhibited and cell death and embryo mortality occurred, resulting in a
decreased seedling establishment rate. Rice cultivar's plant height, number of tillers and total
biomass decreased in response to HT. Lower net assimilation rate (NAR) is an additional factor
contributing to the reduced relative growth rate (RGR) under HT. The morphological indications
of heat stress include scorching and sunburning of leaves, twigs, branches and stems, leaf
senescence and abscission, suppression of shoot and root development and discoloration and
damage to fruits. Due to HT stress, damage to the leaf tips and margins, leaf rolling and drying
and necrosis were seen in plants.
Reproductive Development: Although all plant tissues are susceptible to heat stress at nearly all
phases of growth and development, reproductive tissues are the most sensitive and a few degree
temperature increase during blooming can result in the loss of whole grain crop cycles. During
reproduction, a brief period of heat stress can induce a considerable drop in floral buds and
flower abortion, despite the fact that plant species and varieties vary greatly in their sensitivity.
Even throughout the reproductive stages of a plant's growth, the plant may not generate blooms
and blossoms may not yield fruit or seeds. Impaired meiosis in both male and female organs,
impaired pollen germination and pollen tube growth, reduced ovule viability, anomaly in
stigmatic and style positions, reduced number of pollen grains retained by the stigma, disturbed
fertilisation processes and obstruction in growth of the endosperm, proembryo and unfertilized
embryo are the causes of increasing sterility under abiotic stress conditions including the HT.
Water relations: Changing ambient temperature is often found to have the greatest effect on the
water status of plants. High temperature appears to produce dehydration in plant tissue, which
therefore inhibits plant growth and development. During blooming, 31 °C is widely regarded as
the top limit for preserving a crop's hydration condition (Atkinson and Urwin, 2012). With a
corresponding increase in leaf temperature, heat-stressed wheat plants significantly lower leaf
water potential and relative water content, subsequently reducing photosynthetic efficiency
(Farooq et al. 2009). Simultaneously, both the transpiration rate and the rate of plant
development are drastically altered. Heat stress also enhances the hydraulic conductivity of cell
membranes and plant tissues, mostly because of enhanced aquaporin activity (Martinez-Ballesta
et al., 2009) and to a higher degree because of decreased water viscosity (Cochard et al. 2007).

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Transpiration: Due to decreased root nutrient uptake, lower root biomass and metabolic rate or
direct root injury, as well as a drop in transpiration rate caused by a water shortage, the plant's
response to high temperature may also impair nutrient absorption and the efficiency of their
usage.
Yield: Temperature increases are causing anxiety over agricultural yield and food security. Even
a minor (1.5 °C) rise in temperature has major detrimental impacts on crop production under its
influence. Higher temperatures primarily impact grain production by altering phenological
development processes. Numerous cultivated crops, such as cereals (e.g., rice, wheat, barley,
sorghum, maize), pulses (e.g., chickpea, cowpea), oil-yielding crops (mustard, canola) and so on,
have been reported to experience heat-induced yield decrease. It was proven that a rise of 1 °C in
the seasonal average temperature lowered wheat grain output by 4.1 % to 10 %. (Wang et al.,
2012). The sensitive crop types are impacted by heat stress more strongly than the tolerant kinds.
Oxidative damage: The formation of oxidative stress-inducing ROS, such as singlet oxygen,
superoxide radical, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical, in plants subjected to heat stress is
common. In several plants, including wheat, oxidative stress significantly enhanced membrane
peroxidation and lowered membrane thermostability. Hydroxyl radicals react with nearly all
cellular components. Continuous heat stress in plants may result in build-up of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) in the plasma membrane of the cell, depolarization of the cell membrane,
activation of the ROS-producing enzyme RBOHD and initiation of programmed cell death.
However, plants possess antioxidant systems that allow them to escape excess ROS.
Cell membrane stability (CMS): is one of the sub traits used to evaluate drought and heat stress
and select resistant genotypes. Both drought and heat stress have a detrimental effect on the
selective permeability of the plasma membrane of plant cells. Therefore, the cell is unable to
preserve its internal makeup. The injury impairs plant development and growth. The damage to
the cell membrane induced by drought and heat under field circumstances was estimated by
measuring the solute leakage from plant tissue. Using chemical desiccants such as polyethylene
glycol, plant sensitivity to water deficiency was screened (PEG). It has been demonstrated that
PEG may be used to alter the water potential of solutions, so creating potential osmotic pressure,
which can be employed as a drought stress mediator. Consequently, a number of studies utilised
the effect of PEG on the CMS as an initial step in selecting the most promising drought- and
stress-tolerant genotypes. Similarly, the effect of heat stress on the thermal stability of cell
membranes was examined in the field and in vitro. Overall, it was determined that cell
membrane stability is a quantitative property that is moderately heritable, has a strong genetic
association with grain yield and that a small number of genes govern the majority of the variance
in cell membrane permeability.

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Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis transforms light energy into chemical energy for plant
development and growth. As the most complex physiological activity in plants, photosynthesis
consists of several subsystems, including CO2 reduction routes, photosynthetic photosystems and
the electron transport system. Photosystem II (PSII) has been described as the component of the
photosynthetic machinery that is most sensitive to heat. Heat stress causes a decrease in PSII
abundance and an increase in Photosystem I (PSI) in Populus euphratica. It also generates
photosynthetic linear electron flow (Ferreira et al., 2006). Additionally, moderate heat stress
reduces Rubisco activity. The side reaction of Rubisco oxygenase stimulates the generation of
H2O2, which is harmful to plant cells. High temperature has a bigger effect on the photosynthetic
capability of plants, particularly C3 plants, than it does on C4 plants.
Carbon metabolism in the stroma and photochemical processes in the thylakoid lamellae
are regarded to be the principal sources of damage at HTs in chloroplasts. The thylakoid
membrane is extremely vulnerable to HT. Under heat stress, chloroplasts undergo significant
changes, including altered structural organisation of thylakoids, loss of grana stacking, and grana
swelling. Under HTs, photosystem II (PSII) activity is significantly inhibited or even ceases. The
quantity of photosynthetic pigments is reduced by thermal shock. Heat tolerance is directly
proportional to a plant's capacity to maintain leaf gas exchange and CO2 assimilation rates under
conditions of heat stress. The leaf water status, leaf stomatal conductance, and intercellular CO2
concentration are significantly altered by heat. Under HT, the closure of stomata contributes to
the impairment of photosynthesis, which impacts intercellular CO2.
Respiration: Heat stress modifies mitochondrial functions via altering respiration. The rate of
respiration increases with rising temperature, but below a particular threshold, it decreases owing
to respiratory apparatus injury (Prasad et al. 2008). The increased rate of respiratory carbon loss
caused by heat stress in the rhizosphere decreased ATP synthesis and increased ROS production
(Huang et al. 2012). Because heat stress influences the solubility of CO2 and O2 and the kinetics
of Rubisco, this is the case (Cossani and Reynolds, 2012). Almeselmani et al. (2012) found that
the rate of respiration in the flag leaf of wheat was considerably greater in heat-susceptible
varieties under heat stress (35/25 °C Day/night) than in the control group (23/18 °C Day/night).
Ways of Managing Heat Stress: There are different ways of managing heat stress as
represented in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Managing Heat Stress

Agronomical ways Genetical ways

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Let’s discuss all these one by one.

Agronomical management: Adoption of various agronomic practices like
1. Water conserve techniques
2. The appropriate amount and methods of fertilization
3. Maintaining proper time and methods of sowing
4. The application of exogenous protectants can effectively alleviate the adverse impact of
heat stress in wheat.
Conserving soil moisture: A continual water supply is required for agricultural plants to
maintain their grain-filling rate, duration, and grain size. Mulching may be the greatest method
for maintaining optimal soil moisture and temperature regimes. Straw mulch prevents soil
evaporation, so conserving soil moisture. However, mulching is recommended to prevent yield
loss when decreased tillage is employed. It has been observed elsewhere that in conditions of
extreme heat and water deficiency, mulch can increase crop yield. The use of organic mulches
protects greater soil moisture and enhances plant growth and development, which may lower
water and nitrogen consumption efficiency. This approach has been demonstrated to be highly
beneficial in temperate and tropical countries with unfavourable heat stress conditions for wheat
production.
Nutrient management: Temperature-stressed plants require an adequate and well-balanced
mineral nutrition supply. Post-anthesis applications of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
increase grain proteins while day and night temperatures stay at 24 and 17 °C, respectively, but
have little impact at higher temperatures. Nutrient foliar sprays are highly effective and can
mitigate the negative effects of heat stress on wheat. Potassium orthophosphate used as a foliar
spray after anthesis might be an alternate method for increasing wheat's heat tolerance.
Potassium orthophosphate delays leaf senescence produced by heat stress and increases grain
production.
Planting time: A change in planting technique might mitigate the negative effects of heat stress
during the reproductive phase of wheat. Permanent bed planting under zero-tillage with crop
residue retention has been suggested as a feasible method for enhancing agricultural plants' heat
tolerance. Planting under conventional tillage with straw mulch boosted soil water-holding
capacity, organic carbon and total nitrogen, hence mitigating the high temperature-induced
decline in grain weight during the late grain filling stage.
Use of exogenous protectants: In recent years, exogenously applied growth-promoting
protectants, such as osmoprotectants, phytohormones, signalling molecules and trace elements,
have resulted in the capacity to protect plants by neutralising the negative and detrimental
impacts of heat stress. The use of these chemicals exogenously improves the thermotolerance of

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wheat under heat stress by reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increasing antioxidant
capacity. Several protectants, such as arginine, putrescine and tocopherol (vitamin E), have
already proved their functions in thermotolerance when applied to thermosensitive wheat plants.
External application of these molecules has ameliorating effects on oxidative stress by activating
various enzymatic antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase and
glutathione reductase and non-enzymatic antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid, tocopherol and
glutathione. The widely used plant bio-regulators in horticulture crops have the potential to be
employed in field crops, such as wheat and their possibilities are being highlighted as an
emerging technique for relieving stress in a heat stress setting. Several naturally occurring
intracellular polyamines (PAs), including as spermine, spermidine and putrescine, can play
crucial roles for sustainable crop production under abiotic stress conditions. Recently, research
into polyamine production, catabolism, and its function in abiotic stress tolerance has gained
importance.
Bacterial seed treatment: Varietal improvement through the breeding program is time
consuming and costly and gene transformation technology is not properly appreciated by many
stakeholders. Therefore, utilizing biological control agents like fungus and bacteria are
increasingly suggested as an alternate technique of boosting heat tolerance. Plant growth-
promoting rhizobacteria are discovered to be compatible and having a good influence on the
development of plants under heat stress. Seed treatment with rhizobacteria and foliar spray of
several organic and inorganic chemicals boosted heat tolerance in wheat. Seed inoculation with
rhizobacteria also dramatically increased heat tolerance in wheat. Seed treatment with Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens UCMB5113 and Azospirillum brasilense NO40 strains were also reported to
be helpful to boost heat tolerance of wheat seedlings by lowering ROS production.
Genetic management: Breeding is the response of plants to a changing environment. It
necessitates the appraisal of genetic variety for adaptability to future climate change
circumstances and, consequently, the selection and induction of stress-inducible genes from
genetic resources for the development of novel varieties in production systems. Breeding for heat
tolerance is still in its infancy, thus there is a great deal of focus on the genetic improvement of
wheat to heat stress. In recent years, several investigations have been conducted to identify heat-
tolerant wheat genotypes.
Screening and breeding for heat tolerance: In Australia and a number of developing nations,
several physiological techniques have been proven to be helpful in breeding programmes. The
process comprises scanning genetic resources to identify genetic grounds for crop heat tolerance.
Following the physiologic crossing of novel trait combinations, desired new plant kinds can be
generated to withstand future climates with high temperature occurrences. It is challenging to

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screen wheat genotypes under natural heat stress conditions in varied spatial settings. Therefore,
no consistent selection criterion for evaluating various genetic materials for resistance to heat
stress has been created. In general, selection criteria and screening procedures for selecting
improved genetic materials resistant to heat stress are based on traits linked with greater grain
production under unfavourable heat stress conditions. In this context, researchers proposed
indirect selection criteria for improving wheat's heat tolerance.
Biotechnological approach for improving heat tolerance: By increasing heat tolerance,
genetic engineering and transgenic techniques can reduce the negative impacts of heat stress. It
involves the integration of desirable genes into the intended plants to increase heat tolerance.
However, the intricacy of wheat's genomic structure makes genetic modification studies
challenging. Long-term heat stress raises the protein synthesis elongation factor (EF-Tu) in
wheat chloroplasts, which is connected with heat tolerance. The constitutive expression of EF-Tu
in transgenic wheat protected leaf proteins from thermal aggregation, decreased thylakoid
membrane disruption, increased photosynthetic capacity, and resisted pathogen invasion.
Recently, several transcription factors (TFs) involved in diverse abiotic stressors have been
identified and modified to increase crop stress tolerance. Recently, genome sequences of several
plants have been developed for the enhancement of stress tolerance. They utilised very
affordable sequencing technology and predicted that researchers will employ the presented
methodologies to sequence various types of wheat. This will result in large-scale structural
changes, which are known to play a significant role in the adaptation of wheat to various
stressful conditions.
Conclusions and future perspective:
In the recent past, it was discovered that heat stress led to a worldwide decline in yield.
Although extensive research has been conducted on the harmful effects of heat stress on wheat,
the mechanism of heat resistance remains obscure. Therefore, the heat stress tolerance
mechanism is essential for establishing an effective strategy for managing yield levels under
conditions of heat stress and climate change. To produce heat-tolerant, high-yielding crops, it is
necessary to comprehend the metabolic and developmental processes connected with heat stress
and energy control. Although much progress has been made in understanding the effects of heat
stress on wheat, there is still a need for a deeper knowledge of the biochemical and molecular
foundation of heat tolerance in order to increase crop yields in future warmer settings. It is
necessary to research the molecular understanding of response and tolerance mechanisms in
order to achieve sustainable grain yields. To acknowledge this, the functional genomics method
would be beneficial to the wheat's response to heat stress. It is well-established that classical and
contemporary molecular genetics technologies, when linked with agronomic management

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approaches, may overcome the intricacy of the heat syndrome. To investigate the real impact of
heat stress on ultimate crop production, many biochemical and molecular methods and
agronomic strategies are necessary. In addition, the exogenous applications of protectants have
demonstrated positive impacts on the enhancement of heat tolerance. The use of microorganisms
to mitigate the detrimental effects of heat stress appears to be a valuable agricultural strategy. In
light of anticipated global warming, it is believed that understanding the molecular foundation
and tolerance mechanism may pave the way for creating plants that can survive heat stress and
provide a good yield. In spite of the prospect of using EF-Tu to the development of heat-tolerant
and disease-resistant wheat varieties by manipulating its expression levels, further research is
required to determine the mechanism of action of wheat EF-Tu in relation to heat tolerance. It is
vital to emphasise that molecular research confirms an increase in commercial crop production,
but crop-level yield assessment is necessary for the full manifestation of yield potential.
Therefore, crop modelling system studies are essential for enhancing wheat's heat stress
tolerance and grain output.
References:
Almeselmani, M., Deshmukh, P. and Sairam, R. (2009). High temperature stress tolerance in
wheat genotypes: role of antioxidant defence enzymes. Acta Agronomica
Hungarica, 57(1): 1-14.
Atkinson, N.J. and Urwin, P.E. (2012). The interaction of plant biotic and abiotic stresses: from
genes to the field. Journal of experimental botany, 63(10): 3523-3543.
Cochard, H., Venisse, J.S., Barigah, T.S., Brunel, N., Herbette, S., Guilliot, A., Tyree, M.T. and
Sakr, S. (2007). Putative role of aquaporins in variable hydraulic conductance of leaves in
response to light. Plant physiology, 143(1): 122-133.
Dubey, R., Pathak, H., Chakrabarti, B., Singh, S., Gupta, D.K. and Harit, R.C. (2020). Impact of
terminal heat stress on wheat yield in India and options for adaptation. Agricultural
Systems, 181: 102826.
Farooq, M., Bramley, H., Palta, J.A. and Siddique, K.H. (2011). Heat stress in wheat during
reproductive and grain-filling phases. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 30(6): 491-507.
Farooq, M., Wahid, A., Kobayashi, N.S.M.A., Fujita, D.B.S.M.A. and Basra, S.M.A. (2009).
Plant drought stress: effects, mechanisms and management. In Sustainable agriculture (pp.
153-188). Springer, Dordrecht.
Ferreira, S., Hjernø, K., Larsen, M., Wingsle, G., Larsen, P., Fey, S., Roepstorff, P. and SalomÉ
Pais, M. (2006). Proteome profiling of Populus euphratica Oliv. upon heat stress. Annals
of botany, 98(2): 361-377.

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Hedhly, A., Hormaza, J.I. and Herrero, M. (2009). Global warming and sexual plant
reproduction. Trends in plant science, 14(1): 30-36.
Lippmann, R., Babben, S., Menger, A., Delker, C. and Quint, M. (2019). Development of wild
and cultivated plants under global warming conditions. Current Biology, 29(24): 1326-
1338.
Liu, J., Zhang, R., Xu, X., Fowler, J.C., Miller, T.E. and Dong, T. (2020). Effect of summer
warming on growth, photosynthesis and water status in female and male Populus
cathayana: implications for sex-specific drought and heat tolerances. Tree
Physiology, 40(9): 1178-1191.
Martínez-Ballesta, M.C., López-Pérez, L., Muries, B., Muñoz-Azcarate, O. and Carvajal, M.
(2009). Climate change and plant water balance: the role of aquaporins–a review. Climate
change, intercropping, pest control and beneficial microorganisms, 71-89.
Reynolds, M.P., Nagarajan, S., Razzaque, M.A. and Ageeb, O. A. A. (2001). Heat
tolerance. Application of physiology in wheat breeding, 124-135.
Wahid, A., Gelani, S., Ashraf, M. and Foolad, M.R. (2007). Heat tolerance in plants: an
overview. Environmental and experimental botany, 61(3): 199-223.
Wang, X., Cai, J., Liu, F., Jin, M., Yu, H., Jiang, D., Wollenweber, B., Dai, T. and Cao, W.
(2012). Pre-anthesis high temperature acclimation alleviates the negative effects of post-
anthesis heat stress on stem stored carbohydrates remobilization and grain starch
accumulation in wheat. Journal of Cereal Science, 55(3): 331-336.

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A REVIEW ON FACTORS AFFECTING ADSORPTION OF CARBOFURAN

PESTICIDE IN SOILS
Nisha Sharma
Department of Chemistry,
Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla -171005, INDIA
*Corresponding author E-mail: nishasharma581@gmail.com

Abstract:
Increase in food production is the prime objective, to fulfill the demands of ever growing
population. The consumption of pesticides has increased manifold, particularly during the past
two decades due to their tremendous benefits. When pesticides are used properly they act as
drugs/medicines for plants. But their indiscriminate use may cause considerable hazards to health
and environment. When pesticides are applied on plants for pest control, only a very small part
(<0.1%) actually reaches the sites of action, with the larger proportion being lost and ultimately
accumulates in the soil and leaches to water resources. Therefore, the understanding of
adsorption behaviour of carbofuran becomes an important phenomenon, to describe the fate of
carbofuran in soils and ground water. The behaviour of pesticides in the soil depends on factors
such as the physico-chemical properties of pesticides, organic content, clay content and the
amount of the pesticide applied. This review primarily ascertains the influence of soil organic
matter, clay content, pH and temperature on carbofuran behaviour in soils and their effect on
adsorption and thermodynamic parameters.
Keywords: Carbofuran; adsorption; organic matter; clay content; Groundwater Ubiquity Score.
Introduction:
Carbofuran (2,3-dihydro-2,2- dimethylbenzofuran-7-yl methyl carbamate) is a systemic,
broad-spectrum carbamate insecticide/nematicide which is widely used for the control of
nematodes in soils 1.

It is widely used for the control of soil dwelling and foliar feeding insects and nematodes
on a variety of agricultural crops including maize, corn, rice, potatoes, alfalfa and grapes2.
Carbofuran is highly toxic (oral LD50 8–11 mg/kg in rats) and has been classified as highly
hazardous pesticide3. The toxicity of carbofuran includes inhibitory effects on cholinesterase
enzyme and irreversible neuromuscular disturbance on inhalation2. Being highly water soluble
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(solubility 351 mg/L at 25oC), it finds its way into water sources due to high mobility4 and may
cause toxicity to invertebrates, fish and birds.
In general the fate of pesticide is mostly played out in the soil as the latter is ultimate
reservoir for pesticides irrespective of their application target. These chemicals enter the soil in
different ways i.e. with washing of remaining deposits on crops by rain or irrigation water and
incorporated with crop residues. In soil environment, the pesticides get fractionated between soil
solution phase (in free form) and soil solid phase through adsorption on clay and organic
fractions (in bounded form)5. The adsorption of pesticides affects various processes like
bioactivity, mobility, persistence, toxicity, volatilization and bioaccumulation because all these
phenomena are operative only on the unadsorbed fractions of pesticide6. All these processes
influence the extent of surface and ground water contaminations. Therefore, from environmental
point of view, thorough understanding of adsorption of carbofuran pesticide on soil is paramount
for the prediction of its movement in soils and aquifers.
To accomplish above objectives, it is therefore, inevitable to find the factors which affect
the adsorption of carbofuran in soils. The influence of following parameters viz. pH,
temperature, organic content and clay content has been studied to check their effect on leaching
of carbofuran and on adsorption and thermodynamic parameters.
Adsorption:
Adsorption is a surface process that leads to transfer of a molecule from a fluid bulk to
solid surface. There are three different types of adsorption isotherms which are used to determine
the percentage of adsorption. These are Freundlich, Langmuir and BET isotherm. But the most
commonly studied isotherm for adsorption of carbofuran is Freundlich isotherm.
Parameters studied for adsorption of carbofuran
Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm
The Freundlich adsorption isotherms equation relates amount of pesticide adsorbed to the
concentration of the pesticide in solution as7,8:
X = Kf Cenf
where X is the amount of pesticide adsorbed mg/kg on the adsorbent, C e is the
equilibrium solution concentration (mgL-1) and Kf and nf are sorption coefficients that
characterize the sorption capacity of adsorbent. The sorption coefficients Kf and nf are calculated
from the least square method applied to the linear form of the Freundlich’s sorption equation:
log X = log Kf + nf log Ce

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The adsorption parameters
Another parameters for the adsorption process viz. distribution coefficient or soil-
adsorption coefficient (Kd) (in L/Kg of soil), soil organic carbon partition coefficient (Koc) (in
L/Kg of organic carbon content of soil) have been calculated by using following equations7-8.
Kd = X/ Ce
Koc = Kd×(100/%OC)
Groundwater Ubiquity Score (GUS index)
The GUS index assesses the leachability of molecules and the possibility of finding these
compounds in groundwater 9,10. It is calculated by the equation:
GUS = log(t1/2) [4-log(Koc)]
Where t1/2 is pesticide persistence (half life, in days) and OC is organic carbon content of
the soil. GUS index is used to study the leaching behaviour of pesticides and these can be
classified as leacher in which GUS values are higher than 2.8, transition with GUS values is
between 1.8 and 2.8 and non-leacher pesticides, GUS value is lower than 1.8.
The thermodynamic parameters
Gibb’s free energy (∆Go), enthalpy change (∆Ho) and entropy change (∆So) have also been
calculated by using following equations 11.
∆Go = -RT ln Kd
ln{(Kd)2/(Kd)1} = ∆Ho/R {(T2-T1)/T1T2}
∆So = ((∆Ho- ∆Go)/ T
where R = gas constant and T = absolute temperature.
Adsorption also determines the availability of pesticides in the soil solution, (which
governs the amount of pesticides available for uptake by plants). The distribution of pesticide in
soil depends on pesticide movement, degradation rate and on distribution coefficient Kd of
pesticide between the aqueous phase and soil phase i.e. pesticide adsorption.
This distributions is generally influenced by three factors:
1. Pesticide properties, including its physical characteristics and susceptibility to
chemical and microbial degradation;
2. Soil properties, including its organic and clay contents, pH, depth, moisture, texture, and
structure;
3. Weather conditions, including the amount, frequency, and intensity of rainfall and
temperature.
Therefore the impact of various factors on fate of carbofuran in soils has been studied by
various authors as follows:

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Factors influencing the fate of carbofuran in soils

Effect of organic content and clay content
Soil organic matter is one of major adsorbent for pesticides in soil and largely affects the
adsorption capacity of pesticides. It is found that the amount of pesticides adsorbed by soils
increases as the total soil organic carbon content and clay content increase. This is because the
particles of organic matter or clay provide soils with an increased number of adsorptive sites
onto which pesticides molecules can bind12,13 , thus increases retention time of pesticide in the
soil and reduces the leaching and surface run-off. Similar trend of adsorption dependence on
organic content and clay content were found by adsorption of carbofuran on acidic soils14. The
fact that more carbofuran was adsorbed in clay than in sandy clay soil, may be due to the high
15
soil organic matter content in the clay soil . Similar results were reported by other workers,
where, compost soil showed the maximum adsorption capacity, The order of adsorption capacity
of various soils were: compost soil > clayey soil > red soil > sandy soil, which is due to
significant role of clay content and organic matter 16.
A positive trend between adsorption and organic matter content was observed in
adsorption study of carbofuran on loamy and sandy soils 17. Carbofuran adsorption was higher in
loam soil than in sandy loam soil due to the presence of greater amounts of organic matter and
clay content in loamy soil. However, in some studies, carbofuran adsorption could be correlated
better with the clay content of the soils rather than with their organic matter content18,19. Similar
results have been reported by a number of other workers when soil organic carbon contents is
low 20.
Effect of pH
The adsorption of pesticides is highly dependent on pH, since it has strong influence on
the surface charge and varies with the nature of pesticide and soil composition. The variations of
the pH can affect the state of the ionic species in solution. Adsorption of carbofuran increase as
pH increased from 2 to 8. From pH 8 to 10, there was a slight reduction in adsorption capacity.
This may be due to the masking of functional groups at elevated pH 16. Similar results of
increased adsorption were reported as pH was raised to 6.5-7.5 (neutral) and 7.5-8.5 (alkaline) 20.
However adsorption of carbofuran on carbon slurry shows a small decrease for an increase in pH
from 2.0 to 8.0. On further increase in pH up to 12.0 the percentage adsorption becomes poor 21.
Similar results of adsorption of carbofuran on activated carbon were reported by other author
also22.
Effect of temperature on adsorption
Temperature is another important factor affecting adsorption of pesticides. With increase
in temperature adsorption capacity of carbofuran decreases15. Generally, when the temperature
increases, the pesticide becomes more soluble. As a consequence, it is less retained by the

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adsorbent. The lower adsorption of carbofuran with increase in temperature is partly due to
weakening of attractive forces between carbofuran and soil sites and partly due to enhancement
of thermal energies of adsorbate 12,13.
The adsorption parameters
The distribution coefficient (Kd) and soil organic carbon partition coefficient (Koc)
The value of Kd represents the extent of adsorption and in general higher the Kd value,
the greater is the pesticide adsorption. Though, Kd for a pesticide is soil-specific and its value
varies with soil texture and organic matter content, the soil organic carbon partition coefficient
(Koc) is less soil specific and has been calculated by normalizing adsorption coefficient (Kd)
with the organic carbon (OC) content of the soil and gives more accurate results with regards to
mobility of a pesticide in any kind of soil. Kd values increases with the increase in soil organic
content12,13. Low Kd values for adsorption of carbofuran on lateritic soil implies low affinity of
carbofuran for lateritic soil20. The pesticide which has lower Kd and Koc values is considered to
be more mobile. Therefore, the constants which appeared in the adsorption models can be used
to predict the transport of pesticide in the soil20. Similar results of dependency of Kd with organic
carbon content was found by other authors also 18.
The mobility of carbofuran can be predicted more precisely by Koc values, which
indicate that carbofuran is moderately24, 25 to highly mobile15, 26 in soils.
The groundwater ubiquity score (GUS index)
GUS index is the most commonly used model which determines the leaching potential of
Carbofuran. The GUS for carbofuran was from 2.22 to 2.38, classifying it as a transient
pesticide12 and 2.71-3.22 which presented a high leaching potential 13
therefore it possesses a
real hazard to groundwater contamination at greater extent. The GUS was found more than 2.8
by other authors also, confirming the high mobility of carbofuran26, 27.
Thermodynamic parameters:
The spontaneity of adsorption can be guided by calculations of thermodynamic
parameters such as change in (∆Go), change in enthalpy (∆Ho) and change in entropy (∆So). The
negative value of (∆Go) showed that the interaction of carbofuran with the soil was
thermodynamically spontaneous process. The negative values of (∆Ho) indicates that the
interaction of carbofuran with the soil is an energetically favourable exothermic process. The
negative value of ΔSº indicates decrease in randomness with adsorption.12, 13, 16, 18, 19, 28
Conclusion:
Soil properties play a major role on the adsorption behaviour of carbofuran in soils. The
factors such as organic matter, clay content, pH and soil temperature affect the soil properties
and influence adsorption and thermodynamic parameters.

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The observed GUS value of carbofuran, classifies it as a transition leacher in terms of

leaching behaviour, thereby it poses potential risk to aquatic environment. Hence, this insecticide
should be used judiciously to prevent surface and groundwater contamination. The mobility of
the insecticide into ground water can be reduced by adding organic amendments such as
farmyard manure and compost with higher organic content which will increase its adsorption and
reduce the mobility of the insecticide.
References
1. Mohiddin et al. (2015): Influence of the insecticides acetamiprid and carbofuran on arylamidase
and myrosinase activities in the tropical black and red soils, Environ. Monit. Assess., 187: 388.
2. Al-Amoudi (2012): Protective Effect of Vitamin C against Carbofuran-Induced Testicular
Toxicity in Albino Mice, J. of American Sci., 8(1): 335-341.
3. Otieno et al. (2010): Carbofuran and its Toxic Metabolites Provide Forensic Evidence for
Furadan Exposure in Vultures (Gyps africanus) in Kenya, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 84:
536-544.
4. Ariffin and Rahman (2020): Biodegradation of Carbofuran; A Review, Journal of Environmental
Microbiology and Toxicology, 8(1): 50-57.
5. Wauchope et al. (2002): Pesticide soil sorption parameters: theory, measurements, uses,
limitations and reliability, Pest Manag. Sci., 58(5): 419-445.
6. Jaya et al. (2009): Adsorption behaviour of alachlor on soil, FYM and charcoal, Pest Res J.,
21(1): 101-104.
7. Vischetti et al. (2002): Behaviour of two sunflower herbicides (metobromuron, aclonifen) in
soil, Eur J Agron., 16: 231-238.
8. Raturi et al. (2005): Carbaryl, 2,4-D and triclopyr adsorption in thatch-soil ecosystems, J
Environ Sci Health Part B, 40: 697-710.
9. Papa et al. (2004): Screening the leaching tendency of pesticides applied in the Amu Darya
basin (Uzbekistan), Water Res., 38: 3485-3494.
10. Gustafson (1989): Groundwater ubiquity score: a simple method for assessing pesticides
leachibility, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 8: 339–357.
11. Bhardwaj et al. (2007): Restriction of pesticidal movement in contaminated soil and water, Ind J
Chem., 46A: 1796-1800.
12. Sharma et al. (2021): Differential pulse polarographic determination of carbofuran in
environmental samples. Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment, 25(5): 135-143.
13. Sharma and Sharma (2022): Evaluation of pollution of groundwater resources by Carbofuran
based on its adsorption on three soils by Spectrophotometry: Research Journal of Chemistry and
Environment, 26(4): 1-7.
14. Bermudez-Couso et al. (2011): Adsorption and desorption kinetics of carbofuran in acid soils,
Journal of Hazardous Materials, 190: 159–167.

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15. Farahani et al. (2007): Adsorption and Desorption of Carbofuran in Malaysian Soils, Advances
in Environmental Biology, 1(1): 20-26.
16. Krishna and Philip (2008). Adsorption and desorption characteristics of lindane, carbofuran and
methyl parathion on various Indian soils, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 160: 559–567.
17. Gnanavelrajah and Kandasamy (2012): Carbofuran Adsorption, Leaching and Accumulation in
Edible Tissues in Three Selected Soils in Tropics, American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci.,
12 (11):1475-1478.
18. Singh and Singh (1994): Influence of Different Factors on the Adsorption of Carbofuran (2,3-
Dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl-A/-methyl Carbamate) on Soils, Toxicology and
Environmental Safety, 28: 5 -14.
19. Singh and Srivastava (2009): Adsorption and Movement of Carbofuran in Four Different Soils
Varying in Physical and Chemical Properties, Adsorption Science & Technology, 27( 2):193-
203.
20. Tsui-Ling and Ming-Muh(1998): Adsorption of carbofuran on lateritic soils, Journal of
hazardous materials, 58: 275-284.
21. Gupta et al. (2006): Adsorption of 2,4-D and carbofuran pesticides using fertilizer and steel
industry wastes, J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 299: 556–563.
22. Chang et al. (2011): Adsorption Studies on the Removal of Pesticides (Carbofuran) using
Activated Carbon from Rice Straw Agricultural Waste, World Academy of Science, Engineering
and Technology, 76: 348-351.
23. Farahani et al. (2008): Study on the Downward Movement of Carbofuran in TwoMalaysian
Soils, Bull Environ Contam Toxicol., 81:294–298.
24. Khairatul et al. (2013): Adsorption and leaching studies of molinate, carbofuran and
propiconazole in Muda agricultural soils, J.Trop. Agric.and Food. Sc., 41(1):127–136.
25. Sukop and Cogger (1992): Adsorption of carbofuran, metalaxyl, and simazine: Koc evaluation
and relation to soil transport, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B, 27(5): 565-
590.
26. Khuntong et al. (2010): Adsorption Kinetics of Carbamate Pesticide in Rice Field Soil,
Environment Asia, 3(2): 20-28.
27. Carbo et al. (2008): Determination of pesticides multiresidues in shallow groundwater in a
cotton-growing Region of MatoGrosso, Brazil, Journal of The Brazilian Chemical Society,
19(6):1111-1117.
28. Mosquera-Vivas et al. (2016): Degradation and thermodynamic adsorption process of
carbofuran and oxadicyl in a Colombian agricultural soil profile. Agronomía Colombiana, 34(1):
92-100.

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NANO FERTILIZERS
A. Tharun Kumar*1, M. Yasodha2, Sushma Sannidi1,
Madhurya D1 and Vidhyashree B. S.3
1Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar,
Prof. Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderbad, Telangana 500030
2Department of Agronomy, Amrita School of Agricultural Sciences,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Coimbatore - 642 109
3Department of Agronomy, University of Agricultural sciences,
Dharwad, Karnataka, India -580005
*Corresponding author E-mail: tharunagronomy2017@gmail.com

Abstract:
The agricultural sector has a number of challenges, one of which is ensuring enough nutrient
bioavailability to plants. As a result, the presence of methods for controlled release of nutrients,
as well as unique ways that do not create detrimental effects, is critical for planting.
Nanotechnology in agriculture has a number of advantages, including better nutrient utilisation
by plants and less waste. Nanofertilizers are an emerging technology and a growing class of
agrochemicals that could help farmers establish more sustainable farming practises. Based on
this, the current work attempts to update and explore some important points about these nano
materials, such as different production processes, potential mechanisms for nano fertiliser
capture by plants, and the benefits and drawbacks of employing these materials. Nano fertiliser is
a useful technique in agriculture for improving crop growth, yield, and quality metrics by
increasing nutrient use efficiency, lowering fertiliser waste, and lowering cultivation costs. The
current chapter summarises the mode of action of nano fertilisers in the plant system, as well as
their impact on crop development, yield, quality, NUE, and abiotic stress and heavy metal
toxicity reduction.
Keywords: sustainable agriculture, agrochemicals, nano fertilizers
Introduction:
According to the UN DESA research, the present global population of 7.7 billion people
will grow to 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.7 billion in 2050, and 11.2 billion in 2100. As a result, the
current situation necessitates higher food production. To feed all of these people adequately, total
food consumption will need to increase by 50-70 percent (Fehr et al., 2015)
Intensive agriculture is one of the most effective tools for increasing food production by
multiples in order to feed an ever-increasing population. Intensive agriculture is benefiting from
high-dose nutrient-responsive crops, which has resulted in farmers applying more fertilisers.
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Fertilizers are now being discovered to play a significant role in enhancing food production,
particularly in underdeveloped countries. (Naderi et al., 2013). According to studies conducted in
India, the current NPK fertiliser utilisation ratio is 10:2.7:1, which is lower than the optimal NPK
fertiliser ratio of 4:2:1, which is ideal for crop productivity.
Synthetic fertilisers have a significant impact on global food security, and without them,
we would only be able to produce half as much food as we do now. (Stewart and Roberts, 2012).
Fertilizer is responsible for about 35-40% of crop production." (Nagula and Ramanjaneyulu,
2020). Nonetheless, fertiliser usage efficiency has decreased over time, contaminating fertile
soils, water bodies, and the Agri environment as a result of leaching, volatilization,
denitrification, and fixation, among other things. (Baligar and Bennett, 1986). The fertiliser
response ratio has dropped dramatically from 13.4 kg grain per kilogramme of nitrogen applied
in the 1970s to 3.7 kg grain in 2005.(Biswas and Sharma, 2008). The percentage of crop loss is
increasing every year nearing 25 to 30% due to the great extent of multi-nutrient deficiencies
which directly affect crop production. “The extent of nutrient deficiencies in the country are in
the order of 89, 80, 50, 41, 49 and 33% for N, P, K, S, Zn and B, respectively”.(Subramanian
and Tarafdar, 2011)
Crop loss is increasing every year, approaching 25 to 30 percent, due to widespread multi-
nutrient deficits that have a direct impact on crop yield. "Nutrient inadequacies in the country range
from 89 to 80 percent, 50 to 50 percent, 41 to 49 percent, and 33 percent for N, P, K, S, Zn, and B,
respectively." (Rakshit et al., 2012). When it comes to micronutrients, the majority of them have
an efficiency of less than 5%. As a result, there is an urgent need to adapt sustainable alternative
crop production systems.
Scientists from all over the world have developed technologies such as variable fertiliser
application rates, large size granules, neem coatings, water-soluble fertilisers, and so on, but
nutrient utilisation efficiency still has to be greatly improved. For nearly 15 years, there has been
a growing interest in the application of nanotechnology in agriculture. Rodrigues et al. (2017)
found a number of possible nanotechnology applications for improving sustainable agri-food
systems Recent nanotechnologies for plant nutrition and pest management, such as controlled
release technique and targeted delivery of agrochemicals (fertilisers and insecticides), are
promising technologies for increasing food safety and security by eliminating residual effects in
the agricultural ecosystem (Subramanian and Tarafdar, 2011).
Nanotechnology is revolutionizing several industries in the modern world, including
information technology, computers, the energy industry, medical, pharmacy, cosmetics, and the
food industry. Nanotechnology in agriculture is still in its infancy, and farmers will need to wait
a long time for it to mature and reach its full potential.

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Nanotechnology's invasion into agriculture began in 1970 with the use of nanoparticles to
transmit genes. Precision agriculture, food packaging, plant breeding, and nano-based products
such as nano fertilisers, nano pesticides, nano herbicides, nano sensors, nano membranes, and
nano magnets are all affected by nanotechnology. A nano fertiliser is a structure or adsorbent
with a nano size of 1-100 nm that distributes macro and micronutrients to the crop. Small size,
large surface area, fertiliser stability, time-controlled, gradual, and precise release are all
significant qualities of nano fertilisers.
Definition:
Nanotechnology is a science dealing with the manipulation of materials at atom level,
molecular and macromolecular scales, in the range of 1-100 nm, which results from unique
physical and chemical properties unlike original form makes novel applications possible. Nano
fertilizers are the nano materials fortified or encapsulated with one or more nutrients, that can
slowly deliver nutrients to crops. Norio Taniguchi coined the term nano technology, "Nano" is a
Greek word that means "dwarf." and Mr. Richard Feyman, a physicist from the United States, is
the father of nanotechnology.
Different kinds of encapsulation methods include (a) encapsulation of nutrients with
nanomaterials like nanotubes or nano porous materials, (b) coating of nutrients with a thin
protective layer of polymer and (c) formulations which can deliver nutrients as particles or
emulsions of nanoscale dimensions (Derosa et al., 2010).
Nano fertilisers have special features that allow them to give nutrients to crops as
needed. The designer molecules operate as a nutrition storehouse, releasing nutrients through a
plant-root-activated mechanism. When compared to ordinary fertiliser, the efficiency of this
nutrient can be increased by several times.
Classification:
Types of Nanomaterials:
1. Carbon-based nanomaterials: These nanomaterials are mostly made of carbon and come as
hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. Fullerenes are spherical carbon-based nanoparticles, while
nanotubes are cylindrical carbon-based nanostructures.
2. Metal-based nanomaterials: Quantum dots, Nanogold, Nanosilver, and metal oxides such as
titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, magnesium oxide, iron oxide, and others are among these
nanomaterials.
3. Dendrimers: Dendrimers are branching polymers with a significant number of chain endings
on their surface that are nanoscale in size. These can be changed in a variety of ways in order to
accomplish certain chemical actions that are meant to be performed. Having this property
dendrimers can be used as a catalyst and its three-dimensional structure with inner cavities

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allows us to use dendrimers for drug delivery by placing the drug molecules inside (Astruc et al.,
2010)
4. Nanocomposites: A nanocomposite is a composition created by mixing nanoparticles with
additional nanoparticles or bigger bulk-type elements. These are commonly employed to
improve other materials' mechanical, thermal barrier, and flame-retardant qualities (Ajayan et
al., 2003)
Types of nano fertilizers:
Different Nano fertilisers, such as Nano-zeolite based fertilisers, Nano hydroxyapatite
based fertilisers, Micronutrient based nanoparticle-based (Zn, Fe, Cu, Mo, TiO2, etc.) fertilisers,
Nano biofertilizers, and others, were available based on their adsorbent material.
Preparation/ Synthesis of nano fertilizers
Nanomaterials or nanoparticles for nano fertilisers can be made in variety of ways,
including top-down, bottom-up, and biological methods.
1. The top-down approach:
It is the most widely used physical approach for making nano fertilisers. It is made by
reducing the size of bulk materials into nanoscale well-organized assemblies using grinding,
sputtering, and thermal evaporation. Top-down synthesis is a material-milling-based fast
synthesis process. The low control of nanoparticle size and a higher quantity of contaminants are
two drawbacks of this method. (Subramanian and Tarafdar, 2011).
2. The bottom-up approach:
It starts at the most fundamental level, with chemical processes to build up nanoparticles
at the atomic or molecular level. Because it is a chemically controlled process, this method
offers the advantage of better controlling particle size and eliminating contaminants. (Zulfiqar et
al., 2019). The following techniques were used in the bottom-up chemical approach.
 Sol-gel Techniques
 Co-precipitation
 Microwave synthesis
 Microencapsulation
 Hydrothermal methods
 Polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) method
3. Biological method – Bottom-up approach:
The Biological method – bottom-up approach has precise control on size and toxicity is
less, but synthesis is very slow. Nanomaterial is prepared using living cells of plants, algae and
fungi.
Ex. Aspergillus terreus CZR-1 produce the nanoparticles of Zn, Mg, P, Fe
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Bacillus megaterium JCT-13 produce the P nanoparticle

Penicillium solitum TFR-24 produce the K nanoparticles etc.
4. Nutrient loading:
In living systems, nanoparticles are more efficient at delivering nutrients to specific target
areas. Nutrient loading on nanoparticles is typically accomplished through (a) nutrient
attachment to nanoparticles, (b) nutrient adsorption mediated by ligands on nanoparticles, (c)
nutrient encapsulation with a nanoparticulate polymeric shell, (d) entrapment of polymeric
nanoparticles, and (e) nutrient nanoparticle synthesis. (Dey et al., 2018). Here are some of the
flow charts to prepare nano fertilizers.
5. Preparation of zeolite-based nitrogen fertilizers by liquid immersion hydrothermal
technique
Step 1. Zeolite adsorbent is preheated (150o C for 3 days) in a hot air oven for efficient N
adsorption
Step 2. Urea solution is heated at 115oC till it changes from crystal structure to liquid
Step 3. The prepared mixture is heated continuously till the liquid fertilizer is completely
adsorbed on the zeolite.
Step 4. Constant cooling (50oC) of solid material and adding polymer (Carboxyl methylcellulose
sodium salt) with continuous mixing (Manik and Subramanian, 2014).

Figure 1: General approach for Nano fertilizer preparation procedure

6. Preparation of ZnO nanoparticles (25 nm) using oxalate decomposition technique
Step 1. Equimolar concentration (0.2M) of zinc acetate and oxalic acid are mixed.
Step 2. Precipitated zinc oxalate is collected rinsed with double deionized water and dried in air.

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Step 3. Zinc oxalate is ground well and decomposed in the air by placing it in a preheated
furnace for 45 min at 500oC.
Step 4. The samples should be characterized using TEM, SEM and X –rays diffraction
techniques.
Step 5. ZnO 25 nm nanoparticles are thus synthesized (Prasad et al., 2012).
7. Preparation of nano–Si
Step 1. Adsorbent Zeolite is preheated (150oC for 3 days) in a hot air oven for efficient
adsorption of nitrogen
Step 2. Urea solution is heated at 115oC till it changes from crystal structure to liquid
Step 3. The prepared mixer is heated continuously till the liquid fertilizer is completely absorbed
on the zeolite.
Step 4. After Constant cooling (50oC) of solid material polymer (Carboxymethyl cellulose
sodium salt) should be added with continuous mixing (Wang et al., 2015).
8. Preparation of Nano biofertilizer:
An Indian agro-scientist, Dr J. C Tarafdar et al. (2014)has innovated nano
fertilizers using biosynthesis, for the first time in the world.
Step 1. Fungi, Rhizobium bataticola TFR-6 is grown in a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask containing a
100-mL PD broth medium by adjusting the pH of the medium to 5.8.
Step 2. The culture was subjected to continuous shaking on a rotary shaker (150 rpm) at 28oC for
72 h.
Step 3. After complete incubation, fungal balls of mycelia were separated from the culture broth
by filtration process using Whatman filter paper number 1 under a biosafety cabinet
Step 4. Fungal mycelia were washed thrice with sterile double-distilled water.
Step 5. The harvested fungal mycelia (20-g wet weight) were re-suspended in 100-mL sterile
Milli-Q-water in 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask and again put into a rotary shaker (150 rpm) at 28oC
for 12 h.
Step 6. The cell-free filtrate was obtained by separating the fungal biomass using a 0.45l
membrane filter
Step 7. Using cell-free filtrate, a salt solution of aqueous zinc oxide was prepared with a final
concentration of 0.1 mM in Erlenmeyer flasks.
Step 8. The entire mixture was kept on a rotary shaker at 28oC at 150 rpm. The reaction was
allowed to carry out for a period of 4 h.
Step 9. The biotransformed product was collected periodically (1 h interval) for characterization
of particle size using a particle size analyzer

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9. Nanoparticle analysis:
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) Analysis: It is to know the size distributions of zinc
nanoparticles with histogram. The histogram will show the differential number %age indicating
the size distribution and cumulative number %age indicating the mass distribution of nano
fertilizer particles.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and High Resolution (HR)-TEM is used for
confirmation of the size and shape of nano fertilizer particles.
Electron Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) Analysis is used for the determination of the
elemental composition and purity percentage of the sample by an atom of a particular metal in
nano fertilizer (Raliya and Tarafdar, 2013).

Figure 2: Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) analysis

Figure 3: Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and High Resolution (HR) TEM

As a result, it is apparent that there are numerous methods for producing nanofertilizers,
necessitating the selection of the most appropriate method for each situation and final
application. The decision must be based on the production, use, preparation, and final
application's economic viability. Another significant issue to consider is the performance of the

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end products, which necessitates knowledge of the mechanisms of nutrient absorption in the
culture under investigation.

Figure 4: Electron Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis

Methods of Nano fertilizer application and nutrient uptake mechanism:

Nano fertiliser can be used as a foliar spray or in the soil. However, more research is
needed to see if this technique is more efficient for nutrient utilisation for various crops in varied
soil and environmental conditions. Root junctions, wounds, root, shoot, and leaf tissues are
potential entry points for nanoparticles into the plant system (e.g., cuticles, trichomes, stomata,
stigma, and hydathodes)(Wang et al., 2016).
The pore diameter of the cell wall is critical for controlling nanoparticle penetration
through the cell wall (5-20 nm)(Fleischer et al., 1999). Nanoparticles or nanoparticle aggregates
with a diameter smaller than the pore size of the plant cell wall might so easily penetrate through
the cell wall and reach the plasma membrane. (Navarro et al., 2008).
As a result, one of the major barriers to nanoparticle entry into the plant system is
assumed to be pore size. The largest size of nanoparticles that can penetrate and collect inside
plant cells, according to various studies, is between 40 and 50 nm, and this size range is referred
to as the exclusion limit. (Sabo-Attwood et al., 2012)..
Nano-fertilizers applications:
Effect of nano fertilizer application on growth and yield parameters of crops
Nano-fertilizers improve crop output mostly due to enhanced nutrient availability.
Eventually, increased physiological and biochemical activity in plant systems, such as
photosynthesis and translocation, leads to increased photosynthetic accumulation and
translocation. In research tests, foliar spraying of nano NPK formulations and micronutrients
mixture boosted the plant height and number of branches in black gram plants (Marimuthu and
Surendran, 2015), leaf dry weight of peppermint (Rostami et al., 2017) and growth of leaves in
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wheat (Abdel-Aziz et al., 2018) due to enhanced availability of nutrients and easy penetration
nutrient source.
Foliar spray of NPK nanofertilizers in chickpea increased the yield and yield components
as a result of increased growth hormone activity and enhancement of metabolic process, tended
to increase in flowering and grain formation (Drostkar et al., 2016). Significant increases of total
and open bolls per plant, boll weight and seed cotton yield with the foliar nanofertilizers
application than soil application (Sohair et al., 2018). According to Drostkar et al. (2016), foliar
application of zinc, iron, and NPK manipulates chickpea growth, resulting in improved yield and
yield components.

A comparative study of the release of sulphate (SO42-) from fertilizer loaded SMNZ
and (NH4)2 SO4 fertilizers were performed using the percolation reactor. The results showed that
the SO42- supply from fertilizer loaded SMNZ was available even after 912 h of continuous
percolation, whereas SO42- from (NH4)2 SO4 was exhausted within 384 h. These properties
suggest that SMNZ has a great potential as the fertilizer carrier for slow release of SO42
(Thirunavukkarasu and Subramanian, 2014)
Zinc nano fertilizer had significantly increased shoot length, root length, root volume,
plant dry biomass and grain yield of pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum L.)(Tarafdar et al.,
2014), plant fresh weight and dry weight, number of bolls per plant and boll weight of cotton
crop (Rezaei et al., 2014) and plant height, leaf number and fresh and dry weight of savory plant
(Vafa et al., 2015). This was due to increased availability of zinc, which is a precursor element
of natural auxin – indole aceti acid (IAA). As a result improved physiological processes like
chlorophyll content and antioxidant activity had been noted. Nano-chelate zinc enhanced the
shoot and root growth due to improved peroxidase, catalase and polyphenol oxidase enzymes
activity in cotton and soybean crops (Rezaei et al., 2014; Weisany et al., 2012). Groundnut crop
pod yield gets increased with the application of nano-scale zinc oxide compared to ZnSO4

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application, on account of nano-scale zinc is absorbed by plants to larger extent than its chemical
form (Prasad et al., 2012).

Some soluble phosphate salts, heavily used in agriculture as highly effective phosphorus
(P)fertilizers, cause surface water eutrophication, while solid phosphates are less effective in
supplying the nutrient P. In contrast, synthetic apatite nanoparticles could hypothetically supply
sufficient P nutrients to crops but with less mobility in the environment and with less
bioavailable P to algae in comparison to the soluble counterparts. Thus, a greenhouse experiment
was conducted to assess the fertilizing effect of synthetic apatite nanoparticles on soybean
(Glycine max). The particles, prepared using one-step wet chemical method, were spherical in
shape with diameters of 15.8 6 7.4 nm and the chemical composition was pure hydroxyapatite.
The data show that application of the nanoparticles increased the growth rate and seed yield by
32.6% and 20.4%, respectively, compared to those of soybeans treated with a regular P fertilizer
(Ca(H2PO4)2). Biomass productions were enhanced by 18.2% (above-ground) and 41.2%
(below-ground). Using apatite nanoparticles as a new class of P fertilizer can potentially enhance
agronomical yield and reduce risks of water eutrophication (Liu and Lal, 2014)
It was suggested that nanofertilizer application increased grain zinc content without
affecting grain yield, protein content, spikelets per spike, 1000 kernel weight, etc., owing to
enhanced enzyme activity and carbohydrate metabolism leading to an an increased yield (Afshar
and Rahimihaghighi, 2014) . Nano-Fe fertilizer application at tillering and stem elongation did
increase the number of seeds per spike, whereas early application of Fe fertilizer decreased the
number of seeds per spike in wheat. Hence, the foliar application of Fe was more suitable than
seed dressing or soil application attributable to being a suitable time for seed formation. In
addition, Fe availability can increase the leaf area index, leaf area duration and decreased leaves

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242 Foliar application of nanofertilizers in senescence that can increase economic yield (Armin
et al., 2014).
Effect of nano fertilizers on quality parameters
Nano-fertilizers can improve nutrient availability. This helps to increase quality
parameters like protein, oil and sugar content in plants by increasing the rate of the chemical
reaction or synthesis process in plant cells. Nano formulation of zinc and iron increased the total
carbohydrate, starch, indole-3-acetic acid, chlorophyll and protein contents in crops (Wa Al-
Juthery and Hilal Obaid Al-Maamouri, 2020). Singh (2015)reported that seed oil content
increased with increased concentration of nano ZnS in sunflower. Fibre quality parameters of
cotton like uniformity ratio and fibre strength were improved by the application of metal oxide
nanoparticles than control (Mahil and Kumar, 2019). Prasad et al. (2012) found that the
application of fertilizer in nano form is completely controlled and has led to an increase yield and
protein content in peanut. Sham (2017) reported that foliar application of ZnO nanoparticles
increased the quality parameters like oil content in sunflower. In peanut, total carbohydrate, total
soluble sugars, protein and oil percentages in seeds increased by nanofertilizers (El-Metwally et
al., 2018)
Effects of nano-fertilizers on seeds germination and growth parameters of the plant
Numerous scientists have stated that nano-fertilizers affected the growth of seeds and the
production of plants. Nanofertilizers can form a favorable foundation for seed growth and
production of the plant. Nano formulation of zinc oxide demonstrated higher germination rate
and root vigor as compared to bulk zinc sulphate (Kashyap et al., 2015). Positively impacted on
soya bean seeds germination (Gruener et al., 2003). Nano-fertilizers cause the fruits to be more
succulent and nutritious than natural. It was recorded that the spectra treated seeds grown more
up weight, higher rate of photosynthesis, and formation of chlorophyll.
Challenges of nano fertilizer in agriculture:
Nanoparticles can easily enter into the biological system and affect the complete ecosystem due
to its nano dimension and unique properties.
Post application constraints
1. Toxicity to Human and Animals
 Nanoparticles could be inhaled, swallowed, absorbed through the skin.
 Trigger inflammation and weaken the immune system.
 Interfere with regulatory mechanisms of enzymes and proteins.
 Lipid peroxidation and DNA damage
 Increased risk of carcinogenesis. (Oberdörster et al., 2005)

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2. Toxicity to plants: High concentration of nano-silica silver produced some chemical injuries
on the tested plants (cucumber leaves and pansy flowers).
3. Environmental issues: Could accumulate in soil, water and plants.
Application constraints:
Drift losses may occur during application due to their small size
Production Constraints:
The common challenges related to commercializing nanotechnology, are:
 High processing costs problems in the scalability of research & discovery for prototype and
industrial production
 Lack of cost-benefit analysis
 Acceptance by farmers
Conclusion:
Nanonutrients are more efficient and cost-effective than traditional nutrients. The use of
various types of nano-fertilizers has a significant impact on crop output, natural resource
protection, and fertiliser cost reduction in agricultural production. The usage of nano-fertilizers
in farm fields will improve the quality of nutrient use. By using the right dosage and
concentration, nano-fertilizers encourage good crop development and yield. Crops would be
inhibited if a specific cap was exceeded. It would be critical to determine the best fertiliser doses.
The production system will be very productive and environmentally friendly in the near future as
dosing for different nano subs and crops is optimised. In addition, as compared to the demand for
and cost of chemical fertilisers, nano fertilisers are less expensive and are required in less
quantities.
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sulphide (nZS) on the growth and yield of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). M. Sc.(Agri.)
Thesis.
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Sohair, E., Abdall, A., Amany, A., Hossain, M., and Houda, R. 2018. Evaluation of Nitrogen.
Phosphorus and Potassium Nano-Fertilizers on Yield, Yield Components and Fiber
Properties of Egyptian Cotton (Gossypium Barbadense L.). Journal of Plant Sciences and
Crop Protection, 1(3).
Stewart, W., and Roberts, T. 2012. Food security and the role of fertilizer in supporting it.
Procedia Engineering, 46: 76-82.
Subramanian, K., and Tarafdar, J. 2011. Prospects of nanotechnology in Indian farming. Indian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 81(10): 887-893.
Tarafdar, J., Raliya, R., Mahawar, H., and Rathore, I. 2014. Development of zinc nanofertilizer
to enhance crop production in pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum). Agricultural
Research, 3(3): 257-262.
Thirunavukkarasu, M., and Subramanian, K. 2014. Surface modified nano-zeolite used as carrier
for slow release of sulphur. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 6(1): 19-26.
Vafa, Z. N., Sirousmehr, A. R., Ghanbari, A., Khammari, I., and Falahi, N. 2015. Effects of nano
zinc and humic acid on quantitative and qualitative characteristics of savory (Satureja
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263.
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in rice seedlings. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(4): 2837-2845.
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BIO-FORTIFICATION OF CROPS: THE NUTRITIONAL REVOLUTION

Nitika Kalia*, Narender Pal1, Garima Sethi2 and Pooja Verma3
*Division of PGR-NBPGR; 1Division of Seed Science and Technology;
2Division of Agricultural Chemicals; 3Division of PGR-NBPGR
ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
*Corresponding author E-mail: nitikakalia7@gmail.com

Abstract:
Bio-fortification is a sustainable, long-term approach for providing micronutrients to
rural communities in underdeveloped nations. More than half of the world's population suffers
from vitamin A, iron, and zinc deficiencies. Through supplementation and food fortification,
progress has been made in the control of micronutrient deficiencies, but new strategies are
required, especially to reach the rural poor. One choice is bio-fortification, which involves
improving the nutritional value of staple crops through plant breeding. In order to create crops
with higher amounts of micronutrients, a range of procedures are used, including agronomic
practices, conventional breeding methods, and transgenic breeding methods. HarvestPlus has
recently worked with international partners to introduce bio-fortified crops in underdeveloped
nations, including rice, wheat and maize. This has helped the target population overcome
micronutrient deficiencies.
Keywords: Bio-fortification, Hidden Hunger, HarvestPlus, nutritional deficiency
Introduction:
Access to a healthy diet is a fundamental right of all human beings. People in developing
countries tend to suffer from shortages of minerals and vitamins. The number of undernourished
people in the world continued to rise in 2020. In 2020, between 720 and 811 million people
faced hunger (FAO, 2021). Many countries have implemented various interventions to address
micronutrient malnutrition because it is a critical public health issue. There has been some
success in reducing malnutrition through programs such as dietary diversification, food
fortification, bio-fortification and supplementation. Among the methods used to improve
micronutrient content in crops, Crop bio-fortification is an effective and economical method to
enhance micronutrient content in crops, especially staple food crops in developing countries. It
refers to nutritionally enhanced food crops with increased bioavailability to the human
population that are developed and grown using modern biotechnology techniques, conventional
plant breeding, and agronomic practices.
To meet micronutrient and energy needs, a diet that includes fruits, vegetables, and animal
products is necessary. However, the majority of people on the planet cannot afford these things.
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Although practically all plants are capable of producing and storing micronutrients, the edible
sections of some plants used to grow staple crops are deficient in some micronutrients including
iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), vitamin A, folic acid, etc. Finding a crop with enough nutrients to serve as a
perfect and complete diet is difficult. Bio-fortification of staple crops with micronutrients has
therefore been proposed as a potential strategy to combat the problem of malnutrition through
the enrichment of target food crops to fill the gap in micronutrient ingestion by humans and
animals (Nestel et al., 2006). Consuming a lot of food with little variety, primarily one or two
staples in developing nations, is the main cause of Fe and Zn deficiencies. Due to extreme
poverty, individuals in emerging nations primarily rely on cereal and animal-based foods. Wheat,
maize, and rice are these nations' three main basic crops. Through breeding and fertilization, bio-
fortification increases the amounts and bioavailability of micronutrients in edible sections of
staple crops, hence reducing micronutrient deficiency. The scientific community generally
agrees that bio-fortification is a superior technique to supplements and/or food fortification since
it is more affordable and sustainable.
Along with the enrichment of staple crops with micronutrients this approach has other
advantages like the germplasm can be transferred internationally after the initial outlay to create
seeds that can fortify themselves as the current requirement are minimal. Plant breeding is more
affordable because of this multiplication impact over time and space. The bio-fortified crop
system is very sustainable once it is established. Even if government interest and international
financing for micronutrient issues wane, nutritionally enhanced varieties will continue to be
planted and consumed year after year.
Problem of ‘Hidden Hunger’
Hidden hunger, also known as micronutrient deficiency. Micronutrients are needed in
smaller amounts, which include several vitamins and minerals. Deficiencies in essential vitamins
and minerals continue to pose serious threats to populations and economies around the world.
Mental impairment, poor health, low productivity, and even death can result from hidden hunger.
It is particularly important for women and young children under five years of age to have a
balanced diet rich in micronutrients like zinc, iron, and vitamin A. As per “The State of Food
Security and Nutrition in the World 2021” 15.3% of Indian population is undernourished, and
30.9% of Indian children (Under the age of 5) are stunted and 17.3 % are wasted. Additionally,
anemia is a serious health concern, 53.0% of Indian women of reproductive age (15-49) are
affected with this deficiency.
Anemia and iron deficiency reduce individuals’ wellbeing, cause fatigue and lethargy, and
impair physical capacity and work performance. (Ekta Belwal et al., 2021). In India since 1992,
the National Family Health Surveys (NFHS-1-5), have collected extensive demographic, health,

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and nutrition information so that the Ministry of Health and other agencies can formulate policies
and plan programs and help India situate itself in the global community. So far, five surveys have
been conducted over a span of almost two decades (1992-2021). (Ekta Belwal et al., 2021).

(Source: https://anemiamuktbharat.info/target/)
Other than anemia, Vitamin A deficiency also threatens people's life. Children living in
developing countries are at serious risk of vitamin A deficiency. The vitamin A deficiency may
lead to various health issues such as susceptibility to various infections, stunting, eye health, and
vision issues. In a broader sense, vitamin A has an important role to play in the regulatory of
processes like cellular differentiation and function, such as growth, vision, reproduction,
morphogenesis, immunity, etc. According to a report from UNICEF, only two out of five
children in need received the life-saving benefits of vitamin A supplementation in 2020. Out of
64 countries deemed ‘priorities’ for national-level vitamin A supplementation programs, 48 had
two-dose coverage estimates available for 2020. Only 11 countries, achieved two-dose coverage
of 80 per cent or more in 2020. Two-dose coverage with vitamin A supplements dropped
drastically in 2020, due to outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic. In India, about 54% children (aged
6–59 months) received two high-dose vitamin A supplements in 2020. (UNICEF global
databases, 2021).

(Source: UNICEF global databases, 2021, based on administrative reports from countries)
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The importance of zinc for human health is similar to that of iron and vitamin A.
Nutritional zinc deficiency is widespread throughout developing countries. (Mocchegiani et al.,
2012). India is a zinc-deficient country. Given deficiency of this essential micronutrient, WHO
has reported that about 800,000 deaths happen annually due to zinc deficiency, of which 450,000
are children under the age of five (UNION BUDGET 2020). Zinc is an essential micronutrient
for humans and is extensively involved in protein, lipid, nucleic acid metabolism, and gene
transcription. (McClung, 2019).
A wide variety of foods contain zinc, including meat, fish, legumes, nuts, and other
sources of dietary zinc. However, zinc absorption depends on the substrate in which it is found.
A daily intake of zinc is required to maintain a steady state because the body has no specialized
zinc storage system. (Rink et al., 2000). Old people aged 60-65 years and older have zinc intakes
below 50% of the recommended daily allowance on a given day. UNICEF supplied 50.8 million
oral rehydration sachets (ORS) sachets, of which 8.7 million were ORS and zinc co-packs; also
111.9 million zinc tablets, of which 40.9 million were ORS and zinc co-packs.

Figure: Percentage of adolescents with Vitamin A, Vitamin D, and Zinc deficiency, India,
CNNS (Source: Abhiyaan Monitoring Report)
According to CNNS results (2016-18), zinc deficiency was found in nearly one-third of
adolescents aged 10–19 years (32%). Fewer pre-school children aged 1–4 years (19%) and
school-age children aged 5–9 years (17%) were found to be zinc deficient. In India, States with a
high burden of zinc deficiency among adolescents (10–19-year-olds) were Gujarat (55%),
Manipur (53%), Himachal Pradesh and Punjab (both 52%) (WCD Division, NITI Aayog, 2020).
It is possible for nations to overcome malnutrition by addressing all of these deficiencies.
One solution pursued by CGIAR researchers is bio-fortification which involves breeding crops
to enhance their nutritional content, increase yields, and boost resilience to climate extremes,
diseases, and pests. Families in rural areas of developing countries often rely on homegrown
staple crops that are cheap, but not very nourishing. This innovative technology aims to change

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that. With bio-fortification, these families are able to obtain much-needed food security and
nutrition.
Methods of bio-fortification
Bio-fortification of essential micronutrients into crop plants can be achieved through three
main approaches, namely transgenic, conventional, and agronomic, involving the use of
biotechnology, crop breeding, and fertilization strategies, respectively (Garg et al., 2018).

New breeding technologies Source: Shahzad et al., 2021

Agronomic techniques
Bio-fortification through agronomic approaches is an economical and easy method but the
method of nutrient application, their type, and environmental factors requires great care.
(Shahzad et al., 2021). By increasing microbial activity, this approach allows for the efficient
utilization of nutrients by plants by increasing their availability, their effective utilization, and
their mobility in plants. Microbes like rhizobium, bacillus, azotobacter, actinomycete, and some
fungal strains, i.e., P. indica, are used to enhance nutrient availability and uptake. Another
technique for bio-fortification in crops is foliar application, in which nutrients are applied in
liquid form in aerial parts of plants and absorbed through stomata and epidermis. Crops can be
bio-fortified with mineral fertilization by flooding. Minerals, i.e., selenium, zinc, calcium, etc.,
are supplied to crops alongside irrigation. (Shahzad et al., 2021).
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Agronomic bio-fortification is the application of micronutrient-containing mineral

fertilizer (blue circles) to the soil and/or plant leaves (foliar), to increase micronutrient
contents of the edible part of food crops. (Source: A.W. de Valença et al., 2017)
Convention breeding
Convention breeding is the development or improvement of cultivars using conservative
tools for manipulating plant genome within the natural genetic boundaries of the species. The
process of conventional breeding has evolved over time, creating an effective framework that not
only improves crop performance, but also supports development of foods that are safe and
nutritious to consume. (Natalie et al., 2020). There are a number of decisions that must be made
during plant breeding, including selecting the best parents, cross-pollinating the parents and
selecting the greatest progeny. During conventional breeding, from plant population obtained
only fraction of population is used further and about majority of plants are discarded. During
many stages of the plant breeding process, including trait mapping, trait introgression, and field
testing, a few individuals are selected from large populations, which is an important contribution
to plant breeding.

General framework of the conventional breeding process that is comprised of three stages
(Source: Natalie et al., 2020)

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Trait Mapping: The purpose of trait mapping is to identify and confirm the genetic basis of the
trait of interest by finding the DNA region linked to the trait (Falconer & Mackay, 1996). In
order to map traits, breeding strategies commonly involve breeding parent plants with extreme
values of the trait of interest to produce progeny. Identification of the precise location of genes
underlying the trait of interest within the identified chromosome is achieved over the subsequent
5–6 generations of progeny plants. (Natalie et al., 2020). After mapping the trait-linked DNA
marker that segregates, is then used to develop a DNA marker-based assay, due to which
breeders were allowed to conduct rapid molecular screening assays. Due to this one can achieve
genetic basis of the trait of interest in thousands of progeny plants, which help in replacing more
laborious and resource intensive phenotyping methods.
Trait introgression: The DNA marker-based assay is now ready to be used by breeders for the
next stage of breeding of trait introgression to identify and select individual plants with the trait
of interest. (Natalie et al., 2020). Plants that carry traits of interest are cross-pollinated with
varieties with traits that are commercially suitable and well characterized during trait
introgression. Next step is called marker-assisted back-crossing. During which, plant breeders
successively breed cycles, repeatedly crosses the same commercial track varieties used in step
one with progeny carrying the trait of interest. Parental commercial-track varieties having wide
genome marker set is used to select and screen plant with same genetic background. Shifting of
genetic background can be done by cross pollinating progeny with the same commercial track
parent for 5-6 generations which gives greater proportion of genes from the commercial-track
variety.
Field Testing: In this step, the few plants selected from the trait mapping and trait introgression
steps are then used as the parental plants for the final step in conventional breeding practices
needed to make a commercial variety (Kaiser, et al.,2020). The large numbers of progeny plants
are evaluated for many agronomic and quality parameters over the course of approximately 6–7
years at an increasing number of geographic or environmentally diverse locations in this “Field
Testing” stage of the process (Glenn et al., 2017).
New breeding techniques
The development of new breeding techniques, for instance, transgenic breeding RNA
interference (RNAi), and genome editing, are playing key roles in the bio-fortification of crops
due to which the potential for the creation of new genetic variations is being explored.
Transgenic Breeding: It is a cost-effective efficient, sustainable approach to combat
malnutrition. Limited genetic variety in the gene pool and wild relatives is what creates
transgenic crops. By introducing genes that either lower anti-nutrient molecules or increase the
accumulation and absorption of micronutrients, transgenic breeding aids in bio-fortification. The

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introduction and overexpression of genes corresponding to micronutrients may help to make up

for the deficits of micronutrients including zinc, iron, vitamin A, and proteins in various crops.
RNA Interference: A particular gene's transcription or translation is inhibited by the sequence-
specific gene regulatory mechanism known as RNA interference (RNAi), which is fueled by a
double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecule. RNAi has created new opportunities for crop
development since its discovery. It is a more accurate, steady, productive, and superior tool than
antisense technology. A platform for the incorporation of biotic and abiotic stress tolerance as
well as the supply of high-quality food through bio-fortification and bio-elimination is provided
by RNAi. It is frequently employed to improve crops' nutritional quality and remove pollutants
and allergies from food.
Genome Editing: In order to produce transgene-free plants, sequence-specific nucleases (SSNs)
are used in plant genome editing (GE) for targeted and stably inherited gene modification in the
desired crop. Plant genome editing involves the employment of different SSN types, such as
TALENs, ZFNs, and the CRISPR-Cas system. Cas9/13, RNA-guided DNA endonucleases that
are used in CRISPR genome editing, are complexes that form at the target location for precise
gene editing. Less genome editing was used for the bio-fortification of pulses and grains.

Top ranked crops based on production, consumption, micro nutrient deficiency, would
most benefit from bio-fortification in India
Need for bio-fortification
The main objectives of bio-fortification are to lower the mortality and morbidity rates
associated with micronutrient deficiencies as well as to improve the quality of life, productivity,
and food security for the underprivileged populations of developing nations. For underdeveloped
nations, bio-fortification is more crucial because it is inexpensive and simple to implement.
People who lack access to other interventions may benefit from bio-fortification by receiving a
variety of specific micronutrients. Poor farmers grow modern varieties of crops developed by
agricultural research centers. In order to maximize output and profitability for farmers, the bio-

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fortification strategy aims to include the micronutrient-dense trait into as many released varieties
as is practical.
Additionally, marketed surpluses of these commodities find their way into retail
establishments where they are purchased by customers in both urban and rural locations. As it
were, the flow is from rural to urban as opposed to complementary interventions that start in
urban centers. The bio-fortification of staple crops is a top priority due to the fact that they are
relatively affordable and available to the majority of people. Although the efficiency of bio-
fortification is not comparable to food supplementation, it can still help reduce the micronutrient
intake gap and increase the daily intake of vitamins and minerals throughout a person’s life, and
this may have significant impact on human health by reducing malnutrition (Bouis et al., 2011).

Various bio-fortified crop varieties released by ICAR:

Sr.No. Crop Variety Improved trait
1 Rice CR Dhan 310 Protein (10.3 %)
DRR Dhan 45 Zinc (22.6 ppm)

DRR Dhan 48 Zinc 24.0 ppm

DRR Dhan 49 Zinc 25.2 ppm

Zinco Rice MS Zinc 27.4 ppm

CR Dhan 311 (Mukul) Protein 10.1 %, Zinc 20.1 ppm

CR Dhan 315 Zinc (24.9 ppm)

2 Wheat WB 02 Iron (40.0 ppm), Zinc (42.0 ppm)

HPBW 01 Iron (40.0 ppm), Zinc (40.6 ppm)

Pusa Tejas (HI 8759) Protein 12.0 %, Iron 41.1 ppm and
durum Zinc 42.8 ppm
Pusa Ujala (HI 1605) Protein 13.0 %, Iron 43.0 ppm

HD 3171 Zinc 47.1 ppm

HI 8777 (durum) Iron 48.7 ppm, Zinc 43.6 ppm

MACS 4028 (durum) Protein 46.1 ppm Iron 14.7 % Zinc 40.3
ppm
PBW 752 Protein 12.4 %
PBW 757 Zinc 42.3 ppm
Karan Vandana (DBW Iron 43.1 ppm
187)
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DBW 173 Protein (12.5 %), iron (40.7 ppm)

UAS 375 Protein 13.8 %
DDW 47 Protein 12.7 %, Iron 40.1 ppm
PBW 771 Zinc 41.4 ppm
HI 8802 (durum) Protein 13.0 %
HI 8805 (durum) Protein 12.8 %, Iron 40.4 ppm
HD 3249 Iron 42.5 ppm
MACS 4058 (durum) Protein 14.7 %, Iron 39.5 ppm,
Zinc 37.8 ppm
HD 3298 Protein 12.1 %, Iron 43.1 ppm
HI 1633 Protein 12.4 %, Iron 41.6 ppm,
Zinc 41.1 ppm
DBW 303 Protein 12.1 %
DDW 48 (durum) Protein 12.1 %
3 Maize Vivek QPM 9 Lysine 0.83 %, Tryptophan 4.19 %
Pusa HM4 Improved Tryptophan 0.91, % Lysine 3.62 %
Pusa HM8 Improved Lysine 4.18 %, Tryptophan 1.06 %
Pusa HM9 Improved Lysine 2.97 % Tryptophan 0.68 %
Pusa Vivek QPM9 Provitamin-A (8.15 ppm), lysine (2.67 %
Improved in protein), tryptophan (0.74 % in
protein)
Pusa VH 27 Improved Provitamin-A 5.49 ppm
Pusa HQPM 5 Tryptophan 0.94% Lysine 4.25%
Improved Provitamin-A 6.77 ppm
Pusa HQPM 7 Provitamin-A 7.10 ppm, Lysine 4.19%,
Improved Tryptophan 0.93%
IQMH 201 (LQMH 1) Lysine 0.73 %, Tryptophan 3.03 %
IQMH 202 (LQMH 2) Lysine 3.04 %, Tryptophan 0.66 %
IQMH 203 (LQMH 3) Lysine 0.77 %, Tryptophan 3.48 %
4 Pearl Millet HHB 299 Iron 73.0 ppm, Zinc 41.0 ppm
AHB 1200Fe Iron 73.0 ppm
AHB 1269Fe Iron (91.0 ppm), Zinc (43.0 ppm)
ABV 04 Iron (70.0 ppm), Zinc (63.0 ppm)
Phule Mahashakti Iron (87.0 ppm), Zinc (41.0 ppm)
RHB 233 iron (83.0 ppm), Zinc (46.0 ppm)
RHB 234 Iron (84.0 ppm), Zinc (46.0 ppm)
5 Finger Millet VR 929 (Vegavathi) Iron 131.8 ppm
CFMV1 (Indravati) Calcium (428 mg/100g), Iron (58.0 ppm),
Zinc (44.0 ppm)
CFMV 2 Calcium 454 mg/100g, Iron 39.0 ppm,
Zinc 25.0 ppm
6 Little Millet CLMV1 Iron 59.0 ppm, Zinc 35.0 ppm
7 Lentil Pusa Ageti Masoor Iron 65.0 ppm
IPL 220 Iron (73.0 ppm), Zinc (51.0 ppm)
8 Ground nut Girnar 4 Oleic acid 78.4 %
Girnar 5 Oleic acid 78.5 %
9 Linseed TL 99 Linoleic acid (58.9%)

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10 Mustard Pusa Mustard 30 Erucic acid 1.20 %
Pusa Double Zero Erucic acid (0.76 % in oil) and
Mustard 31 glucosinolates (29.41 ppm in seed meal)
Pusa Mustard 32 Erucic acid 1.32 %
11 Soybean NRC 127 Kunitz Tryptsin Inhibitor Free
NRC 132 Lipoxigenase-2 free
NRC 147 Oleic acid 42.0%
12 Cauliflower Pusa Beta Kesari 1 Provitamin-A 8.0-10.0 ppm
13 Potato Kufri Manik Anthocyanin 0.68 ppm
Kufri Neelkanth Anthocyanin 1.0 ppm
14 Sweet Potato Bhu Sona Provitamin-A 14.0 mg/100g
Bhu Krishna Anthocyanin 90.0mg/100g
15 Greater Yam Sree Neelima Anthocyanin (50.0 mg/100g), Crude
protein (15.4 %) and Zinc (49.8 ppm)
Da 340 Anthocyanin (141.4 mg/100g), Iron
(136.2 ppm) and Calcium (1890 ppm)
16 Pomegranate Solapur Lal Iron (5.6-6.1 mg/100g), Zinc (0.64-0.69
mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (19.4-19.8
mg/100 g)
(Source: Biofortified-Varieties-Book_V3_ICAR.)

Harvest plus
Harvest Plus and its partners fight hidden hunger worldwide by scaling up staple food
crops that are bred to be rich in essential vitamins and minerals. The health, resiliency, and
livelihoods of low-income consumers and smallholder farming households are sustainably
improved by these bio-fortified, climate-smart crops, contributing to more wholesome and
equitable food systems. HarvestPlus Vision for a world free from unrecognized hunger in which
families, communities, and nations can realize their full potential. Its objective is to boost bio-
fortification sustainably as a way to provide rural and low-income populations with a means of
subsisting. Empower partners globally to combat hidden hunger. Harvest Plus aiming for One
billion people will routinely consume nutrient-rich bio-fortified crops and foods by 2030,
contributing to the accomplishment of the Sustainable Development Goal of eradicating all kinds
of malnutrition. With the help of HarvestPlus 238 varieties of 11 bio-enhanced climate-friendly
staples have been launched in 30 countries and hundreds more have been tested. 12.8 million
Households grow and eat bio-enriched crops. Over 600 partnerships worldwide with government
agencies, companies, NGOs, CSOs, and international organizations working to promote bio-
fortification. In 2020 alone, 286,000 farmers (64% of women) were trained in crop production,
production, processing and nutrition. Over 100 published scientific papers and over 40 research
studies demonstrate the feasibility, effectiveness, and acceptability of bio-fortification.

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Agriculture is the primary use of 60% of the country's land. The top five (5) crops in the
country, in order of agricultural area, are rice, wheat, cotton, beans, and soybeans. In addition,
sugar cane, rice, wheat, potatoes, and vegetables are the five (5) most prolific crops. Since 2011,
Harvest Plus has been collaborating closely with public and private sector partners in India to
produce bio-enriched crops, promote them, and create a value chain for bio-enriched seeds and
crops in an effort to enhance nutrition and public health. The highest levels of government
promote bio-fortification as a method of addressing widespread micronutrient deficiencies and
associated detrimental impact on health.
In this nation, wheat is the most significant food grain, while iron pearl millet is one of the
staple foods in the arid and semi-arid regions of India. The development of bio-fortified varieties
of pearl millet received a significant regulatory push in 2018 when the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR) mandated minimum amounts of iron and zinc to be bred in
national variations of the grain. ICAR, India's State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), the
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), the International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), seed companies, farmer organizations,
and community organizations have all worked closely with Harvest Plus during its nearly nine
years of operation in India. When consumed frequently, the iron pearl millet, zinc wheat, and
iron lentil bio-fortified crops that these partners are promoting in India help reduce micronutrient
shortages.
Accelerating access to these nutrient-dense crops and the meals made from them is a joint
objective of Harvest Plus and our partners. This will increase food and nutrition security and
enhance people's quality of life.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), a close partner of Harvest Plus,
recently released bio-fortified crops are as following:
 Zinc rice CR Dhan 315;
 Wheat varieties HI 1633 rich in protein, iron and zinc, HD 3298 rich in protein and iron, and
DBW 303 and DDW 48 rich in protein;
 Ladhowal Quality Protein Maize Hybrid 1, 2 and 3 rich in lysine and tryptophan;
 CFMV1 and 2 of finger millet rich in calcium, iron and zinc;
 CLMV1 of little Millet rich in iron and zinc;
 Pusa Mustard 32 with low erucic acid;
 Girnar 4 and 5 of groundnut with enhanced oleic acid;
 Yam variety Sri Neelima and DA 340 with enhanced zinc, iron and anthocyanin content.

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By utilizing public resources and taking the lead on policy, the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), a close partner of HarvestPlus Governments, plays a crucial role
in scaling up bio-fortification and encouraging engagement in the private sector.
To reach 1 billion people with nutrient-rich bio-fortified crops and foods by 2030,
HarvestPlus and its partners are collaborating with governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America/the Caribbean, as well as the commercial sector, NGO, and civil society partners. The
CGIAR Program on Agriculture for Nurture and Health includes HarvestPlus (A4NH).
References:
Acquaah, G. (2015). Conventional plant breeding principles and techniques. Advances in plant
breeding strategies: Breeding, biotechnology and molecular tools, 115-158.
Belwal, E., Pandey, S. and Sarkar, S. (2021). Anemia prevalence in India over two decades:
evidence from National Family Health Survey (NFHS). International Journal of Science &
Healthcare Research, 6(4): 335-340.
Bouis, H. E., Hotz, C., McClafferty, B., Meenakshi, J. V. and Pfeiffer, W. H. (2011).
Biofortification: a new tool to reduce micronutrient malnutrition. Food and nutrition
bulletin, 32: 31-40.
De Valença, A. W., Bake, A., Brouwer, I. D. and Giller, K. E. (2017). Agronomic
biofortification of crops to fight hidden hunger in sub-Saharan Africa. Glob Food Sec, 12:
8–14.
Falconer, D. S. 1996. Introduction to quantitative genetics. Pearson Education India.
Garg, M., Sharma, N., Sharma, S., Kapoor, P., Kumar, A., Chunduri, V. and Arora, P. (2018).
Biofortified Crops Generated by Breeding, Agronomy, and Transgenic Approaches Are
Improving Lives of Millions of People around the World. Frontiers in nutrition, 5: 12.
Glenn, K. C., Alsop, B., Bell, E., Goley, M., Jenkinson, J., Liu, B. and Vicini, J. L. (2017).
Bringing new plant varieties to market: plant breeding and selection practices advance
beneficial characteristics while minimizing unintended changes. Crop science, 57(6):
2906-2921.
Kaiser, N., Douches, D., Dhingra, A., Glenn, K. C., Herzig, P.R., Stowe, E.C. and Swarup, S.
(2020). The role of conventional plant breeding in ensuring safe levels of naturally
occurring toxins in food crops, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 100: 51-66.
Khush, G. S., Lee, S. and Cho, J. I. (2012). Biofortification of crops for reducing malnutrition.
Plant Biotechnol Rep, 6: 195–202.
Kumar, A., Kaur, S., Singh, A. and Menon, P. (2020). Accelerating progress on nutrition in
India: what will it take https://www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2020-
10/AbhiyaanMonitoringReport.pdf.

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McClung, J. P. (2019). Iron, Zinc, and Physical Performance. Biological Trace Element
Research, 188(1): 135-139.
Mocchegiani, E., Romeo, J. and Malavolta, M. (2013). Zinc: dietary intake and impact of
supplementation on immune function in elderly. Age (Dordr), 35(3): 839-860.
Nestel, P., Bouis, H. E., Meenakshi, J. V. and Pfeiffer, W. (2006). Biofortification of staple food
crops. The Journal of nutrition, 136(4): 064-1067.
Rink, L. (2000). Zinc and the immune system. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 59(4): 541-
552.
Shahzad, R., Jamil, S., Ahmad, S., Nisar, A., Khan, S., Amina, Z. and Zhou, W. (2021).
Biofortification of cereals and pulses using new breeding techniques: current and future
perspectives. Frontiers in nutrition, 665.
UNICEF global databases (2021). based on administrative reports from countries.
https://data.unicef.org/topic/nutrition/vitamin-a-deficiency/
Yadava, D. K., Hossain, F. and Mohapatra, T. (2018). Nutritional security through crop
biofortification in India: Status & future prospects. Indian J Med Res, 148(5): 621-631.
https://www.unicef.org/media/102646/file/Health-Results-2020-Child-Health.pdf

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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF PLANT PATHOGENS

Abhishek Singh*1, Vivek Singh2 and H. K Singh1
1Department Plant Pathology, ANDUAT, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, 224229 (U.P.) India
2Department Plant Pathology, CSAUAT, Kanpur (U.P.), India
*Corresponding author E-mail: abhishek45678903@gmail.com

Introduction:
Biological control is the use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products,
to reduce the effects of undesirable organisms such as plant pathogens and to favor desirable
organisms such as crops (Research Briefings, 1987). The host plant's genetic alteration (genetic
resistance) is included in this broad concept. The main focus of this chapter, however, will be on
natural and engineered organisms as plant pathogen biological control agents. Antagonism is the
generalised mechanism that biocontrol agents use to diminish plant pathogen survival or disease-
causing activity. Antagonism is actively expressed opposition and includes antibiosis,
competition and parasitism. Antibodies are used to control plant diseases biologically by killing
existing pathogen inoculum, excluding the pathogen from the host plant, or inhibiting or
displacing the pathogen after infection (Cook and Baker, 1983).
Disease suppressive soils:
Following the discovery of disease-suppressive soils, researchers looked at biological
management of plant infections. These are soils where pathogens either cannot establish, develop
but do not create disease, or establish and cause disease at first, but disease becomes less relevant
as the crop is cultured. (Baker and Cook, 1974). Suppression of disease can be classified as
either broad or specific. Specific suppression results from the activity of individual or select
groups of microorganisms and is transferable between soils; general suppression results from the
activity of the total microbial biomass in soil and is not transferable between soils; general
suppression results from the activity of the total microbial biomass in soil and is not transferable
between soils (Weller et al., 2002). One of the best- documented examples of disease suppressive
soils is the take-all decline phenomenon. Take-all root disease, caused by the soilborne fungus
Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, is a root and crown (basal stem) rot disease of wheat
(Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) that occurs worldwide in temperate regions.
Take-all decline happens naturally in some soils after 5 to 7 years of continuous wheat
production with severe take-all disease and low yields. The sickness then becomes less severe,
and yields begin to recover. Take-all reduction has been linked to increases in specific
populations of microbes.
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What makes biological control so common?

Growing public concern about the possible detrimental effects of some chemical
pesticides on human health and the environment has sparked scientific interest in biological
control of plant diseases. There is also a need to manage diseases for which there are now no or
just partial controls because the host has little or no genetic resistance, crop rotation is difficult or
not economically possible, or reliable, cost-effective chemical controls are unavailable. For
example, no practical or economical chemical control for crown gall disease was replaced when
biological control with Agrobacterium radiobacter K84 was developed (Cook, 1993).
Furthermore, compared to traditional chemical pesticides, registered biological controls have
shorter reentry times and preharvest intervals. Growers will have more flexibility in balancing
their operational and pest management practises as a result of this. (McSpadden Gardener and
Fravel, 2002).
Difficulties in biological control:
Despite the fact that a variety of microorganisms have been shown to protect crop plants
from disease in the lab, commercial development of several antagonists has been delayed by
uneven effectiveness across field locations and seasons. Many reasons have been blamed for
differences in biological control agent performance. Compatibility of the host plant and the
biocontrol agent due to host plant genotype, agricultural practises, mutation of the biocontrol
organism resulting in loss of effectiveness, pathogen resistance to biocontrol mechanisms,
vulnerability of the biocontrol agent to pathogen defence mechanisms, and effects of the
environment on the biocontrol agent's survival and effectiveness are just a few examples.
Antagonists are living creatures, and they will only be active if the environment supports
their growth and reproduction, whether they are administered directly to the host plant, to field
soil, or to greenhouse growth medium. A change in climatic conditions during the growing
season may have a significant impact on a biocontrol agent's ability to control a plant disease, yet
the same environmental changes may have little impact on the pathogen's ability to be controlled
by a chemical pesticide. Antibody inocula preparation and storage, as well as antagonist
application, have stringent restrictions. Biocontrol agent inocula cannot normally be stored at the
severe temperatures required for storing a wettable powder fungicide. Biocontrol agent inocula
cannot normally be stored at the severe temperatures required for storing a wettable powder
fungicide. Furthermore, because antagonist inocula has a shorter shelf life than conventional
pesticides, producers cannot stockpile significant quantities of antagonist inocula for subsequent
use.

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Antagonism mechanisms:
Bacteria, fungus, nematodes, protozoa, and viruses are examples of antagonists employed
for biological control of plant diseases. Antibodies, with a few exceptions, are rarely pathogen
specific; instead, their action on plant pathogens is purely accidental (Cook and Baker, 1983). An
antagonist that colonises roots aggressively and suppresses a wide range of microorganisms, for
example, may protect roots from infections, but the action against any particular pathogen is
likely coincidental. There are antagonists, however, who have a parasitic relationship with their
microbial host. Plant infections are inhibited by antagonists through antibiosis, competition, and
parasitism. These systems do not conflict with one another. An antagonist may employ numerous
methods to harm a plant pathogen, or may employ one mechanism against one type of pathogen
and another against another. For example, control of Botrytis on grapes (Vitus) with the fungal
antagonist Trichoderma involves competition for nutrients and parasitism of sclerotia. Both
mechanisms contribute to the suppression of the pathogen’s capability to cause and perpetuate
disease (Dubos, 1987).
Antibiosis:
The suppression or killing of one organism by a metabolite produced by another
organism is known as antibiosis. Antagonists have the potential to develop potent growth
inhibitory chemicals that are effective against a wide range of microbes. Antibiotics with a broad
spectrum of activity are known as broad-spectrum antibiotics. However, other metabolites, such
as bacteriocins, are solely efficient against a specific type of microbe. . The bacterial antagonist
A. radiobacter K84 produces agrocin 84, a bacteriocin that is effective only against bacteria that
are closely related to A. radiobacter, such as the crown gall pathogen A. tumefaciens. Because
their antibiotics limit the growth or germination of other bacteria, antagonists that manufacture
antibiotics have a competitive advantage in occupying a niche and obtaining substrates as food
sources.
Antibiosis is a useful process for protecting germinating seeds. For example, the bacterial
antagonist Pseudomonas fluorescens Q2–87 can protect wheat roots against the take-all
pathogen, G. graminis var. tritici, when coated onto seed. The bacteria increase in the
rhizosphere when the seeds germinate, feeding on exudates from the roots. The rhizosphere is a
thin coating of dirt that adheres to the root after loose material has been removed by shaking, and
it is directly influenced by compounds that the root exudes into the soil solution. The antibiotic
2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, which is produced by P. fluorescens Q2–87, is effective against the
take-all pathogen in minute quantities and has been recovered from the wheat rhizosphere
(Bonsall et al, 1997). Antibiotics' efficiency in soil, on the other hand, can be varied since they

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can bind to charged clay particles, be destroyed by microbial activity, or be washed away from
the rhizosphere by water.
Antibiotics:
Many antagonists may not create antibiotics to target a specific pathogen, and antagonists
may not produce the same antibiotics under different environmental conditions. Some
antagonists make a variety of bioactive chemicals that are useful against a variety of plant
diseases. The bacterial antagonist P. fluorescens Pf- 5 produces multiple antibiotics, including
pyoluteorin, pyrrolnitrin, and 2,4- diacetylphloroglucinol. Pyoluteorin inhibits Pythium ultimum,
a common cause of seedling disease in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum); however, it has little effect
on other cotton seedling pathogens, such as Rhizoctonia solani, Thielaviopsis basicola, and
Verticillium dahliae (Howell and Stipanovic, 1980). Pyrrolnitrin inhibits R. solani, T. basicola,
and V dahliae, but is not active against P. ultimum (Howell and Stipanovic, 1979). Examples of
bacterial biological control agents that produce antibiotics include Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and
Streptomyces. Fungal antagonists that produce antibiotics include Gliocladium and Trichoderma.
Enzymes and volatile compounds:
Several volatile substances have a role in biocontrol of plant pathogens. These include
ammonia (produced by the bacterial antagonist Enterobacter cloacae against the plant pathogens
P. ultimum, R. solani, and V dahliae), alkyl pyrones (produced by T. harzianum against R.
solani), and hydrogen cyanide (produced by P. fluorescens against T. basicola, which causes
black root rot). Although numerous enzymes are involved in parasitism's biocontrol mechanism,
certain enzymes are only involved in antibiosis. For example, the fungal biocontrol agent
Talaromyces flavus Tf1 is effective against Verticillium wilt of eggplant (Solanum melongena).
Talaromyces flavus produces the enzyme glucose oxidase; hydrogen peroxide is a product of
glucose oxidase activity and kills microsclerotia of Verticillium in soil (Fravel, 1988). The
enzyme alone does not kill microsclerotia.
Competition:
Competition occurs when two or more organisms compete for the same food (carbon and
nitrogen) or mineral source, or for a niche or infection site. Because of its faster growth or
reproductive rate, or because it is more effective in collecting nutrients from food sources, the
successful competitor has an advantage over the others. Pseudomonas fluorescens produces a
siderophore, pseudobactin, which deprives pathogens such as Fusarium oxysporum of iron.
Siderophores are extracellular, low-molecular-weight microbial molecules with a high affinity
for ferric iron (attraction). Chlamydospores of F. oxysporum require an exogenous source of iron
to germinate. Although F. oxysporum also produces siderophores, the siderophores of P.

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fluorescens are more efficient in binding iron. If P. fluorescens is active in soil, chlamydospores
of F. oxysporum remain dormant and cannot germinate due to low iron conditions.
Another example of employing competition to control a plant disease is biological control
of annosus root rot in conifers. Annosus root rot is caused by the fungus Heterobasidion
annosum, which can survive for many years in stumps and logs, and causes extensive damage in
managed forests or plantations of pure stands. To control annosus root rot, freshly cut stumps are
inoculated with the fungal antagonist Phlebia gigantea. The mycelium of P. gigantea physically
prevents H. annosum from colonizing stumps that it would use as a food base for attacking
young pine (Pinus) trees (Cook and Baker, 1983).
Cross protection is a type of competition in which an avirulent or weakly virulent
pathogen is employed to guard against infection by a more virulent pathogen of the same or
closely related species. In virology, this phrase was used to explain situations in where one virus
infecting a cell reduced the possibility of a second virus damaging the cell. Cross protection has
no host reaction (see induced systemic resistance) and is not transmissible (see hypovirulence).
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) pathogenicity can be reduced in some vegetable crops by
inoculating with CARNA 5, a small satellite-like self-replicating RNA molecule. However, it is
important to remember that weakly virulent strains can become more virulent or there may be
unexpected synergistic effects that enhance disease. For example, CARNA 5 reduces disease
caused by CMV in squash (Cucurbita pepo) and sweet corn (Zea mays), but enhances disease
severity caused by CMV in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) (Cook and Baker, 1983).
Parasitism:
The feeding of one organism on another is known as parasitism. Parasitism can be used to
reduce sclerotia inoculum or prevent root rots as a biocontrol mechanism, but it may be less
effective in protecting germinating seeds because establishing a parasitic relationship between
the antagonist and pathogen may take longer than the time it takes for the pathogen to infect the
seed. Mycoparasites are fungi that parasitize other fungi. The fungus's antagonistic parasitism
The fungal host (plant pathogen) is frequently detected from a distance in the early stages of
Trichoderma. The hyphae of Trichoderma grow toward a chemical stimulus given by the
pathogen. This is followed by recognition, which is physical or chemical in nature, and
attachment of Trichoderma hyphae to the host fungus that coils around the pathogen hyphae.
Trichoderma produces lytic enzymes that degrade fungal cell walls. In some cases, cell-wall-
degrading enzymes and antibiotics act synergistically in the biocontrol process (Chet et al.,
1998). Examples of mycoparasites include T. hamatum, T. harzianum, T. koningii, T. virens, T.
viride, Pythium nunn, and P. oligandrum.

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Other biological control mechanisms

Hypovirulence:
When a hypovirulent (weakly virulent) strain of a fungal pathogen fuses (anastomoses)
with a virulent strain of the pathogen, the hypovirulent state is transmitted to the virulent strain,
resulting in biological control by hypovirulence. The fusing of contacting hyphae is known as
anastomosis, and it indicates vegetative compatibility. The pathogen is infected with one or more
dsRNAs of viral origin, resulting in transmissible hypovirulence. The biocontrol of chestnut
blight caused by the fungal pathogen Cryphonectria parasitica with hypovirulent strains of the
fungus is a classic example of hypovirulence.
Induced systemic resistance:
Induced systemic resistance (ISR) in the host plant can be caused by nonpathogenic
plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) colonisation. ISR is a plant-mediated biocontrol
technique in which the pathogen and the biocontrol agent do not come into touch. In ISR, host
plant defences are boosted and plants are given systemic protection. Jasmonic acid and ethylene
influence the amount of host reaction. (van Loon et al., 1998). Because many PGPR also
produce antibiotics, iron-chelating siderophores, and lytic enzymes, their capacity to suppress
illness could be due to a combination of mechanisms. PGPR may play a role in biological
disease control, plant growth promotion, or a combination of the two. Commercial crop
protection solutions are available in a variety of strains or combinations of strains (McSpadden
Gardener and Fravel, 2002).
Increased growth response:
Biological control microorganisms, such as PGPR and several fungal biocontrol agents,
have been linked to increased plant growth. Increased host plant development is often attributed
to a reduction in viable inoculum of undiscovered diseases, such as root-infecting Pythium
species, which produce very minor vigour or yield declines. In other circumstances, greater plant
growth, especially in the absence of pathogens, could be attributable to microbial-derived plant-
growth-promoting chemicals (Chet, 1993).
Biocontrol product delivery, application, and formulation for plant diseases:
Biocontrol chemicals can be applied in a variety of ways, including foliar sprays, soil or
soilless mix treatments, seed treatments, root dips, and postharvest drench, drip, or spray
applications to fruit. Dusts, dry and wettable powders, dry and water-dispersible granules, and
liquids are among the commercially available product formulations (Desai et al., 2002). The
most common purpose of foliar sprays is to protect above-ground plant sections from foliar
pathogens. A typical method of biological control of soilborne diseases is to incorporate
antagonist inocula into the soil. The adversary is usually introduced in a latent state, frequently

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with a food base, so that it can establish itself fast in the soil. In the horticulture business,
commercially produced soilless mixes with one or more biological control agents created in the
mixes have been offered. Pathogen populations are suppressed by the mixtures when they are
exposed to a specific set of environmental circumstances. Adding organic supplements to
greenhouse mixes or field soil, such as ground shrimp, crab shells, or bean leaf powder, has also
been used to promote the growth of antagonistic organisms at the expense of plant pathogens.
Treating seeds with antagonists is one of the more successful techniques of introducing
biocontrol agents into an agricultural system. This method provides soilborne pathogen
antagonists as close to the target as possible. Before the pathogen may attack the seed, seed
treatments deposit the antagonist in the infection court (the seed coat surface) at planting.
Formulated products can be applied as powders or liquids directly at the time of planting,
eliminating the need for stickers. Antagonists can also be applied to seed as dry powders or
liquid-based formulations. Biocontrol agents on seeds are given additives to help them survive
longer. After the seeds have dried, keep them with the antagonists until planting time. In some
biocontrol products, bacterial antagonists and chemical fungicides are applied in combination to
seeds (Warrior et al., 2002).
References:
Baker, K.F. and R.J.Cook. 1974. Biological Control of Plant Pathogens. W.H.Freeman, San
Francisco, 433 pp.
Bonsall, R.F., D.M.eller and L.S.Thomashow. 1997. Quantification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol
produced by fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. in vitro and in the rhizosphere of wheat. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 63:951–955.
Chet, I. (Ed.). 1993. Biotechnology in Plant Disease Control. Wiley-Liss, New York, 373 pp.
Chet, I., N.Benhamou and S.Haran. 1998. Mycoparasitism and lytic enzymes, pp. 153–172
in Trichoderma and Gliocladium, Vol. 2: Enzymes, Biological Control and Commercial
Applications, Harman, G.E. and C.P.Kubicek (Eds.), Taylor & Francis, London.
Cook, R.J. 1993. Making greater use of introduced microorganisms for biological control of
plant pathogens. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 31:53–80.
Cook, R.J. and K.F.Baker. 1983. The Nature and Practice of Biological Control of Plant
Pathogens. American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 539 pp.
Desai, S., M.S.Reddy and J.W.Kloepper. 2002. Comprehensive testing of biocontrol agents, in
Biological Control of Crop Diseases, Gnanamanickam, S.S. (Ed.), Marcel-Dekker, New
York, pp. 387–420.
Dubos, B. 1987. Fungal antagonism in aerial agrobiocenoses, pp. 107–135 in Innovative
Approaches to Plant Disease Control, Chet, I. (Ed), Wiley-Liss, New York.

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Fravel, D.R. 1988. Role of antibiosis in the biocontrol of plant diseases. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol.
26:75–91.
Heiniger, U. and D.Rigling. 1994. Biological control of chestnut blight in Europe. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 32:581–599.
Howell, C.R. 1982. Effect of Gliocladium virens on Pythium ultimum, Rhizoctonia solani, and
damping-off of cotton seed-lings. Phytopathology 72:496–498.
Howell, C.R., L.E.Hanson, R.D.Stipanovic and L.S.Puckhaber. 2000. Induction of terpenoid
synthesis in cotton roots and control of Rhizoctonia solani by seed treatment with
Trichoderma virens. Phytopathology 90:248–252.
Howell, C.R. and R.D.Stipanovic. 1979. Control of Rhizoctonia solani on cotton seedlings with
Pseudomonas fluorescens and with an antibiotic produced by the bacterium.
Phytopathology 69:480–482.
Howell, C.R. and R.D.Stipanovic. 1980. Suppression of Pythium ultimum-induced damping-off
of cotton seedlings by Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5 and its antibiotic, pyoluteorin.
Phytopathology 70:712–715.
McSpadden Gardener, B.B. and D.R.Fravel. 2002. Biological control of plant pathogens:
Research, commercialization, and application in the USA. Online. Plant Health Progress
doi: 10.1094/PHP-2002–0510–01-RV.
Research Briefings. 1987. Report of the Research Briefing Panel on Biological Control in
Managed Ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Van Loon, L.C., P.A.H.M.Bakker and C.M.J.Pieterse. 1998. Systemic resistance induced by
rhizosphere bacteria. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 36:453–483.
Warrior, P., K.Konduru and P.Vasudevan. 2002. Formulation of biological control agents for
pest and disease management, pp. 421–441 in Biological Control of Crop Diseases,
Gnanamanickam, S.S. (Ed.), Marcel-Dekker, New York.
Weller, D.M., J.M.Raijmakers, B.B.McSpadden Gardener and L.S.Thomashow. 2002. Microbial
populations responsible for specific soil suppressiveness to plant pathogens. Annu. Rev.
Phytopathol. 40:309–348.

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FORWARD AND BACKWARD LINKAGES IN FARMER PRODUCER

ORGANIZATIONS
S. Moghana Lavanya* and K. Mani
Department of Agricultural and Rural Management,
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
*Corresponding author E-mail: smoghana@tnau.ac.in

Agriculture in India:
Small and marginal farmers (less than 2 ha) constitute the major farming population.
About 52 per cent of the countries work force is engaged in agriculture and depends totally as
source of livelihood, but their contribution in the total GDP is only 14 per cent, reflecting
disguised unemployment. Due to shrinking of land area, less accessibility of improved
technologies and services leads to low production and productivity Another major problem faced
by Indian farmers is market inefficiency which reduces the producers share in consumer’s rupees
giving less remunerative prices to the farmers for their produce.
A feasible answer for achieving economies of scale in production and marketing in a
smallholder dominated agrarian situation is collective action. Different farmer’s collectivization
models had been tried and tested in India. The emerging, innovative, and participative models is
the creation of Farmers Producers Organization (FPO). The concept of changing the perspective
on Agriculture to Agribusiness led to introduction of concept of Farmer Producer Company
(FPCs) under by Indian Companies act, 1956 in 2003. The concept of farmer producer
companies in India is a very recent development. Farmers form a group and combine their share
capital, register as a company, employ a professional to run the company and do value addition
by creating forward and backward linkages, wherever possible. It enables the member-farmers to
reap the benefits of economies of scale in purchase of inputs, processing, and marketing of their
produce. Forming a FPO can also provide the member-farmers access to timely and adequate credit
and provide linkages to markets.
The three major implementing agencies for FPCs are Small Farmer Agri-business
Consortium (SFAC), Rural development bank – National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD), and National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC).The
Departmentt of agriculture and horticulture of state governments and NGOs are also involved in
establishment of FPOs. Each agency has its own criteria for selecting the project/promoting
institution to support.
Once the idea to forma FPO is finalized the Information about FPO is informed to all families of
the village. All interested farmers can become members of the FPO. Each member will have one
vote in the company, irrespective of their share. Government or its nominated bodies help to

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fund and guide for its formation. Government also assists the FPOs in training farmers,
administrational activities, storing farm produce and adding value to it. Need-based seed capital
is given to FPO to enable to borrow the required capital and working capital from financial
institutions for the implementation of the project proposal after it has been appraised and
accepted as viable.
Farmer Produce Organizations involves grouping producers especially small and
marginal farmers to form an effective alliance for addressing the challenges such as improved
access to investment, technology, inputs, and markets. Purchase of inputs, access to farm
machinery and remunerative prices are the main issues faced by the farmers. FPOs help in
purchase and supply of inputs at a better cost also ensuring timely availability by understanding
the localized needs of their members.
Producer company professionals will be accountable to the board of directors of the
producer company, which will include some farmers. General body of the farmers / members
will have the ownership of the producer company, through an annual business plan and budget.
Membership is given to farmers keeping their needs in mind and not necessarily based on the
crop that they produce to ensure that there is round the year business for the FPO. It must have
minimum 50 shareholding members at the time of registration and can be increased over a period
of 3 years to a sustainable level.
FPO’s are engaged in producing value added products for their benefit and also for the
people. Innovative value-added activities developed on farms or at agricultural experiment
stations, either in the kind of product or in the technology of production are sources of national
growth (http://www.agmrc.org). FPOs offer small farmers to participate in the market more
effectively and help to enhance agricultural production, productivity, and profitability
(Stockbridge et al., 2003). For every FPO, it is mandatory to develop strong forward linkages
with wholesalers, retailers and exporters.
Region wise scenario of FPOs under NABARD
NABARD provides financial support to the FPOs only through project mode through two
financial products. First is lending the FPOs for contribution towards share capital on matching basis
(1:1 ratio) to enable the FPO to access higher credit from banks. This is a loan without collateral
which will have to be repaid by the FPO after specified time. The maximum amount of such
assistance is Rs.25 lakh per FPO with a cap of Rs.25, 000 per member. Next is credit support
against collateral security for business operations. Credit support is available for business
activities and creation of assets like building, machinery, equipment, specially designed vehicles
for transportation etc. and/or working capital requirements including administrative and other
recurring costs connected with the project as composite loan. Capital expenditures like purchase
of land, vehicles for general transportation & personal use, etc., will not be considered for support.
The details of region wise FPO registered under NABARD is given in the Table 1.

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Table 1: Region wise list of FPO registered in NABARD
No. of FPOs No. of FPOs registered as
Region
Formed Registered Company Society Cooperative Others
Central 760 386 245 16 125 0
Eastern 1096 416 264 0 14 138
NE
99 70 10 39 20 1
Region
Northern 538 329 215 22 92 0
Western 407 224 156 3 65 0
Southern 1104 619 575 38 6 0
Total 4,004 2,044 1,466 118 322 139
(Source: https://www.nabard.org)
It could be observed from the above table that Southern region occupied the first position
having 619 registered FPOs. In southern region especially, Government of Karnataka is providing
financial support for the infrastructural facilities of FPOs up to 90 per cent. Selected Resource
nstitutions (RI) to assist and organize the working of FPOs and to provide them management
support for 3 years. RIs engage the Local Resource Persons (LRP) to help the farmers with
necessary inputs and keep tracking the progress of the activities in field also provided with
technical inputs by the State Universities.FPOs are granted with licenses in seeds, fertilizers and
pesticides for storage and sales. The FPOs will be provided with APMC commission agent license
and trader license with priority go-down space in APMCs. This might be the reason for having
more number of FPO registered in Karnataka. Tamil Nadu having 170 FPOs registered under
NABARD. It gives financial support to the FPOs upto 100 percent. Even though NABARD was
ready to give financial support to the FPOs, the farmers have been lagging about FPOs
organization and its concepts. Next to Karnataka and Tamil Nadu more number of FPOs was found
in Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
State wise scenario of FPO under Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC)
SFAC operates a credit guarantee fund to mitigate credit risks of financial institutions
which lend the farmer producer companies (registered as producer company under Part IX-A of
companies’ act) without collateral. This helps the FPCs to access credit from mainstream
financial institutions for establishing and operating businesses. SFAC provides matching equity
grant up to Rs.10 lakhs to the FPCs to enhance borrowing power, and thus enables the entities to
access bank finance. Government of India provides budgetary support to SFAC for its equity
grant and credit guarantee fund scheme for the farmer producer company. Integrated Scheme for
Agricultural Marketing (Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) helps in creation of
storage and other agricultural marketing infrastructure. The details of state wise FPOs registered
under SFAC is given in Table 2.

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Table 2: State wise list of FPO registered in SFAC

Sr. No State No. of FPO Percentage to total

1 Andhra Pradesh 7 0.89
2 Arunachal Pradesh 2 0.25
3 Assam 12 1.53
4 Bihar 24 3.06
5 Chattisgarh 23 2.94
6 Delhi 4 0.51
7 Goa 2 0.25
8 Gujarat 20 2.55
9 Haryana 23 2.94
10 Himachal Pradesh 5 0.64
11 Jammu & Kashmir 2 0.25
12 Jharkhand 8 2.81
13 Karnataka 117 14.92
14 Madhya Pradesh 135 17.21
15 Maharashtra 85 10.84
16 Manipur 4 0.51
17 Meghalaya 3 0.38
18 Mizoram 1 0.12
19 Nagaland 2 0.25
20 Odisha 41 5.22
21 Punjab 7 0.89
22 Rajasthan 40 5.10
23 Sikkim 29 3.69
24 Tamil Nadu 44 5.61
25 Telangana 20 2.55
26 Tripura 4 0.51
27 Uttar Pradesh 34 4.33
28 Uttarakhand 7 0.89
29 West Bengal 68 8.67
Total 784 100.00
(Source: http://sfacindia.com)
It could be observed from the above table that Madhya Pradesh occupied the first position
having 135 FPOs followed by Karnataka 117 FPOs. Tamil Nadu is having 44 FPOs registered under
SFAC and other states like Maharashtra, West Bengal and Rajasthan were having more number of
FPOs after Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. SFAC have more guidelines to start FPC and
documentation check is done every financial year. This might be considered as one of the reasons for
the low interest by the people of our country to register FPC under SFAC.

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Active FPO in Tamil Nadu
Table 3: List of Active Farmer Producer Company in Tamil Nadu
FPO under FPO under Total number Percentage to
Sr. No District
NABARD SFAC of FPO Total
1 Ariyalur 8 2 10 4.67
2 Coimbatore 7 3 10 4.67
3 Cuddalore 5 1 6 2.80
4 Dharmapuri 5 1 8 2.80
5 Dindugal 12 2 14 6.54
6 Erode 6 1 7 3.27
7 Kanchipuram 5 1 6 2.80
8 Kanyakumari 4 1 5 2.33
9 Karur 3 - 3 1.40
10 Krishnagiri 5 2 7 3.27
11 Madurai 6 - 6 2.80
12 Nagapattinam 7 2 9 4.20
13 Namakkal 4 2 6 2.80
14 Nilgris 3 1 4 1.86
15 Perambalur 7 1 8 3.73
16 Pondicherry 3 1 4 1.86
17 Pudhukottai 4 1 5 2.33
18 Ramanadhapuram 5 1 6 2.80
19 Salem 5 3 8 3.73
20 Sivaganga 7 2 9 4.20
21 Thanjavur 5 2 7 3.27
22 Theni 3 1 4 1.86
23 Thoothukudi 8 1 9 4.20
24 Trichy 6 2 8 3.73
25 Tirunelveli 8 - 8 3.73
26 Tiruppur 4 2 6 2.80
27 Tiruvallur 6 1 7 3.27
28 Tiruvannamalai 4 2 6 2.80
29 Vellore 3 - 3 1.40
30 Villupuram 8 1 9 4.20
31 Virudhunagar 9 3 12 5.60
Total 170 44 214 100.00
Nearly 92 per cent of operational holdings in Tamil Nadu were small and marginal holdings
with limited capacity in mobilizing credit, adopting latest technologies, and adding value to their
agricultural produce. To avail these benefits and to increase the income of the farmers, Government
of Tamil Nadu has announced an innovative programme for organizing small and marginal farmers

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into farmer producer groups which was federated into farmer producer organizations and also to
promote collective farming for credit mobilization, better adoption of technology and to facilitate
effective forward and backward linkages in the budget 2017-2018. Farmer producer group were
given a corpus fund of Rs.5 lakhs besides channelizing grants and credit available to farmer producer
organizations from NABARD and Small Farmer Agribusiness Consortium.
A total allocation of Rs.100 crores during the year 2017-2018. The government has planned
to scale up to benefit 40 lakhs farmers over the next five years in Tamil Nadu .The details of Farmer
Producer Company in Tamil Nadu is provided in Table 1.3.At present ,totally 214 farmer producer
companies in Tamil Nadu. Among them, Dindugal ditrict has more number of farmer producer
companies (6.54 per cent) followed by both Ariyalur and Coimbatore withs ten number of FPCs
(4.67 per cent) when compared to other district. Salem district have eight FPCs.
Backward and Forward linkages of Farmer Producer Companies
The performance and viability of farmer producer companies are determined by
governance structure, network with external agencies, access to funds and technology, member–
producers’ contribution to business and financial performance. These companies can become
viable if they have orientation to marketing of members’ produce and business expansion. The
importance of linkages for an FPC could be approximated by the percentage of inputs purchased
from other industries for backward linkages such as seeds, fertilizers, nursery etc and the
percentage of finished products sold to markets for forward linkages such as processed milk, oils,
treated seeds, processed grains and other value added products. A forward linkage is the process
of how a company sells its goods, products or supplies. Marketing is a process that involves a
product or service's attributes, pricing, distribution, and promotion. All of these activities must
work together to assure successful marketing. The farmer producer companies sold the value
added products to the retailers and in a lesser extent sold the products directly to the consumers.
The retailers purchased the products directly from the premises of FPCs.The FPCs made the
products based on the orders received.

Value added products of Farmer

Procurement Retailers Consumers
Producer Companies

Figure 1: Backward and Forward linkages of Farmer producer companies

References:
Stockbridge, M., Dorward, A., & Kydd, J. (2003). Farmer Organizations for Market Access: A
Briefing Paper. Wye Campus, Kent, England: Imperial College, London.
http://sfacindia.com
https://www.nabard.org
http://www.thedialogue.co/india-promote-farmers-producers-organisations/

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POSTHARVEST DISEASE MANAGEMENT OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Manasranjan Rout1, Tapas Ranjan Das1,
Lipilipsa Priyadarshini1 and Aurobindo Mohanta2
1Department of Plant Pathology Science
2Department of Agronomy
Faculty of Agricultural Science (IAS), Siksha O Anusandhan (Deemed to be University)
*Corresponding author E-mail: manasrout0001@gmail.com

Introduction:
In comparison to cereals, pulses, and oil seed crops, fruits and vegetables are regarded as
perishable crops. The majority of them have a high moisture content (between 70 and 95 percent
water), are typically large (5 to 5 kg), have a high respiration rate, and typically have a soft
texture, all of which favour the growth and development of various diseases brought on by
microorganisms between the times of harvest and consumption. According to estimates,
postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables in underdeveloped nations range from 30 to 50
percent or more (Salunkhe and Desai, 1984). Because fruits and vegetables are living things,
factors such as the current temperature, relative humidity, atmosphere during and after harvest,
and the type and severity of insect or microbial infestation all have an impact on how long they
can be sold. They degrade during storage because to moisture loss, pathogen-caused decay,
rodent damage, loss of energy from storage, and loss of minerals and vitamins (Desai and
Pathak, 1970; Pathak, 1997), a loss in quality due to physiological abnormalities, fiber
development, greening (potatoes), root growth, sprouting, rooting, shoot growth, and seed
germination, in addition to physical losses brought on by pest and disease attack. Post-harvest
losses are also brought on by the contamination of food by mycotoxins, which are produced by
plant tissues in response to fungi attack.
Diseases exacerbated by postharvest pathogens
Many pathogens, including fungus and bacteria, are to blame for the diseases that affect
fruits and vegetables. However, it is widely recognized that bacteria like Erwinia and
Pseudomonas and fungi like Alternaria, Aspergillus, Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Diplodia,
Monilinia, Penicillium, Phomopsis, Rhizopus, Mucor, and Sclerotinia are the main causes of
postharvest losses (Barkai Golan, 2005; Sharma et al., 2009). The majority of these organisms
are weak pathogens that can only enter produce that has been harmed. Physical damage is the
main reason for the losses and plays a significant role in postharvest degradation. Injuries of all
kinds can occur both before and after the collection of produce. Weather, insects, birds, rats, and

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farm equipment can all inflict harm. Fruits are frequently hurt when they are dropped onto a hard
surface before, during, or after packing, but the damage is frequently not immediately noticeable.
Later, bruising may also occur, although it just appears on the outside (as on apples), or it may
only be noticeable when the item is peeled (e.g., potatoes). The overstocking of bulk product in
warehouses or the overfilling of the packaging can both cause compression bruising (e.g,
grapes). Underfilled packs are susceptible to vibration damage, especially when travelling over
long distances by road. Various bacteria attack the harmed product, causing a gradual
degradation that could spread throughout the entire crop (Snowdon, 1990).
Postharvest infection
Numerous fungi that result in significant produce loss are difficult to enter produce with
an undamaged peel, but they can easily enter through any crack in the peel. Even though the
harm is little, the crop's diseases can nevertheless flourish there thanks to it. Additionally,
numerous microbes enter the body through the cut stem, and stem-end rots are significant
postharvest spoilages of many fruits and vegetables (Barkai-Golan, 2005). For example,
postharvest infection by Sclerotina and Colletotrichum is very common in many fruits through
direct penetration of the peel. The infection of postharvest produce is caused by the infection to
the different parts of the plants, such as floral infection, stem-end infection, and quiescent
infection.
Factors affecting the development of infection
The surrounding environment of the produce always plays an important role in the
development of infection by the pathogens and in the subsequent postharvest wastage of the
produce. The high temperature and high humidity favor the development of postharvest decay,
and chilling injury generally predisposes tropical and subtropical produce levels and the correct
humidity can restrict the rate of postharvest decay by checking the rate of ripening or
senescence, repressing the growth of the pathogen, or both (Barkai-Golan, 2005). In addition,
several other factors also affect the rate of development of infection in fruits and vegetables. For
example, the fruit peel, which acts as a selective medium, is generally attacked by several fungi.
Many vegetables have a pH>4.5 and consequently bacterial rots are much more common in
vegetables. Ripening fruits are more susceptible to wastage than immature fruits. Hence,
treatments that slow down the rate of ripening (e.g., low temperature) will also retard the growth
of decay organisms. Vegetables with the underground storage organs, for example, potato,
cassava, yam, sweet potato, etc., are capable of forming layers of specialized cells (wound
periderm) at the site of the injury, thus restricting the development of postharvest decay. During
commercial handling of potato, periderm formation is promoted by 10–14 days storage at 7–
15°C and 95% RH, a process known as curing. A type of curing process (possible by

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desiccation) has been shown to reduce the wastage of oranges by Penicillium digitatum. When
the fruits are held at higher temperature (30°C) and humidity (90%) for several days, the orange
peel becomes turgid and lignin are synthesized in the injured flavedo tissue, which affects the
entry of microorganisms and thereby the decay.
Management of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables
Three main strategies are used as the fundamental ways for the control of postharvest
illnesses in fruits and vegetables: (a) infection prevention, (b) infection eradication, and (c)
pathogen spread prevention in the host tissue. Maintaining fruit free of disease or symptom until
it is marketed or consumed is the primary goal of postharvest fruit disease management. As a
result, management tactics should focus on preventing, eliminating, and postponing illness signs
when fruits and vegetables are in transit and storage. (Sharma and Alam, 1998; Barkai-Golan,
2005). Postharvest Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables To manage postharvest diseases of
fruits and vegetables, the treatments are broadly divided into three groups, that is, physical,
chemical, and biological. The effectiveness of treatment depends on the ability of the treatment
or agent to reach the pathogen, the level and sensitivity of the infection, and the sensitivity of the
host produce. The various methods of postharvest disease control of fruits and vegetables have
been described briefly in the following sections.
1. Physical treatments
Different physical treatments, such as heat removal and low temperature storage, high
temperature treatments, magnetic fields, and radiation, may be used to control the postharvest
diseases of fruits and vegetables. Sound, ultrasound, radio, microwave, infrared, visible light,
ultraviolet (UV), X rays, gamma rays, and cathode ray spectra are some of the different
radiations. Some have a strong fungicidal impact, whereas others don't work as well (Eckert and
Sommer, 1967). A couple of these have maybe been employed in postharvest treatments of fruits
and vegetables, and they are briefly detailed.
1.1 Use of Gamma irradiation
The deep-rooted infections can be inactivated by gamma irradiation by penetrating the
produce. Due to the infrequent occurrence of cell division in immature tissues, mature fruits are
relatively resistant to radiation damage (Johnson et al., 1990). When compared to the dose
needed for disinfection (75-300Gy), the doses needed to eradicate infections range from 2000 to
3000Gy, with some cases requiring as little as 1000Gy and others as much as 6000Gy (Barkai-
Golan et al., 1977). The radiation dose necessary for disease control is typically detrimental to
fruit quality. Gamma irradiation can successfully prevent lasiodiplodia, which is the root cause
of stem-end rot in mango fruits. In several fruits and vegetables, gamma irradiations have been
quite effective in preventing postharvest infections.

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Palou et al. (2007) used sodium carbonate, which is an alternative to synthetic fungicides
to control citrus postharvest disease because it is inexpensive and can be used with a minimal
risk of damage to the fruits. A combination of sodium carbonate with an X-ray irradiation dose
of 0.875 kGy is more effective in controlling P. digitatum and Penicillium italicum compared to
a single treatment. Several investigations have shown the inhibitory nature of nanosilver particles
(NA) associated with sterilization (Jung et al. 2014). At a dose of 1 kGy, gamma irradiation had
no antifungal effect, but when used in combination with NA or nanosized silica silver (NSS) at
concentrations more than 1 g L/1, the same dose of gamma rays had the greatest antifungal
effect. The combination of irradiation and cold storage, according to a study, is also promising
for preventing postharvest infections. Comparing apples maintained at 0°C for 4 months to those
kept at 20°C, gamma irradiation significantly reduced the growth of Colletotrichum acutatum on
them (Kim et al., 2011). Recently, it was demonstrated that P. expansum spore germination may
be completely prevented with a 0.6 kGy dose of gamma radiation when combined with storage at
1°C, with no noticeable physical changes to apples (Mostafavi et al., 2012).
1.2 Use of low temperature
Utilizing low temperatures is thought to be crucial in preventing deterioration in a variety
of fruits and vegetables. Low temperatures may inhibit the growth of diseases, but they also
delay fruit ripening. Controlling temperature is crucial for preventing disease incidence,
physiological degradation, moisture loss, and shriveling. For this reason, cooling can be thought
of as an addition to fungicidal treatments in a number of fruits and vegetables with many
commodities (Barkai Golan, 2005). Every 10°C rise in temperature between 0 and 30°C leads to
a two- to threefold rise in metabolic activity. In general, it is advised to keep produce at the
coolest temperature feasible without endangering the host. With many fruits and vegetables, the
lowest desirable temperature is just above the freezing temperature. Certain varieties of apples,
pears, plums, peaches, and grapes can thus be stored between 0 and -2°C. It is commonly
observed that apples and pears stored at slightly below 0°C are attacked by B. cinerea, P.
expansum, and Cladosporium. The pathogenic growth of most fungi, however, is completely
stopped at temperature near 0°C. Rhizopus spp. was found to be highly susceptible to chilling
injury near 0°C (Barkai-Golan, 2005).
2. Postharvest chemical treatments
Produce injuries caused during harvesting, processing, and packaging are the main entry
points for postharvest wound infections; chemically treating wounds will significantly reduce
deterioration in storage. Injuries are caused when the crop is chopped off from the plant, or cuts
are purposefully made while being handled, such stem cuts on banana hands or petiole cuts on
celery destined for export. Other potential infection sites include the host's natural openings, such

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as lenticels and stomata, whose susceptibility to infection is heightened by injury or after a
thorough water wash. The pathogenic microorganisms gathered in all those locations should be
disinfected effectively. (Eckert, 1978; Eckert and Ogawa, 1985). Different chemicals, such as
biphenyl (diphenyl), SOPP, thiabendazole, carbendazim, dicloran, iprodione, prochloraz, and
ridomil, have been used to control postharvest decay in devel fruits and vegetable successfully
(Table 5). Aluminum containing salts provided strong inhibition of all the tested pathogens
(Alternaria solani, B. cinerea, Fusarium sambucinum, Pythium sulcatum, and R. stolonifer) with
minimal inhibitory concentration of 1–10mM. Aluminum chloride and aluminum sulfate are
generally the most effective, inhibiting the mycelial growth of pathogens by as much as 47% and
100%, respectively, at a salt concentration of 1mM. When applied at 5mM, aluminum sulfate
also provided 28% and 100% inhibition of dry rot and cavity spot, respectively. Aluminum
chloride (5mM) reduced dry rot by 25%, whereas aluminum lactate (5mM) decreased cavity spot
lesions by 86%. These results indicate that various aluminum-containing salts may provide an
alternative to the use of synthetic fungicides to control these pathogens (Kolaei et al., 2013).
Youssef et al. (2014) demonstrated that both sodium carbonate and bicarbonate exert a direct
antifungal effect on P. digitatum and induce citrus fruit defence mechanisms to postharvest
decay.
3. Plant growth regulators
Plant growth regulators are known to delay senescence and the onset of fruit rots. It is
reported that indole acetic acid and maleic hydrazide were most effective against Aspergillus rot
and Rhizopus rots of papaya fruits, while planofix (NAA, used at 0.01%) checked all rots except
Fusarium rot in post inoculation treatment. Thakur et al. (1974) studied the effect of growth
regulators (2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, NAA, ascorbic acid, and gibberellic acid) in the control of postharvest
fungal diseases of apples, mangoes, pomegranates, bananas, potatoes, brinjals, and tomatoes
caused by Rhizopus spp. and reported these to be effective in controlling rots. Similarly, Tak et
al. (1985) reported that rovral (500 ppm), maleic hydrazide (100 ppm), and hydrogenated
groundnut oil proved to be most effective both as pre- and post-inoculation treatment to control
fruit rot of apples caused by A. alternata.
4. Biological control
To manage postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables, there are a variety of possibly
biological control techniques, including (i) constitutive or induced resistance, (ii) natural plant
compounds, and (iii) antagonistic microbes. Here is a quick summary of these tactics:
4.1 Development and use of resistant varieties
Development and use of resistant varieties against pathogens is considered the most
reliable method of disease management. However, it appears that a little attention has been paid

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to develop resistant varieties/hybrids against postharvest pathogens in horticultural crops. For

developing resistant-type crops, certain desirable characteristics have to be incorporated into the
susceptible varieties from the selected fruit and vegetable varieties, which are resistant to
postharvest pathogens naturally (Wilson and Wisniewski, 1989). Generally speaking, we select
cultivars with thin peels, low tannin contents, and high sugar contents, but sadly, all of these
characteristics increase vulnerability to postharvest infections. A breeding programme should be
created to solely use this sort of resistance because a plant breeder needs to understand that
postharvest disease resistance is distinct from field resistance. The tetraploid potato (Solanum
tuberosum) and the diploid wild species Solanum brevidens were utilised to create somatic
hybrids. These hybrid tubers were tested for resistance to Erwinia spbacterial soft rot. S.
tuberosum, which is now sexually transferrable, acquired the resistance. By developing an
artificial inoculation assay, Bestfleisch et al. (2015) tested 107 genotypes of strawberry
(Fragaria L.) genetic resources for resistance to B. cinerea under controlled circumstances. Five
cultivars, including Diana, Joerica, Kimberly, Fragaria virginiana "Wildmare Creek," and
Fragaria vesca sub sp. Bracteata, displayed somewhat resistance genotypes against the pathogen
at 6 days after vaccination, with mean illness levels of 20%.
4.2 Natural plant products for biological control
Numerous antimicrobial constitutive and inducible chemicals found in fruits and
vegetables have not yet been adequately investigated as biological control agents (Sharma and
Pongener, 2010). These substances, however, can be added to other harvested goods or used in
or on the plants where they are created. Natural additives, such as fruit seed extracts and
essential oils, have shown to have effective antibacterial and antifungal properties and to be
compatible with biopolymers, making them suitable for use in the creation of edible coatings
(Kanmani and Rhim, 2014). Plant extracts are advantageous because they are inexpensive to
produce, have minimal toxicity, and have strong biodegradability (Maswada and Abdallah,
2013). Additionally, most of the extracts are rich in polyphenols which can improve the
antioxidant properties of the edible coatings (Silva Weiss et al., 2014). The use of edible
coatings to preserve food product quality is a relatively low cost and environmentally friendly
strategy with several advantages, including biodegradability, as well as the possibility to obtain a
semipermeable barrier against gases and water vapor, thereby reducing microbial attack (Dhall,
2013). Furthermore, edible coatings can be combined with natural or synthetic active principles
to prevent microbial decay in a more effective manner (Falguera et al., 2011). According to
Dubey and Kishore (1988), numerous stored goods could be shielded from Aspergilus flavus and
Avicularia versicolor biodegradation by using essential oils from the leaves of Melanleuca
leucadendron, Ociumanum, and Citrus medica. These oils were functional at 500 to 2000 ppm

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concentrations. According to Wilson et al. (1987), ripening peaches release a variety of fruit
volatiles, several of which are highly fungicidal. Rhizopus nigricans, A. flavus, and P. expansum
were controlled from growing in wound-inoculated Lingwu Long Jujube and Sand Sugar Orange
fruits when cinnamon oil at 2.0 percent (v/v) and 3.0 percent (v/v) concentrations was applied.
The findings demonstrated that cinnamon oil has a promising future as a fruit application-
specific natural antifungal agent (Xing et al., 2010). Papaya anthracnose caused by C.
gloeosporioides was treated with lemongrass oil, and "Sekaki" papaya were subjected to
lemongrass oil fumigation (0, 7, 14, 28 l/l) for 18 hours and at room temperature for 9 days.
While papaya quality criteria were not significantly altered, lemongrass oil vapour at a
concentration of 28 L/1 was most efficient against anthracnose of artificially inoculated papaya
fruit (Ali et al., 2015). The effectiveness of methanol and chloroform extracts of eight Cistaceae
species to control citrus sour rot decay, caused by Geotrichum citri-aurantii, was reported by
Karim et al. (2016). Methanol extracts of these plant species exhibited more interesting activity
against G. citri-aurantii, under both in vitro and in vivo conditions, compared with chloroform
extracts. The disease severity was found to be as low as 5.19% and 6.04% when fruits were
treated with the same methanol extracts. The methanol Cistus extract possessed sufficient
antifungal activities which can be used in the citrus industry after it has been tested under
production and natural infection conditions.
4.3 Use of microbial antagonists
Several microbial antagonists have been reported to control postharvest diseases of fruits
and vegetables successfully. For their use, two basic approaches have to be Hybrid Membrane
System Design and Operation 27 employed. The first approach is to promote and manage those
antagonistic microbes that already exist on the fruits and vegetables themselves and the second
approach should be to artificially induce the desirable microbial antagonists against postharvest
pathogens. Both these approaches have been discussed in the following sections.
4.4 Natural antagonists
Naturally occurring antagonists are those, which are present naturally on fruits or
vegetable peel, and are used to control postharvest diseases. Such antagonists have been isolated
from fruit surfaces of apples and citrus and reapplied to the fruits as bio-control agents. Chalutz
and Wilson (1990) found that when concentrated washings from the surface of citrus fruits were
plated out on agar medium, only bacteria and yeast appeared. After dilution of these washings,
rot fungus appeared on agar, indicating that yeast and bacteria may be suppressing their growth.
It has been observed that when fruits and vegetables are washed, they are more susceptible to
decay than those that are not washed at all.

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4.4.1 Enhancing the bio-efficacy of microbial antagonists

During the past few decades, many attempts have been made to develop nonfungicidal
methods to control postharvest decays in fruits and vegetables. These approaches include
environmental modifications such as, storing commodities at temperatures suppressive to
pathogen development, modified relative humidity and the atmosphere, and treatment with hot
air or water (Smoot and Melvin, 1965; Fallik et al., 1995) including resistance by applying
elicitors or irradiation (Droby et al., 1993a; Stevens et al., 1996), applying substances generally
regarded as safe (GRAS) (Smilanick et al., 1999), applying wax formulation (De Lima et al.,
2014), and sterilizing fruits and handling water with UV irradiation or ozone (Tukey, 1993).
However, none of these methods, when used alone, provided satisfactory levels of decay control.
Successful commercial control of postharvest diseases of fruits must be extremely efficient,
unlike the control of tree-, field-, or soil borne diseases. Biocontrol agents cannot presently
achieve such a level of control if used alone. However, for increased efficiency of bioagents, the
following approaches have been suggested.
Addition of low level of fungicides:
Formulated biocontrol products like ASPIRE and BIOSAVE 110 provide cent percent
control only when low doses of synthetic fungicides are also added to them (Droby et al., 1998).
For example, citrus fruits treated with Candida oleophila and thiabendazol at 200mgmL/1
control decay effectively comparable to commercial fungicide treatment (Droby et al., 1998).
Addition of nutrients and plant products:
The biocontrol activity of the microbial antagonists can be enhanced considerably by the
addition of nitrogenous compounds (L-aspargine and L proline) (El-Ghaouth et al., 2000a, b)
and 2-deoxy-D-glucose, a sugar analog. When applied in fruit wounds, the combination of
Candida saitoana with a low dose of 0.2% (w/v) of 2-deoxy-D glucose control decay of apples,
oranges, and lemons caused by B. cinerea, P. expansum, and P. digitatum (El-Ghaouth et al.,
2000a, b). Liu et al. (2010a) treated grapes with TP and Hanseniaspora uvarum alone or in
combination against B. cinerea and they reported that TP alone was effective in controlling gray
mold in grapes at all concentrations. TP at 0.5% and 1.0% in combination with H. uvarum (1106
cfumL/1) showed a lower infection rate of gray mold. The addition of TP did not affect the
growth of H. uvarum in vitro and significantly increased the population of H. uvarum in vivo.
Another combination of TP and Candida ernobii was found to be effective against postharvest
disease (Diplodia natalensis) in citrus fruits (Liu et al., 2010a).
The addition of TP did not affect the growth of C. ernobii in vitro and significantly
increased the population of C. ernobii in vivo. It was direct because of the inhibitory effects of
TP on spore germination and mycelial growth of D. natalensis and indirect because of the

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increased populations of C. ernobii in vivo. The control was better when either C. saitoana or 2-
deoxy-D glucose was used. The curative activity of the combination of C. saitoana with 2-
deoxy-D-glucose represents 34 Postharvest Disinfection of Fruits and Vegetables a substantial
improvement over existing microbial biocontrol product. The treatment of peach fruits with C.
laurentii at 1108 cfumL/1 alone or in combination with methyl jasmonate at 200μmol L/1
inhibited the lesion diameter of brown rot and blue mold rot caused by M. fructicola and P.
expansum (Yao and Tian, 2005). The most efficient treatments using Meyerozyma guilliermondii
(strain 443) were those with 2% gelatin or 2% liquid carnauba wax, both of which reduced
anthracnose by 50% in postharvest papayas. Electron micrographs of the surface tissues of the
treated fruits showed that all application vehicles provided excellent adhesion of the yeast to the
surface. Formulations based on starch (2%), gelatin (2%), and carnauba wax (2%) were the most
efficient at controlling fungal diseases in postharvest papayas (De Lima et al., 2014).
Future line of work:
The management of postharvest diseases is a difficult task and it could be intensively
focused on by scientists, administrators, and policy makers. Future investigations should be
focused on the following areas.
(i) Proper diagnosis of postharvest diseases by using modern biotechnological tools.
(ii) Precise estimation of economic losses caused by each major fruit rot.
(iii) Forecasting of postharvest diseases with suitable means.
(iv) Exploring the possibility of use of nonpathogenic or attenuated strains of pathogens.
(v) Identifying compounds, which when injected into the trunk or sprayed on foliage long
before harvest, are translocated to the fruit, making it resistant to infection by
postharvest pathogens.
(vi) Determining the nature of constitutive and induced resistance in the harvested fruits.
(vii) Improving the efficacy of physical, chemical, biological, and cultural methods, and
integration of different methods of disease management.
(viii) Using biotechnological tools for producing resistant fruits with good-quality
characteristics.
(ix) Strategies for enhancing wound defense mechanism in harvested fruits.
(x) Identification of genes that promote epiphytic antagonists.
References:
Barkai-Golan, R., 2005. Postharvest Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables. A Division of Reed
Elsevier India, Pvt. Limited, New Delhi.

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Barkai-Golan, R., Kahan, R.S., Padova, R., Ben-Arie, R., 1977. Combined treatments of heat or
chemicals with radiation to contro J decay in stored fruits.Biological Science. Proc.
Workshop on the Use of Ionizing Radiation in Agriculture, Wageningenpp. 157–169.
Bestfleisch, M., Luderer-Pflimpfl, M., Hofer, M., Schulte, E., Wunsche, J.N., Hanke, M.V.,
Flachowsky, H., 2015. Evaluation of strawberry (Fragaria L.) genetic resources for
resistance to Botrytis cinerea. Plant Pathol. 64 (2), 396–405.
Chalutz, E., Wilson, C.L., 1990. Postharvest biocontrol of green and blue mold and sour rot of
citrus fruits by Debaryomyces hansenii. Plant Dis. 74, 134–137.
Dashwood, E.P., Fox, F.A., 1988. Infection of flowers and fruits of red raspberry by Botrytis
cinerea. Plant Pathol. 37, 423–430.
Desai, B.G., Pathak, V.N., 1970. Phosphorus and ascorbic acid content of mango fruits infected
by Diplodia natalensis Pole Evans. Phytopathology 69, 36–37.
Droby, S., Chalutz, E., Horev, B., Cohen, L., Gaba, V., Wilson, C.L., Wisniewski, M.E., 1993a.
Factors affecting UV-induced resistance in grapefruit against the green mold decay caused
by Penicilluim digitatum. Plant Pathol. 42, 418–424.
Droby, S., Cohen, L., Daus, A., Weiss, B., Horev, B., Chalutz, E., Katz, H., Keren-Tzur, M.,
Shachnai, A., 1998. Commercial testing of aspire: a yeast preparation for the biological
control of postharvest decay of citrus. Biol. Control 12, 97–100.
Dubey, N.K., Kishore, N., 1988. Book of abstracts, exploitation of higher plant products as
natural fumigants.Proceedings of Fifth International Congress on Plant Pathology, Kyoto,
Japanp. 423.
Eckert, J.W., 1978. Pathological diseases of fresh fruits and vegetables. In: Hultin, H.O., Milner,
N. (Eds.), Postharvest Biology and Biotechnology. Food and Nutrition Press, Westport, pp.
161– 209.
Eckert, J.W., Eaks, I.L., 1989. Postharvest disorders and diseases of citrus fruit. In: Reuther, W.,
Calavan, E.C., Carman, G. (Eds.), The Citrus Industry. In: 5, University of California Div.
Agic. Sci., Okaland, pp. 179–260.
Eckert, J.W., Ogawa, J.M., 1985. The chemical control of postharvest harvest diseases:
subtropical and tropical fruits. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 23, 421–454.
Eckert, J.W., Sommer, N.F., 1967. Control of diseases of fruits and vegetables by postharvest
treatment. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 5, 391–432.
El-Ghaouth, A., Smilanick, J., Wisniewski, M., Wilson, C.L., 2000b. Improved control of apple
and citrus fruit decay with a combination of Candida saitoana with 2-deoxy-D-glucose.
Plant Dis. 84, 249–253.

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El-Ghaouth, A., Smilanick, J.L., Brown, G.E., Ippolito, A., Wisniewski, M., Wilson, C.L.,
2000a. Application of Candida saitoana and glycolchitosan for the control of postharvest
diseases of apple and citrus fruit under semi-commercial conditions. Plant Dis. 84, 243–
248.
Falguera, V., Quintero, J.P., Jimenez, A., Munoz, J.A., Ibarza, A., 2011. Edible films and
coatings: structures, active functions and trends in their use. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 22,
292–303.
Johnson, G., Boag, T.S., Cook, A.W., Izard, M., Panitz, M., Sangchote, S., 1990. Interaction of
postharvest disease control treatments and gamma irradiation on mangoes. Ann. Appl.
Biol. 116, 245–257.
Johnson, G.I., Mead, A.J., Cooke, A.W., Dean, J.R., 1992. Mango stem-end rot pathogens fruit
infection by endophytic colonization of the inflorescence and pedicel. Ann. Appl. Biol.
120, 225–234.
Jung, K., Yoon, M., Park, H.J., et al., 2014. Application of combined treatment for control of
Botrytis cinerea in phytosanitary irradiation processing. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 99, 12–17.
Kanmani, P., Rhim, J.W., 2014. Antimicrobial and physical-mechanical properties of agar-based
films incorporated with grapefruit seed extract. Carbohydr. Polym. 102, 708–716.
Karim, H., Boubaker, H., Askarne, L., Talibi, I., Msanda, F., Boudyach, E.H., Saadi, B., Ait Ben
Aoumar, A., 2016. Antifungal properties of organic extracts of eight Cistus L. species
against postharvest citrus sour rot. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 62 (1), 16–22.
Kim, H.J., Park, H.J., Choi, S.H., 2011. Antimicrobial action effect and stability of nanosized
silica hybrid Ag complex. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 11 (7), 5781.
Kolaei, E.A., Cenatus, C., Tweddell, R.J., Avis, T.J., 2013. Antifungal activity of aluminium
containing salts against the development of carrot cavity spot and potato dry rot. Ann.
Appl. Biol. 163 (2), 311–317.
Lima De, J.R., Marto, F., Viana, P., Lima, F.A., Pieniz, V., Rocha, L., 2014. Efficiency of a
yeast based formulation for the biocontrol of postharvest anthracnose of papayas. Summa
Phytopathol. 40, 203–211.
Liu, H.M., Guo, J.H., Cheng, Y.J., Liu, P., Long, C.A., Deng, B.X., 2010a. Inhibitory activity of
tea polyphenol and Hanseniaspora uvarum against Botrytis cinerea infections. Lett. Appl.
Microbiol. 51 (3), 258–263.
Lorenz, G., 1988. Dicarboximide fungicides: history of resistance development and monitoring
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pp. 45–51.

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Maswada, H.F., Abdallah, S.A., 2013. In vitro activity of three geophytic plant extracts against
three post-harvest pathogenic fungi. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. (23), 1698–1705.
McNicol, R.J., Williamson, B., 1988. Systemic infection of black current flowers by Botrytis
cinerea and its possible involvement in premature abscission of fruits. Ann. Appl. Biol.
114, 243–254.
Mostafavi, H.A., Mirmajlessi, S.M., Mirjalili, S.M., Fathollahi, H., Askari, H., 2012. Gamma
radiation effects on physico-chemical parameters of apple fruit during commercial post
harvest preservation. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 81, 666–671.
Palou, L., Crisosto, C.H., Garner, D., 2007. Combination of postharvest antifungal chemical
treatments and controlled atmosphere storage to control gray mold and improve storability
of ‘Wonderful’ pomegranates. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 43 (1), 133-142.
Pathak, V.N., 1997. Postharvest fruit pathology: present status and future possibilities. Indian
Phytopath. 50, 161–185.
Salunkhe, D.K., Desai, B.B., 1984. Postharvest Biotechnology of Fruits. vol. 1. CRC, Boca
Raton, FL, p. 168.
Sharma, N., Alam, M.M., 1998. Postharvest Diseases of Horticultural Perishables. International
Book Distributing Co, Lucknow.
Sharma, R.R., Pongener, A., 2010. Natural products for postharvest disease control of
horticultural produce: a review. Stewart Postharvest Rev. 4, 1–9.
Sharma, R.R., Singh, D., Singh, R., 2009. Biologicalcontrol of postharvest diseases of fruits and
vegetables bymicrobial antagonists: a review. Biol. Control 2009 (50), 205–221.
Silva-Weiss, A., Bifani, V., Ihl, M., Sobral, P.J.A., Gomez-Guillen, M.C., 2014. Polyphenol-rich
extract from murta leaves on rheological properties of film-forming solutions based on
different hydrocolloid blends. J. Food Eng. 140, 28–38.
Smilanick, J.L., Margosan, D.A., Milkota, F., Usall, J., Michael, I., 1999. Control of citrus green
mould mold by carbonate and biocarbonate salts and influence of commercial postharvest
practices of their efficacy. Plant Dis. 83, 139–145.
Schagbauer, H.E., Holz, G., 1990. Infection and colonization of plum blossom by Monilinia
laxa. Phytophylactica 22, 419–422.
Smoot, J.J., Melvin, C.F., 1965. Reduction of citrus decay by hot water treatment. Plant Dis.
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Snowdon, A.L., 1990. A Color Atlas of Postharvest Diseases & Disorder of Fruits and
Vegetables. vol. 1. CRC Press Inc, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 230–231.

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Stevens, C., Wilson, C.L., Lu, J.Y., Khan, V.A., Chalutz, E., 1996. Plant hormones induced by
ultraviolet light-C for control ling postharvest disease of tree fruits. Crop Prot. 15, 129–
134.
Swinburne, T.R., 1973. The resistance of immature Bramley’s seedling apples to rotting by
Nectrix galligena Bres. In: Byrde, R.J.W., Cutting, C.V. (Eds.), Fungal Pathogenicity and
the Plant’s Response. Academic Press, London, New York, pp. 365–382.
Tukey, B., 1993. Overview of ozone use at Snokist Growers. Tree Fruit Postharvest J. 4, 14–15.
Wilson, C.L., Franklin, J.D., Pusey, P.L., 1987. Biological control of Rhizopus rot of peach with
Enterobacter cloacae. Phytopathology 77, 303–305.
Wilson, C.L., Wisniewski, M.E., 1989. Biological control of postharvest diseases of fruits and
vegetables: an emerging technology. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 27, 425–441.
Xing, Y., Li, X., Xu, Q., Yun, J., Lu, Y., 2010. Antifungal activities of cinnamon oil against
Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium expansum in vitro and in vivo fruit
test. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 45 (9), 1837–1842.
Youssef, K., Sanzani, S.M., Ligorio, A., Ippolito, A., Terry, L.A., 2014. Sodium carbonate and
bicarbonate treatments induce resistance to postharvest green mould on citrusfruit.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 87, 61–69.

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DROUGHT PRONE TECHNIQUES: AN IMPORTANT TOOL FOR

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO DRY FARMING
Divya Nigam
Department of Economics,
Lala Lajpatrai College of Commerce and Economics, Mahalaxmi, Mumbai-34
Corresponding author E-mail: nigamdivya99@gmail.com

Abstract:
India being primarily the agrarian based economy, half of our population depend on
agriculture for their livelihood .Agriculture is not only the provider of food but supplies raw
materials to industries. However even two decades past twenty first century, Indian agriculture
still dependent on weather conditions for good crop. Around 55% of India cultivable land
depends on precipitation, amount of rainfall during current monsoon season .If monsoons are not
favourable, entire agricultural and related industries are adversely affected. It is found that over
the years the spells of drought and severe water shortages have affected more than 300 million
people in the country not just in terms of food shortages but also livelihoods, of both agriculture
and industry. It is the need of the hour to fix this problem and make efforts to switch over to
effective methods of water management.
If India has to achieve sustainable development in agriculture, the challenging task for the
farmer, managers, engineers and researchers is to develop and practise such suitable techniques
which favour sustainable use of water in agriculture, increasing the productivity with minimum
usage of water.
The article attempts to examine in detail various appropriate techniques which are now
being practised in drought prone areas of the country and measures taken by the government to
achieve sustainable agriculture production and development.
Keywords: Precipitation, Hydrological drought, sustainable production, water conservation, rain
fed, water scarcity.
Objectives of the study:
a. The study aims at delving in detail why drought prone and water saving techniques are needed
in India’s agriculture.
b. The study focuses on application of various water saving methods of irrigation with special
reference on dry farming along with effective water management measures which are being
taken by the government currently.
c. Towards the end paper aims to draw inferences as to what extent these drought prone
techniques have contributed towards agriculture development on a sustainable basis.

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Research methodology and period of study
The study is based on secondary data collected from various sources like internet
websites, newspaper clippings, journals, various research reports on dry farming techniques etc.
Overview:
During last few years various parts of the country have suffered acute drought like
situation, namely, parts of Andhra, central part of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, etc. Ministry of
water resources defines metrological drought, hydrological drought and agricultural droughts. In
this agricultural drought needs to be addressed which is identified by four consecutive weeks of
metrological drought when weekly rainfall is 50 mm or less from mid May to mid October.
To tackle India’s water crisis a large scale national water infrastructure development
programme is needed under which a comprehensive network of big water reservoirs as well as
regional and local water storage system should be laid out. Along with this advanced agricultural
irrigation system needs to be introduced, especially in low rainfall areas of India, utilizing
advanced technology which is used in arid regions of the countries such as U.S, Australia and
Israel. Modernisation of urban water works too is being emphasized in order to prevent large
scale loss of water through leaking and damaged pipes which would reduce the wastage and
increase water availability for productive activities.
While there is a need for adopting holistic approach in mitigating and managing the
drought, a sustainable solution would primarily consist of large scale adoption of modern and
suitable techniques of agriculture which require less water.
Techniques of agriculture for less rainfall regions being used in the last few years
Deficit irrigation and irrigation management.
This method is used in applying water below full crop water requirement or
Evapotranspiration (ET).Research has established that there is potential for improving water
productivity in many crops. India has successfully adopted regulated deficit irrigation (RDI)
successfully in fruit trees resulting in improving water productivity and enhancing farmers’
profits.
Deficit irrigation and water productivity
Since last few years enhancing the importance of deficit irrigation concept is being used
which is defined as yield or net income per unit of water used. Many reasons for the increase in
WP under deficit irrigation. The irrigation increases crop evapotranspiration linearly up to point
where relationship becomes curvilinear because part of water applied is lost. The yield reaches
maximum value at this point and additional quantity of water doesn’t increase the yield any
further. But it’s difficult to accurately identify that maximum yield point and hence when water
is not scarce, irrigation is applied in excess to avoid risk of low productivity.
Rain fed agriculture and water management
Like most of developing nations rain fed agriculture has emerged as one of the most
common and effective method of cultivation. Rain fed agriculture accounts for about 57% of
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country’s net sown area, contributing nearly 40% of the total food production and 60% of the
value of agriculture GDP of India. These areas assume special significance in terms of ecology,
agricultural productivity and livelihood of millions. 61%of Indian farmers rely on rain fed
agriculture. But since most the farmers in India are small and marginal ones, they do not practise
much intensive cultivation. Farmers in rain fed areas earn hardly 20-30% from farm related
activities. Rain fed area account for 89% production of millets, 88% pulses, 73% cotton, 69%
oilseeds and 40% of rice production in the country. Hence to help such farmers to increase use
of available dry land, modern technologies and new measures have been initiated by Govt. For
rain fed crops, water shed development is being prioritised in the recent years to increase the
yields. Techniques like use of supplemental irrigation, rain catchment systems, sand dams called
bandaras is being used in various parts of Maharashtra. These techniques have facilitated water
availability to rain inconsistent regions of the country.
Dry farming
Dry farming is an improved system of cultivation focussing on soil and water
management designed to conserve maximum quantity of water on particular piece of land. It
involves cash cropping eg, Jatropha cultivation can reduce magnitude of petroleum crisis since
liquid produced by it can be added to petroleum products without reducing the efficiency. Also
dry land agriculture has the potential to produce fodder and cattle feed. Thus it has played crucial
role in white revolution in India. Of the 141 million hectares of estimated crop area in the
country, nearly 80 million hectare is under dry land farming which constitutes 52% of total
cultivable land and contributes to more than 44% of the food basket. In our country more than
75% of farmers engaged in dry farming are small and marginal. In this light government has
taken many initiatives to improve dry farming technologies to increase the yield and raise the
economic status of the farmers in consonance with poverty alleviation programmes.
Characteristic Regions of Dry land Agriculture

Challenges of Dry land farming in India which still persist:

a. Since dry land farming involves planting of crops in a scattered way, and in fewer numbers
overall than in wet farming, weeds are destroyed so that redundant plants do not compete with
the plants for water. This is called Strip cropping which entails lots of effort and time to
ensure that the soil is not deprived of moisture.
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b. Management of soil conservation and water resources
c. Need to evolve high yielding crop and drought resistant crop varieties
d. Low cost agricultural inputs which are locally suited
e. Adequate and timely availability of credit to purchase inputs
f. Moisture stress, selection of limited crops, disposal of dry farming products, quality of
produce are some issues of dry land farming in India in the recent years.
Initiatives taken in the recent years to improve efficiency and productivity of Dry land
agriculture
A. Water harvesting:
It is the process of capturing rain where it falls and taking measures to keep that water
clean. Methods include capturing run off from rooftops, capturing runoff from local catchment
areas, and capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams.
B. Agronomical practises on scientific basis:
These include crop rotation, intercropping etc.
C. Soil preparation:
It is necessary to prepare the soil before sowing as soil usually loses its fertility due to
continuous farming. Hence for its replenishment steps like ploughing the field, levelling and
manuring are undertaken before sowing.
D. Organic farming:
In the last few years, the concept of organic farming has gained tremendous popularity as
the crops grown under this system are considered to be having very high degree of nutrients. In
this use of synthetic inputs like pesticides, fertilizers, hormones etc. is avoided and natural
techniques of cultivation like crop rotation, organic wastes, farm manure etc. are used.
E. Watershed management:
This is the process for effective soil and water conservation with minimum pollutant
losses. Methods being used are vegetative barriers, contour bunds building, furrow ridge method
of cultivation across slope, irrigation water management through drip sprinkler and sprinkler
methods and planting of horticultural contour species on bunds.
F. Ecological conservation techniques:
These methods include prevention of soil erosion, water infiltration, and retention, carbon
sequestration in form of humus.
G. Use of HYV varieties of crops (drought resistance crops)
Dry farming techniques in India are adopted to cover rain fed agricultural activities
dominated by low water needing crops in the arid and semi-arid regions like states of Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamilnadu, Central Rajasthan, Saurashtra region of
Gujarat and rain shadow region of Western Ghats. With the rising population, the gap between
demand and supply is widening .Around 50% of cropped area is under rain fed farming system.
Such expansive lands consume 25% of total fertilizer consumption of the country .Crop
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productivity has been very low due to poor level of management. An integrated approach has
been proposed by the Govt. for the development of dry land farming and financial institutions
like NABARD and cooperative banks have now actively involved themselves in extending
financial help for running viable dry land farming projects in the country.
Progress of Dry farming in the recent years
During the last few years dry land farmed crops like winter wheat, corn, beans,
sunflowers, water melons, millets etc. have increased. In some parts of the country advanced
farming technology to enhance production in dry land areas has been introduced. The survey
conducted inferred that only 10 states have more than 50% drought resilient area. Tamilnadu
was at the top with 56.7%, followed by Andhra Pradesh with 53.4%, Telangana with 48.6%,
Karnataka with 17.3% and Kerala 19.1%.Now the initiatives have been proposed to be taken to
improve productivity of dry land farmed cops through application of advanced technologies like
sub surface drip irrigation, and cultivation of drought resistant varieties .Crops like maize which
need just 2.5 lakh litres per hectare water can be grown in arid regions.
In various districts of Punjab, like Baghpat, where groundwater is very low, some pockets
are now cultivating mustard, barley with the application of advanced technologies.
Organic farming is being promoted under the schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas
Yojana PKVY and Mission Organic Value Chain Development for North Eastern Region.
Recommendations:
Policies and practises of irrigation water management will have to emphasize on specific
objectives according to the causes of water scarcity. Certain priority issues which require
immediate attention are evaluation of potential of irrigation as a means for environmentally
sustainable land use and food production, developing appropriate tools for assessing and
controlling the impact of low quality water in irrigation, improving land evaluation criteria and
methods of irrigation planning to assess impacts on environment and developing low cost nature
friendly techniques for waste water reuse systems.
Another area which should be taken care of is water quality management which includes
water quality monitoring and development of low cost techniques of assessment, effective
disposal and reuse of drainage water, salts, and agricultural wastes in arid and semi-arid lands
and effective management system to minimize water quality degradation.
For sustainable efforts reuse of waste water and conversion of saline water into usable are
very important. Despite several efforts by many global and national agencies, the safe use of
those waters at affordable cost still remains elusive.
Further more innovative issues for institutional building, which mainly concern human
resource development, have to be considered since the application of new technologies and
improved management cannot be successful unless the knowledge base of all the stakeholders is
updated.

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Conclusions:
Hence in the light of current situation, it would be in fitness of things that issues related
to manmade desertification leading to aggravating water shortages are dealt with ruthlessly and
stringent regulations should be made and enforced effectively to curb this alarming and
dangerous trend. Population is growing and the demand for water faces an increased competition
among water user sectors and regions. However, rainfall is not adequate in many regions which
restricts the quantity of water resources available. A bigger worry is deteriorating quality of
water making water resources unfit for intended use. There is a need to find new approaches in
agriculture to cope up with water scarcity alongside adopting sustainable water use issues. The
sustainable use of water resource conservation, environmental friendliness, appropriateness of
technologies, economic viability and social acceptability of development issues has to be the
priority for agriculture in water scarce regions.
Nevertheless despite various alternative techniques traditional irrigation is being
continued and area under irrigation has also expanded. It is therefore desirable that efficiency of
use of irrigation water is enhanced. Farming system research to develop location specific
technologies is now being intensified in rain fed areas. Also a comprehensive strategy is needed
to convert grey areas into green areas to make a second green revolution possible which would
involve three pronged strategy of water shed management, hybrid technology and small farm
mechanisation.
References:
Arvind Kumar, Environment and Agriculture, APH Publishing corporation
Rakesh Das, India 2020: A vision for New Millennium, Sublime publications
Mamoria, C. B. Agricultural problems in India
Sharma, A. R, Behera,’’U Resource Conserving Techniques in Crop Production, 2011.
B. Sambasiv Rao,”Agriculture in India, Serial Publications
www.conservationindia.org
www.indiawaterportal.org
www.digitalgreen.org
www.agrifarming.in
www.researchgate.net

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PRECISION FARMING: AN APPROACH TOWARDS SUSTAINABILITY AND

ADVANCEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
Kavita*, Preetam Kumar and Shweta
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University (CCS HAU), Hisar
*Corresponding author E-mail: kavita.yadav@hau.ac.in

Abstract:
Injudicious and unhealthier use of farm input like blanket application of agrochemicals is
adding to the problems of environment concerns as well as it is not economical for farmers. It
necessitates the shifting of our focus from high input based agriculture to low input one, which is
sustainable also. Moreover, increasing interests towards automated data acquisition and
information processing is building a platform for application of technology driven precision
agriculture in India. Benefits occurring from precision farming are quite phenomenal if the
technology is well managed on the farm entrenched to the condition and demand of the farm.
Precision farming includes utilization of many practices such as remote sensing, global
positioning system (GPS), yield monitoring, yield mapping, variable rate applicator (VRA),
geographical information system (GIS), crop modelling and site specific management zones
(SSMZ). Site specific application of production inputs not only cutoff extra costs, but also
increases resource use efficiency with additional benefits of ecological balance and environment
conservation.
Keywords: GPS, GIS, SSMZ, site specific application
Introduction:
The world is approaching towards the third farming revolution with a motive of further
increasing agricultural productivity as well as sustainably managing all the resources. The first
farming revolution started in 1900’s which led to the foundation of mechanized agriculture
making farmers capable of producing food enough for 26 people. Long after it the second
farming revolution i.e, green revolution attracted the attention of farmers and scientists all over
the world. Introduction of high yielding cultivars combined with use of agrochemicals
(fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides) and adoption of land reforms made India self sufficient in
terms of food security. But, as we know, everything has its Pros and Cons, Green revolution also
left some limitations with us such as declined forest cover, soil degradation, resistant in plant to
herbicides, pest resurgence, ground water depletion, outbreak of diseases and other human
disorders. After green revolution, India entered a stagnation phase with reference to agricultural
production where no further addition of inputs like agrochemicals can increase the production
from exploited soils. The ongoing situation with additional duress emanating from population
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surges and climate change scenario is persuading Indian agriculture towards a third modern
farming revolution and precision farming is an important part of it. Precision farming can be
described as analogous to a pill taken to target an ailment as it works on a specific site for
specific crop and land suggesting a specific management practice. Soil of a single field on earth
is not homogeneous, it varies considerably creating heterogeneity in field. When the soil is not
even homogeneous throughout the field, how can one consider that a single practice or the same
doses of nutrients and other agrochemicals will be beneficial all over the field. It might create
nutrient deficiency at some spot and nutrient excess at some spot. Similarly, the drainage
coefficient and slope level also differs from spot to spot in a field. That’s why we need to take a
step towards site specific management for all the agricultural practices which is the pivotal idea
behind adoption of precision farming.
Concept of Precision farming
Precision farming is an idea of managing the agriculture by making use of inter and intra
field variability in fields after observing and measuring them and accordingly responding in a
well managed way. Precision farming uses system and holistic approach for the present
agricultural issues of balancing productivity with environmental concerns employing
implementation of advanced information technologies like GPS, GIS and provides a new
solution. It includes description and modelling of variation in plant species and soils emphasizing
integrated agricultural practices to attain the site-specific requirement, increase economic returns
and reduced energy input with lesser impact of agriculture on environment. Precision agriculture
is also called site specific crop management due to its spatial variability based crop management
feature. USDA elucidated it as “Precision agriculture, or site-specific crop management (SSM),
uses a variety of technologies such as sensing, information technologies, and mechanical systems
to manage different parts of a field separately”. Concept of precision farming using technology is
new but the precise management in a field can find its roots from the ancient agriculture. But the
faulty agricultural practices since the green revolution like adoption of generalized regional
recommendation in every field are in continuous use till now. Also, the recommendation to
farmers were given on per hectare basis such as for control of any insect or disease without
knowing the extent of the damage caused and the percentage of area affected. In this sense,
precision farming can be defined as sub-field crop management similar to traditional agricultural
practices in which small scale non-mechanized farming enables application of spatially variable
treatments in a single plot. It is the management strategy which employs detailed site specific
information to precisely regulate the use of production inputs. The close monitoring of land’s
characteristics and remote management of farming practices in-dispenses the use of smart
technologies involving data collection from satellites and drones. Precision farming is

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implementation of data sensors in field, in soils and on animals for real time data transmission
allowing cost effective and accurate means to predict as well as protect the growth of agricultural
crops.
Adoption of precision farming prerequisites the information on spatial variability in crop
conditions and soil fertility status. Space technology which involves GPS (global positioning
system) and GIS (global information system) accomplishes the need of deriving information
about variable soil and plant attributes (soil moisture, crop phonology, evapotranspiration,
nutrient deficiency, insect, disease and weed infestation); helping in optimizing inputs,
maximizing yield and income from a crop. Precision farming holds a good promise for small
farmers in developing countries as most of the agricultural inputs were not used efficiently in the
field. The substantial yield improvement with relatively less use of external inputs enabling
reduction in cost of production might improve their living status alongside protection of
environment from excess and unhealthier use of inputs. Precision farming assists a farmer in
improving his field or farm owing to agronomical, technical, environmental and economical
perspective. Agronomical perspective involves adjustment of cultural practices considering the
real demands and requirements of crop like better fertilization and water management. In
technical perspective, paramount importance is given to the time management which assists in
planning and execution of agricultural activities at the best time. Reduction of agricultural
impacts by reducing the wastage of energy and resources while protecting the surrounding is a
view of environmental perspective of precision farming. And, economical perspective includes
the increment in benefit cost ratio of a commodity and increased efficiency of resources attained
by the holistic management of farm in every perspective. Accomplishment of a single
perspective in precision farming can never result in the best output making the application of
system and holistic approach essential.
Principle of Precision farming
Precision farming lies on the foundation of managing a farm in correct manner according to
exigency of the crop and soil. The 5 R’s discussed under appropriately describe the nature and
extent of precision farming.
 Right input: Selection of the input which is required by the crop and soil is utmost
important. Without sorting the right input, it is not possible to follow the other R’s and it
alone leads us the half way. As we know, spatial variability exists in a field and the whole
field thus doesn’t require the same input. The right input vary from spot to spot in same
field.
 Right amount: After identification of the input which soil or crop in a farm requires, check
out the amount of input required. For example, if a crop requires nitrogen, it is crucial to

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know how much amount of nitrogen is required by the plant. It can be done by soil and plant
analysis using laboratory methods which, however is not possible for a farmer, they can take
advantage of remote sensing imagery which make use of absorbance, reflectance and
transmittance of radiations in different range like red, infrared to calculate indexes for
identification of stress type and its extent.
 Right place: Application of an input at a right place definitely makes a difference compared
to its application at some other place. In horticultural crops, it is often suggested to apply the
fertilizer a certain distance away from the crown in soil due to the fact that plant roots (site
of uptake of moisture and nutrients) are not present near the crown, they are widely spread
away from stem in search of moisture and nutrients.
 Right time: An input or a practice should be used when it results in maximum benefit until
and unless the crop or soil suffers a loss. Plants should be irrigated in the early morning or
evening and not in the afternoon due to increased evapo-transpiration and to preserve the
precious resource.
 Right manner: The best and correct way of applying an input should be first known to
avoid any loss to crop and wastage. For example, if crop requires nitrogen or potassium in
the late stage of its growth cycle, foliar application of the nutrient is beneficial as it will be
assimilated in the plant sap very fast compared to the uptake from soil.
Need of Precision farming in India
India is a developing country producing enough for its population and also exports food
grains, fruits and vegetables to foreign countries. This self sufficiency came from the green
revolution but still the highest yield of many major crops on a farm is much lesser than the
average production of crop in other high productive countries. India has not even achieved the
maximum potential yield of high yielding varieties which might be ascribed to the non-judicious
use of inputs and lack of technology in deciding and allocating the best practice use among
different fields and in the same field in accordance of spatial variability. Undoubtedly, green
revolution played a major role in development of India in terms of food security but it also had
many limitations such as loss of soil fertility, depletion of underground water resources and their
pollution, soil toxicity and erosion, higher incidence of diseases in human and livestock,
resistance in weeds, pest resurgence and global warming. Green revolution ensured the depletion
of natural resources, the extent of which is supplemented by the one per cent annual population
growth rate of India. In the light of the above points, two major areas necessitating the adoption
of precision farming in India are
 To overcome the fatigue of green revolution
 To reduce natural resource depletion

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Tools and components of Precision Farming

Precision farming basically relies on the interaction among three broad and cardinal
components which are information or database, technology and management. Further details of
these components are described as under:
1. Database: Crops and soils both vary spatially and temporally under field conditions.
Detailed information on soil, crop and climate properties is necessary to develop database
for realization of the full potential of precision farming. The entire crop yield monitoring is
of paramount importance and acts like a starting point for precision farming as it gives
farmers to look upon their practices and a desire to rectify them. Second database results
from the detailed analysis of soil through regular sampling. Precision farming involves the
decision making process about the sampling process with regards to number and timing of
samples and what properties to be studied. Database is prepared using the following
properties (Mandal and Maity, 2013; Ge et al., 2011) :
Table 1: Various sampling elements used in database formation
Sr. Sampling Properties of sampling element
No. element
1. Soil Physical condition of soil, Soil texture, Soil structure, Soil
moisture, Organic and inorganic carbon content, Macro and
micro nutrients, Cation exchange capacity (CEC), electrical
conductivity (EC) and pH
2. Crop Crop type, Plant population, Crop stress (extent and potent
areas), Nutrient content in leaves (deficit or excess), Weed
patches (Type and intensity), Insect and disease infestation
(species and intensity), Crop yield, Harvest swath width
3. Climate Temperature, Humidity, Rainfall, Solar radiation, Wind
velocity, In-fields variability (Spatially or temporally)
2. Technology: Success in adoption of precision farming is achieved with the help of recent
advances in information technology and space technologies which provided new tools for
assessing soil and crop related variables and monitoring yields. The component technology
of precision farming system involves a number of sub components which came into action
one after another fulfilling the objective of the study. While analyzing soil and plant
characteristics, GPS (Global Positioning System) is used for identification of location from
where the data is recorded. Next sub-component after collection of data which helps in
organisation of data into usable forms like different layers of field maps (raster and vector
data form) is GIS (Geographical Information System). Remote sensing allows identification
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of stress, pest and disease incidence in plants and variables in soil. Precision farming doesn’t
ends here, it also includes the application of variable rate of inputs in real-time based on the
requirements using variable rate technology (VRT). The various sub components of
technology including a vast array of hardware, software and equipments are discussed
hereby:
a) Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS is defined as navigation system based on the
network of satellites which helps user in recording positional information with accuracy of
100 to 0.01m (Lang, 1992). GPS works as an automatic controlling system with the help of
antenna, receiver and DGPS (Differential Global Positioning System- the light or sound
guiding panel). Signals broadcasted by GPS satellites are used by GPS receivers to calculate
their position. GPS system allows farmers to reliably find the accurate locations where they
need to apply the right amount of right nutrient in the right manner. GPS provides
instantaneous and continuous information of position, in real time, while in motion. GPS
receivers either carried to the field or are mounted on the instruments which provides precise
location information and DGPS is a technique of improving GPS accuracy by using pseudo
range errors at a known location to improve measurements made by other receivers. DGPS
is necessary for accurate measurements which are required for comparing location of soil
sample and their analysis to soil maps, fertilizer and pesticide recommendations to fit soil
properties and conditions like clay content, organic matter content, relief and drainage. Also,
DGPS aids in monitoring and recording yield data as well as making tillage adjustments
(both vary across the field).
b) Geographical Information System (GIS): GIS allows presentation of spatial data in the
form of maps and is used in agriculture to store, retrieve, analyze data and maps. GIS helps
producer in comparing various types of agricultural data, finding relationship between and
within different types of datasets and visualizing, interpreting and presenting the analyzed
results in form of maps and charts. Digital maps thus formed includes information and
features interrelated with time and coordinates. GIS data can also be used to evaluate current
and alternative management practices by combining and manipulating data layers.
c) Sensor technologies- Remote sensing: Sensor based technologies are used to measure
humidity, temperature, vegetation type, texture, structure, nutrient level etc. One such
technology is remote sensing which collects the information about an object or character on
soil surface without coming directly in the contact with earth surface by using sensors
present on satellites. Data collected in the form of images with the help of these sensors have
capabilities for manipulation, analysis and visualization. Incorporation of remote sensing

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imagery with GIS allows gathering of data even from remote areas and collects data from a
very wide area in small time.
d) Grid soil sampling and variable rate technology: Grid soil sampling uses the same
principles as normal soil sampling does, the only difference is the intensity of sampling
which is higher in grid soil sampling. In systematic grid sampling, soil samples also have the
location information allowing data mapping. An application map is prepared using all the
samples from grid soil sampling and loaded in the computer connected with variable rate
applicator. Variable rate applicator involves the use of automatically managed variable rate
technologies (VRT) which set the delivery rate of farm inputs in accordance of soil types
noted in a soil map.
Computer connected with variable rate applicator uses the application map and GPS
receiver directs product delivery controller which changes the kind and amount of an input based
on the application map prepared using grid soil sampling data.
3. Management: The next key area in precision farming is to combine the data generated with
the existing technology is to result in a comprehensive and operational system. A farmer
should adopt new levels of efficient management on the farm.
Methods of Precision farming
Precision farming involves application of two types of methodologies i.e., map based and
sensor based. Each methodology has their own goodness and benefits and also, both can be used
together in a complementary manner. Map based methodology uses grid sampling in a field
whereas sensor based methodology utilizes real time sensor and feedback control. Table 2 given
below displays the differences in both the methods and their comparative advantage.
Table 2: Comparison of map based and sensor based methods of precision farming

Sr. No. Map based Sensor based

1. Use of grid sampling, lab analysis and Use of real time sensors
site specific maps
2. Application of GPS/DGPS compulsory Not necessarily required
3. More time consumption Less time required
4. High cost of soil testing and analysis are Lack of sufficient sensors for recording
some limitations information about plant and soil
5. Sampling units are generally 2 to 3 acres Easy detection of individual spot
6. Highly adopted in developing countries More adoption in developed countries
7. Operations are quite difficult and require Operations are comparatively easy with
skills technological skill requirement

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Steps in Precision Farming
1. Characterization and interpretation: Identification and assessment of variability in soil, yield
and in season crop conditions using grid soil sampling, yield maps and crop scouting,
respectively. Crop scouting results in later stages can also be used to explain the reason of
yield variability in field.
2. Management and monitoring: Field variability should be managed after yield monitoring,
mapping and quantification using variable rate application and make farm flexible to adapt to
new cultural and technological changes based on continuous monitoring of outcomes.
Conventional practice v/s Precision farming
Farming practices adopted during green revolution are still in operation and followed by
farmers without knowing their shortcoming. Apart from being convenient and handy,
conventional practice reduces resource use efficiency and increases their wastage, these
limitations now need to be pulled out of the use and replaced with the modern technology
applications. Comparison between precision and traditional conventional farming discussed
hereby showcases the benefits of precision farming over conventional farming. Demand and
field variability based fertilizer application in precision farming at variable rates compared to
blanket application followed in conventional farming allows the high fertilizer use efficiency
limiting nutrient fixation and run-off, thus preventing pollution of streams, rivers and soils. Early
detection of plant stress caused by biotic and abiotic factors permits their control before crop
suffers severe damage improving yield and productivity. Precision farming increases water use
efficiency with modern technology application derived from real time plant water status and soil
moisture data obtained with remote sensing compared to injudicious water use based on
presumptions of farmers emanating from the recommended number of irrigation and critical
stages suggested in package of practice of a crop. Precision farming ensures rectification of
degraded soil, enhanced quality of produce with reduced cost of cultivation changing the
socioeconomic status of farmers encouraging favourable attitude development towards modern
technology adoption. Also, precision farming holds utmost significance in climate smart
agriculture. The key benefit of Precision farming includes:
1. Decision accuracy
2. Advancement in agriculture
3. Software based suitable planning
4. Weather prediction
5. Easy marketing of good quality produce with technology advancement

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Economic feasibility of Precision farming in Indian agriculture

Technological application in Indian agriculture are presently at infant stage and the high
prices of equipment and services are hard to pin down affecting the adoption of precision
farming at ground level. Most of the farmers are under delusion that without these most
advanced and costly equipments, precision farming is not possible. Study conducted by Shruthi
et al. (2017) and Shruthi et al. (2018) in paddy fields showed positive NPV (Net Present Value)
and high benefit cost ratio without the use of high cost equipments like yield monitors. Farmers
can start precision farming on their farm with low cost technologies and management practices
like levelling, grid making, soil analysis etc. Equipments are not affordable in Indian farming on
individual basis, but on cooperative and collaborative basis, farmers can easily adopt precision
farming. Precision farming cut-off the extra cost incurred due to blanket application of fertilizers,
pesticides which indirectly helps in reducing the weed density and growth improving crop yield
and reduces herbicide need and labour costs for their management. In similar way, laser land
levelling reduces extra cost incurred on tillage practices to manage water flow in the field to
avoid situation of waterlogging and allowing easy drainage with approximately increasing
cultivated land area by 3-5 percent and water application efficiency. Improved soil moisture
distribution, water saving and water use efficiency with reduced depth of applied water and time
consumed for irrigation were observed with laser land leveller compared to conventional in
sorghum field at Navsari, India with increased grain yield (Kumari et al., 2022). High benefit
cost ratio, yield and water use efficiency achieved with laser levelling in rice and wheat
compared to unlevelled field and traditional levelling showcases the benefits a farmer can have
after the application of precision farming (Naresh et al., 2014). Application of precision farming
on farm thus increases productivity per rupee spent making its adoption economically viable.
Constraints in adoption of Precision farming in India
1. Culture and perception of farmers- lack of awareness, rigidity to change, influence of people
2. Land fragmentation i.e., small land holding of a farmer
3. Quality and high cost of equipments
4. Knowledge and technical gaps
5. Less exposure of farmers to success stories
6. Complexity in technology usage- availability and accessibility
7. Heterogeneity of cropping system and market imperfections
8. Lack of information about government initiatives like subsidies
Successful examples of Precision farming in India
 Tata Kisan Kendra (TKK): TKK was a Tata Group initiative under the aegis of Tata
Chemicals (TCL) using technological advances to solve India's social and economic

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problems. The Kendras give farmers information about crop health, pest attack and covers
various crops predicting their final output. Also, they help farmers with finance by providing
credit, insuring their crops against natural disasters (Agropedia, 2012).
 Tamilnadu Precision Farming Project: The project TNPFP was first implemented in 2004-05
at Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts in Tamilnadu, which suffered from water scarcity
and traditional farming practices were followed by farmers. The 400 hectare area was
covered under project with main focus area to increase yield by 40-60 percent and effective
market linkage. Key technology used were Remote sensing, Chisel plough, Hi-tech
community nursery, drip and fertigation system, growing crops and growing with crops,
market support with benefits like 30 percent premium price in market, less labour
dependence and 30-40 percent more water economy (Anonymous, 2022).
 Precision Agriculture Development (PAD): PAD is a non-profit organization with a mission
to help and support small farmers in developing countries by giving customized information
and services to them for increasing productivity, profitability and environmental
sustainability. The programme started as a small pilot project in Gujarat for serving about
10000 farmers on cotton crop. Developed in six states at present to encompass five
initiatives on 24 crops and litany of pests and diseases. Initiatives started by PAD are Ama
Krushi in collaboration with the Department of Agriculture and Farmer’s Empowerment,
Govt. of Odisha (2018), Coffee Krishi Taranga in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu in
collaboration with the Coffee Board of India (July 2018), Krishi Katha in collaboration with
the West Bengal Accelerated Development of Minor Irrigation Project (July 2019), Project
HARIT (Harnessing the power of Agricultural Residues through Innovative Technologies)
in Punjab and Haryana (2018) in collaboration with The Nature Conservancy (TNC), the
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and the Borlaug Institute of
South Asia (BISA); and Krishi Tarang in Gujarat.
Policy approach to promote precision farming at farm level
1. Identification of niche areas for promoting crop specific precision farming
2. To study the overall scope of precision agriculture, multidisciplinary teams should be
created
3. Complete backup support to farmers must be provided to develop models which can be later
replicated on a large scale
4. Pilot study on farmers field should be conducted to check out the result of precision
agriculture implementation
5. Awareness creation among farmers about the consequences of usage of imbalanced doses of
farm inputs

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Future prospects and scope for precision farming in India

Precision farming is a proven technology but its adoption is still limited to developed
countries. Major problem encountered in India is small farm holding size as more than 57.8
percent of operational holdings are lesser than one hectare. In north-western states, which are
highly productive and vast areas under the same crop suggesting the consideration of contiguous
fields as a single field for implementation of precision farming for major food grain crops and
high value horticultural crops. All the farms are not suitable for adopting all the elements of
precision farming, it varies from field to field creating an opportunity for Indian farmers to adopt
precision farming based on their requirement. Government is providing subsidies and also
intimating the benefits of precision farming to every corner of the country; and the effective
coordination among public and private sector is strengthening the adoption and implementation
of precision farming to achieve fruitful success. Precision farming in near future is seen as an
important factor to transform the green revolution in evergreen revolution. Precision farming is
also important for increasing economic returns and reducing the energy input thus, helping the
environment to sustain its health.
References:
Agropedia (2012). Some successful examples of private sector initiative in Uttarakhand (PartIII)
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/?q=node/4550
Anonymous (2022). https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/pf_operational_guidelines.pdf
Belal, A.A., EL-Ramady, H., Jalhoum, M., Gad, A. and Mohamed, E.S. (2021). Precision
Farming Technologies to Increase Soil and Crop Productivity. In Agro-Environmental
Sustainability in MENA Regions (pp. 117-154). Springer, Cham.
Ge, Y., Thomasson, J.A. and Sui, R. (2011). Remote sensing of soil properties in precision
agriculture: A review. Frontiers of Earth Science. 5(3): 229-238.
Hakkim, V.A., Joseph, E.A., Gokul, A.A. and Mufeedha, K. (2016). Precision farming: the
future of Indian agriculture. Journal of Applied Biology and Biotechnology. 4(6): 0-7.
https://krishi.icar.gov.in/jspui/bitstream/123456789/33996/1/Precision%20Agriculture%20in%2
0Ind a%20Opportunities%20and%20Challenges.pdf
Katke, K. (2019). Precision agriculture adoption: Challenges of Indian agriculture. International
Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews. 6(1): 863-869.
Kumari, R., Kumari, P., Vadaviya, O., Singh, M., Sharma, V.K., Pandey, P. and Sharma, B.
(2022). Influence of land leveling and planting pattern on productivity, water use
efficiency and economic of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). Annals of Plant and Soil
Research. 24(1): 177-181.
Krishna, K.R. (2013). Precision farming: soil fertility and productivity aspects. CRC Press.

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Lang, L. (1992). GPS, GIS, remote sensing: An overview. Earth Observation Magazine. 23-26.
Mandal, S.K. and Maity, A. (2013). Precision farming for small agricultural farm: Indian
scenario. American Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 3(1): 200.
Naresh, R.K., Singh, S.P., Misra, A.K., Tomar, S.S., Kumar, P., Kumar, V. and Kumar,
S. (2014). Evaluation of the laser leveled land leveling technology on crop yield and
water use productivity in Western Uttar Pradesh. African Journal of Agricultural
Research. 9(4): 473– 478.
Patil, V.C. and Shanwad, U.K. (2009). Relevance of precision farming to Indian agriculture.
In Second national conference on agro-informatics and precision farming.
Precision Farming - India Development Gateway (2012) Available:
http://www.indg.in/agriculture/agricultural-best-practices/precision-farming
Roy, T. and George K, J. (2020). Precision farming: A step towards sustainable, climate-smart
agriculture. In Global Climate Change: Resilient and Smart Agriculture. 199-220.
Springer,Singapore.
Shruthi, K., Hiremath, G.M. and Joshi, A.T. (2017). Financial Feasibility of Precision Farming in
Paddy-A Case Study. Current Agriculture Research Journal. 5(3): 318-324.
Shruthi, K., Hiremath, G.M. and Joshi, A.T. (2018). An overview of use of precision farming
technologies by the farmers-A case study of North Eastern Karnataka. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Research. 52(1): 93-96.

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FORECASTING OF AREA, YIELD ANḌ PRODUCTION OF NIGER IN OḌISHA

Gourav Sahu, Abhiram Dash, Akhilesh Kumar Gupta and Manoranjan Sen
Department of Agricultural Statistics,
College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar
*Corresponding author E-mail: abhidash2stat@gmail.com

Abstract:
The state of Odisha is one of the highest producer of Niger seeds in India. Niger
(Guizotia Abyssinica) is mainly grown as kharif crops, whereas in Odisha, it is grown as Rabi
crop. Varieties like GA-10, Utkal Niger-150 are generally grown in the state. It has yield
potential of 800-1000kg/ha under optimum growing conditions. Forecasting of Niger production
is of utmost importance for the agri-planners for making policies regarding package of practices
of the nige rcrop. The present research is carried out on forecasting area, yield and production of
Niger in Odisha by using ARIMA model.
ARIMA, the most widely used model for forecasting is used in the study. The data on
area, yield and production of Niger are collected from 1970-71 to 2019-20 are used to fit the
models found suitable from ACF and PACF plots. The ACF and PACF plots are obtained from
stationarized data. The best fit model is selected on basis of significance of estimated
coefficients, model diagnostic tests and model fit statistics. The selected best fit model is cross
validated by refitting the model by leaving last 5 years, 4years, up to last 1 year data and
obtaining one step ahead forecast for the years 2015-16 to 2019-20. After successful cross
validation the selected best fit model is used for forecasting the area, yield and production of
Niger in Odisha for the future years 2020-21, 2021-22, 2022-23.
The ARIMA model found to be best fit for area, yield and production of Niger are
ARIMA(0,2,2), ARIMA(1,1,0), ARIMA(1,1,0) respectively. All these selected models are fitted
without constant as the constant term is insignificant for all these cases. The forecasted values for
area under Niger is found to increase in the future years which is responsible for increase in
forecasted values of future production despite the yield remaining stagnant for future years.
Key words: ARIMA, cross validation, forecast, model diagnostics, model fit statistics,
Introduction:
Oilseeds occupy an important position in the agrarian economy of India. Oilseeds
constitute a very important group of commercial crops in India. In India, Niger is grown on an
area of 2.61 lakh ha mainly during kharif. However, in Odisha it is a Rabi crop.

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In Odisha, major oilseed crops like ground nut, sesamum, sunflower, mustard, while
Niger also constituting a part of oilseed crop production by covering about 19 per cent and 7.5
percent of total area and production of oilseeds respectively. Koraput and Nabarangpur districts
are now leading in Niger production in the state followed by Kalahandi, Keonjhar, Ganjam,
Rayagada, Kandhamal. Niger is important in terms of its 32 to 40 per cent content of quality oil
with 18 to 24 per cent protein in the seed. Niger oil is slow drying, used in food, paint, soap, and
as an illuminant. It has an advantage of yielding oil and has good degree of tolerance to insect
pests, diseases and attack of wild animals. There is less production of Niger crop in Odisha. It
grows successfully without chemicals. So it is the need of forecasting the area where it can be
grown, yield adequately & produce enough to meet the reqiurement. The main purpose of crop
forecasting is to provide advance information on food crop production and food supply in the
state. Forecasting cropping area that may be used under cultivation will help various stake
holders to make policies on available land use and further food production capacity.
Various studies have been found under this area of research. Horie et al. (1992) studied
on importance of yield forecasting of agricultural crops. Badmus et al. (2011) studied on
forecasting the cultivated area and production of maize in Nigeria using ARIMA model. Zakari
et al. (2012) forecasted Niger grain production and harvested area to help government for
making policies with regard to relative price structure, production and consumption. Chinmayee
et al. (2020) studied on the trend of jute production, area & yield in India for the period starting
from 1950 to 2017 using ARIMA model.
Materials and Methods:
The secondary data on area, yield and production of Niger are collected for the state of
Odisha (kharif and rabi seasons combined) for the period 1970-71 to 2019-20 from Five Decades of
Odisha Agriculture Statistics published by Directorate of Agriculture and Food Production, Odisha.
An Autoregressive Integrated moving Average is a statistical model which is used to
predict the future trends. The ARMA models, which includes the order of differencing (which is
to stationarize the data) is known as Autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA)
models. A non-seasonal ARIMA model is classified as an "ARIMA (p,d,q)" model, where, the
parameters p,d,q are the non-negative integers where p is the number of autoregressive terms,
d is the number of nonseasonal differences necessary for stationarizing the data, and q is the
number of moving average terms. Thus, the ARIMA (p,d,q) model can be represented y the
following general forecasting equation:
𝑝 𝑞

𝑌𝑡 = 𝜇 + ∑ ɸ𝑖 𝑌𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝜃𝑗 𝜀𝑡−𝑗 + 𝜀𝑡
𝑖=1 𝑗=1

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Where 𝜇 is a mean, ɸ1 , ɸ2 , … . . ɸ𝑝 and 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 , … … 𝜃𝑗 are the parameters of the model, p is

the order of the autoregressive term, q is the order of the moving average term, and 𝜀𝑡
, 𝜀𝑡−1 , . . 𝜀𝑡−𝑗 are noise error terms.
Model identification:
The ARIMA model is fitted to stationary data i.e. having constant mean and variance.
Staionarity of data can be tested by using Augmented Dickey-Fuller test. If it is not stationary
then it should be converted into stationary series by differencing the data at suitable lag. Usually,
the data is stationarized after 1 or 2 differencing. After stationarizing the data, the Auto
Correlation Function (ACF) and Partial Auto Correlation Function (PACF) plots are used to
identify tentative Auto Regression (AR) and Moving Average (MA) orders. Various tentative
models based on identified AR and MA orders are fitted and parameters are estimated. After
fitting the tentative models for a variable (area/yield/production) the estimated coefficients are
tested for the significance and the normality and independency of the residuals of the fitted
models are checked by using Shapiro-Wilk’s test statistic and Box-Ljung test statistic
respectively. The models having all the estimated coefficients significant and satisfying the
normality and independency of the errors are now compared on the basis of model fit statistics
like mean absolute percentage error (MAPE), root mean square error (RMSE) and Akaike’s
Information criteria corrected (AICc). Then the model having the lowest value of these model fit
statistics is considered to be the best fit model for the variable.
The model fit statistics like MAPE, RMSE and AICc are mathematically as follows:
100 𝑦𝑡 −𝑦̂𝑡
Mean absolute percentage error: ∑𝑛𝑡=1 | |
𝑛 𝑦𝑡

∑𝑛 ̂𝑡 −𝑦𝑡 )2
𝑇=1(𝑦
Root mean square error (RMSE): √ 𝑛

where 𝑦̂𝑡 = forecasted value, 𝑦𝑡 = actual value and n = number of times the summation iteration
happens
2𝐾2 +2𝐾
Akaike’s information criteria corrected: AIC + 𝑛−𝑘−1
Where AIC is the Akaike’s Information criteria, k denotes the number of parameters and
n denotes the sample size.
The model with lowest RMSE, MAPE and AICc values is selected as the best fit ARIMA
model among selected tentative models and it is taken for forecasting.
Results and Discussion:
The data on area, yield and production of Niger crop was tested for the presence of
stationarity by using Augmented Dickey Fuller test and the results are presented in table -1. The

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test results confirmed that the data was not stationary and made stationary by differencing at lag
2.
Table 1: Test of stationarity of data on area, yield and production of Niger in Odisha
Variable Original series First order Second order
differenced series differenced series
ADF test P value ADF test P value ADF test P value
statistic statistic statistic
Area -2.1488 0.5146 -2.224 0.08 -2.444 0.02
Yield -2.0602 0.5502 -4.105 0.012
Production -1.8503 0.6343 -4.141 0.01115

In the next step the order of AR and MA terms such as p and q were identified using the
ACF and PACF plots shown in figures 1, 2 and 3. Different tentative models were identified
using the orders of AR and MA terms.

Figure 1: ACF and PACF plot of second order difference of area under Niger

Figure 2: ACF and PACF plot of first order difference of yield of Niger

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Figure 3: ACF and PACF plot of first order difference of production of Niger

The tentative models of area and their estimated coefficients along with error measures
are shown in the table-2. The study of the table reveals that ARIMA(0,2,2) without constant
model has all the estimated coefficients significant.
Table 2: Parameter estimates of the ARIMA (p,d,q) model fitted to area under Niger in
Odisha.
ARIMA(p,d,q) Constant ɸ1 ɸ2 ɸ3 θ1 θ2 θ3
** **
0,2,3 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1.6495 0.9249 0.1801
(0.1452) (0.2678) (0.1636)
1,2,2 ---- 0.2315 ---- ---- 1.4141** 0.5346** ----
(0.2049) (0.1873) (0.1699)
0,2,2 ---- ---- ---- ---- 1.5782** 0.6805** ----
(0.1289) (0.1184)
3,2,1 ---- 0.8682** 0.5138 0.2358 0.7635** ---- ----
(0.1645) (0.2067) (0.1538) (0.1083)
2,2,2 ---- 0.1432 0.2534 ---- 1.8076** 0.8916** ----
(0.2096) (0.1708) (0.1960) (0.2028)
Figure inside the parentheses represents the standard error of thr parametric estimators, ‘*’- at
5% significance level, ‘**’- at 1% significance level

Table 3 shows the model diagnostics test and model fit statistics for the fitted ARIMA
models. ARIMA (0,2,2) model satisfies both the test of normality and independency of residuals.
The RMSE, MAPE and AICc are less for ARIMA (0,2,2) without constant model. Thus, this
model is selected to be the best fit model for production of Niger crop. Figure 4 also shows that

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none of the autocorrelations and partial autocorrelations of residuals are significant. This furthers
confirms the selection of the respective best fit models.
Table 3: Model fit statistics of the ARIMA (p,d,q) model fitted to area under Niger in Odisha
ARIMA(p,d,q) Shapiro-wilk test Box Ljung test AICc RMSE MAPE
W p-value x-squared p-value
0,2,3 0.87471 7.761e-05 0.01589 0.8997 433.57 19.121 9.409
1,2,2 0.87148 6.23e-05 0.022257 0.8814 433.63 19.125 9.452
0,2,2 0.85847 2.645e-05 0.5025 0.4784 432.28 19.301 9.426
3,2,1 0.88737 0.0001887 0.057101 0.8111 436.02 19.115 9.359
2,2,2 0.89223 0.0002687 0.050938 0.8214 436.01 18.876 9.477
W - Shapiro-wilk test statistic x-squared - Box – Pierce test statistic

Figure 4: ACF and PACF of residuals from selected ARIMA (0,2,2) model for area under
Niger
The tentative ARIMA models of yield and their estimated coefficients along with error
measures are shown in the table 4. The study of the table reveals that ARIMA (1,1,0) with and
without constant model has all the estimated coefficients significant.
Table 5 shows the model diagnostics test and model fit statistics for the fitted ARIMA
models for yield of Niger. ARIMA (1,1,0) without constant model satisfies both the test of
normality and independency of residuals. The RMSE, MAPE and AICc are less for ARIMA
(1,1,0) without constant model. Thus, this model is selected to be the best fit model for
production of horse gram crop. Figure 5 also shows that none of the autocorrelations and partial
autocorrelations of residuals are significant. This furthers confirms the selection of the respective
best fit models.

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Table 4: Parameter estimators of the ARIMA (p,d,q) model fitted to yield of Niger for Odisha
ARIMA(p,d,q) Constant ɸ1 ɸ2 ɸ3 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
1,1,0 ---- 0.4909** ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
(0.1220)
2,1,0 ---- 0.4164** 0.1482 ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
(0.1392) (0.1397)
1,1,1 ---- 0.7084** ---- ---- 0.2938 ---- ---- ----
(0.1763) (0.2356)
0,1,4 ---- ---- ---- ---- 0.5241** 0.3297* 0.1086 0.3874**
(0.1379) (0.1667) (0.1553) (0.1229)
1,1,0 2.0870 0.4936** ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
(4.3643) (0.1218)
Figure inside the parentheses represents the standard error of thr parametric estimators,
‘*’- at 5% significance level, ‘**’- at 1% significance level

Table -5: Model fit statistics of the ARIMA (p,d,q) model fitted to yield of Niger in Odisha
ARIMA(p,d,q) Shapiro-wilk test Box Ljung test AICc RMSE MAPE
W p-value x-squared p-value
1,1,0 0.944 0.02 0.195 0.658 517.57 44.97 9.819
1,1,0(C) 0.945 0.021 0.215 0.6421 519.62 44.864 9.94
2,1,0 0.952 0.043 0.0006 0.9793 518.73 44.444 9.475
1,1,1 0.952 0.042 0.002 0.962 518.64 44.402 9.455
0,1,4 0.949 0.031 0.047 0.826 519.91 42.456 8.91
W - Shapiro-wilk test statistic x-squared - Box – Pierce test statistic

Figure 5: ACF and PACF of residuals from selected ARIMA (0,1,1) model for yield of
Niger

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The tentative models of production and their estimated coefficients along with error
measures are shown in the table 6. The study of the table reveals that ARIMA (0,1,1), ARIMA
(1,1,0) without constant and (1,1,0) with constant model has all the estimated coefficients
significant.
Table 6: Parameter estimators of the ARIMA (p,d,q) model fitted to Production of Niger for
Odisha
ARIMA(p,d,q) Constant ɸ1 ɸ2 ɸ3 θ1 θ2 θ3
1,1,0 ---- 0.4169** ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
(0.1276)
0,1,2 ---- ---- ---- ---- 0.4348** 0.1982 ----
(0.1413) (0.1239)
0,1,1 ---- ---- ---- ---- 0.3424** ---- ----
(0.1085)
2,1,0 ---- 0.421** 0.0094 ---- ---- ---- ----
(0.1414) (0.1402)
1,1,0 0.3229 0.4177** ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
(1.1714) (0.1276)
Figure inside the parentheses represents the standard error of the parametric estimates,
‘*’- at 5% significance level, ‘**’- at 1% significance level

Table 7 shows the model fit statistics and model diagnostics test for the fitted ARIMA
models for production of Niger. ARIMA (1,1,0) without constant model satisfies both the test of
normality and independency of residuals and also having least AICc value. The RMSE, MAPE
and AICc are less for ARIMA (1,1,0) without constant model. Thus, this model is selected to be
the best fit model for production of Niger crop. Figure 6 also shows that none of the
autocorrelations and partial autocorrelations of residuals are significant. This furthers confirms
the selection of the respective best fit models.
Table 7: Model fit statistics of the ARIMA (p,d,q) model fitted to production of Niger for Odisha
ARIMA(p,d,q) Shapiro-wilk test Box Ljung test AICc RMSE MAPE
W p-value x-squared p-value
1,1,0 0.908 0.0009 0.009 0.92 383.39 11.447 15.988
0,1,2 0.911 0.001 0.0005 0.981 38514 11.382 15.75
0,1,1 0.906 0.0007 0.398 0.527 385.17 11.664 16.113
1,1,0 0.908 0.0009 0.008 0.926 385.6 11.438 15.648
2,1,0 0.909 0.0009 0.004 0.948 385.67 11.446 16.005
W - Shapiro-wilk test statistic x-squared - Box – Pierce test statistic
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Figure 6: ACF and PACF of residuals from selected ARIMA (0,1,1) model for Production
of Niger
In the table 8, the result of cross validation of the selected best fit ARIMA model by one-step
ahead forecasting has been presented. The APE (absolute percentage error) of area under Niger
is found to be in the range between 4 to 11 and the MAPE(mean APE) is found to be 10.205 for
area of Niger crop. Similarly for yield the APE range is found between 0.nd 4 and MAPE is
1.982 and for production, APE range is between 3.6 and 13.6 and MAPE is 6.308. These results
show that the selected ARIMA models are successfully cross validated.
Table 8: Cross validation of selected ARIMA models for area, yield and production of
Niger in Odisha
Area Yield Production
Year
Actual Predicted APE Actual Predicted APE Actual Predicted APE
2015-
63.93 66.88 4.614 352.72 360.61 2.2369 22.55 24.25 7.539
16
2016-
63.75 55.72 12.596 355.45 357.27 0.512 22.66 23.54 3.883
17
2017-
59.2 63.84 7.838 368.41 354.11 3.8815 21.81 22.61 3.668
18
2018-
53.18 61.47 15.589 366.86 362.05 1.3111 19.51 22.16 13.583
19
2019-
53.04 47.53 10.388 375 367.62 1.968 19.89 20.46 2.866
20
MAPE 10.205 1.982 6.308

The appropriate ARIMA models which are represented in the previous tables were used
to forecast the area, yield and production of Niger crop in Odisha for the years 2020-21, 2021-22
and 2022-23.
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Table 9: Forecast values of Niger in Odisha for the year 2020-21 to 2022-23
Area (‘000ha) Yield (kg/ha) Production (‘000 tonnes)
95 % 95 %
95 % confidence
confidence confidence
Year Forecast Forecast Forecast interval
interval interval
value value value
Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper
CI CI CI CI CI CI
2020-21 45.76 6.32 85.2 369 281.05 460.97 19.73 3.167 42.63
2021-22 42.22 -0.58 85.03 371 272.02 473.91 19.79 6.71 46.3
2022-23 38.7 -8.84 86.22 372 250.6 493.43 19.77 11.9 51.44
CI – Class Interval

Figures 7, 8 and 9 shows the actual, fitted and forecast values of area, yield and
production of Niger in Odisha.

Figure 7: Actual with fitted and forecasted values of area under Niger from ARIMA(0,2,2)
without constant model

Figure 8: Actual with fitted and forecasted values of yield under Niger from ARIMA(1,1,0)
without constant model
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Figure 9: Actual with fitted and forecasted values of production under Niger from
ARIMA(1,1,0) without constant model

Conclusion:
ARIMA (0,2,2) without constant model, ARIMA (1,1,0) without constant model and
ARIMA (1,1,0) without constant model are found to be the best fit model for area, yield and
production of Niger in Odisha. These selected models are used for forecasting of area, yield and
production of Niger in Odisha. The forecast values shows that area under Niger is likely to
decrease in future years, whereas, yield is likely to increase due to which the production of Niger
in Odisha remain stagnant in future years with variation in lower and upper class interval of the
forecast values.
References:
Badmus M.A. and Ariyo O.S. 2011. “Forecasting Cultivated Areas and Production of Maize in
Nigerian using ARIMA Model”. Asian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 3(3): 171-176,
Horie T., Yajima M., and Nakagawa H. 1992. “Yield Forecasting”. Division of Meteorology.
National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, 40: 211-236
Patra C., Gupta A.K. and Kumar R.R. 2020. “Forecasting of area, production and yield of jute
crop in India using ARIMA model”. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(2):
201-207
Zakari S. and Ying L. 2012. “Forecasting of Niger Grain Production and Harvested Area” Asian
Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4(4): 308-313.

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BIOCHAR: A VALUABLE SOIL AMENDMENT

Prashun Sachan*1, Kritagya Gangwar2, Drishty Katiyar1,
Rahul Dev Behera3, Prasun Sachan4 and S. B. Pandey1
1Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, C.S Azad University of Agriculture
and Technology, Kanpur 208002, Uttar Pradesh, India
2Division of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, ICAR-IARI New Delhi 110012
3Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bolangir, Odisha – 767002
4Department of Agronomy, C.S Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur 208002, Uttar Pradesh, India
*Corresponding author E-mail - kushalsachan95@gmail.com

Abstract:
Soil mineral depletion is a major problem, mostly due to soil erosion and nutrient
leaching. Adding biochar is a solution as biochar has been proven to improve soil fertility,
promote plant growth, increase crop yield and reduce contamination. The effects of biochar on
soil health, including physical, chemical and biological parameters of soil quality and fertility,
nutrient leaching, salt stress, plant productivity and quality, and the effect of biochar on saline
and heavy metal contaminated soils were discussed with assistance from various literatures that
the soil is modified with biochar.
Biochar is the product of heating biomass in the absence or with limited air to over 250
°C, a process called carbonization or pyrolysis, also used to make charcoal. The material differs
from charcoal or other carbon (C) products in that it is intended for use as a soil application or
more A generally for environmental management in the current climate change scenario. Biochar
is made using a special process to reduce contamination and retain the carbon properly, although
it looks like regular charcoal. Organic materials such as wood chips, leaves, and dead plants are
burned during pyrolysis in a container with extremely little oxygen. When the materials are
incinerated, they emit very few polluting gases. The organic matter is converted into biochar
during the pyrolysis process, a stable form of carbon that cannot easily escape into the
atmosphere.
Biochar is black, very porous, lightweight, fine-grained, and has a huge surface area in
terms of physical characteristics.

 Carbon makes up over 70% of its composition. Nitrogen, hydrogen, and

 Oxygen, among other elements, makes up the remaining percentage.

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Definition According to the International Biochar Initiative (IBI), the most accepted and
standardized definition is “a solid material obtained from the thermochemical conversion of
biomass in an oxygen-limited environment” (IBI 2012).
Definition by Lehman and Co-workers: “Biochar is a porous, carbonaceous material that
is produced by pyrolysis of plant biomasses and is applied in such a way that the contained
carbon remains stored as a long-term C sink or replaces fossil carbon in industrial
manufacturing. It is not made to be burnt for energy generation”.
Nomenclature of biochar and related material in comparison to pyrogenic C structure
Biochar: Biochar is the solid product of pyrolysis evolved for environmental management. IBI
(2013) defines biochar as A solid material acquired by the thermochemical transformation of
biomass in an oxygen-limited environment. Biochar can be adopted as a product by itself or as
an ingredient in a blended product, with a scope of applications as a method of soil improvement,
improving resource adopt efficiency, remediation, and/or safety against particular pollution, and
as a pathway for greenhouse gas (GHG) abatement.
Hydrochar: Hydrochar is the solid product of hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) or liquefaction
(sometimes referred to as HTC material), and differs from biochar owing to its production
process and properties (Libra et al, 2011). It typically has higher H/C ratios and lower
aromaticity than biochar, and little or no fused aromatic ring structures.
Pyrogenic Carbonaceous Material (PCM): PCM is introduced here as the umbrella term for all
materials that have been fabricated by thermochemical transformation and encompass some
organic C, such as charcoal, biochar, char, black carbon, soot, and activated carbon. The term
refers to the material and not to the C atom.
Char: Char is described for the intent of this publication as the material produced by incomplete
combustion procedures that appear in natural and man-made fires.
Charcoal: Charcoal is fabricated by thermochemical transformation from biomass (mainly but
not exclus0ively wood) for energy generation. The term is sometimes exploited from the
perspective of other uses, e.g., medicine, filtration, separation, etc. If processed additional by any
form of activation, application of the term ‘activated carbon’ is proposed.
Biochar feedstocks and pyrolysis: A multitude of reviews and studies have focused on the
potential advantages of employing biochar as a soil amendment. Pyrolysis and gasification of
biomass are pioneered technologies for the production of biofuels and synthesis gas. However,
the commercial application of biochar as a soil conditioner is still in its infancy. The effect of
biochar as a soil improver on crop productivity is variable, mostly due to interactions and
algorithms involved in the application of biochar to a soil that is not yet fully understood.
Currently, Japan has the largest market for biochar products; approximately 15,000 tons/year are

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traded annually for land use. The pyrolysis procedure affects the quality of the biochar produced
and its potential value to agriculture in the terminology of soil performance or carbon
sequestration. The temperature and time that the biomass is in the pyrolysis furnace, together
with different types of raw materials, determine the type of product. Starting material and
procedure conditions influence the characteristics of the biochar produced. Thermal profile and
feed selection, as well as geographic discrepancies in soil type and climate, are some of the main
sources of variability when it comes to biochar benefits as soil improvement. Raw materials
currently used on a commercial scale or in research facilities include wood waste, crop residues
(including straw, nut shells, and rice husks), switchgrass, bagasse from the sugar cane industry,
chicken manure, dairy fertilizer, sewage sludge, and paper sludge. Biomass energy crops
processed through slow pyrolyses, such as grain and wood, along with agricultural waste,
including wheat straw and peanut shells, yield a char suitable for soil amendment. Green waste
such as plant clippings and grass clippings as well as sewage sludge were also used as soil
improvers.

Source-https://nfs.unl.edu/about-biochar

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Table 1: Application of biochar and soil response

Plant Type Source Rate of Influences on Soil Reference
of Application Parameters
Biochar
Vertisol Sorghum Acacia 10 Mg ha-1 High soil C, Deng et al.
silt loam exchangeable K , Ca2+ (2017)
+

and CEC
Sandy Wheat and Biochar 5–20 Mg ha-1 Decreased pH, bulk Mausa et al.
Loam maize density, soluble Na, (2017)
increased CEC, OM,
total N, available P, K,
Zn, Cu, and Fe in soil
Sandy Potato Mixture 5% (w/w) Decreased Na+/K+ ratio Akhtar et al.
loam (Solanum of (2015)
tuberosum L.) hardwood
Clay Maize Maize 10–30 Mg Increased available Xiao et al.
loam straw ha-1 P, K, total N (2016)
Aqui- Maize Wheat Wheat straw Decreased NaCl content Lashari et al.
Entisol straw in leaf, increased P and (2015)
K

Impact of biochar on soil properties

Soil physicochemical properties have a substantial effect on nutrient retention and uptake,
plant growth and productivity, and microbial activities. Studies have revealed that biochar can
improve soil physicochemical and biological properties and generate a suitable environment for
plant roots, nutrient uptake, and plant growth. Biochar application affects soil water infiltration,
WHC, aggregate stability, soil aeration and porosity, bulk density, soil hardening, pH, CEC, and
nutrient cycling, among others.
Impact of biochar on soil porosity
Porosity indicates the pore space between soil particles and affects soil aeration, nutrient
retention, and water movement within the soil. Porosity differs between different soil textures,
with clay soils having the highest porosity and sandy soils having the lowest. Biochar can
increase soil porosity by decreasing soil pack and bulk density and increasing soil aggregation.
The utilization of Zhang et al. (2017) with biochar increase capillary and total soil porosity by 23
and 24%, respectively, compared to unmodified soil (control). Studies illustrated that biochar did
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not soil porosity uniformly even when applied at the same rate, likely a consequence of
differences in soil type and soil texture classes in different studies. In general, coarse-grained
soils illustrate a substantial improvement in porosity after biochar application compared to fine-
grained soils.
Soil Water Holding Capacity (WHC)
Soil water retention or WHC indicates the maximum amount of water that a soil can
retain or hold. Several field studies have revealed that biochar application enhances soil water
retention by positively impacting soil porosity space between biochar particles and other soil
structural and structural properties. In addition to the porosity between biochar particles, biochar
particles also have an intrapore space (space within the particles) that provides further space for
water retention or storage. Soil water infiltration rate and moisture content heightened
significantly after biochar application. The amount of biochar applied also impacts the moisture
content of the soil. For example, Ndor et al. (2015) applied sawdust and rice husk biochar at 510
Mg ha-1 each and recorded a 10.8% increment in soil moisture content compared to no biochar
application.
Soil organic matter and soil organic carbon content
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a critical factor affecting soil health, microbial activity,
nutrient cycling, and water retention. Many studies have shown that biochar application can
increase soil C, improve WHC and increase aggregate formation and stability. However, these
reactions are highly dependent on the raw materials used, pyrolysis conditions and application
rates, and the soil types to which biochar is applied. Biochar supplementation increases soil
organic carbon (SOC), but like other physical and chemical parameters of soil quality, enhances
are strongly correlated to the sort of feedstock and the temperature exploited in the pyrolysis
process. Biochar produced at low pyrolysis temperature usually has a higher labile C content
than biochar produced at the higher temperature. According to Jiang et al. (2016), the addition of
biochar can alleviate native SOC degradation by adsorbing it on its surface. Thus, it can decrease
the amount of native SOC available for enzymatic degradation. However, easily degradable C
can detach from the surface of biochar and stimulate microbial activity.
Impact of biochar on soil bulk density
Soil bulk density is an indicator of soil health, compaction, and soil aeration, and affects
water infiltration, plant root depth, and nutrient movement. High bulk density trays have a lower
capacity than high bulk density trays. This can increase water absorption and cause high
resistance of plant roots to soil penetration. It is hypothesized that at least two mechanisms are
responsible for the reduction in soil bulk density after biochar application. First, the soil has a
higher bulk density (~1.25 g cm-3) than biochar (0.6 g cm-3). The utilization of biochar can

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reduce the bulk density of the soil through a dilution effect. Second, biochar can alleviate soil
bulk density in the long term, in part owing to the intricate interactions it makes with soil
particles that further enhance soil aggregation and porosity.
Impact of biochar on soil pH
Soil pH affects the mobility and accessibility of different nutrients and chemical elements
in the soil. Generally, utilization of biochar in the soil increases the soil pH, although
modifications are vigorously driven by the soil type, feedstock material, and the liming value of
biochar.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
CEC is one of the important properties of soil affecting soil fertility and adsorption of
mineral nutrients and ions such as sodium (Na+), Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, and NH4+. Although CEC is a
natural and inherent characteristic of every soil, it cannot be conveniently altered through
management. Biochar additives can increase the CEC of the soil, which could be due to the
existence of a potent carboxyl and phenolic function. Ndor et al., (2015) observed a 21%
increase in soil CEC after application of 5 Mg ha-1 biochar made from rice hulls and sawdust,
and a 44 and 57% CEC increase at 10 Mg ha-1. Each biochar was adversely charged on the
surface of biochar particles compared to non-biochar application groups.
Impact of biochar on nutrient availability
Biochar produced by pyrolysis encompasses aromatic C and small amounts of N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, S, and other nutrients anticipated for plant growth. Biochar improves soil physical and
chemical properties such as CEC and soil surface oxidation, resulting in an increment in the
accessibility of plant nutrients and their retention in the soil. Soil incorporation of biochar has
listed a positive influence on soil C-stability, particularly in soils with less native OM. Usually,
the solubility of inorganic P is low because it questionnaires mineral precipitates with Ca2+,
aluminum (Al3+), and iron (Fe3+) or firmly sorbs to the soil mineral phase (Al and Fe
oxyhydroxide). However, the past investigation has demonstrated that biochar changes the P
available in soil by (a) acting as a P source itself, (b) altering P solubility through differences in
soil pH, (c) adsorption, and Desorption of specific chelates altered and (d) promotion of P-
soluble bacteria (Gao et al., 2016). Therefore, the application of biochar is emerging as a
relevant practice to effectively remove the use of synthetic fertilizers and increase NUE.
Incorporation of corn residue biochar into calcareous soil at 12% (w/w) heightened total N up to
41%, available P up to 165%, K up to 160%, and manganese (Mn), Fe, Zn, and Cu up to 21, 17,
42 and 10% respectively compared to the unaltered soil (control).

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Impact of biochar on nutrient leaching
Nutrient leaching is the main difficulty in agricultural systems. Mobile nutrients move
down below the root zone of plants and consequently become unavailable for plant uptake.
Biochar can considerably reduce nutrient leaching by increasing nutrient retention, soil C, soil
WHC and microbial activity. It is a valuable technique to sorb nutrient problems as N and P to
mitigate surface water contamination. Properties of biochar such as high surface area, porosity,
charge density, and CEC are advantageous in increasing the retention of nutrients and other
organic molecules. However, the sorption capability of biochar also relies on the input materials
and the pyrolysis temperature. For example, biochar obtained from wood has a higher phosphate
adsorption capacity than biochar generated from straw residues.
Effect of biochar on soil microbial activity
Soil microorganisms play important roles in OM decomposition, nutrient recycling, soil
structure maintenance, pest and disease suppression, and secretion of plant growth promoters.
Biochar application can affect soil microbial activity and community structure (Figure) through
its important properties such as pore space, surface area, porosity, minerals, surface
unpredictable organic compounds, functional groups, free radicals, and pH. Biochar contains K+,
Mg+2, Na+, N, P, and other nutrients, which, once released into the soil solution, can have long-
term positive impacts on microbial growth. In addition, some bacteria and fungi, which are
smaller than the pore size of certain biochar, can prevent these pores In addition, soluble
substances such as sugars, alcohols, acids, ketones, and water molecules stored in mesopores and
micropores of biochar can promote microbial activity and modify microbial abundance and
composition in soil.

(Biochar increase porosity, microorganism, WHC, Organic Matter, Nutrients, and

CEC of Soil)
Figure 2. Beneficial effects of biochar on soil (Source: Alkharabsheh et al., 2021)

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Impact of biochar on salt-affected soils

Soil salinity extremely affects plant growth and yield, particularly in arid and semi-arid
areas of the world. Internationally, salt-affected areas occupied 1 billion ha, and it is estimated
that this area will proceed to expand owing to global climate modification and poor land and
water resource management. There are three types of saline soils namely saline, sodium and
saline soils. Saline soils have a high concentration of soluble salts, while sodium soils encompass
a high concentration of Na+ ions adsorbed on cation exchange sites. Saline soils possess
characteristics of both, with exchangeable sodium > 15% and electrical conductivity > 0.4 S m-1.
Salt-loaded soils can be cultivated if relevant management practices or quantifies are adopted.
The application of organic modifications in salinity-affected soils can have beneficial impacts on
plant growth by modifying some soil physio-chemical properties. Recent studies have
demonstrated that the inclusion of biochar supplements in saline soils has attracted great
attention from agronomists. The utilization of biochar on saline soils heightened the K+, Ca+2,
Mg+2, Zn+2, and Mn+2 concentration owing to a concomitant increment in CEC, surface area,
structure, and porosity of soils, and stability of organic molecules. In saline soils, a high Na+
concentration impairs the uptake of K+ by plants. However, adding biochar can reverse this
scenario and improve K+ absorption. Phosphorus availability is higher at a soil pH of 5.57, but
the pH of saline soils is >7, which reduces P availability. However, biochar application can
increase P availability in saline soils due to its inherent fertilizer P-value. In addition, it can
increase P availability by generating favorable conditions for the increment of soil bacteria
(Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Thiobacillus) that can solubilize unavailable P in the soil.
Impact of biochar on soils contaminated with heavy metals (HMs)
Soil contamination with HMs such as mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic
(As), titanium (Ti) and lithium (Li) is a major international problem. Due to their high mobility
and bioavailability, heavy metals can conveniently enter and accumulate in the food chain,
leading to neurological and immunological diseases at multiple trophic levels. Studies have
revealed that the use of organic materials with high pH, CEC, surface area, and porosity such as
biochar can improve contaminated soils due to their efficiency in adsorbing HMs from soils. The
ionic forms of metals dissolved in the soil solution are bioavailable to plants. Biochar adsorbs the
metal ions from contaminated soils due to its stronger sorption sites and high affinity for metal
ions (Sizmur et al, 2017). Besides the process, both acidic functional groups (carboxyl, hydroxyl,
lactone, and carbonyl groups) and basic functional groups (pyrone and ketone) play significant
roles in the complexation (binding) of HMs on the surface of biochar and its inner pores (Beesley
et al., 2015). For example, HMs such as Cu, Zn, Cr, and Pb can react with carbonate, phosphate,
and oxide ratios of biochar and precipitate on the surface of the biochar as insoluble carbonate

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and phosphate salts (Nejad et al., 2017). The exchange of ionic species from the soil matrix at
the surface of biochar can also immobilize the target metal species in the soil (Wang et al.,
2018). Similarly (Li et al., 2018), the application of soybean (Glycine max L.) biochar at an
incidence of 3% (w/w) to an As-contaminated soil reduced as the bioaccumulation in the rice
plants decreased by 88% declined.
Table 3: Reduced uptake of different chemicals after biochar application into soil
Biochar Type Pollutant Plant Type Reference
Rice straw Cd Rice Zheng et al. (2016)
Pinewood Pb Maize Ogundiran et al. (2015)
Soybean residues Cd Rice Li et al. (2018)
Sugar cane bagasse Cr Mash bean (Vigan mungo L.) Bashir et al. (2018)
Cotton sticks Ni Spinach Younis et al. (2016)

Biochar for improving Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

Soil amendments such as biochar can improve WUE in the agricultural system under
increasingly water-limited conditions. Pot and field trials have shown that biochar retains soil
water, increases WHC, improves water availability for plants, enhances nutrient uptake, and
supports root growth in the soil.
Impact of biochar on Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE)
An essential factor of multitude of proteins, vitamins, amino acids, alkaloids, plant
hormones, chlorophyll, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and DNA, N is vital to in greater amounts
than any other plant nutrient. However; Much of the applied N is lost from agricultural soils
owing to various factors, reducing both crop yields and NUE. Nitrogen use efficiency can be
improved either by increasing the uptake of applied N by the plant and its translocation to
economical sections of the plants by reducing N losses from the soil system, or both (Xia et al,
2016). Research has demonstrated that the purpose of biochar with N fertilizers enhances
fertilizer NUE and increases crop yields while reducing N losses (Huang et al, 2018). Again,
beneficial attributes of biochar in the terminology of high surface area, porosity, CEC, and a
plethora of acidic and basic functional groups play a crucial role in reducing N-losses from soils.
Impact of biochar on plant growth and physiological traits
Plant growth relies on a sufficient concentration of nutrients that are accessible in the soil
solution and readily assimilated by the plants. A paucity of nutrients can alleviate plant growth
and yield. Studies have demonstrated that biochar can increase the availability of C, N, Ca, Mg,
K, and P to plants as biochar is itself a nutrient source. In addition, it can absorb nutrients and
then slowly release them, improving the efficiency of nutrient use. Studies have shown that
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biochar supplements considerably improved growth and biomass in multiple plant species.
Biochar application increased corn stomata conductivity, resulting in a higher prevalence of
photosynthesis and increased production of total soluble sugars in soybean plants compared to
unmodified soil control (Qian et al., 2019). Higher chlorophyll and N levels were quantified in
wheat plants after biochar application compared to unmodified soil.
Advantages of biochar application
1. Less emission of greenhouse gases in the air: Biochar is a stable product that could stay
in the soil for numerous years, eventually reducing the emission of greenhouse gases
from the burning of biomass.
2. Water retention: Biochar has moderate porosity that enhances the water retention of
soil. In this way, it facilitates soil in growing plants and vegetables.
3. Carbon sequestration: The conversion of biomass into biochar does emit carbon in the
air but it is less as compared to the combustion of biomass. Hence biochar embodies
carbon sink in soil.
4. Agricultural productivity: The utilization of biochar in the soil increases agricultural
productivity and promotes agricultural resilience.
5. Reduction in soil acidity: One of the main advantages of biochar is it assists in
decreasing soil acidity which impedes crop production.

Source- Yang ding et al. (2017)

.
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Conclusions:
Biochar modification has attracted considerable research interest due to its abundant use
and broad potential, which encompasses increasing crop production by optimizing soil fertility,
reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and increasing soil carbon sequestration. Using biochar for
environmental and agricultural systems is a feasible alternative that can enhance soil quality,
improve carbon sequestration, and alleviate various agricultural wastes. Biochar can also be used
to remediate degraded landforms, thus offering many long-term environmental, agricultural, and
economic benefits. However, in the mandate to promote the application of biochar as an
emerging change, multiple research, development, and demonstration on the production and
utilization of biochar are very important.
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PHYTOPHTHORA STEM BLIGHT OF PIGEON PEA [CAJANUS CAJAN (L.)

MILLSP.]- AN OVERVIEW
Prince Kumar Gupta*, Manpreet Kaur and Rajshree Verma
Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture,
G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145, Uttarakhand
*Corresponding author E-mail: princeguptapm@gmail.com

Abstract:
The pathogen, Phytophthora drechsleri f. sp. cajani, inciting Phytophthora blight (PB) is
considered the most devastating disease-causing economical losses in pigeon pea (Cajanus
cajan), especially when excessive rains fall within a short period and hot and humid weather
persists during the crop season. The disease has also been reported in other countries. It was first
reported in 1966 in India and is currently considered to be more important in short-duration
pigeon peas than in traditional medium- and long-duration types. In this chapter, economic
importance, symptoms, etiology, disease cycle, epidemiology, storage of pathogen, host range,
and management options are updated for future priorities.
Keywords: Pigeon pea, Phytophthora stem blight, Phytophthora drechsleri, IDM
Introduction:
Pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.], an often cross-pollinated, diploid, protein-rich
legumes crop of the semi-arid tropics that is grown throughout the tropical and subtropical
regions of the world. It is regarded as the fourth most important food legume after bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.), field pea (Pisum sativum L.), and red gram (Pisum sativum L.). It
provides a high-quality diet for human consumption as a primary source of protein (green seed-
21%, mature seed- 18.8%, and dhal- 24.6%), especially for the Indian subcontinent's vegetarian
population. Additionally, it is also a key component of animal feed diets. Crop rotation of cereals
with Pigeon pea increases the yield by embellishing soil nitrogen and also breaking the disease
cycle of the pathogen. Pigeon pea is mostly suitable for low-fertile soil because of its
permissiveness to heat and drought. In defiance of its hardy nature, it is being enervated by a
range of harmful and devastating microbial pathogens posing significant reverberations on the
yield and quality of the produce. More than 50 diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses,
nematodes, etc have been reported to affect the pigeon pea crop. Of the diseases reported to
threaten production, the Phytophthora stem blight is considered the major important disease
incited by Phytophthora cajani. This chapter has been prepared to assist in the field diagnosis of
Phytophthora stem blight of pigeon pea. Furthermore, economic importance, host range,

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symptomatology, disease cycle, and integrated disease management are included to make the
book chapter more useful to scientists, scholars, extension practitioners, and farmers.
Economic importance:
rd
Phytophthora stem blight (PB), is considered the 3 potentially major disease of pigeon
pea after Fusarium wilt and SMD (Sterility mosaic) incited by the fungus Phytophthora
drechsleri Tucker f. sp. cajani. (Pal et al) (Williams et al., 1975; Kannaiyan et al., 1984). In
India, the first suspected occurrence of the disease was reported in 1966 by William and his co-
workers (1968). Since that time, the illness has spread to several pigeons' pea growing regions in
Asia (Pal et al., 1970; Williams et al., 1975), Australia (Wearing and Birch., 1988), Africa,
America (Kannaiyan et al., 1984), Dominican Republic, Kenya, Panama, and Puerto Rico (Nene
et al., 1996). No longer ago, the recurrence of the disease become a major menace to the
production and productivity of pigeon pea in the Deccan Plateau of India reported irrespective of
cropping system, soil types, and cultivars (Pande et al., 2006; Sharma et al., 2006). Worldwide,
the information regarding total losses caused by Phytophthora blight is not available, but it is
axiomatic that the disease is of growing importance and can cause havoc in a susceptible
cultivar. The Phytophthora blight is quite graver in short-duration (3-4 months) pigeon peas than
in medium- and long-duration (5-10 months) traditionally cultivated cultivars. The effect of PB
on grain yield depends on the onset of the disease with crop growth and disease incidence, both
of which largely depend on weather conditions and inoculum levels of the pathogen.
Host range:
The pathogen, Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker var. cajani has a wide host range viz;
lucerne, safflower, and skeleton weed (Cother, 1975), Atylosia scarabaeoides and A. platycarpa
(wild pigeon pea) (Kannaiyan and Nene, 1985).
Symptoms:
The disease PB (Phytophthora blight) is mistaken for Fusarium wilt or a damping-off as
general symptoms of both the diseases are similar causing seedlings to die suddenly (Table 1).
Phytophthora blight symptoms have been described as stem rot (Pal et al., 1970), stem canker
(Kaiser and Melendez., 1978), root rot (Wearing and Birch, 1988), and stem blight (Williams et
al., 1975; Amin et al., 1978; Kannaiyan et al., 1980). Generally, the infection of the disease
begins with the emergence of the seedling. Initially, the symptoms appear as water-soaked, dark
brown to purple necrotic lesion on the primary and triplicate leaves (Figure 1 a) which later
becomes enlarges in size and forms depression and girdles at the basal portion of the stem
(Figure 2 a, b). Later the visible symptom extended to the aerial portion of the crop like leaves
and branches which caused softening of the tissue and loss in turgidity resulting in desiccation of
young plant. Due to softening of the stem or bark of mature plants, the whole plant collapsed

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easily from the point of infection by the wind which ultimately leads to the death of the plant.
The phloem vessels show smoky discoloration (Figure 3 b) and xylem vessels remain healthy.

A B

Figure 1: (a) water-soaked lesion on infected leaves (b) foliage blight appearance

Table 1: Symptoms differentiation of Phytophthora blight and Fusarium wilt

Growth stage Phytophthora blight Fusarium wilt
Seedling Young seedlings are killed within Young seedlings gradually wilt
(Up to 30 days) 3-10 days. and die within 10-30.
Water-soaked lesions on the leaves Initially, loss of turgidity, slight
Foliage
and whole foliage give a desiccated chlorosis, and drooping of
(30-45days)
appearance. leaves.
Brown to dark brown lesions Dark brown- purple streak band
increase gradually and girdle the extending upward from soil
Stem stem. The infected stems break level and usually seen only on
(45- >75 days) easily at the lesion site. one side of the stem. Browning
of the xylem vessels in the
internal symptom of wilt.
Root It is also common to find stem and Pinkish mycelial growth is seen
branches swollen at the base or else on wilted plants part in humid
turning into a cankerous hyper conditions. The roots of the
tropical structure. The roots of infected plants are dried and can
infected plants are healthy and be pulled easily.
difficult to uproot.

Causal organism:
The causal organism of Phytophthora stem blight i.e., Phytophthora drechsleri Tucker var.
cajani Pal, Grewal, and Sarbhoy was identified by Pal et al. (1970). Amin et al. (1978) identified
the PB pathogen as P. cajani. Based on sporangia shape and size, formation of oogonium and
oospore, temperature requirement, and pathogenicity of five isolates of pathogen, it was named

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P. drechsleri Tucker f. sp cajani (Pal et al.) The use of forma specialis was considered
appropriate according to the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, Article e 4 (Pandey
et al., 2011).

A B

Figure 2: (a) Dark-brown lesion on stem (b) Stem gridling

A B

Figure 3: (a) Mortality in field (b) Smoky grey colour of phloem vessel

Pathogen identification:
Culture-specific traits like growth pattern, mycelium structure, and sporangial morphology
are the most common differences amongst Phytophthora cajani isolates. The pathogen shows
different growth patterns in different cultural media. The growth of circular colony with a
rosaceous form on PDA (Figure 4 a), circular stoloniferous colonies with hyphae at the edge
looks like aerial (corn meal), circular, slightly petaloid colonies with compact hyphae (oatmeal),
while circular, petallate, and dull white colonies are formed on tomato juice agar and V8 juice
agar media. The fungus hyphae are coenocytic and completely branched, except some have
swell hyphae (Sharma et al., 2018). The structure of fungus sporangium varied from ovoid,
obpyriform to elongate, and non-papillate (Figure 4 b). The size of the sporangial ranged from
19.3 ± 2.6 to 28.4 ± 4.9mm (length) and 11.2 ± 0.8 to 18.5 ± 0.3mm in breadth. The
morphological identity of the pathogen was described in the manual on Phytophthora (Gallegly

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and Hong, 2008) that was based on sporangial morphology P. cajani produced larger sporangia
and undifferentiated sporangiophores compared with P. drechsleri (Amin et al., 1978). The
homothallic nature of P. cajani that differentiated it from P. drechsleri, (heterothallic) was
reported by Savage et al. (1968).

A B

Figure 4: (a) pure culture of PB of pigeon pea (b) Nonpapillate sporangia

Molecular characterization:
The use of advanced molecular detection technologies to validate the pathogen's identity
has become crucial. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence of 5.8S rDNA from the 14
isolates was amplified and sequenced to confirm the P. cajani at the molecular level. The
Phytophthora database (http://www.phytophthoradb.org) was used to evaluate the sequences
using BLASTn. The isolates identified as P. cajani was confirmed by the BLAST result. The
sequences were stored to GenBank (accession nos. KJ010534 to KJ010538 and KJ622200 to
KJ622208). The pairwise nucleotide sequence identity matrix revealed that the isolates shared 99
to 100 percent sequence identity. Based on nucleotide sequences of the ITS region, the
phylogenetic relationships between the 14 P. cajani isolates and other Phytophthora species were
found to clump together in the same clade (Sharma et al., 2015).
Disease Cycle:
The pathogen is soil-born and may survive in the resting stage as dormant mycelium and in
infected plant parts or debris as oospores. Under the congenial environmental condition, the
primary infection spread from oospores when it comes in contact with the host plant through rain
splash and irrigation channels. The secondary spread occurred by zoospores from sporangia
under proper moisture and humidity.
Host-Pathogen Interaction
Phytophthora drechsleri is known to secrete elicitins which are small polypeptide chains
composed of different amino acids. The pathogen produces several isoforms of elicitin with
various levels of toxicity (Huet et al. 1992). Elicitin induces tissue necrosis that has been
correlated with histological alterations, rapid electrolyte leakage, the release of reactive oxygen

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species (ROS), changes in protein phosphorylation, chloroplast break down, and collapse of
disorganization of parenchyma tissue in the host plant (Pernollet et al., 1993).
Resistance gene against stem blight has not so far been discovered due to the frequent
evolution of new pathotypes, the coexistence of different pathotypes in the same location, and
the cross-pollination nature of pigeon pea. Systematic research is needed to elucidate the
biochemical, physiological, and molecular facets of host-pathogen interaction.

Figure 5: Disease cycle of Phytophthora drechsleri inciting Pigeon pea stem blight

Figure 6: Molecular basis of host pathogen interaction

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Epidemiology and Disease development:
The development and spread of the disease are enhanced and favoured by poor soil
drainage and low-lying fields (Williams et al., 1975). A short shower of heavy rains and the
prevalence of hot weather (up to 30°C) during July - September causing leaf wetness for almost
7-8 hours favors the rapid and intense progress and spread of the disease. The zoospore of the
fungus is considered the primary source of inoculum and wind disseminates inoculum over a
short distance during the rain (Bisht, 1985). The wild pigeon pea relative Cajanus scarabaeoides
var. scarabaeoides, is considered a host of the blight pathogen till the next cropping season
(Agarwal and Khare, 1988; Bisht, 1985). Day and night also influence the progress of the
disease. The rapid incidence and development of PB were observed during the night and were
reported by Singh and Chauhan (1985). The maximum (28 to 40°C), minimum temperature of
12-24°C along with RH 75 to 96%, and rainfall of 300 mm for a week ultimately progress the
development of the disease (Sharma et al., 2006; Pande and Sharma, 2010). Alfisol soil is found
more suitable for disease progress than vertisol soil. The absence of potassium (K) and a higher
dose of nitrogen in soil enhanced the disease incidence (Pal and Grewal, 1975), while the
addition of K in soil decreased the incidence of the PB disease regardless of the presence of N 2
and P in the soil. The age of the plant favours the susceptibility of the pathogen. The highest
incidence of cent percent (100 %) was recorded in 15-day-old seedlings and the lowest incidence
(25%) in 4-month-old plants (Mishra and Shukla., 1986).
Storage of pathogen:
It is quite challenging to store and maintain the virulence of the fungus P. cajani causing
Phytophthora stem blight in pigeon pea. Mainly, the pathogen isolates are kept on tomato juice
agar slant or broth (7 to10 day-old- culture) for short-term storage at 15°C in a dark incubator.
The cultures are revived and transferred to a new slant every 2 to 4 weeks to maintain their
vigour potential. While, in the case of long-term storage (6 to 8 months), the culture's slant is
stored in distilled water. Another economical way to store culture is to cut 8 to 10 small pieces
from an actively growing culture and place them in small tightly closed bottles containing
autoclaved distilled water and keep them at room temperature in the dark
Disease Management:
1. Planting of healthy or pathogen-free seed.
2. Adaptation of wider intercropping space.
3. Follow the crop rotation with non-host crops such as cereals.
4. Destruction of the infected pigeon pea stubble and alternative host species viz; Atylosia
spp. and wild Cajanus spp. reduced the amount of inoculum.

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5. Phosphorus acid is known to effectively control various oomycetes diseases as

phosphoric acid moves upward and downward through xylem and phloem in plants.
6. Proper field sanitation and drainage should be done and low-lying areas for sowing
should be avoided, these practices reduce the disease incidence since, water-logging may
predispose the crop to Phytophthora blight under congenial conditions (Singh and
Chauhan., 1985).
7. Always prepared raised seedbed with proper and good drainage facilities.
8. Sowing time should be managed such that it doesn’t coincide with heavy rainfalls
9. Resistant varieties like ICPL 12055, ICPL 12114, JKM - 189, and JA - 4 should be
grown.
10. Seed treatment with Metalaxyl 35% WS @ 3gram/kg seeds and also spray of Metalaxyl
@ 500g per hectare is recommended.
11. Fungicide Brestan-60 control PB in the 1-month-old plant when applied before
inoculation with Pdc pathogen under pot condition.
12. Incidence of PB reduced with the spray or soil drenching with two phytoalexins
Phytoalexin- 84_ and Induce (Sheila and Nene., 1987).
13. Application of Trichoderma viride 1% WP@ 8 g/Kg seed as seed treatment and @ 200
g/acre for soil treatment reduces the incidence of the disease.
14. Direct application of slow releasing of phosphorous acid formulations (curdlan or pestan)
using a carrier coated with polysaccharides resulted in excellent control of PB disease
(Park et al., 2007).
15. Application of Trichoderma viride 1% WP@ 8 g/kg seed as seed treatment and @ 200
g/acre for soil treatment reduces the incidence of the disease.
Conclusions:
The disease Phytophthora blight (Phytophthora drechsleri f. sp. cajani) is disputably one
of the important yield boundaries of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), especially short-duration
varieties. For eco-friendly and sustainable management of the disease, different antagonists, and
resistant varieties were extensively tested as bioagents and they may be used with fungicides for
effective management of PSB disease. Commercially available metalaxyl formulation – Ridomil
MZ – is equally effective against P. drechsleri f. sp. cajani, and it may be used with P.
fluorescens and T. viride for more effective and eco-friendly management of Phytophthora blight
of pigeon pea. Furthermore, Ridomil MZ has a lower risk of cross-resistance with populations
that are metalaxyl-resistant and have different modes of action. The chemical method of
controlling PSB is not, however, cost-effective or environmentally friendly. Therefore, more

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focus is needed on the development of resistant varieties for sustainable management and higher
productivity per unit area.
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