SECTION 4

Electricity and
magnetism
Topics
4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
4.2 Electrical quantities
4.3 Electric circuits
4.4 Electrical safety
4.5 Electromagnetic effects

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 4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
FOCUS POINTS
Describe forces between magnets and magnetic materials and between magnetic poles and understand
the meaning of various terms associated with magnetism.
Explain that interactions between magnetic fields create magnetic forces.

State the differences between temporary and permanent magnets and between magnetic and non-
magnetic materials.
Describe, draw and state the direction of magnetic fields.
Know that the spacing of the magnetic field lines represents the relative strength of a magnetic field.

Describe how magnetic field lines can be plotted using a compass or iron filings.
Know the different uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets.

A familiar example of a magnet is a compass needle with one north-seeking pole. You will find that
all magnets have two poles: like poles repel, unlike poles attract. A magnet can induce magnetism
in certain materials such as iron and steel and is surrounded by a magnetic field which exerts a
force on another magnet. The pattern of magnetic field lines can be made visible with the aid of iron
filings. Electromagnets are formed from coils of wire through which an electrical current is passed
that allows the strength of the magnet to be varied and turned on and off easily. They are used
in many electrical devices from doorbells to motors. You will learn that permanent magnets and
electromagnets have differing properties and uses.

In a magnetic field, the closer the field lines are at a point, the stronger is the magnetic field.

Properties of magnets North and south poles

A magnet has two poles; a north pole (N pole) and
Magnetic materials a south pole (S pole). If a magnet is supported so
Some materials, known as ferromagnets, can be that it can swing in a horizontal plane it comes
magnetised to form a magnet. In their unmagnetised to rest with one pole, the N pole, always pointing
form they are attracted to a magnet. roughly towards the Earth’s north pole. A magnet
can therefore be used as a compass.
Magnetic poles
The poles are the places in a magnet to which Law of magnetic poles
magnetic materials, such as iron filings, are If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the
attracted. They are near the ends of a bar magnet N pole of another magnet, repulsion occurs.
and occur in pairs of equal strength. Two S (south-seeking) poles also repel. By contrast,
N and S poles always attract.

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 Magnetisation of iron and steel

The law of magnetic poles summarises these facts

and states: Magnetisation of iron
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract. and steel
The force between magnetic poles decreases as their Chains of small iron nails and steel paper clips can
separation increases. be hung from a magnet (Figure 4.1.3). Each nail
or clip magnetises the one below it and the unlike
poles so formed attract.
Induced magnetism If the iron chain is removed by pulling the top
When a piece of unmagnetised magnetic material nail away from the magnet, the chain collapses,
touches or is brought near to the pole of a showing that magnetism induced in iron is
permanent magnet, it becomes a magnet itself. temporary. When the same is done with the steel
The material is said to have magnetism induced in chain, it does not collapse; magnetism induced in
it. Figure 4.1.1 shows that a N pole in the permanent steel is permanent.
magnet induces a N pole in the right-hand end of
the magnetic material. Key definitions
magnetic Temporary magnets made of soft iron, lose their
material magnetism easily
Permanent magnets made of steel, retain their magnetism
S N S N

permanent induced
magnet magnet N S
Figure 4.1.1 Induced magnetism S N
iron nails
This can be checked by hanging two iron nails from N S
the N pole of a magnet. Their lower ends repel each S
steel paper
N
other (Figure 4.1.2a) and both are repelled further N
clips
S
from each other when the N pole of another magnet N
S
is brought close (Figure 4.1.2b).
N S
a b
S S S N

N S

Figure 4.1.3 Investigating the magnetisation of iron

and steel
N N
iron Magnetic materials such as iron that magnetise
nails easily but readily lose their magnetism (are easily
demagnetised) are said to be soft. Those such as
greater steel that are harder to magnetise than iron but
repulsion
repulsion stay magnetised are hard. Both types have their
N uses; very hard ones are used to make permanent
magnets.

Figure 4.1.2 Magnetic repulsion

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 4.1 SIMPLE PHENOMENA OF MAGNETISM

Magnetic and non-magnetic S N bar magnet

materials line of force

Magnetic materials such as iron, steel, nickel N

and cobalt are attracted by a magnet and can cork

be magnetised temporarily or permanently.
Non-magnetic materials such as aluminium and bowl of
water
wood are not attracted by a magnet and cannot
be magnetised. magnetised
S steel needle
or rod
Key definitions
Magnetic materials materials that can be magnetised by Figure 4.1.4 Detecting magnetic force
a magnet; in their unmagnetised state they are attracted
by a magnet
It is useful to consider that a magnetic field has
a direction and to represent the field by lines of
Non-magnetic materials materials that cannot be force. It has been decided that the direction of a
magnetised and are not attracted by a magnet
magnetic field at a point should be the direction of
the force on a N pole. To show the direction, arrows
Magnetic fields are put on the lines of force and point away from a
N pole towards a S pole.
The space surrounding a magnet where it produces
a magnetic force is called a magnetic field. Key definition
The force around a bar magnet can be detected and Direction of a magnetic field at a point the direction of
shown to vary in direction, using the apparatus in the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point
Figure 4.1.4. If the floating magnet is released near
the N pole of the bar magnet, it is repelled to the
S pole and moves along a curved path known as Strength and interaction of
a line of force or a field line. It moves in the magnetic fields
opposite direction if its south pole is uppermost. A magnetic field is stronger in regions where the
field lines are close together than where they are
further apart.
The force between two magnets is a result of
the interaction of their magnetic fields as can be
seen in Figure 4.1.8 on the next page.

Test yourself
1 Which one of these statements is true? Copy the diagram and mark on the position of all the
A magnet attracts poles if the magnets
A plastics a attract each other
B any metal b repel each other.
C iron and steel
D aluminium. 3 In Figure 4.1.8a on the next page, is the magnetic
2 Two bar magnets are positioned side by side as field stronger or weaker at X than at a point
shown in Figure 4.1.5. The north pole is marked on closer to one of the magnets? Explain your
one of the magnets. answer.

Figure 4.1.5

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 Magnetic fields

Practical work
Plotting lines of force A typical field pattern is shown in Figure 4.1.7.
For safe experiments/demonstrations related
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that
is also part of this series.
Plotting compass method
A plotting compass is a small pivoted magnet S N
in a glass case with non-magnetic metal walls
(Figure 4.1.6a).
a

compass Figure 4.1.7 Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet

needle
The combined field due to two neighbouring
magnets can also be plotted to give patterns like
those in Figure 4.1.8. In part a, where two like
poles are facing each other, the point X is called a
b neutral point. At X, the field due to one magnet
C cancels out that due to the other and there are no
n lines of force.
s
a
B
A
plotting
S N compass

Figure 4.1.6
N X N
Lay a bar magnet on a sheet of paper. Place the
plotting compass at a point such as A (Figure
4.1.6b), near one pole of the magnet. In Figure
4.1.6b it is the N pole. Mark the position of the
poles (n, s) of the compass by pencil dots B, A.
Move the compass so that pole s is exactly over b
B, mark the new position of n by dot C.
Continue this process until the other pole of the
bar magnet is reached (in Figure 4.1.6b it is the
S pole). Join the dots to give one line of force and S N
show its direction by putting an arrow on it. Plot
other lines by starting at different points round
the magnet.

Figure 4.1.8 Field lines due to two neighbouring

magnets

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 4.1 SIMPLE PHENOMENA OF MAGNETISM

Iron filings method

a
Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet and
sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the
paper from a ‘pepper pot’.
Tap the paper gently with a pencil and the filings
should form patterns showing the lines of force.
Each filing turns in the direction of the field when
the paper is tapped.
This method is quick but no use for weak fields.
1 Sketch the field lines around a bar magnet
marking on the N and S poles and the
direction of the field lines.
2 Figure 4.1.9 shows typical iron filings patterns
obtained with two magnets. Why are the b
patterns different?
3 What combination of poles would give the
observed patterns in Figure 4.1.9 a and b?

Figure 4.1.9 Field lines round two bar magnets shown

by iron filings

Going further

Magnetisation and demagnetisation

A ferromagnetic material can be magnetised by placing Solenoids (see Topic 4.5) can be used to magnetise and
it inside a solenoid and gradually increasing the direct demagnetise magnetic materials; dropping or heating
current (d.c.). This increases the magnetic field strength a magnet also causes demagnetisation. Hammering
in the solenoid (the density of the field lines increases), a magnetic material in a magnetic field causes
and the material becomes magnetised. Reversing magnetisation but in the absence of a field it causes
the direction of current flow reverses the direction demagnetisation. ‘Stroking’ a magnetic material several
of the magnetic field and reverses the polarity of the times in the same direction with one pole of a magnet
magnetisation. A magnet can be demagnetised by will also cause it to become magnetised.
placing it inside a solenoid through which an alternating
current (a.c.) is passed and gradually reduced.

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 Electromagnets

Practical work

Simple electromagnet
For safe experiments/demonstrations wooden
related to this topic, please refer to the electromagnet stand
Cambridge IGCSE Physics Practical Skills
Workbook that is also part of this series.
An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound
on a soft iron core. A 5 cm iron nail and 3 m
paper clips
of PVC-covered copper wire (SWG 26) are
needed.
a Leave about 25 cm at one end of the wire
(for connecting to the circuit) and then wind
about 50 cm as a single layer on the nail.
A
Keep the turns close together and always
wind in the same direction. Connect the (0–2 A)
(2–3 V)
circuit of Figure 4.1.10, setting the rheostat (0–15 Ω)
(variable resistor, see p. 199) at its maximum
resistance. Figure 4.1.10
Find the number of paper clips the c Place the electromagnet on the bench and
electromagnet can support when the current under a sheet of paper. Sprinkle iron filings on
is varied between 0.2 A and 2.0 A. Record the the paper, tap it gently and observe the field
results in a table. pattern. Compare the pattern with that given
Deduce how the strength of the electromagnet by a bar magnet.
changes when the current is increased. d Use a plotting compass to find which end of
b Add another two layers of wire to the nail, the electromagnet is a N pole.
winding in the same direction as the first layer.
4 Name two variables which you think could
Repeat the experiment.
affect the strength of an electromagnet.
Deduce how the strength of the electromagnet
5 How could you use a compass to determine
has been changed by increasing the number
which end of the current-carrying coil is a north
of turns of wire.
pole?

Electromagnets coil soft iron core

An electromagnet is formed from a coil of wire

through which an electrical current is passed that
allows the strength of the magnet to be varied. S

The magnetism of an electromagnet is temporary N

and can be switched on and off, unlike that of a field
permanent magnet. It has a core of soft iron which line
current
is magnetised only when there is current in the direction
surrounding coil.
The strength of an electromagnet increases if Figure 4.1.11 C-core or horseshoe electromagnet
(i) the current in the coil increases In C-core (or horseshoe) electromagnets, condition
(ii) the number of turns on the coil increases (iii) is achieved (Figure 4.1.11). Note that the coil on
(iii) the poles are moved closer together. each limb of the core is wound in opposite directions.
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 4.1 SIMPLE PHENOMENA OF MAGNETISM

Uses of permanent magnets

and electromagnets
Permanent magnets made from magnetic materials
such as steel retain their magnetism, so can be
used in applications where the magnetic field does
not need to be varied. These include a compass,
computer hard disk, electric motor (see Topic 4.5.5)
electricity generator (see Topic 4.5.2), microphone,
loudspeaker and many more everyday devices such
as credit and debit cards.
An advantage over an electromagnet is that it
does not require a current to maintain its magnetism.
Electromagnets are temporary and are used
where one wants to be able to vary the strength
of the magnetic field (by varying the current) and
switch it on and off. As well as being used in cranes
to lift iron objects, scrap iron, etc. (Figure 4.1.12),
electromagnets are an essential part of many electrical
devices such as electric bells, magnetic locks, relays
and practical motors and generators (see Topic 4.5.3). Figure 4.1.12 Electromagnet being used to lift scrap
metal

Going further

Magnetic shielding At most places on the Earth’s surface a magnetic

compass points slightly east or west of true north, i.e.
Any ferromagnetic material can be used for magnetic
the Earth’s geographical and magnetic north poles
screening of sensitive electronic equipment. Steel is
do not coincide. The angle between magnetic north
often used as it is cheap, readily available and works
and true north is called the declination (Figure 4.1.14).
well in strong magnetic fields. Mu-metal, a nickel-
In Hong Kong in 2020 it was about 3º W of N and
iron soft ferromagnetic material, is more effective for
changing slowly.
weaker magnetic fields but is more expensive.
geographical
Earth’s magnetic field north

If lines of force are plotted on a sheet of paper with magnetic

north
no magnets nearby, a set of parallel straight lines is
obtained. They run roughly from S to N geographically
(Figure 4.1.13), and represent a small part of the Earth’s
magnetic field in a horizontal plane.

declination
north

Figure 4.1.14 The Earth’s geographical and magnetic

Figure 4.1.13 Lines of force due to the Earth’s field poles do not coincide.

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 Exam-style questions

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 4.1 you should know and After studying Topic 4.1 you should be able to:
understand: state the properties of magnets, describe induced
like magnetic poles repel, unlike magnetic poles magnetism and distinguish between the magnetic
attract properties of iron and steel
the difference between magnetic and non- recall that a magnetic field is the region round a
magnetic materials, and permanent and magnet where a magnetic force is exerted and is
electromagnets represented by lines of force whose direction at
how to map the magnetic field around a bar magnet, any point is the direction of the force on a N pole
by the plotting compass and iron filings methods.
recall that the magnetic field is strongest
in regions where the field lines are closest
together and that magnetic forces result from
the interaction of magnetic fields.

Exam-style questions
1 Copy Figure 4.1.15 which shows a plotting 2 a Describe an experiment using a plotting
compass and a magnet. compass to map the magnetic field lines
a Label the N pole of the magnet. [1] around a bar magnet. [4]
b Draw the magnetic field line on which the b Explain why permanent magnets are used in
compass lies. [2] some applications and electromagnets
c State the direction of the magnetic in others. [4]
field line. [1] c Give two uses of a permanent magnet. [2]
[Total: 10]

3 a Explain how magnetic forces arise. [2]

b Where are the magnetic field lines
strongest around a bar magnet? [2]
c State how you would recognise from a
pattern of magnetic field lines where the
field is
i strongest
ii weakest. [2]
Figure 4.1.15 [Total: 6]
[Total: 4]

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 4.2 Electrical quantities
4.2.1 Electric charge
FOCUS POINTS
Understand that there are positive and negative charges and that opposite charges attract and like
charges repel.
Explain the charging of solids by friction.
Describe an experiment to determine whether a material is an electrical conductor or an insulator.
Explain the difference between electrical conductors and insulators using a simple electron model, and
give examples of each.

Know that charge is measured in coulombs.

Describe an electric field, explain its direction and describe simple electric field patterns.

Electrostatic charges arise when electrons are transferred between objects by rubbing. Sparks can
fly after you comb your hair or walk across a synthetic carpet when you touch an earthed object,
through which the charge can be neutralised; the discharge can lead you to feel a small electric
shock. A flash of lightning is nature’s most spectacular static electricity effect. There are two types
of electrostatic charge. Like charges repel while opposite charges attract. Charges build up on an
insulator such as plastic and remain static, but for conductors like metals, charges flow away to try
to neutralise charge. Both electrical conductors and insulators have their uses.
Electric charges are surrounded by an electric field which exerts a force on a nearby charge.
This effect is made use of in applications from ink-jet printers to crop sprayers. As with a
magnetic field, an electric field exerts an action-at-a-distance force.

Clothes containing nylon often crackle when they

are taken off. We say they are charged with static
electricity; the crackles are caused by tiny electric
sparks which can be seen in the dark. Pens and
combs made of certain plastics become charged
when rubbed on your sleeve and can then attract
scraps of paper.

Positive and negative charges

When a strip of polythene is rubbed with a cloth
it becomes charged. If it is hung up and another
rubbed polythene strip is brought near, repulsion
occurs (Figure 4.2.2). Attraction occurs when a
rubbed strip of cellulose acetate is brought
near.

Figure 4.2.1 A flash of lightning

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 4.2.1 Electric charge

nucleus of one proton

thread

one electron moving

around nucleus

paper stirrup

rubbed
polythene
Figure 4.2.3 Hydrogen atom
strips like The production of charges by rubbing can be explained
charges
repel by supposing that friction causes electrons to be
transferred from one material to the other. For example,
when cellulose acetate is rubbed with a cloth, electrons
go from the acetate to the cloth, leaving the acetate
short of electrons, i.e. positively charged. The cloth
now has more electrons than protons and becomes
Figure 4.2.2 Investigating charges negatively charged. Note that it is only electrons which
move; the protons remain fixed in the nucleus.
This shows there are two kinds of electric charge.
That on cellulose acetate is taken as positive (+)
and that on polythene is negative (–). It also Test yourself
shows that: 1 Two identical conducting balls, suspended on
nylon threads, come to rest with the threads
Like charges (+ and +, or – and –) repel, while unlike making equal angles with the vertical, as shown in
charges (+ and –) attract. Figure 4.2.4.
Which of these statements is true?
The force between electric charges decreases as This shows that
their separation increases. A the balls are equally and oppositely charged
B the balls are oppositely charged but not
Key definitions necessarily equally charged
Positive charges repel other positive charges, but C one ball is charged and the other is uncharged
positive charges attract negative charges D the balls both carry the same type of charge.
Negative charges repel other negative charges, but
negative charges attract positive charges

Charges, atoms and electrons

There is evidence (Topic 5.1) that we can picture
an atom as being made up of a small central
nucleus containing positively charged particles
called protons, surrounded by an equal number of Figure 4.2.4
negatively charged electrons. The charges on a
2 Explain in terms of electron movement what
proton and an electron are equal and opposite so an happens when a polythene rod becomes charged
atom as a whole is normally electrically neutral, i.e. negatively by being rubbed with a cloth.
has no net charge. 3 Two electrostatic charges are brought close
Hydrogen is the simplest atom with one together.
proton and one electron (Figure 4.2.3). A copper a When one charge is positive and the other is
atom has 29 protons in the nucleus and 29 negative, are they attracted or repelled from
each other?
surrounding electrons. Every nucleus except b When both charges are negative, are they
hydrogen also contains uncharged particles attracted or repelled?
called neutrons.

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Units of charge Key definition

Charge is measured in coulombs (C) and is defined Coulomb (C) unit of charge
in terms of the ampere (see Topic 4.2.2).
The charge on an electron e = 1.6 × 10 −19 C.

Practical work

Gold-leaf electroscope Charging by contact

For safe experiments/demonstrations related Draw a charged polythene strip firmly across the
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge edge of the cap. The leaf should rise and stay up
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that when the strip is removed. If it does not, repeat
is also part of this series. the process but press harder. The electroscope
has now become negatively charged by contact
metal cap
with the polythene strip, from which electrons
metal rod have been transferred.
insulating
plug Insulators and conductors
Touch the cap of the charged electroscope with
metal plate
different things, such as a piece of paper, a wire,
gold leaf
your finger, a comb, a cotton handkerchief, a
glass window piece of wood, a glass rod, a plastic pen, rubber
wooden or tubing. Record your results.
metal case
earthed by When the leaf falls, charge is passing to or
resting on from the ground through you and the material
bench
touching the cap. If the fall is rapid the material
Figure 4.2.5 Gold-leaf electroscope is a good conductor; if the leaf falls slowly, the
material is a poor conductor. If the leaf does not
A gold-leaf electroscope consists of a metal cap
alter, the material is a good insulator.
on a metal rod at the foot of which is a metal
plate with a leaf of gold foil attached (Figure The gold-leaf electroscope used in this
4.2.5). The rod is held by an insulating plastic experiment could be replaced by an electronic
plug in a case with glass sides to protect the leaf instrument capable of measuring electric charge –
from draughts. an electrometer.
Detecting a charge 1 How could you charge a polythene rod?
Bring a charged polythene strip towards the 2 How could you transfer charge from a
cap: the leaf rises away from the plate. When you polythene rod to a gold-leaf electroscope?
remove the charged strip, the leaf falls again. 3 Why does the leaf of the electroscope rise
Repeat with a charged acetate strip. when it gains charge?
4 How can you discharge the electroscope?

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 4.2.1 Electric charge

Electrons, insulators and Good insulators include plastics such as polythene,

cellulose acetate, Perspex and nylon. All metals and
conductors carbon are good conductors. In between are materials
In an insulator all electrons are bound firmly to that are both poor conductors and (because they
their atoms; in a conductor some electrons can conduct to some extent) poor insulators. Examples
move freely from atom to atom. An insulator can be are wood, paper, cotton, the human body and the
charged by rubbing because the charge produced Earth. Water conducts and if it were not present in
cannot move from where the rubbing occurs, i.e. the materials such as wood and on the surface of, for
electric charge is static. A conductor will become example, glass, these would be good insulators.
charged only if it is held with an insulating handle; Dry air insulates well.
otherwise electrons are transferred between the
conductor and the ground via the person’s body.

Electric fields Moving charges are deflected by an electric field

due to the electric force exerted on them.
When an electric charge is placed near to another The electric field lines radiating from an
electric charge it experiences a force. The electric isolated positively charged conducting sphere and
force does not require contact between the two a point charge are shown in Figures 4.2.7a and b:
charges so we call it an ‘action-at-a-distance force’ the field lines again emerge at right angles to the
– it acts through space. The region of space where conducting surface.
an electric charge experiences a force due to other
charges is called an electric field. If the electric
force felt by a charge is the same everywhere in
a region, the field is uniform; a uniform electric
field is produced between two oppositely charged
parallel metal plates (Figure 4.2.6). It can be
represented by evenly spaced parallel lines drawn
perpendicular to the metal surfaces. The direction
of an electric field at a point, denoted by arrows,
is the direction of the force on a small positive
charge placed in the field (negative charges
experience a force in the opposite direction to the
field). An electric field is a vector quantity as it Figure 4.2.7a Electric field around a charged conducting
sphere
has both magnitude (strength) and direction.

Key definition
Direction of an electric field at a point the direction of
the force on a positive charge at that point

Figure 4.2.6 Uniform electric field Figure 4.2.7b Electric field around a point charge

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Going further

Dangers of static electricity Sparks from static electricity can be particularly

dangerous when flammable vapour is present.
Sparks occur between electrostatic charges when the
Fuel flowing in a pipeline (particularly a plastic pipe)
electric field is strong enough. Damage can be reduced
experiences friction, which may lead to a build-up of
by providing an easy path for electrons to flow safely
static charge. During refuelling, aircraft, fuel tanker
to and from the Earth. For example, a tall building
and pipeline hoses are all earthed to avoid sparks which
is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a
could ignite the fuel and cause an explosion.
thick copper strip fixed on the outside of the building
connecting metal spikes at the top to a metal plate in Computers and sensitive electronic equipment should
the ground (Figure 4.2.8). also be earthed to avoid electrostatic damage.
Thunderclouds carry charges: a negatively charged
cloud passing overhead repels electrons from the
Uses of static electricity
spikes to the Earth. The points of the spikes are left There are many uses of static electricity in applications
with a large positive charge (charge concentrates from flue-ash precipitation in coal-burning power
on sharp points) which removes electrons from stations, paint and crop spraying to photocopiers and
nearby air molecules, so charging them positively ink-jet printers.
and causing them to be repelled from the spike. This In an ink-jet printer tiny drops of ink are forced out of a
effect, called action at points, results in an ‘electric fine nozzle, charged electrostatically and then passed
wind’ of positive air molecules streaming upwards between two oppositely charged plates; a negatively
which can neutralise electrons discharging from the charged drop will be attracted towards the positive plate
thundercloud in a lightning flash. If a flash occurs it causing it to be deflected as shown in Figure 4.2.9.
is now less violent and the conductor gives it an easy The amount of deflection and hence the position at which
path to ground. the ink strikes the page is determined by the charge on
the drop and the p.d. between the plates; both of these
thundercloud are controlled by a computer. About 100 precisely located
drops are needed to make up an individual letter but very
fast printing speeds can be achieved.
stream of
positive air
molecules ink-jet nozzle

tall spikes
electrostatic
building charging unit
copper
strip
deflecting
plates

negative positive

electrons path of negatively

repelled charged ink drop
to Earth

metal plate
paper
in ground

Figure 4.2.8 Lightning conductor Figure 4.2.9 Ink-jet printer

Test yourself
Test yourself 5 Name
a two applications
4 Describe the electric field around a
b two dangers
negatively charged conducting sphere.
of static electricity.

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 4.2.2 Electric current

4.2.2 Electric current

FOCUS POINTS
Understand that an electric current consists of moving electric charges.

Define electric current and use the correct equation in calculations.

Describe the use of analogue and digital ammeters and the difference between alternating current (a.c.)
and direct current (d.c.).
Describe the role of free electrons in electrical conduction in metals.

Know that the flow of electrons in a circuit is in the opposite direction to that of the conventional current
flow.

In the previous topic you learnt about positive and negative static charges and how they were
produced on conductors and insulators. In this topic you will discover that moving charges in a
conductor produce an electric current which is proportional to the rate of flow of charge. Every
electrical appliance you use, from hair dryer to computer, relies on the flow of an electric current.
In a metal the current is produced by the movement of electrons. By convention, electric current is
linked to the flow of positive charge, which is in the opposite direction to the way electrons move.
You will find out how to connect an ammeter to a circuit to measure the size of an electric current
and learn about the different types of current.

An electric current consists of moving electric thread

charges. In Figure 4.2.10, when the van de Graaff
insulating van de Graaff
machine is working, it produces a continuous supply handle generator
metal
of charge which produces an electric field between plates
the metal plates to which it is connected. The table-tennis
ball coated
table-tennis ball shuttles rapidly backwards and with ‘Aquadag‘
forwards between the plates and the very sensitive to make it
conducting
meter records a small current. As the ball touches
each plate it becomes charged and is repelled to the
other plate. In this way charge is carried across the
gap. This also shows that static charges, produced
by friction in the van de Graaff machine, cause a 5 cm
deflection on a meter just as current electricity
produced by a battery does.
In a metal, each atom has one or more loosely
held electrons that are free to move. When a van
de Graaff or a battery is connected across the
ends of such a conductor, the free electrons drift
slowly along it in the direction from the negative
picoammeter
to the positive terminal of a battery. There is then
a current of negative charge. This is how electrical Figure 4.2.10 Demonstrating that an electric current
conduction occurs in a metal. consists of moving charges

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Effects of a current The unit of current is the ampere (A) which is

An electric current has three effects that reveal its defined using the magnetic effect. One milliampere
existence and which can be shown with the circuit (mA) is one-thousandth of an ampere. Current is
of Figure 4.2.11. measured by an ammeter.
battery The unit of charge, the coulomb (C), is defined
(1.5 V cells) in terms of the ampere.
One coulomb is the charge passing any point in a
thick
copper
circuit when a steady current of 1 ampere flows for
wire 1 second. That is, 1 C = 1 A s.
In general, if a steady current I (amperes)
flows for time t (seconds) the charge Q (coulombs)
passing any point is given by
plotting Q=I×t
compass lamp
dilute Current must have a complete path (a circuit) of
sulfuric
acid conductors if it is to flow. When drawing circuit
diagrams, components are represented by symbols.
Some commonly used symbols are represented in
Topic 4.3.1.
circuit board

Figure 4.2.11 Investigating the effects of a current

Worked example
Heating and lighting
Current flows in an electrical circuit.
The lamp lights because the small wire inside (the
filament) is made white hot by the current. a A charge of 2 C passes a point in the circuit in 5 s,
calculate the current flowing past that point.
Magnetic I = Q/t = 2 C/5 s = 0.4 A
The plotting compass is deflected when it is placed b A current of 3 A flows past another point in the circuit in
near the wire because a magnetic field is produced 10 seconds. How much charge passes the point in this
around any wire carrying a current. time?
Q = I × t = 3 A × 10 s = 30 C
Chemical
Bubbles of gas are given off at the wires in the acid
Now put this into practice
1 A current of 2 A flows past a point in an electrical circuit
because of the chemical action of the current.
in 20 s. How much charge passes the point in this time?
2 A charge of 3 C passes a point in an electrical circuit in
The ampere and the coulomb 7 s. Calculate the current flowing past that point.

An electric current is defined as the charge passing a

point per unit time and can be written in symbols as Conventional current
I= Q Before the electron was discovered scientists agreed
t to think of current as positive charges moving round
where I is the current when charge Q passes any a circuit in the direction from positive to negative
point in a circuit in time t. of a battery. This agreement still stands. Arrows
It shows that current is the rate of flow of on circuit diagrams show the direction of what we
charge in a circuit. call the conventional current, i.e. the direction in
which positive charges would flow. Electrons flow in
Key definition the opposite direction to the conventional current.
Electric current the charge passing a point per unit time
Key definition
Q
Current I = t where Q is the charge flowing past a Conventional current flows from positive to negative;
particular point in time t. the flow of free electrons is from negative to positive

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 4.2.2 Electric current

Ammeters
An ammeter is used to measure currents. It should
always be placed in series in a circuit with the
positive terminal on the ammeter connected to
the positive terminal of the supply, as described
in the practical work below (see Figure 4.2.13
overleaf). A simple moving coil ammeter will
read d.c. currents only on an analogue display.
It may have two ranges and two scales in the
display.
A multimeter can have either a digital or
analogue display (see Figure 4.1.12a and b) and be
used to measure a.c. and d.c. currents (or voltages
and also resistance). The required function is first
selected, say d.c. current.
When making a measurement on either type
of ammeter a suitable range must be chosen. For
example, if a current of a few milliamps is expected,
the 10 mA range might be selected and the value
of the current (in mA) read from the display; if
the reading is off-scale, the sensitivity should
be reduced by changing to the higher, perhaps
100 mA, range.
Figure 4.2.12b Digital multimeter

Test yourself
6 Explain how electrical conduction occurs in a
metal.
7 Explain how you would connect an ammeter into a
circuit.

8 What is the current in a circuit if the charge

passing each point is
a 10 C in 2 s
b 20 C in 40 s
c 240 C in 2 minutes?
9 How long does it take a charge of 5 C to pass a
point in an electrical circuit where the current
Figure 4.2.12a Analogue multimeter flowing is 2 A?

Practical work
Measuring current a Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.13a (on a
For safe experiments/demonstrations related circuit board if possible), ensuring that the +
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge of the cell (the metal stud) goes to the + of the
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that ammeter (marked red). Note the current.
is also part of this series. b Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.13b. The cells
are in series (+ of one to – of the other), as are

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

the lamps. Record the current. Measure the (1.5 V cell) D

current at B, C and D by disconnecting the
circuit at each point in turn and inserting the
ammeter. Record the values of the current in
A (0–1A) A C
each position.
c Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.13c.
The lamps are in parallel. Read the ammeter.
Also measure and record the currents at P, Q (1.25 V) B
and R. Comment on your results.
Figure 4.2.13a Figure 4.2.13b
5 In Figure 4.2.13a how could you tell when
current flows?
6 In Figure 4.2.13b
a how many paths are there for current to A R
flow?
b would you expect the current to be
different in different parts of the circuit?
Q
7 In Figure 4.2.13c
a how many paths are there for current to
flow?
P
b would you expect the current to be
different in different parts of the circuit? Figure 4.2.13c

Direct and alternating current In an alternating current (a.c.) the direction of

flow reverses regularly, as shown in the graph in
Difference Figure 4.2.15. The circuit sign for a.c. is given
In a direct current (d.c.) the electrons flow in one in Figure 4.2.16.
direction only. Graphs for steady and varying d.c.
are shown in Figure 4.2.14.
a.c.
current

0
1 1 time/seconds
current

2
steady d.c.

1 cycle
time
Figure 4.2.15 Alternating current (a.c.)
current

Figure 4.2.16 Symbol for alternating current

The pointer of an ammeter for measuring d.c. is

varying d.c.
deflected one way by the direct current. Alternating
time
current makes the pointer move back and forth
about the zero if the changes are slow enough;
Figure 4.2.14 Direct current (d.c.) otherwise no deflection can be seen.
Batteries give d.c.; generators can produce either
d.c. or a.c.
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 4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference

Frequency of a.c.
The number of complete alternations or cycles Test yourself
in 1 second is the frequency of the alternating 10 Sketch
current. The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz). a a d.c. current
b an a.c. current
The frequency of the a.c. in Figure 4.2.15 is 2 Hz, c the circuit symbol used for a.c.
which means there are two cycles per second, or one 11 An a.c. current has a frequency of 1000 Hz.
cycle lasts 1/2 = 0.5 s. The mains supply in many How long does each cycle last?
countries is a.c. of frequency 50 Hz; each cycle lasts
1/50th of a second. This regularity was used in the
tickertape timer (Topic 1.2) and is relied upon in
mains-operated clocks.

4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference

FOCUS POINTS
Define electromotive force.
Describe the use of analogue and digital voltmeters.
Define potential difference and know that it is measured in volts.

Use the correct equations for electromagnetic force and potential difference.

As you will have seen in the previous topic, a complete circuit of conductors is needed for a current
to flow. In this topic you will learn that it is the electromotive force of a supply which provides
the energy needed to move charge around a complete circuit. The supply may vary from a simple
torch battery to your mains electricity supply. There are usually several components in a circuit,
for example lamps, motors or other electrical devices, from which energy is transferred to the
surroundings. The energy transferred from a device can be calculated by introducing the concept of
potential difference. Previously you used an ammeter to measure the current in an electrical circuit;
now you will learn how to use a voltmeter to measure potential difference.

The chemical action inside a battery produces a Key definitions

surplus of electrons at one of its terminals (the Electromotive force e.m.f. the electrical work done by a
negative) and creates a shortage at the other source in moving unit charge around a complete circuit
(the positive). It is then able to maintain a flow
Potential difference p.d. the work done by a unit charge
of electrons, i.e. an electric current, in any circuit passing through a component
connected across its terminals for as long as the
chemical action lasts. Work is done by the battery Electromotive force is measured in volts (V). The
in moving charge around the circuit. e.m.f. of a car battery is 12 V and the domestic
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is defined as the mains supply in many countries is 240 V.
electrical work done by a source in moving a unit There are usually a number of components in
charge around a complete circuit. an electrical circuit through which charge flows.
Potential difference (p.d.) is defined as the
work done by a unit of charge passing through a
component.
Like e.m.f., potential difference between two
points is measured in volts (V). The term voltage is
sometimes used instead of p.d.
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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Energy transfers and p.d.

In an electric circuit, an electric current transfers ‘bundle’ of
electrical
energy from an energy store, such as a battery, energy
to components in the circuit which then transfer
energy into the surroundings. In the case of a lamp,
energy is transferred to the surroundings by light
and by heating.
When each of the circuits shown in Figure 4.2.17
is connected up, it will be found from the ammeter
readings that the current is about the same (0.4 A)
in each lamp. However, the mains lamp with a
Mr Coulomb
potential difference of 230 V applied across it gives
much more light and heat than the car lamp with
12 V across it.
a.c. ammeters (0–1 A) Figure 4.2.18 Model of a circuit
mains lamp In our imaginary representation, Mr Coulomb
(100 W)
car travels round the circuit and unloads energy
side-lamp
(6 W)
as he goes, most of it in the lamp. We think
of him receiving a fresh bundle every time he
passes through the battery, which suggests
he must be travelling very fast. In fact, as we
found earlier (Topic 4.2.2), the electrons drift
230 V mains 12 V a.c. supply along quite slowly. As soon as the circuit is
Figure 4.2.17 Investigating the effect of p.d. (potential complete, energy is delivered at once to the
difference) on energy transfer lamp, not by electrons directly from the battery
but from electrons that were in the connecting
Evidently the p.d. across a device affects the rate wires. The model is helpful but is not an exact
at which it transfers energy. This gives us a way of representation.
defining the unit of potential difference: the volt.
The volt
The demonstrations of Figure 4.2.17 show that
Model of a circuit the greater the e.m.f. of a supply, the larger is the
It may help you to understand the definition of bundle of energy given to each coulomb and the
the volt, i.e. what a volt is, if you imagine that greater is the rate at which energy is transferred
the current in a circuit is formed by ‘drops’ of from a lamp.
electricity, each having a charge of 1 coulomb In general, if W (joules) is the energy
and carrying equal-sized bundles of electrical transferred (i.e. the work done) when charge Q
energy. In Figure 4.2.18, Mr Coulomb represents (coulombs) moves around a complete circuit, the
one such drop. As a drop moves around the circuit e.m.f. E (volts) of the supply is given by
it gives up all its energy which is transferred to E = W/Q
other energy stores. Note that electrical energy, not
charge or current, is used up. or W = Q × E

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 4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference

The p.d. between two points in a circuit is 1 volt Voltmeters

if 1 joule of energy is transferred when 1 coulomb A voltmeter is used to measure potential
passes from one point to the other. differences; it should always be placed in parallel
That is, 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb (1 V = 1 J/C). with the component across which the p.d. is to be
If 2 J is transferred by each coulomb, the p.d. is 2 V. measured. The positive terminal on the voltmeter
In general, if W (joules) is the work done when should be connected to the side of the component
charge Q (coulombs) passes between two points, into which current flows as is shown in the practical
the p.d. V (volts) between the points is given by work below (see Figure 4.2.21 overleaf). A simple
V = W/Q moving-coil voltmeter will read d.c. voltages only on
an analogue display.
or W = Q × V The face of an analogue voltmeter is represented
If Q is in the form of a steady current I (amperes) in Figure 4.2.19. The voltmeter has two scales.
flowing for time t (seconds) then Q = I × t (Topic The 0–5 scale has a full-scale deflection of 5.0 V.
4.2.2) and Each small division on the 0–5 scale represents
W=I×t×V
0.1 V. This voltmeter scale can be read to the nearest
0.1 V. The human eye is very good at judging a half
division, so we are able to estimate the voltmeter
Worked example reading to the nearest 0.05 V with considerable
precision. The 0–10 scale has a full-scale deflection
A lamp is connected to a battery in a circuit and a current of 10.0 V; each small division on this scale represents
flows. 0.2 V so the precision of a reading is less than on
a Calculate the p.d. across the lamp if 6 J of work are
done when 2 C of charge pass through the lamp.
the 0–5 V scale.
From the equation V = W/Q
the p.d. across the lamp = W/Q = 6 J/ 2 C = 3 V 4
2 6
b If the p.d. across the lamp is increased to 5 V calculate 0 8
the energy transferred to the lamp when a current of 1 2 3
2 10
2 A flows in the lamp for 5 seconds. 0 4
Q = I × t = 2 A × 5 s = 10 C 1 5

Rearranging the equation V = W/Q gives

W = Q × V = 10 C × 5 V = 50 J
volts
Now put this into practice
1 Calculate the p.d. across a lamp in an electric circuit Figure 4.2.19 An analogue voltmeter scale
when 8 J of work are done when a charge of 4 C passes
through the lamp.
Analogue voltmeters or multimeters are adapted
2 The p.d. across a lamp is 6 V. moving-coil galvanometers (Topic 4.5.5). Digital
How many joules of energy are transferred when a multimeters are constructed from integrated
charge of 2 C passes through it? circuits. On the voltage setting they have a very
3 The p.d. across a lamp is 6 V. Find the work done when high input resistance (10 M ); this means they
a current of 3 A flows in the lamp for 10 s.
affect most circuits very little and so give very
accurate readings.

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

When making a measurement on either an

analogue or digital voltmeter a suitable range must Practical work
first be chosen. For example, if a voltage of a few
millivolts is expected, the 10 mV range might be Measuring voltage
selected and the value of the voltage (in mV) read A voltmeter is an instrument for measuring
from the display; if the reading is off-scale, the voltage or p.d. It looks like an ammeter but has
sensitivity should be reduced by changing to the a scale marked in volts. Whereas an ammeter
higher, perhaps 100 mV, range. is inserted in series in a circuit to measure the
Every measuring instrument has a calibrated current, a voltmeter is connected across that
scale. When you write an account of an experiment part of the circuit where the voltage is required,
(see p. vii, Scientific enquiry) you should include i.e. in parallel.
details about each scale that you use.
To prevent damage to the voltmeter make sure
that the + terminal (marked red) is connected
Worked example to the point nearest the + of the battery.
The scales of an analogue voltmeter are shown in Figure a Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.21a.
4.2.20. The voltmeter gives the p.d across the lamp.
Read it.
2 4 6
a 1.5 V cell
0 8
1 2 3
2 10
0 4 lamp
1 5 (1.25 V)

volts
V
Figure 4.2.20
voltmeter (0–5 V)
a What are the two ranges available when using the
voltmeter?
The lower scale reads 0–5 V and the upper scale reads b 4.5 V
0–10 V.
b What do the small divisions between the numbers 3 and 4
represent?
0.1 V X Y
L1 L2 L3
c Which scale would you use to measure a voltage of 4.6 V?
The lower scale 0–5 V will give a more accurate reading.
d When the voltmeter reads 4.0 V where should you position
c 1.5 V
your eye to make the reading?
Above the 4 to reduce parallax error.
V1
Now put this into practice
1 Use the scales of the voltmeter shown in Figure 4.2.20.
a What do the small divisions between the numbers 6 L1
and 8 represent? L2
b Which scale would you use to measure a voltage of
5.4 V?
c When making the reading for 4.0 V an observer’s eye V2
is over the 0 V mark. Explain why the value obtained by
this observer is higher than 4.0 V. Figure 4.2.21

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 4.2.4 Resistance

b Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.21b. Test yourself

Measure:
12 a Define electromotive force.
i the p.d V between X and Y
ii the p.d V1 across lamp L1 b Define potential difference.
iii the p.d V2 across lamp L2 13 The p.d. across the lamp in Figure 4.2.22 is
iv the p.d V3 across lamp L3. 12 V. How many joules of electrical energy are
c Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.21c, so that transferred into light and heat when
a a charge of 1 C passes through it
two lamps L1 and L2 are in parallel across b a charge of 5 C passes through it
one 1.5 V cell. Measure the p.d.s, V1 and V2, c a current of 2 A flows in it for 10 s?
across each lamp in turn.
8 For step b above, calculate the value of
V1 + V2 + V3 and compare with the value of V.
9 For step c above, compare the values of V1
and V2.
10 If all the lamps shown in Figure 4.2.21b are 12 V
identical, what would you expect the p.d.
across each to be? Figure 4.2.22
11 a Explain where you would connect
and how you would use a voltmeter to
measure the p.d. across a device.
b In the circuit shown in Figure 4.2.21c, if V1
measures 1.5 V, what would you expect
the value of V2 to be?

4.2.4 Resistance
FOCUS POINTS
Know the correct equation for resistance and use it correctly to determine resistance using a voltmeter
and an ammeter.

Draw and interpret current–voltage graphs.

Understand the dependence of the resistance of a metal wire on its length and cross-sectional area.

Know that resistance is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to cross-sectional
area in a metallic electrical conductor.

In this topic you will learn that the ease of passage of electrons depends on the nature of the
material. This effect is measured by resistance. More work has to be done to drive a current through
a high resistance than a low resistance. For the element in an electric fire, a high-resistance wire
is needed so that a large amount of energy is transferred. The opposite is required for the connecting
wires in a circuit, where low-resistance wires are used to reduce energy losses. Current flow is
easier in a wire with a large cross-sectional area so thick wires are used where large currents are
needed, for example in the starter motor in a car or a kitchen oven. The longer a wire, the harder
it is for current to flow; energy loss is reduced by using short connecting wires.

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Electrons move more easily through some conductors

than others when a p.d. is applied. The opposition Worked example
of a conductor to current is called its resistance.
A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor a If a p.d. of 4.5 V is applied across a lamp, the current
conductor has a high resistance. flowing through the lamp is 1.5 A. Calculate the
resistance of the lamp.
The ohm R=
V
I
If the current in a conductor is I when the voltage
4.5V
across it is V, as shown in Figure 4.2.23a, its so R = =
1.5A
resistance R is defined by
b A current of 0.5 A flows through a resistance of 5 Ω.
R= V Calculate the p.d. across the lamp.
I
This is a reasonable way to measure resistance since V = IR = = 2.5 V
the smaller I is for a given V, the greater is R. If V is
in volts and I in amperes, then R is in ohms (symbol Now put this into practice
1 The current flowing through a resistor is 0.30 A when a
, the Greek letter omega). For example, if I = 2 A p.d. of 4.5 V is applied across it.
when V = 12 V, then R = 12 V/2 A, that is, R = 6 . Calculate the value of the resistor.
The ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which 2 A current of 0.2 A flows through a resistor of 10 .
the current is 1 ampere when a voltage of 1 volt is Calculate the p.d. across the resistor.
applied across it. 3 A p.d. of 12.0 V is applied across a lamp of 24 and the
lamp lights up. Calculate the current passing through the
R
lamp.
I I

V
Resistors
Figure 4.2.23a Conductors intended to have resistance are called
resistors (Figure 4.2.24a) and are made either from
wires of special alloys or from carbon. Those used
in radio and television sets have values from a few
V
ohms up to millions of ohms (Figure 4.2.24b).

I R Figure 4.2.24a Circuit symbol for a resistor

Figure 4.2.23b

Alternatively, if R and I are known, V can be found Figure 4.2.24b Resistor

from
V = IR
Also, when V and R are known, I can be calculated
from
I= V
R
The triangle in Figure 4.2.23b is an aid to remembering
the three equations. It is used in the same way as the
‘density triangle’ in Topic 1.4. Figure 4.2.24c Variable resistor (potentiometer)

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 4.2.4 Resistance

Variable resistors are used in electronics (and are

then called potentiometers) as volume and other Test yourself
controls (Figure 4.2.24c). Variable resistors that 14 What is the resistance of a lamp when a voltage of
take larger currents, like the one shown in Figure 12 V across it causes a current of 4 A?
4.2.25, are useful in laboratory experiments. These 15 Calculate the p.d. across a 10 resistor carrying a
consist of a coil of constantan wire (an alloy of current of 2 A.
16 The p.d. across a 3 resistor is 6 V. Calculate the
60% copper, 40% nickel) wound on a tube with a current flowing (in ampere).
sliding contact on a metal bar above the tube.
tube metal bar sliding contact 17 Calculate the number of coulombs per second
passing through a 4 resistor connected
terminals across the terminals of a 12 V battery.

coil of constantan wire

terminal Practical work
Figure 4.2.25 Large variable resistor
Measuring resistance
There are two ways of using such a variable resistor.
For safe experiments/demonstrations related
It may be used as a rheostat for changing the
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge
current in a circuit; only one end connection and
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that
the sliding contact are then required. In Figure
is also part of this series.
4.2.26a moving the sliding contact to the left
reduces the resistance and increases the current. The resistance R of a conductor can be found
This variable resistor can also act as a potential by measuring the current I in it when a p.d.
divider for changing the p.d. applied to a device; V is applied across it and then using R = V/I.
all three connections are then used. In Figure This is called the ammeter–voltmeter method.
4.2.26b any fraction from the total p.d. of the Set up the circuit of Figure 4.2.28 in which the
battery to zero can be ‘tapped off’ by moving the unknown resistance R is 1 metre of SWG 34
sliding contact down. Figure 4.2.27 shows the circuit constantan wire. Altering the rheostat changes
diagram symbol for a variable resistor being used in both the p.d. V and the current I. Record in
rheostat mode. a table, with three columns, five values of I
a b (e.g. 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.3 A) and the
corresponding values of V.
potential
divider Repeat the experiment, but instead of the wire
rheostat use
i a lamp (e.g. 2.5 V, 0.3 A),
ii a semiconductor diode (e.g. 1 N4001)
connected first one way then the other way
around and
iii a thermistor (e.g. TH 7).
Figure 4.2.26 A variable resistor can be used as a
rheostat or as a potential divider. (Semiconductor diodes and thermistors are
considered in Topic 4.3 in more detail.)

Figure 4.2.27 Circuit symbol for a variable resistor used

as a rheostat

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Resistivity
to three 1.5 V (4.5 V) cells in series
Experiments show that the resistance R of a wire
of a given material is
R
(i) directly proportional to its length l, i.e. R ∝ l
crocodile
clip
(ii) inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
A area A, i.e. R ∝ 1/A (doubling A halves R).

Worked example
ammeter A copper wire has a diameter of 0.50 mm, a length of 1 km
(0–1 A) and a resistance of 84 .
rheostat circuit a Calculate the resistance of a wire of the same material
(0–25 Ω) board and diameter with a length of 500 m.
Let R1 = 84 , length l1 = 1.0 km = 1000 m,
length l2 = 500 m and R2 the required resistance.
Then since R ∝ l/A and A is constant
R2 I
= 2
V voltmeter R1 I1
(0–5 V) I2 500 m
and R2 = R1 × = × =
I1 1000 m
Figure 4.2.28 The resistance is halved when the length of the wire is
halved.
12 Work out R for each pair of readings from the b Calculate the resistance of a wire of the same material
equation R = V/I. with a diameter of 1.0 mm and a length of 1 km.
13 Draw the symbols for a a resistor and Let R1 = 84 , diameter d1 = 0.50 mm, diameter
b a variable resistor. d2 = 1.0 mm and R2 the required resistance.
14 List the equipment you would need to If r is the radius of the wire, the cross-sectional area
A = πr 2 = π(d/2)2 = (π/4) d2 , so
measure the resistance of a wire.
15 Calculate the resistance of a wire that has a A1 ( d1 )2 (0.50 mm)2
= = = 0.25
current of 0.15 A passing through it when the A2 ( d2 ) 2
(1.0 mm)2
p.d. across it is 4.5 V. l
Then since R ∝ and l is constant
A
R2 A1
Resistance of a metal wire R1
=
A2
The resistance of a metallic wire A1
and R2 = R1 × = =
(i) increases as its length increases A2
(ii) increases as its cross-sectional area decreases
Now put this into practice
(iii) depends on the material.
A long thin wire has more resistance than a short 1 A certain wire has a length of 10 m and a resistance of
60 .
thick one of the same material. Silver is the best Calculate the resistance of 20 m of the wire.
conductor, but copper, the next best, is cheaper 2 A certain wire has diameter of 0.20 mm and a
and is used for connecting wires and for domestic resistance of 60 . Calculate the resistance of a wire
electric cables. of the same material with a diameter of 0.40 mm.

Key definition
Resistance of a metallic wire directly proportional to its
length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional
area

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 4.2.4 Resistance

I–V graphs: Ohm’s law Filament lamp

The variation of current with voltage is shown for A filament lamp is a non-ohmic conductor at
various conductors in Figure 4.2.29. high temperatures. For a filament lamp the I–V
graph curve flattens as V and I increase (Figure
a Ohmic conductor b Semiconductor diode
I I
4.2.29c). That is, the resistance (V/I) increases as I
increases and makes the filament hotter.
Variation of resistance with temperature
In general, an increase of temperature increases
the resistance of metals, as for the filament
0 V 0 V lamp in Figure 4.2.29c, but it decreases the
resistance of semiconductors. The resistance of
c Filament lamp d Thermistor
I I semiconductor thermistors decreases if their
temperature rises, i.e. their I–V graph bends
upwards, as in Figure 4.2.29d.
If a resistor and a thermistor are connected as
a potential divider (Figure 4.2.30), the p.d. across
the resistor increases as the temperature of the
0 V 0 V thermistor increases; the circuit can be used to
Figure 4.2.29 I–V graphs monitor temperature, for example in a car radiator.
Metallic conductors
Metals and some alloys give I–V graphs that are
a straight line through the origin, as in Figure
4.2.29a, provided that their temperature is
constant. I is directly proportional to V, i.e. I ∝ V.
thermistor
Doubling V doubles I, etc. Such conductors obey
Ohm’s law, stated as follows: Figure 4.2.30 Potential divider circuit for monitoring
temperature
The current in a metallic conductor is directly
proportional to the p.d. across its ends if the Variation of resistance with light intensity
temperature and other conditions are constant. The resistance of some semiconducting materials
They are called ohmic or linear conductors and decreases when the intensity of light falling on
since I ∝ V, it follows that V/I = a constant them increases. This property is made use of in
(obtained from the slope of the I–V graph). light-dependent resistors (LDRs) (see Topic 4.3.3).
The resistance of an ohmic conductor therefore The I–V graph for an LDR is similar to that shown
does not change when the p.d. does. in Figure 4.2.29d for a thermistor. Both thermistors
and LDRs are non-ohmic conductors.
Semiconductor diode
The typical I–V graph in Figure 4.2.29b shows
that current passes when the p.d. is applied in Test yourself
one direction but is almost zero when the p.d. 18 a Sketch the I–V graph for a resistor of
is applied in the opposite direction. A diode constant resistance.
has a small resistance when connected one way b How could you obtain a value of the
resistance from the graph?
round but a very large resistance when the p.d. is 19 a Sketch the I–V graph for a filament lamp.
reversed. It conducts in one direction only and is a b Explain the shape of the graph.
non-ohmic conductor.

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

4.2.5 Electrical working

FOCUS POINTS
Understand that energy is transferred from a source of electrical energy to devices in the circuit; in the
process thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings by heating and by light.
Know and use the correct equations for electrical power and electrical energy.
Define the kilowatt-hour (kWh) and use this unit to calculate the cost of using some electrical appliances.

The e.m.f. applied to a circuit drives current around the circuit. In the process, energy is transferred
from the electrical cell or mains supply to the wires and components of the circuit. The total energy
transferred to a device depends on its power consumption and the time span over which it is used.
In this section you will learn how to measure power consumption, the typical power consumption of
some everyday household appliances and how to calculate the cost of electricity usage.

Power in electric circuits A

In many circuits it is important to know the rate at

which the electric current transfers energy from the
source to the circuit components.
Earlier (Topic 1.7.4) we said that energy transfers V
were measured by the work done and power was
defined by the equation
energy transferred
power = work done =
time taken time taken
In symbols Figure 4.2.31

P = W (1)
For example if a lamp on a 240 V supply has a
t current of 0.25 A in it, its power
where W is in joules (J), t in seconds (s) and P is in P = IV = 240 V × 0.25 A = 60 W
J/s or watts (W). This means that 60 J of energy are transferred to
From the definition of p.d. (Topic 4.2.3) we saw the lamp each second. Larger units of power are the
that if W is the work done when there is a steady kilowatt (kW) and the megawatt (MW) where
current I (in amperes) for time t (in seconds) in a
device (e.g. a lamp) with a p.d. V (in volts) across it, 1 kW = 1000 W and 1 MW = 1 000 000 W
as in Figure 4.2.31, then In units
W=I×t×V watts = amperes × volts (3)
Substituting for W in (1) gives P = I × t × V so It follows from (3) that since
t
watts
volts = (4)
P = IV amperes
and in time t the electrical energy transferred is the volt can be defined as a watt per ampere and
E = Pt so p.d. calculated from (4).
If all the energy is transferred to thermal energy in
E = IVt (2) a resistor of resistance R, then V = IR and the rate
To calculate the power P of an electrical appliance of transfer to thermal energy is given by
we multiply the current I in it by the p.d. V across it. P = V × I = IR × I = I 2R
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 4.2.5 Electrical working

That is, if the current is doubled, four times as

3V
much thermal energy is produced per second. Also,
P = V 2/R. The thermal energy can be transferred to
the surroundings by light and by heating.

torch
A V
Worked example (0–1 A)
lamp
(0–5 V)

A lamp of resistance 12 has a current of 0.5 A flowing

through it.
a Calculate the p.d. across the lamp.
p.d. V = IR = = 6V Figure 4.2.32

b What is the power of the lamp? Motor

P = IV = 0.5 A × 6 V = 3 W = 3 J/s Replace the lamp in Figure 4.2.32 by a small
electric motor. Attach a known mass m (in kg)
c How much energy is transferred to the lamp in 6 s?
to the axle of the motor with a length of thin
P = E/t so E = Pt = 3 J/s × 6 s = 18 J string and find the time t (in s) required to raise
the mass through a known height h (in m) at a
Now put this into practice
steady speed. Then the power output Po (in W)
1 A lamp has a resistance of 12 and a current of 1.0 A of the motor is given by
passing through it.
a Calculate the p.d. across the lamp. work done in raising mass mgh
b Calculate the power of the lamp. Po = =
c How much energy is transferred to the lamp
time taken t
in 10 s?
If the ammeter and voltmeter readings I and V
2 A small electric motor attached to a 12 V supply has a
current of 0.3 A passing through it. are noted while the mass is being raised, the
a Calculate the power of the motor in watts. power input Pi (in W) can be found from
b Give the power of the motor in joules/second.
c How much energy is transferred to the motor in
Pi = IV
1 minute? The efficiency of the motor is given by
Po
efficiency = × 100%
Practical work Pi

Also investigate the effect of a greater mass on:

Measuring electric power (i) the speed, (ii) the power output and (iii) the
For safe experiments/demonstrations related efficiency of the motor at its rated p.d.
to this topic, please refer to the Cambridge
IGCSE Physics Practical Skills Workbook that 16 When a p.d. of 30 V is applied across an
is also part of this series. electric motor, a current of 0.5 A flows
through it. Calculate the power supplied to
Lamp the motor.
Connect the circuit of Figure 4.2.32. Note the 17 An electric motor raises a mass of 500 g
ammeter and voltmeter readings and work out through 80 cm in 4 s. Calculate the output
the electric power supplied to the lamp in watts. power of the motor.

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Joulemeter
Instead of using an ammeter and a voltmeter to
measure the electrical energy transferred to an
appliance, a joulemeter can be used to measure
it directly in joules. The circuit connections are
shown in Figure 4.2.33.

electrical appliance
joulemeter
supply

input output

Figure 4.2.33 Connections to a joulemeter

Paying for electricity

Electricity supply companies charge for the
amount of energy they supply. A joule is a very Figure 4.2.34 Electricity meter with digital display
small amount of energy and a larger unit, the
kilowatt-hour (kWh), is used. Typical powers of some appliances are given in
A kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy used by a Table 4.2.1.
1 kW appliance in 1 hour. Table 4.2.1 Power of some appliances
1 kWh = 1000 J/s × 3600 s DVD player 20 W iron 1 kW
= 3 600 000 J = 3.6 MJ laptop computer 50 W fire 1, 2, 3 kW
A 3 kW electric fire working for 2 hours uses 6 kWh of light bulbs 60, 100 W kettle 2 kW
electrical energy – usually called 6 ‘units’. Electricity television 100 W immersion heater 3 kW
meters, which are joulemeters, are marked in kWh:
refrigerator 150 W cooker 6.4 kW
the latest have digital readouts like the one in
Figure 4.2.34. Note that the current required by a 6.4 kW cooker is
Key definition
given by
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) the electrical energy used by a 1 kW 6400 W
appliance in 1 hour I= P= = 28A
V 230 V
1 kWh = 1000 J/s × 3600 s
= 3 600 000 J = 3.6 MJ
This is too large a current to draw from the ring main of
a house and so a separate circuit must be used.

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 4.2.5 Electrical working

Worked example Test yourself

20 How much energy in joules is transferred to a
If the price of 1 kWh (1 unit) of electricity is 10 cents, how
100 watt lamp in
much will it cost to use a 3000 W electric heater for 3 hours?
a 1 second
Convert watts to kilowatts: 3000 W = 3 kW b 5 seconds
c 1 minute?
Electrical energy E = Pt = 3 kW × 3 h = 9 kWh
21 a What is the power of a lamp rated at 12 V 2 A?
Cost of using the heater = 9 kWh × 10 cents = 90 cents b How many joules of energy are transferred per
second to a 6 V 0.5 A lamp?
Now put this into practice
1 If the price of 1 kWh (1 unit) of electricity is 10 cents, how
much will it cost to use a 6.4 kW oven for 2 hours?
2 If the cost of 1 kWh (1 unit) of electricity is 10 cents, how
much will it cost to use a 150 W refrigerator for 12 hours?

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 4.2 you should know and give examples of conductors and insulators and
understand: explain the differences between them using a
that positive and negative charges are produced simple electron model
by rubbing and like charges repel while unlike describe the use of ammeters to measure current
charges attract
recall the relation I = Q/t and use it to solve
what is meant by an electric field and that the problems
direction of an electric field at a point is the direction distinguish between electron flow and
of the force on a positive charge at that point conventional current

that an electric current in a metal is a flow of free state that e.m.f. and p.d. are measured in volts
electrons from the negative to the positive terminal
of the battery around a circuit recall and use the equation V = W/Q
the difference between d.c. and a.c.
the meaning of the terms electromotive force and describe an experiment to measure resistance
potential difference and relate the resistance of a wire to its length and
how to use voltmeters, both analogue and digital diameter
how to solve simple problems using R = V/I
that electric circuits transfer energy, from a plot and explain I–V graphs for different
battery or mains supply, to the components of the conductors
circuit and then into the surroundings.
recall the relations E = IVt and P = IV and use them
After studying Topic 4.2 you should be able to: to solve simple problems on energy transfers
explain the charging of objects in terms of the define the kilowatt-hour and calculate of the cost
motion of negatively charged electrons and of using electrical energy.
describe simple experiments to show how
electrostatic charges are produced and detected

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

Exam-style questions 5 Study the circuits in Figure 4.2.35. The switch S

is open (there is a break in the circuit at this
1 a Explain in terms of electron movement what point). In which circuit would lamps Q and R light
happens when a piece of cellulose acetate but not lamp P?
becomes positively charged by being rubbed [Total: 1]
with a cloth. [3]
S S
b Two positive electrostatic charges are P Q R P Q R
brought close together. Will they be
repelled or attracted to each other? [1]
c A positive and a negative electric charge
A B
are brought close to each other. Will they
be attracted or repelled from each other? [1]
d How many types of electric charge S
P Q R P Q R
are there? [1]
[Total: 6]
2 a Describe an experiment to distinguish S
between electrical conductors and C D
insulators. [4] Figure 4.2.35
b Name two good electrical conductors. [2]
c Name one electrical insulator. [1] 6 Using the circuit in Figure 4.2.36, which of the
d Explain the difference between electrical following statements is correct?
conductors and insulators in terms of electrons. A When S1 and S2 are closed, lamps A and B are
[3] lit.
B With S1 open and S2 closed, A is lit and B is
[Total: 10] not lit.
C With S2 open and S1 closed, A and B are lit.
3 a Explain what is meant by an electric D With S1 open and S2 open, A is lit and B is not
field. [2] lit.
b Draw the electric field lines (including [Total: 1]
their direction) between two oppositely
charged conducting parallel plates. Indicate
the direction in which a positive charge S1 A B
would move if placed between the plates.
[4]
c State the units of charge. [1]
[Total: 7] S2

4 a State the direction of an electric field. [3] Figure 4.2.36

b Draw the field lines around a positively
charged conducting sphere. [4]
[Total: 7]

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 Exam-style questions

7 a Name the particles which carry a current

11 Three voltmeters V, V1 and V2 are connected as
in a metal. [1]
in Figure 4.2.38.
b Distinguish between direct current (d.c.)
a If V reads 18 V and V1 reads 12 V, what
and alternating current (a.c.). [2]
does V2 read? [2]
c Explain where you would connect and how you
b If the ammeter A reads 0.5 A, how much
would use an ammeter to measure the d.c.
electrical energy is changed to heat and
current in a circuit. [3]
light in lamp L1 in one minute? [4]
[Total: 6]
c Copy Figure 4.2.38 and mark with a + the
positive terminals of the ammeter and
8 a Define electric current. [2] voltmeters for correct connection. [4]
b An electric current passes through a device. [Total: 10]
i Calculate the current at a point in the
circuit where 180 C of charge passes in
1 minute. [2] L1 L2 A
ii If the current in the device is 2 A,
what charge passes through it
in 1 minute? [3]
V1 V2
[Total: 7]
9 a If the current in a floodlamp is 5 A, V
what charge passes in
i 10 s [2] Figure 4.2.38
ii 5 minutes? [2]
b Calculate how long it will take 300 C
to pass through the floodlight. [3]
12 The graph in Figure 4.2.39 illustrates how the
[Total: 7]
p.d. across the ends of a conductor is related
to the current in it.
10 The lamps and the cells in all the circuits of Figure a State the relationship between V and I
4.2.37 are the same. If the lamp in a has its full, that can be deduced from the graph,
normal brightness, what can you say about the giving reasons. [4]
brightness of the lamps in b, c, d, e and f? b Calculate the resistance of the conductor. [3]
[Total: 5] [Total: 7]
a b c

6 +

4 +
p.d./V

d e f +
2
+

0 1 2 3
current/A

Figure 4.2.37 Figure 4.2.39

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 4.2 ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

13 a Describe how the resistance of a wire depends 14 Sketch a current–voltage graph of

on its length and cross-sectional area. [3] a a resistor of constant resistance [3]
b The resistance of a wire of length 1 m b a semiconductor diode [3]
is 70 . Calculate the resistance of c a filament lamp. [3]
a 20 cm length of the wire. [3] [Total: 9]
c If the 1 m length of wire is replaced with
a wire of the same material and length
but of half the diameter calculate its
resistance. [4]
[Total: 10]

Alternative to Practical
15 a Write down an expression relating the 16 a Calculate the energy transferred to
resistance of a metal wire to the p.d. across a 6.4 kW cooker in 30 minutes. [3]
it and the current flowing through it. [1] b Calculate the cost of heating a tank of water
b Describe how you could measure the with a 3000 W immersion heater for 80 minutes
resistance of a wire; include the equipment if electricity costs 10 cents per kWh.
you would need. [4] [3]
c In an experiment to determine the resistance [Total: 6]
of a wire the following values were obtained 17 a Below is a list of wattages of various
for the current through the wire and the p.d. appliances. State which is most likely to be
across it. the correct one for each of the appliances
Current/A p.d./V named.
60 W 250 W 850 W 2 kW 3.5 kW
0.04 2.0
i kettle [1]
0.08 4.0 ii table lamp [1]
0.12 6.0 iii iron [1]
0.16 8.0 b Calculate the current in a 920 W appliance
0.20 10.0 if the supply voltage is 230 V. [4]
[Total: 7]
0.24 12.0

i Plot a graph of p.d. versus current. [3]

ii Determine the value of the resistor. [2]
[Total: 10]

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 4.3 Electric circuits
4.3.1 Circuit diagrams and components
FOCUS POINTS
Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing a variety of different components and understand how
these components behave in the circuit.

You will find that electrical circuits can contain many different types of components. The circuit
configuration is expressed by circuit diagrams. Conventional symbols represent the different types
of components. Such diagrams are used in the design of circuits and the analysis of their behaviour.

Some of the symbols used for the various parts of an

electric circuit are shown in Figure 4.3.1. So far you
have encountered cells, batteries, lamps, resistors, connecting wires crossing
wires joined
ammeters and voltmeters. In this section you will be wire (not joined)
introduced to some more of the components frequently
+ –
used in electric circuits including thermistors, light-
dependent resistors (LDRs), relays, light-emitting cell battery (two or more cells) switch
diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor diodes.
+ +
A V

ammeter lamp voltmeter

resistor fuse
variable resistor
Figure 4.3.1 Circuit symbols

4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

FOCUS POINTS
Understand that current in a series circuit is the same at any point.

Calculate the currents and p.d.s in series and parallel circuits.

Understand how to construct and use series and parallel circuits.

Calculate the combined e.m.f. and combined resistance in series circuits.
Know that in parallel circuits the current from the source is greater than the current in each branch and that
the effective resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either alone.

Understand that the sum of the currents into a junction equals the sum of the currents out of the
junction.
Calculate the effective resistance of two resistors in parallel.

Know that in a lighting circuit there are advantages to connecting lamps in parallel.

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 4.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

In the preceding topic you encountered the concepts of current, p.d. and resistance and how they
are related to each other in simple circuits. Electrical circuits can branch and reconnect. The net
effect depends on the way the components are connected. The sum of the currents into a junction
equals the sum of the currents out of the junction. This means that there are different effects
when resistors follow each other (in series) from those when they lie on parallel wires. There are
significant advantages in connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit.

A circuit usually contains several components and

the effect of connecting components together
in series and parallel configurations will be now
be considered. A R

Current in a series circuit

In a series circuit, such as the one shown in Figure
4.3.2, the different parts follow one after the other Q
and there is just one path for the current to follow.
The reading on an ammeter will be the same whether it
is placed in the position shown or at B, C or D. That is, P
current is not used up as it goes around the circuit. Figure 4.3.3 Currents in a parallel circuit
The current at every point in a series circuit is
the same. Practical work associated with currents in series and
parallel circuits can be found in Topic 4.2.2.
D
Key definition
Parallel circuit components are connected side by side
and the current splits into alternative paths and then
A C recombines; current from the source is larger than the
current in each branch

B
Current at a junction
Figure 4.3.2 Current in a series circuit
Electric current in a circuit cannot be stored.
This means that when circuits join or divide, the
Current in a parallel circuit total current going into a junction must be equal
to the total current leaving the junction. A simple
In a parallel circuit, such as the one shown in example of this is provided by the splitting and
Figure 4.3.3, the lamps are side by side and there re-joining of the current when it goes into and
are alternative paths for the current. The current comes out of a parallel circuit.
splits: some goes through one lamp and the rest
through the other. The current from the source is Potential difference in a series
larger than the current in each branch. For example,
if the ammeter reading was 0.4 A in the position circuit
shown, then if the lamps are identical, the reading The total p.d. across the components in a series
at P would be 0.2 A, and so would the reading at Q, circuit is equal to the sum of the individual p.d.s
giving a total of 0.4 A. Whether the current splits across each component. In Figure 4.3.4
equally or not depends on the lamps; for example,
V = V1 + V2 + V3
if the lamps are not identical, the current might
divide so that 0.3 A goes one way and 0.1 A by the where V1 is the p.d. across L1, V2 is the p.d.
other branch. across L2 and V3 is the p.d. across L3.

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 4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

4.5 V

X Y
L1 L2 L3

Figure 4.3.4 p.d. in a series circuit

For example, if V1 = 1.4 V, V2 = 1.5 V and

V3 = 1.6 V, then V will be (1.4 + 1.5 + 1.6) V = 4.5 V.

Potential difference in a parallel Figure 4.3.6 Compact batteries

circuit The cells in Figure 4.3.7b are in opposition and the
In the circuit of Figure 4.3.5 e.m.f. at X, Y is zero.
V1 = V2 If two 1.5 V cells are connected in parallel, as in
Figure 4.3.7c, the e.m.f. at terminals P, Q is still 1.5 V
The p.d. across devices in parallel in a circuit are but the arrangement behaves like a larger cell and
equal. will last longer.
1.5 V a
1.5 V 1.5 V

V1 A B

b
L1
L2 X Y

1.5 V 1.5 V

V2 c
1.5 V
Figure 4.3.5 p.d.s in a parallel circuit

The p.d. across an arrangement of parallel

resistance is the same as the p.d. across one
branch. 1.5 V

Practical work associated with voltage in series

and parallel circuits can be found in Topic 4.2.3.

Cells, batteries and e.m.f. P Q

A battery (Figure 4.3.6) consists of two or more Figure 4.3.7
electric cells. Greater e.m.f.s are obtained when
cells are joined in series, i.e. + of one to − of next; The p.d. at the terminals of a battery decreases
the e.m.f.s of each are added together to give the slightly when current is drawn from it. This effect is
combined e.m.f. In Figure 4.3.7a the two 1.5 V cells due to the internal resistance of the battery which
give an e.m.f. of 3 V at the terminals A, B. transfers electrical energy to thermal energy as

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 4.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

current flows through it. When no current is drawn V

from a battery it is said to be an ‘open circuit’ and R1 R2 R3
I I
its terminal p.d. is a maximum and equal to the
e.m.f. of the battery.
V1 V2 V3
In Topic 4.2.3 it was stated that if W (joules) is
the work done when charge Q (coulombs) passes Figure 4.3.9 Resistors in series
between two points, the p.d. V (volts) between
the points is given by But V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3. Also, if R is the
combined resistance, V = IR, and so
V = W/Q
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
The same equation can also be used to calculate
the e.m.f. of a supply. Dividing both sides by I,
R = R1 + R2 + R3
Test yourself
1 If the lamps are both the same in Figure 4.3.8 and if Worked example
ammeter A1 reads 0.50 A, what do ammeters A 2, A 3,
A 4 and A5 read? A 4.5 V battery is connected across three resistors of values
3 , 4 and 5 connected in series.
A1 a Calculate the current flowing through the resistors.
Combined resistance of resistors in series
A2 A4 R = R1 + R2 + R3 = =
Rearrange equation V = IR to give I = V/R then the current
flowing through the three resistors
4.5 V
I = = 0.38 A
12 Ω
A3 A5
b Calculate the p.d. across the 4 resistor.
p.d. across R2 is given by

Figure 4.3.8 V2 = IR2 = = 1.5 V

2 Three 2 V cells are connected in series and used as Now put this into practice
the supply for a circuit.
What is the p.d. at the terminals of the supply? 1 Three resistors of value 4 , 6 and 8 are connected in
series. Calculate their combined resistance.
3 How many joules of electrical energy does 1 C 2 A 4.5 V battery is connected across two resistors of value
gain on passing through 3 6 . Calculate
a a 2 V cell a the current flowing through the resistors
b three 2 V cells connected in series? b the p.d. across each.

Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

The resistors in Figure 4.3.9 are in series. The same
The resistors in Figure 4.3.10 are in parallel.
current I flows through each and the total voltage V
The voltage V between the ends of each is the same
across all three is the sum of the separate voltages
and the total current I equals the sum of the
across them, i.e.
currents in the separate branches, i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
I = I1 + I2 + I3

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 4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

R1 Key definition
I1
Combined resistance of two resistors in parallel less than
that of either resistor by itself

I I2
R2
I
You can check these statements are true in the
Worked example below.
Lamps are connected in parallel (Figure 4.3.5)
rather than in series in a lighting circuit.
R3
I3 The advantages are as follows:
(i) The p.d. across each lamp is fixed (at the
supply p.d.), so the lamp shines with the same
brightness irrespective of how many other lamps
are switched on.
V
(ii) Each lamp can be turned on and off
Figure 4.3.10 Resistors in parallel independently; if one lamp fails, the others can
still be operated.
But I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2 and I3 = V/R3. Practical work associated with measuring resistance
Also, if R is the combined resistance, I = V/R, can be found in Topic 4.2.4.
V = V +V +V
R R1 R2 R3
Worked example
Dividing both sides by V,
A p.d. of 24 V from a battery is applied to the network of
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 resistors in Figure 4.3.11a.
R R1 R2 R3 a What is the combined resistance of the 6 and 12
resistors in parallel?
For the simpler case of two resistors in parallel Let R1 = resistance of 6 and 12 in parallel.
Then
1 = 1 + 1 = R2 + R1
1 1 1 2 1 3
R R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 = + = + =
R1 6 12 12 12 12
R + R1
∴1 = 2
12
∴ R1 = = 4Ω
R R1 R2 3
24 V
Inverting both sides,
RR product of resistances
R= 1 2 =
R1 + R2 sum of resistances
6Ω

8Ω

Properties of parallel circuits 12 Ω

We can summarise the above results for parallel
circuits as follows: Figure 4.3.11a
(i) the current from the source is larger than the
current in each branch b What is the current in the 8 resistor?
Let R = total resistance of circuit = 4 , that is,
(ii) the combined resistance of two resistors R = 12 . The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure
in parallel is less than that of either resistor 4.3.11b, and if I is the current in it then, since V = 24 V
by itself.
24 V
I =V = = 2A
R 12 Ω
∴ current in 8 resistor = 2 A

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 4.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

24 V Now put this into practice

1 a Calculate the combined resistance R of a 1 , 2
and 3 resistor connected in series.
b A 12 V battery is connected across the resistors.
I I Calculate the current I flowing through each
resistor.
4Ω 8Ω c What is the p.d. across each resistor?
2 a Calculate the combined resistance R of 2 and 3
resistors connected in parallel.
Figure 4.3.11b b A 12 V battery is connected across the resistors.
What is the p.d. across each resistor?
c What is the voltage across the parallel network?
c Calculate the current I flowing through
Let V1 = voltage across parallel network in
i the 2 resistor
Figure 4.3.11a. Then
ii the 3 resistor.
V1 = I × R1 = = 8V
d What is the current in the 6 resistor?
Let I1 = current in 6 resistor, then since V1 = 8 V
V1 8V 4
I1 = = = A
6Ω 6Ω 3

Going further
Resistor colour code 1st 2nd number of
Figure Colour

Resistors have colour-coded bands as shown in figure figure noughts 0 black

tolerance
Figure 4.3.12. In the orientation shown the first two (accuracy)
1 brown
bands on the left give digits 2 and 7; the third band 2 red
gives the number of noughts (3) and the fourth band 3 orange
gives the resistor’s ‘tolerance’ (or accuracy, here ±10%). 4 yellow
So the resistor has a value of 27 000 (±10%).
silver 5 green

red violet orange 10% 6 blue

2 7 000 7 violet
8 grey
resistor value 27 000 ( 10%) 9 white
27 k ( 10%)
Tolerance
5% gold
10% silver
20% no band

Figure 4.3.12 Colour code for resistors

Test yourself
4 a Write down the equation for calculating the
5 a Write down the equation for calculating the
combined resistance R of resistors R1, R2 and R3
combined resistance R of resistors R1 and R2
connected in series.
connected in parallel.
b Is the current in R1 larger, the same or smaller
b Is the current in R1 larger, the same or
than in R3?
smaller than in R2 if R1 is smaller than R2?

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 4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

FOCUS POINTS
Know that for a constant current, as resistance increases so does the p.d. across an electrical conductor.

Describe how a variable potential divider works and use the correct equation for two resistors used as a
potential divider.

The action of potential dividers and a range of other components, including thermistors, LDRs,
relays, light-emitting diodes and semiconductor diodes, will be considered in this section.
These components are widely used in electrical circuits in applications ranging from intruder
and temperature alarms to indicator lamps and switching circuits.

Increase in resistance of a This means that the p.d. across the fixed resistor
conductor increases relative to that across the thermistor.
The p.d. across the fixed resistor could then be
In a metal the current in a circuit is carried by
used to monitor temperature.
free electrons. When the temperature of the metal
A variable resistor can also be used as a
increases, the atoms vibrate faster and it becomes
potential divider (see Figure 4.2.26b, p. 199).
more difficult for the electrons to move through
Moving the contact on the resistor changes the
the material. This means that the resistance of the
output p.d.
metal increases.
From Ohm’s law V = IR, so that if R increases
then if a constant current I is to be maintained, the
Potential divider
p.d. V across the conductor also increases. In the circuit shown in Figure 4.3.13 overleaf, two
The effect of increasing resistance can be seen resistors R1 and R2 are in series with a supply of
in the I–V curve for a filament lamp (Figure 4.2.29c, voltage V. The current in the circuit is
p. 201). When the current increases, the metal supply voltage V
filament heats up and its resistance increases as is I= =
total resistance ( R1 + R2 )
indicated by the curvature of the graph.
So the voltage across R1 is
V × R1 R1
Variable potential divider V1 = I × R1 = =V ×
The resistance of materials other than metals (R1 + R2) (R1 + R2)
does not necessarily rise when their temperature and the voltage across R2 is
increases. For example, in a semiconductor
thermistor, the resistance decreases when its V × R2 R2
V2 = I × R2 = =V ×
temperature increases. (R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 )
If a thermistor is part of a potential divider
circuit (see Figure 4.2.30, p. 201) then its resistance Also the ratio of the voltages across the two
decreases when the external temperature rises. resistors is
The combined resistance of the two resistors V1 R
then decreases, so if the supply voltage remains = 1
V2 R2
constant, the current in the circuit will increase.

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 4.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

I Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

The action of an LDR depends on the fact that the
resistance of the semiconductor cadmium sulfide
R1 V1 decreases as the intensity of the light falling on
it increases.
V An LDR and a circuit showing its action are
shown in Figures 4.3.14a and b. Note the circuit
R2 V2 symbol for an LDR, sometimes seen with a circle.
When light from a lamp falls on the window of the
LDR, its resistance decreases and the increased
I current lights the lamp.
Figure 4.3.13 Potential divider circuit LDRs are used in photographic exposure meters
and in series with a resistor to provide an input
signal in switching circuits such as a light-operated
Worked example intruder alarm.
Resistors R1 = 80 and R2 = 40 are connected in series a b LDR
and used as a potential divider.
a Calculate the ratio of the p.d.s across the resistors.
From the potential divider equation
V1/V2 = R1/R2 = 80 =2
6V
Ratio of voltages is 2:1. d.c.
b If the supply voltage is 24 V, what is the p.d. across
each resistor?
Dividing the supply voltage in the ratio 2:1 gives
24 V 6 V 0.06 A
V1 = 2 × = 16 V
3
and
24 V
V2 = 1 × = 8V c
3
Now put this into practice
R relay
1 Write down the equation relating p.d.s and resistances
in a potential divider circuit. +
2 Resistors R1 = 9 and R2 = 6 are connected in series 6V
and used as a potential divider. d.c.
a Calculate the ratio of the p.d.s across the resistors.
b If the supply voltage is 30 V, what is the p.d. across bell
each resistor? LDR

Figure 4.3.14 a LDR; b LDR demonstration circuit;

c light-operated intruder alarm

Figure 4.3.14c shows how an LDR can be used to

switch a relay (Topic 4.5.3). The LDR forms part of
a potential divider across the 6 V supply. When light
falls on the LDR, the resistance of the LDR, and
hence the voltage across it, decreases. There is a
corresponding increase in the voltage across resistor
R and the relay; when the voltage across the relay

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 4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

coil reaches a high enough p.d. (its operating p.d.) Figure 4.3.15c shows how a thermistor can be used
it acts as a switch and the normally open contacts to switch a relay. The thermistor forms part of a
close, allowing current to flow to the bell, which potential divider across the d.c. source. When the
rings. If the light is removed, the p.d. across temperature rises, the resistance of the thermistor
resistor R and the relay drops below the operating falls, and so does the p.d. across it. The voltage
p.d. of the relay so that the relay contacts open across resistor R and the relay increases. When the
again; power to the bell is cut and it stops ringing. voltage across the relay reaches its operating p.d.
the normally open contacts close, so that the circuit
Thermistor to the bell is completed and it rings. If a variable
A negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor resistor is used in the circuit, the temperature at
contains semiconducting metallic oxides whose which the alarm sounds can be varied.
resistance decreases markedly when the temperature
rises. The temperature may rise either because the Relays
thermistor is directly heated or because a current A switching circuit cannot supply much power to an
is in it. appliance so a relay is often included; this allows
Figure 4.3.15a shows one type of thermistor. the small current provided by the switching circuit
Figure 4.3.15b shows the symbol for a thermistor in to control the larger current needed to operate a
a circuit to demonstrate how the thermistor works. buzzer as in a temperature-operated switch or other
When the thermistor is heated with a match, the device. Relays controlled by a switching circuit
lamp lights. can also be used to switch on the mains supply for
A thermistor in series with a meter marked in electrical appliances in the home. In Figure 4.3.16
°C can measure temperatures (Topic 4.2.4). Used in if the output of the switching circuit is ‘high’ (5 V),
series with a resistor it can also provide an input a small current flows to the relay which closes the
signal to switching circuits. mains switch; the relay also isolates the low voltage
circuit from the high voltage mains supply.
a b
thermistor 0 or 5 V

output of
switching relay
6V circuit
d.c.

0V ~ mains
supply

6 V 0.06 A
appliance
c

R relay
Figure 4.3.16 Use of a relay to switch mains supply
+
6V
d.c

thermistor bell

Figure 4.3.15 a Thermistor; b thermistor demonstration

circuit; c high-temperature alarm

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 4.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Light-emitting diode (LED) a b

An LED, shown in Figure 4.3.17a, is a diode made

from the semiconductor gallium arsenide phosphide.
LED
When forward biased (with the cathode C connected segment
to the negative terminal of the voltage supply, as
shown in Figure 4.3.17b), the current in it makes it
emit red, yellow or green light. No light is emitted
on reverse bias (when the anode A is connected Figure 4.3.18 LED numerical display
to the negative terminal of the voltage supply).
If the reverse bias voltage exceeds 5 V, it may Semiconductor diode
cause damage.
A diode is a device that lets current pass in one
In use, an LED must have a suitable resistor R
direction only. One is shown in Figure 4.3.19 with
in series with it (e.g. 300 on a 5 V supply) to
its symbol. (You will also come across the symbol
limit the current (typically 10 mA). Figure 4.3.17b
without its outer circle.) The wire nearest the band
shows the symbol for an LED in a demonstration
is the cathode and the one at the other end is
circuit.
the anode.
a b
R cathode
coloured translucent
plastic case

‘flat’ A
5V circle
LED
optional
cathode C anode A C

anode
Figure 4.3.17 LED and demonstration circuit

LEDs are used as indicator lamps on computers, Figure 4.3.19 A diode and its symbol
radios and other electronic equipment. Many
clocks, calculators, video recorders and measuring The typical I–V graph is shown in Figure 4.2.29b
instruments have seven-segment red or green (Topic 4.2.4). The diode conducts when the anode
numerical displays (Figure 4.3.18a). Each segment goes to the + terminal of the voltage supply and
is an LED and, depending on which have a voltage the cathode to the − terminal (Figure 4.3.20a).
across them, the display lights up the numbers 0 It is then forward-biased; its resistance is small and
to 9, as in Figure 4.3.18b. conventional current passes in the direction of the
LEDs are small, reliable and have a long life; arrow on its symbol. If the connections are the other
their operating speed is high and their current way around, it does not conduct; its resistance is
requirements are very low. large and it is reverse-biased (Figure 4.3.20b).
Diode lasers operate in a similar way to LEDs but The lamp in the circuit shows when the diode
emit coherent laser light; they are used in optical is conducting, as the lamp lights up. It also acts
fibre communications as transmitters. as a resistor to limit the current when the diode
is forward-biased. Otherwise the diode might
overheat and be damaged.

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 4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

a A diode is a non-ohmic conductor. It is useful as

a rectifier for changing alternating current (a.c.)
to direct current (d.c.). Figure 4.3.21 shows the
1N4001 rectified output voltage obtained from a diode
when it is connected to an a.c. supply.
1.5 V V rectified output voltage from diode
1.25V
0.25A

current passes t

a.c. input voltage

Figure 4.3.21 Rectification by a diode

no current

Figure 4.3.20 Demonstrating the action of a diode

Test yourself
6 Resistors R1 = 12 and R2 = 36 are connected 8 Identify the following components from their
in series and used as a potential divider. symbols.
a Draw a potential divider circuit containing
a battery and resistors R1 and R2 in series.
b Calculate the ratio of the p.d.s across the A B
resistors.
c If the supply voltage is 20 V, what is the p.d.
across each resistor?
C D
7 Identify the following components from their
symbols. Figure 4.3.23

9 A circuit is required to demonstrate that the

resistance of a thermistor decreases when its
A B C
temperature rises. Draw a circuit diagram that
could be used containing a battery, a lamp and a
thermistor.
D E

Figure 4.3.22

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 4.3 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 4.3 you should know and After studying Topic 4.3 you should be able to:
understand: use the equations for resistors in series, and recall
how to connect simple series and parallel circuits that the combined resistance of two resistors in
that the current in a series circuit is the same parallel is less than that of either resistor alone
everywhere in the circuit and that for a parallel
circuit, the current from the source is larger than calculate current, p.d. and resistance in parallel
the current in each branch circuits; describe the action and calculate p.d. in
the effect on p.d. of a change in the resistance of a potential divider circuits
conductor
the advantages of having lamps connected in recognise and draw symbols for a variety of
parallel in lighting circuits. components in electric circuits and be able to draw
and interpret circuit diagrams incorporating those
components, and explain their behaviours in a
circuit.

Exam-style questions
1 Three voltmeters are connected as in
Figure 4.3.24. 2 The resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 in Figure 4.3.25
are all equal in value.
What would you expect each of the voltmeters
A, B and C to read, assuming that the
V1
connecting wires in the circuit have negligible
resistance?
V
A [4]
V2
B [2]
C [2]
A B C
Figure 4.3.24

What are the voltmeter readings x, y and z in

the table below (which were obtained with three R1 R2 R3 R4
different batteries)?
V/V V1/V V2 /V 12 V
x 12 6 Figure 4.3.25
6 4 y
z
[Total: 8]
12 4

x [2]
y [2]
z [2]
[Total: 6]

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 Exam-style questions

R1 R2
3 a Calculate the effective resistance between
A and B in Figure 4.3.26. [4]
4Ω V1 V2

6V

A B Figure 4.3.28
4Ω
[Total: 10]
Figure 4.3.26 6 A battery of 12 V is connected across
a light-dependent resistor (LDR) in series
b Figure 4.3.27 shows three resistors. with a resistor R.
Calculate their combined resistance a Draw the circuit diagram. [2]
in ohms. [6] b The value of the resistor R is 20
6Ω and the resistance of the LDR is 28 .
Calculate
6Ω i the value of the current in the circuit [2]
2Ω
ii the p.d. across the resistor [2]
iii the p.d. across the LDR. [2]
c The intensity of the light falling on the
Figure 4.3.27 LDR increases. State what happens to
[Total: 10] i the resistance of the LDR [1]
ii the current in the circuit [1]
iii the p.d. across R. [1]
4 a Resistors of value 6 , 7 and 8 are [Total: 11]
connected in series.
i Calculate the combined resistance 7 Figure 4.3.29a shows a lamp, a semiconductor
of the resistors. [2] diode and a cell connected in series. The lamp
ii The resistance of one of the resistors lights when the diode is connected in this
increases. If the current through the direction. Say what happens to each of the lamps
combination must remain unchanged in b, c and d. Give reasons for your answers.
does the supply voltage need to be b [3]
increased or decreased? [1]
c [4]
b Give two advantages of connecting lamps
in parallel. [4] d [3]
c Two resistors of the same size are connected a b
in parallel. Is the resistance of the
combination greater or less than that of D D1 L2
one of the resistors? [1] L
[Total: 8] L1 D2
5 What are the readings V1 and V2 on the
high-resistance voltmeters in the potential c d
divider circuit of Figure 4.3.28 if
a R1 = R2 = 10 k [2] E1 D L1 E1 D1 L1

b R1 = 10 k , R2 = 50 k [4]
E2 L2 E2 D2 L2
c R1 = 20 k , R2 = 10 k [4]

Figure 4.3.29

[Total: 10]

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 4.4 Electrical safety
FOCUS POINTS
State various potential hazards when using a main supply.
Know the three wires that make up a mains circuit and where switches should be placed to enable the
mains supply to be switched off safely.
Understand how trip switches and fuses work and choose appropriate settings and values for each.
Know that a fuse protects the circuit and the cabling for electrical appliances and that electrical
appliances are made safer by having the outer casing non-conducting or earthed.

In the twenty-first century we would be lost without all the benefits electricity supplies bring us.
Because electric circuits transfer substantial amounts of energy, use of the mains supply requires
caution and electrical safety is important. You will learn that overheated wires and damaged
insulation pose fire risks. Damp or wet conditions increase the risk of electric shock from faulty
wiring in appliances since water reduces the electrical resistance of a person’s skin. If too many
appliances are connected to a circuit, the current flowing in the circuit increases and can cause
cables to overheat. To prevent problems, devices such as fuses and trip switches (circuit breakers)
are installed to break the circuit before the safe current level is exceeded. Safety features
incorporated into appliances include double insulation and earthing of metal casing via the mains
plug.

Dangers of electricity It is the size of the current (not the voltage) and
the length of time for which it acts which determine
There are a number of hazards associated with the strength of an electric shock. The path the
using the mains electricity supply. current takes influences the effect of the shock;
some parts of the body are more vulnerable than
Key definition others. A current of 100 mA through the heart is
Hazards associated with using mains electricity supply likely to be fatal.
include damaged insulation, overheated cables, damp Damp conditions increase the severity of an
conditions, excess current from overloaded plugs, electric shock because water lowers the resistance
extension leads, single and multiple sockets
of the path to earth; wearing shoes with insulating
rubber soles or standing on a dry insulating floor
Electric shock increases the resistance between a person and earth
Electric shock occurs if current flows from an and will reduce the severity of an electric shock.
electric circuit through a person’s body to earth. To avoid the risk of getting an electric shock:
This can happen if there is damaged insulation or (i) switch off the electrical supply to an appliance
faulty wiring. The typical resistance of dry skin before starting repairs
is about 10 000 , so if a person touches a wire (ii) use plugs that have an earth pin and a cord grip;
carrying electricity at 240 V, an estimate of the a rubber or plastic case is preferred
current flowing through them to earth would be (iii) do not allow appliances or cables to come into
I = V/R = 240/10 000 = 0.024 A = 24 mA. contact with water, for example holding a
For wet skin, the resistance is lowered to about hairdryer with wet hands in a bathroom can be
1000 (since water is a good conductor of dangerous; keep electrical appliances well away
electricity) so the current would increase to from baths and swimming pools
around 240 mA; a lethal current.

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 Electric lighting

(iv) do not have long cables trailing across a room, The factors leading to fire or electric shock can
under a carpet that is walked over regularly or be summarised as follows:
in other situations where the insulation can
damaged insulation → electric shock and fire risk
become damaged. Take particular care when using
electrical cutting devices (such as hedge cutters) overheated cables → fire risk
not to cut the supply cable. damp conditions → increased severity of electric shocks
In case of an electric shock, take the following overloading – → fire risk and electric shock
action: plugs, extension
1 Switch off the supply if the shocked person is still leads or sockets
touching the equipment.
2 Send for qualified medical assistance.
3 If breathing or heartbeat has stopped, commence Electric lighting
CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) by applying
chest compressions at the rate of about 100 a LED lights
minute until there are signs of chest movement LEDs (Topic 4.3) are increasingly being used in the
or medical assistance arrives. lighting of our homes. These semiconductor devices
are 40–50% efficient in transferring electrical
Fire risks energy to light. The efficiency of the filament lamps
If flammable material is placed too close to a hot used in the past was only about 10%.
appliance such as an electric heater, it may catch
fire. Similarly, if the electrical wiring in the walls of Fluorescent lamps
a house becomes overheated, a fire may start. Wires Fluorescent strip lamps (Figure 4.4.1a) are long
become hot when they carry electrical currents – lasting and efficient. When one is switched on, the
the larger the current carried, the hotter a particular mercury vapour emits invisible ultraviolet radiation
wire will become, since the rate of production of which makes the powder on the inside of the
heat equals I 2R (see p. 202). tube fluoresce (glow), i.e. visible light is emitted.
To reduce the risk of fire through overheated Different powders give different colours.
cables, the maximum current in a circuit should be Compact energy-saving fluorescent lamps (Figure
limited by taking the following precautions: 4.4.1b) are available to fit straight into normal light
(i) Use the correct fuse in an appliance or plug. sockets, either bayonet or screw-in.
(ii) Do not attach too many appliances to a circuit
via extension leads or single and multiple a
electrodes b
sockets.
(iii)Do not overload circuits by using too many adapters.
(iv) Appliances such as heaters use large amounts of
power (and hence current), so do not connect
mercury glass fluorescent
them to a lighting circuit designed for low vapour tube powder
current use. (Thick wires have a lower resistance
than thin wires so are used in circuits expected Figure 4.4.1 Fluorescent lamps
to carry high currents.)
Damaged insulation or faulty wiring which leads to
a large current flowing to earth through flammable
material can also start a fire.

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 4.4 ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Going further
Electric heating designed to warm air which is drawn through the heater
by natural or forced convection. In storage heaters the
Heating elements elements heat fire-clay bricks during the night using
‘off-peak’ electricity. On the following day these cool
In domestic appliances such as electric fires, cookers, down, giving off the stored heat to warm the room.
kettles and irons the ‘elements’ (Figure 4.4.2) are
made from Nichrome wire. This is an alloy of nickel Three-heat switch
and chromium which does not oxidise (and so become
A three-heat switch is sometimes used to control
brittle) when the current makes it red hot.
heating appliances. It has three settings and uses
The elements in radiant electric fires are at red heat two identical elements. On ‘high’, the elements are in
(about 900°C) and the radiation they emit is directed parallel across the supply voltage (Figure 4.4.3a); on
into the room by polished reflectors. In convector types ‘medium’, there is only current in one (Figure 4.4.3b);
the element is below red heat (about 450°C) and is on ‘low’, they are in series (Figure 4.4.3c).

element a High
element
switch elements

mains

b Medium
cooker hob
cooker hob mains
radiant fire
radiant fire

c Low

mains

Figure 4.4.3 Three-heat switch

iron
iron
element
element

kettle
kettle
Figure 4.4.2 Heating elements

House circuits
Electricity usually comes to our homes by an the top socket on the power points in the home to
underground cable containing two wires, the live (L) earth. The supply in many countries is a.c. (Topic
and the neutral (N). The neutral is earthed at the 4.2) and the live wire is alternately positive and
local sub-station and so there is no p.d. between it negative. Study the typical house circuits shown
and earth. A third wire, the earth (E) also connects in Figure 4.4.4.

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 House circuits

supply CONSUMER UNIT

company’s
main meter
fuse
to
5A 15 A 30 A 30 A
N earth
L

N L N L
supply
main immersion cooker
cable
switch heater
N E
LN
L
N
LIGHTING CIRCUIT RING MAIN
L E
CIRCUIT L
L
two-way N
L
switches E
L N
E
Figure 4.4.4 Electric circuits in a house

Circuits in parallel rated at 13 A, are tapped off from them. Thinner

wires can be used since the current to each socket
Every circuit is connected in parallel with the supply, flows by two paths, i.e. from both directions in the
i.e. across the live and neutral, and receives the full ring. The ring has a 30 A fuse and if it has, say, ten
mains p.d. (for example 230 V). sockets, then all can be used so long as the total
The advantages of having appliances connected current does not exceed 30 A, otherwise the wires
in parallel, rather than in series, can be seen by overheat. A house may have several ring circuits,
studying the lighting circuit in Figure 4.4.4. each serving a different area.
(i) The p.d. across each lamp is fixed (at the
mains p.d.), so the lamp shines with the same
brightness irrespective of how many other lamps
Fuses
are switched on. A fuse protects a circuit; it is always placed in the
(ii) Each lamp can be turned on and off live wire. It is a short length of wire of material
independently; if one lamp fails, the others can with a low melting temperature, often ‘tinned
still be operated. copper’, which melts and breaks the circuit when the
In a staircase circuit, the light is controlled from current in it exceeds a certain value. Two reasons
two places by the two two-way switches. for excessive currents are ‘short circuits’ due to
worn insulation on connecting wires and overloaded
circuits. Without a fuse the wiring would become
Switches hot in these cases and could cause a fire. A fuse
Switches and fuses are always in the live wire. should ensure that the current-carrying capacity of
If they were in the neutral, light switches and power the wiring is not exceeded. In general, the thicker a
sockets would be ‘live’ when switches were ‘off’ or cable is, the more current it can carry, but each size
fuses ‘blown’. A fatal shock could then be obtained has a limit.
by, for example, touching the element of an electric Two types of fuse are shown in Figure 4.4.5. Always
fire when it was switched off. switch off before replacing a fuse, and always replace
with one of the same value as recommended by the
Ring main circuit manufacturer of the appliance. A 3 A (red) fuse will
The live and neutral wires each run in two complete be needed for appliances with powers up to 720 W, or
rings round the house and the power sockets, each 13 A (brown) for those between 720 W and 3 kW.

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 4.4 ELECTRICAL SAFETY

a b The residual current circuit breaker (RCCB), also called

a residual current device (RCD), is an adapted circuit
fuse
breaker which is used when the resistance of the
wire earth path between the consumer and the substation
is not small enough for a fault-current to blow the
cartridge fuse or trip the circuit breaker. It works by detecting
fuse
any difference between the currents in the live and
neutral wires; when these become unequal due to an
insulating earth fault (i.e. some of the current returns to the
holder substation via the case of the appliance and earth)
Figure 4.4.5 a Two types of fuse; b the circuit symbol it breaks the circuit before there is any danger. They
for a fuse have high sensitivity and a quick response.
An RCD should be plugged into a socket supplying
Typical power ratings for various appliances are shown
power to a portable appliance such as an electric
in Table 4.2.1, p. 204. Calculation of the current in
lawnmower or hedge trimmer. In these cases, the
a device allows the correct size of fuse to be chosen.
risk of electrocution is greater because the user is
generally making a good earth connection through
Trip switches (circuit breakers) the feet.
Trip switches (also known as circuit breakers)
(Figure 4.4.6) are now used instead of fuses in
consumer units. They contain an electromagnet Worked example
(Topic 4.1) which, when the current exceeds the rated
An electric heater has a power rating of 2 kW.
value of the circuit breaker, becomes strong enough
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in the
to separate a pair of contacts and break the circuit. heater.
In the design shown in Figure 4.4.6, when the Power P = IV
current is large enough in the electromagnet, the Rearrange the equation to give
iron bolt is attracted far enough for a plunger to I= =
P 2000 W
= 8.3A
be released, allowing the push switch to open and V 240 V
contact to the rest of the circuit to be broken. b Should a 3 A or 13 A fuse or trip switch setting be chosen
Circuit breakers operate much faster than fuses to protect the heater?
The fuse/trip switch setting should have a higher rating
and have the advantage that they can be reset by than the current in the heater, so a 13 A fuse/trip switch
pressing a button. As for a fuse, the trip switch setting should be chosen.
setting should be chosen to be a little higher
than the value of the current in the device being Now put this into practice
protected. 1 An electric heater has a power rating of 1.5 kW.
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in
the heater.
b Should a 3 A, 13 A or 30 A fuse be used to protect the
heater?
2 A television has a power rating of 100 W.
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in
the television.
b Should a 3 A, 13 A or 30 A fuse be chosen to protect the
television?
3 An electric cooker has a power rating of 6.4 kW.
a If the supply voltage is 240 V, calculate the current in
the cooker.
b Should a 3 A, 13 A or 30 A trip switch setting be chosen
to protect the oven?

Figure 4.4.6 Circuit breakers

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 Double insulation

Earthing Test yourself

A ring main has a third wire which goes to the top 1 The largest number of 100 W lamps connected
socket on all power points and is earthed by being in parallel which can safely be run from a 230 V
connected either to a metal water pipe entering the supply with a 5 A fuse is
house or to an earth connection on the supply cable. A 2
This third wire is a safety precaution to prevent B 5
electric shock should an appliance develop a fault. C 11
The earth pin on a three-pin plug is connected to D 12
the metal case of the appliance which is thus joined 2 What is the maximum power in kilowatts of the
appliance(s) that can be connected safely to a 13 A
to earth by a path of almost zero resistance. If then, 230 V mains socket?
for example, the element of an electric fire breaks or 3 a To what part of an appliance is the earth pin on
sags and touches the case, a large current flows to a three-pin plug attached?
earth and ‘blows’ the fuse. Otherwise the case would b How can a two-pin appliance be designed to
become ‘live’ and anyone touching it would receive reduce the risk of the user receiving an electric
a shock which might be fatal, especially if they were shock if a fault develops?
‘earthed’ by, say, standing in a damp environment,
such as on a wet concrete floor.

Double insulation
Appliances such as vacuum cleaners, hairdryers and
food mixers are usually double insulated. Connection
to the supply is by a two-core insulated cable, with
no earth wire, and the appliance is enclosed in a
non-conducting plastic case. Any metal attachments
that the user might touch are fitted into this case
so that they do not make a direct connection with
the internal electrical parts, such as a motor. There
is then no risk of a shock should a fault develop.

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 4.4 you should know and After studying Topic 4.4 you should be able to:
understand recall the hazards of damaged insulation, damp
why switches, fuses and circuit breakers are wired conditions, overheated cables and excess current
into the live wire in house circuits from overloaded circuits
the benefits of earthing metal cases and double state the function of a fuse and choose the
insulation. appropriate fuse rating for an appliance; explain
the use, choice and operation of a trip switch.

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 4.4 ELECTRICAL SAFETY

Exam-style questions
1 There are hazards in using the mains electricity 3 a A child whose hands are damp touches a wire
supply. carrying electricity at 240 V. The resistance
a Name two factors which can increase the risk of the child’s skin between hand and earth is
of fire in circuits connected to the mains 800 .
supply. [2] i Calculate the current which would flow
b Name two factors which can increase the risk through the child. [2]
of electric shock. [2] ii State whether the current you
c Describe the steps you would take before calculated in i is likely to be lethal. [1]
replacing a blown fuse in an appliance. [3] iii State how the current could be
d Explain why an electrical appliance is double reduced. [2]
insulated or the outer casing is earthed. [3] b Work out the size of fuse (3 A or 13 A) which
[Total: 10] should be used in the following appliances if
2 Fuses are widely used in electrical circuits the supply is 230 V
connected to the mains supply. i a 150 W television [2]
a Explain the function of a fuse in a circuit. [2] ii a 900 W iron [2]
b The circuits of Figures 4.4.7a and b show iii a 2 kW kettle. [2]
‘short circuits’ between the live (L) and [Total: 11]
neutral (N) wires. In both, the fuse has blown
but whereas circuit a is now safe, b is still
dangerous even though the lamp is out which
suggests the circuit is safe. Explain. [4]
a b
fuse
L L

fuse
N N

short circuit short circuit

Figure 4.4.7 [Total: 6]

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 4.5 Electromagnetic effects
4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction
FOCUS POINTS
Know that an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in a conductor when it moves across a magnetic field
or a changing magnetic field links with the conductor.
Describe how electromagnetic induction can be demonstrated and state the factors which affect the size of
an induced e.m.f.

Know that the direction of an induced e.m.f. is such as to oppose the change causing it.
Determine the relative directions of force, field and induced current.

Electricity and magnetism are closely linked. You will learn that an electrical conductor moving
through a magnetic field can induce a current. Similarly, an electrical conductor in a changing
magnetic field acquires an electromotive force (e.m.f.). You will find out about the factors which
determine the size of the induced e.m.f. Electromagnetic induction plays an important role in many
electrical applications from induction cookers and motors to electricity generators.

The effect of producing electricity from magnetism magnet

was discovered in 1831 by Faraday and is called
electromagnetic induction. It led to the
construction of generators for producing electrical 1
3
energy in power stations. N
5
wire
Electromagnetic induction 6
2
4 S

experiments
Two ways of investigating electromagnetic induction
follow.
Straight wire and U-shaped magnet
First the wire is held at rest between the poles of
the magnet. It is then moved in each of the six
directions shown in Figure 4.5.1 and the meter
sensitive
observed. Only when it is moving upwards (direction centre-zero meter
1) or downwards (direction 2) is there a deflection
on the meter, indicating an induced current in the Figure 4.5.1 A current is induced in the wire when it is
moved up or down between the magnet poles.
wire. The deflection is in opposite directions in
these two cases and only lasts while the wire is in
motion. is induced in the coil in one direction as the
magnet is moved in and in the opposite direction
Bar magnet and coil as it is moved out. There is no deflection when
The magnet is pushed into the coil, one pole first the magnet is at rest. The results are the same if
(Figure 4.5.2 overleaf), then held still inside it. the coil is moved instead of the magnet, i.e. only
It is then withdrawn. The meter shows that current relative motion is needed.

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

These facts led him to state that:

The size of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional
to the rate at which the conductor cuts magnetic
field lines.
sensitive
centre-zero coil (600 turns) Key definition
meter
Factors affecting the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
bar magnet e.m.f. increases with increases of
(i) the speed of motion of the magnet or coil,
Figure 4.5.2 A current is induced in the coil when the (ii) the number of turns on the coil,
magnet is moved in or out. (iii) the strength of the magnet

This experiment indicates that an e.m.f. is induced in

a conductor when it is linked by a changing magnetic
field or when it moves across a magnetic field. Direction of induced e.m.f.
The direction of an induced e.m.f. opposes the
Practical work change causing it.
In Figure 4.5.3a the magnet approaches the coil,
Induced currents north pole first. The induced e.m.f. and resulting
Connect a sensitive centre-zero meter to a current flow should be in a direction that makes
600 turn coil as shown in Figure 4.5.2. the coil behave like a magnet with its top a north
pole. The downward motion of the magnet will
Record the values and the direction of the
then be opposed since like poles repel.
current detected by the meter when you move
When the magnet is withdrawn, the top of the
the magnet first towards the coil and then
coil should become a south pole (Figure 4.5.3b)
away from the coil. Try moving the magnet
and attract the north pole of the magnet, so
faster; record your results again. Repeat the
hindering its removal. The induced e.m.f. and
procedure by moving the coil instead of the
current are thus in the opposite direction to that
magnet.
when the magnet approaches.
1 When is a current produced in the circuit?
2 How is the induced e.m.f. related to the a b
current in the circuit?
N N

Factors affecting the size of an N S

induced e.m.f. 0 0

To explain electromagnetic induction Faraday

suggested that an e.m.f. is induced in a conductor
whenever it ‘cuts’ magnetic field lines, i.e. moves
Figure 4.5.3 The induced current opposes the motion
across them, but not when it moves along them or of the magnet.
is at rest. If the conductor forms part of a complete
circuit, an induced current is also produced. This behaviour is an example of the principle of
Faraday identified three factors affecting the conservation of energy. If the currents produced
magnitude of an induced e.m.f. and it can be a magnetic field of opposite polarity to those
shown, with apparatus like that in Figure 4.5.2, that shown in Figure 4.5.3 in each coil, electrical
the induced e.m.f. increases with increases of energy would be created from nothing. As it is,
(i) the speed of motion of the magnet or coil work is done by whoever moves the magnet, to
(ii) the number of turns on the coil overcome the forces that arise.
(iii) the strength of the magnet.

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 4.5.2 The a.c. generator

For a straight wire moving at right angles to

Test yourself
a magnetic field the direction of the induced
current can be found from Fleming’s right-hand 1 A magnet is pushed, N pole first, into a coil
as in Figure 4.5.5. Which one of the following
rule (the ‘dynamo rule’) (Figure 4.5.4). statements A to D is not true?
Hold the thumb and first two fingers of the A An e.m.f. is induced in the coil and causes a
right hand at right angles to each other with current through the galvanometer.
the First finger pointing in the direction of the B The induced e.m.f. increases if the magnet
Field and the thuMb in the direction of Motion is pushed in faster and/or the coil has more
of the wire, then the seCond finger points in the turns.
C Kinetic energy is transferred to electrical
direction of the induced Current. energy.
Note that the direction of motion represents D The effect produced is called electrostatic
the direction in which the force acts on the induction.
conductor.
Motion thuMb S N X coil
First
Field finger
magnet

0
induced
Current seCond
finger galvanometer
Figure 4.5.5
Figure 4.5.4 Fleming’s right-hand (dynamo) rule
2 A straight wire moves vertically upwards at right
angles to a magnetic field acting horizontally
Key definition
from right to left. Make a sketch to represent the
Fleming’s right-hand (dynamo) rule used to show the directions of the magnetic field, the force on the
relative directions of force, field and induced current. wire and the induced current in the wire if it is
When the thumb and first two fingers of the right-hand connected to a complete circuit.
are held at right angles to each other with the first
finger pointing in the direction of the magnetic field
and the thumb in the direction of the motion of the
wire, then the second finger points in the direction of
the induced current.

4.5.2 The a.c. generator

FOCUS POINTS
Describe the construction and action of a simple a.c. generator.
Sketch and interpret a graph of e.m.f against time for an a.c. generator.

When a coil is rotated between the poles of a magnet, the conductor cuts the magnetic field lines
and an e.m.f. is induced. The size of the e.m.f. generated changes with the orientation of the
coil and alternates in sign during the course of each rotation. This process is used in the large
generators in power stations to produce an alternating (a.c.) electricity supply.

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Simple a.c. generator An alternating e.m.f. is generated which acts first

in one direction and then the other; it causes a.c.
The simplest alternating current (a.c.) generator to flow in a circuit connected to the brushes. The
(alternator) consists of a rectangular coil between frequency of an a.c. is the number of complete cycles
the poles of a C-shaped magnet (Figure 4.5.6a). it makes each second and is measured in hertz (Hz),
The ends of the coil are joined to two slip rings i.e. 1 cycle per second = 1 Hz. If the coil rotates twice
on the axle and against which carbon brushes press. per second, the a.c. has frequency 2 Hz. The mains
When the coil is rotated it cuts the field lines supply is a.c. of frequency 50 Hz.
and an e.m.f. is induced in it. Figure 4.5.6b shows
how the e.m.f. varies over one complete rotation.
As the coil moves through the vertical position
Practical generators
with ab uppermost, ab and cd are moving along In power stations several coils are wound in
the lines (bc and da do so always) and no cutting evenly spaced slots in a soft iron cylinder and
occurs. The induced e.m.f. is zero. electromagnets usually replace permanent magnets.
a coil
The electromagnets rotate (the rotor, Figure 4.5.7a)
rotation while the coils and their iron core are at rest (the
b c stator, Figure 4.5.7b). The large e.m.f. and currents
(e.g. 25 kV at several thousand amps) induced in
the stator are led away through stationary cables,
N S otherwise they would quickly destroy the slip rings
a d
by sparking. Instead the relatively small power
required by the rotor is fed via the slip rings from a
alternating e.m.f.
small generator (the exciter) which is driven by the
slip rings same turbine as the rotor.
(rotate
with coil) a
brushes (fixed)

b
1 cycle
e.m.f.

0
¹⁄₄ ¹⁄₂ ³⁄₄ 1
no. of
rotations

a d a
d a a d field lines
coil
d a d b
vertical

coil horizontal

Figure 4.5.6 A simple a.c. generator and its output

During the first quarter rotation the e.m.f.

increases to a maximum when the coil is
horizontal. Sides ab and dc are then cutting the
lines at the greatest rate.
In the second quarter rotation the e.m.f.
decreases again and is zero when the coil is Figure 4.5.7 The rotor and stator of a power station
alternator
vertical with dc uppermost. After this, the
direction of the e.m.f. reverses because, during the In a thermal power station (Topic 1.7), the turbine is
next half rotation, the motion of ab is directed rotated by high-pressure steam obtained by heating
upwards and dc downwards. water in a coal- or oil-fired boiler or in a nuclear

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 4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current

reactor (or by hot gas in a gas-fired power station).

A block diagram of a thermal power station is shown Test yourself
in Figure 4.5.8. The Sankey diagram showing energy 3 Which feature of the rotating coil of an a.c.
transfer was given in Figure 1.7.5, p. 63. generator allows the induced e.m.f. to be
connected to fixed contacts?
stator a.c. output 4 a Sketch the output of an a.c. generator against
steam time.
b At what position of the coil in an a.c. generator
is the output
i a maximum
boiler turbine rotor exciter ii zero?

water
stator a.c. output

Figure 4.5.8 Block diagram of a thermal power station

4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current

FOCUS POINTS
Describe the pattern and direction of the magnetic field around a current-carrying straight wire and a
solenoid and describe an experiment to identify the pattern.
Use the examples of relays and loudspeakers to describe the application of the magnetic effect of a current.

Describe the variation of the magnetic field strength around a current-carrying straight wire and a
solenoid and recall the effect on the magnetic field of changing the current’s direction and size.

A further link between electricity and magnetism comes from the presence of a magnetic field
around a conductor carrying a current. The pattern and direction of the magnetic field can be found
by sprinkling iron filings around a current-carrying wire and using a plotting compass. In this topic
you will learn that the magnetic field can be concentrated by the geometry of the conductor. A long
cylindrical coil (a solenoid) will act like a bar magnet when current is switched on. As you have seen
in Topic 4.1, electromagnets have many applications. In this topic you can discover how they are also
used in switches, relays, bells and loudspeakers.

Magnetic field lines are used to represent the variation in magnetic field strength around a
current-carrying conductor and its dependence on the size and direction of the current.

Oersted’s discovery Evidently around a wire carrying a current there

is a magnetic field. As with the field due to a
In 1819 Hans Oersted accidentally discovered the permanent magnet, we represent the field due to
magnetic effect of an electric current. His experiment a current by field lines or lines of force. Arrows on
can be repeated by holding a wire over and parallel the lines show the direction of the field, i.e. the
to a compass needle that is pointing N and S direction in which a N pole points.
(Figure 4.5.9). The needle moves when the current Different field patterns are given by differently
is switched on. Reversing the current causes the shaped conductors.
needle to move in the opposite direction.
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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

current direction If the current direction is known, the direction of

the field can be predicted by the right-hand screw
rule:
S
compass needle If a right-handed screw moves forwards in the direction
N movement
of needle of the current (conventional), the direction of rotation
of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic field.

Field due to a circular coil

The field pattern is shown in Figure 4.5.11. At the
centre of the coil the field lines are straight and at
right angles to the plane of the coil. The right-hand
screw rule again gives the direction of the field at
any point.
low-voltage high-current supply circular coil

Figure 4.5.9 An electric current produces a magnetic effect. field

line

Field due to a straight wire current

direction
If a straight vertical wire passes through the centre
of a piece of card held horizontally and there is Figure 4.5.11 Field due to a circular coil
a current in the wire (Figure 4.5.10), iron filings
sprinkled on the card settle in concentric circles Field due to a solenoid
when the card is gently tapped. A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil. It produces
a field similar to that of a bar magnet; in Figure
4.5.12a, end A behaves like a N pole and end B like
right-handed a S pole. The polarity can be found as before by
screw shows field applying the right-hand screw rule to a short length
plotting direction
compass
of one turn of the solenoid. Alternatively, the right-
hand grip rule can be used. This states that if the
fingers of the right hand grip the solenoid in the
field lines direction of the current (conventional), the thumb
shown by iron
filings
points to the N pole (Figure 4.5.12b). Figure 4.5.12c
card shows how to link the end-on view of the current
direction in the solenoid to the polarity. A compass
could be used to plot the magnetic field lines
straight
around the solenoid (see Topic 4.1).
current
wire direction solenoid field line

Figure 4.5.10 Field due to a straight wire

Plotting compasses placed on the card settle along A B

the field lines and show the direction of the field
at different points. When the current direction
is reversed, the compasses point in the opposite
current direction
direction showing that the direction of the field
reverses when the current reverses. Figure 4.5.12a Field due to a solenoid

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 4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current

N
right
hand

(i) View from A (ii) View from B

Figure 4.5.12b The right-hand grip rule Figure 4.5.12c End-on views

Variation of magnetic field Test yourself

strength 5 The vertical wire in Figure 4.5.13 is at right angles
to the card. In what direction will a plotting
There is variation of magnetic field strength
compass at A point when
around a current-carrying straight wire (Figure a there is no current in the wire
4.5.10) – it becomes less as the distance b the current direction is upwards?
from the wire increases. This is shown by the card
magnetic field lines becoming further apart.
When the current through the wire is increased, N

the strength of the magnetic field around the A

wire increases and the field lines become closer
wire
together. When the direction of the current
changes, the magnetic field acts in the opposite Figure 4.5.13
direction.
6 Figure 4.5.14 shows a solenoid wound on a core of
Inside the solenoid in Figure 4.5.12a, the field soft iron. Will the end A be a N pole or S pole when
lines are closer together than they are outside the current is in the direction shown?
the solenoid. This indicates that the magnetic A
field is stronger inside a solenoid than outside it.
When the direction of the current changes in the
solenoid, the magnetic field acts in the opposite Figure 4.5.14
direction. The field inside a solenoid can be made
very strong if it has a large number of turns or a 7 a State where the magnetic field is strongest
in a current-carrying solenoid.
large current. Permanent magnets can be made by b Name two factors which affect the strength
allowing molten ferromagnetic metal to solidify in of a magnetic field around a current-
such fields. carrying solenoid.

Key definition
Variation of magnetic field strength the magnetic
field decreases with distance from a current-carrying
wire and varies around a solenoid

Applications of the magnetic effect power are larger in the second circuit. Figure 4.5.15
overleaf shows a typical relay. When a current is in
of a current the coil from the circuit connected to AB, the soft
iron core is magnetised and attracts the L-shaped
Relay
iron armature. This rocks on its pivot and closes
A relay is a switch based on the principle of an the contacts at C in the circuit connected to DE.
electromagnet. It is useful if we want one circuit The relay is then ‘energised’ or ‘on’.
to control another, especially if the current and

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

insulator springy metal b Burglar alarm activated by a reed switch

door
D
C N
pivot magnet in door
E

S
iron armature

A
S

B magnet
switch
coil soft iron core N
Figure 4.5.15 Relay alarm
bell
The current needed to operate a relay is called
Figure 4.5.17
the pull-on current and the drop-off current is the
smaller current in the coil when the relay just stops Reed switches are also operated by permanent
working. magnets. Figure 4.5.17b shows the use of a normally
If the coil resistance, R, of a relay is 185 and open reed switch as a burglar alarm. When the
its operating p.d. V is 12 V, then the pull-on current door is closed, the magnetic fields of the magnet
I = V/R = 12/185 = 0.065 A = 65 mA. The symbols in the door and door frame cancel each other and
for relays with normally open and normally closed the reed switch is open. When the door is opened
contacts are given in Figure 4.5.16. the magnetic field of the magnet in the door frame
a b closes the reed switch so that current flows in the
alarm circuit if it has been switched on.
Loudspeaker
Varying currents from a radio, CD player, etc. pass
through a short cylindrical coil whose turns are at right
angles to the magnetic field of a magnet with a central
Figure 4.5.16 Symbols for a relay: a open; b closed pole and a surrounding ring pole (Figure 4.5.18a).
Reed switch The magnetic fields around the coil and the magnet
interact and the coil vibrates with the same frequency
One such switch is shown in Figure 4.5.17a. as the a.c. of the electrical signal it receives. A paper
When current flows in the coil, the magnetic field cone attached to the coil moves with it and sets up
produced magnetises the strips (called reeds) of sound waves in the surrounding air (Figure 4.5.18b).
magnetic material. The ends become opposite poles
a End-on view b
and one reed is attracted to the other, so completing ring central
casing
the circuit connected to AB. The reeds separate pole pole
when the current in the coil is switched off. This
type of reed switch is sometimes called a reed relay.
a Reed switch N
N
A

N S N S
reeds coil
on
N N
tube
coil
glass paper
tube cone

B Figure 4.5.18 Moving-coil loudspeaker

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 4.5.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor

Electric bell bell push

When the circuit in Figure 4.5.19 is completed,

by someone pressing the bell push, current flows
in the coils of the electromagnet which becomes
magnetised and attracts the soft iron bar (the
armature).
The hammer hits the gong but the circuit is now springy
broken at the point C of the contact screw. metal
The electromagnet loses its magnetism (becomes strip
demagnetised) and no longer attracts the armature.
The springy metal strip is then able to pull the
soft iron
armature back, remaking contact at C and so armature
completing the circuit again. This cycle is repeated
for as long as the bell push is depressed, and
continuous ringing occurs.
C
Test yourself
contact screw
8 Explain when a relay would be used in a circuit.
9 The resistance, R, of the coil in a relay is 300 and
its operating p.d. V is 15 V. Calculate the pull-on electromagnet
current.
10 The pull-on current in a relay is 60 mA and it
operates at 12 V. Calculate the resistance of the hammer
coil. gong
11 Explain how an a.c. signal is converted into sound
by a loudspeaker.
Figure 4.5.19 Electric bell

4.5.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor

FOCUS POINTS
Describe an experiment that demonstrates that a force acts on a conductor in a magnetic field when it
carries a current.

Know how the directions of force, magnetic field and current relate to each other.
Work out the direction of the force acting on charged particles moving in a magnetic field.

Electric motors form the heart of a whole host of electrical devices ranging from domestic
appliances such as vacuum cleaners and washing machines to electric trains and lifts. In a car, the
windscreen wipers are usually driven by one and the engine is started by another. All these devices
rely on the fact that a current flowing in a magnetic field experiences a force. The force will cause a
current-carrying conductor or beam of charged particles to move or be deflected.

The motor effect Demonstration

A wire carrying a current in a magnetic field In Figure 4.5.20 the flexible wire is loosely
experiences a force. If the wire can move, it supported in the strong magnetic field of a
does so. C-shaped magnet (permanent or electromagnet).
When the switch is closed, current flows in the
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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

wire, which jumps upwards as shown. If either the force on wire

direction of the current or the direction of the field
is reversed, the wire moves downwards. The force
increases if the strength of the field increases and if
the current increases.
N S
motion

wire
S
Figure 4.5.21b

flexible
wire
Fleming’s left-hand rule
to low-voltage The direction of the force or thrust on the wire
high-current supply can be found by Fleming’s left-hand rule, which
is also called the motor rule (Figure 4.5.22).
Hold the thumb and first two fingers of the
left hand at right angles to each other with the
Figure 4.5.20 A wire carrying a current in a magnetic
field experiences a force.
First finger pointing in the direction of the Field
and the seCond finger in the direction of the
Explanation Current, then the Thumb points in the direction
Figure 4.5.21a is a side view of the magnetic field of the Thrust (or force).
lines due to the wire and the magnet. Those due If the wire is not at right angles to the field,
to the wire are circles and we will assume their the force is smaller and is zero if the wire is
direction is as shown. The dotted lines represent parallel to the field.
the field lines of the magnet and their direction is Thumb
Thrust
towards the right.
The resultant field obtained by combining both
fields is shown in Figure 4.5.21b. There are more First finger
lines below than above the wire since both fields
act in the same direction below but they are in Current Fiel d
opposition above. If we suppose the lines are like seCond finger
stretched elastic, those below will try to straighten Figure 4.5.22 Fleming’s left-hand (motor) rule
out and in so doing will exert an upward force on
the wire. Force on beams of charged
particles in a magnetic field
In Figure 4.5.23 the evenly spaced crosses
N S represent a uniform magnetic field (i.e. one of
the same strength throughout the area shown)
acting into and perpendicular to the paper.
A beam of electrons entering the field at right
angles to the field experiences a force due to the
wire
motor effect whose direction is given by Fleming’s
Figure 4.5.21a left-hand rule. This indicates that the force acts
at right angles to the direction of the beam and

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 4.5.5 The d.c. motor

makes it follow a circular path as shown. The beam

of negatively charged electrons is treated as being Test yourself
in the opposite direction to conventional current. 12 The current direction in a wire running between
A beam of positively charged particles would be the N and S poles of a magnet lying horizontally
deflected in the opposite direction to that shown is shown in Figure 4.5.24. The force on the wire
(see Topic 5.2). due to the magnet is directed
A from N to S
B from S to N
C opposite to the current direction
D vertically upwards.

magnetic field current

electron (into paper)
beam S
force on
electron
N
circular path electron

Figure 4.5.24
13 An electron beam follows a circular path in a
perpendicular magnetic field. Will the radius of
the path increase or decrease if the strength of
Figure 4.5.23 Path of an electron beam at right angles the magnetic field increases? Why?
to a magnetic field

4.5.5 The d.c. motor

FOCUS POINTS
Know the factors that may increase the turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field.

Describe how an electric motor works.

In the previous topic you learnt that a current flowing in a magnetic field experiences a force. The
force may lead to a turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field because of a turning
effect arising from the two sides of the coil. The magnitude of the turning effect is increased by
increasing the number of turns on the coil, increasing the current or increasing the strength of the
magnetic field. This turning effect is the basis of all electric motors from electric toothbrushes to
ship propulsion.

The motor effect shows that a straight current-

carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a
Turning effect on a coil
force. If the wire is wound into a coil, forces act on A rectangular coil of wire mounted on an axle which
both sides of the coil and a turning effect results can rotate between the poles of a magnet may
when the coil carries current in a magnetic field. experience a turning effect when a direct current
(d.c.) is passed through it.

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

The turning effect increases if:

The brushes are then in line with the gaps in
(i) the number of turns on the coil increases
the commutator and the current stops. However,
(ii) the current flowing in the coil increases
because of its inertia, the coil overshoots the
(iii) the strength of the magnetic field increases.
vertical and the commutator halves change contact
The larger the turning effect on the coil, the faster from one brush to the other. This reverses the
it will turn. current through the coil and so also the directions
of the forces on its sides. Side ab is on the right
now, acted on by a downward force, while cd is on
Simple d.c. electric motor the left with an upward force. The coil thus carries
A simple motor to work from direct current (d.c.) on rotating clockwise.
consists of a rectangular coil of wire mounted on
an axle which can rotate between the poles of a Practical motors
C-shaped magnet (Figure 4.5.25). Practical motors have the following features:
Each end of the coil is connected to half of a (i) A coil of many turns wound on a soft iron cylinder
split ring of copper, called a split-ring commutator, or core which rotates with the coil. This makes
which rotates with the coil. Two carbon blocks, the it more powerful. The coil and core together are
brushes, are pressed lightly against the commutator called the armature.
by springs. The brushes are connected to an (ii) Several coils each in a slot in the core and each
electrical supply. having a pair of commutator segments. This
If Fleming’s left-hand rule is applied to the gives increased power and smoother running.
coil in the position shown, we find that side The motor of an electric drill is shown in
ab experiences an upward force and side cd a Figure 4.5.26.
downward force. (No forces act on ad and bc since (iii) An electromagnet (usually) to produce the field
they are parallel to the field.) These two forces in which the armature rotates.
produce a turning effect which rotates the coil in a Most electric motors used in industry are
clockwise direction until it is vertical. induction motors. They work off a.c. (alternating
coil current) on a different principle from the d.c.
motor.
b
c

N S
a d

brush brush
(fixed) (fixed)

commutator
(rotates with coil)

Figure 4.5.25 Simple d.c. motor Figure 4.5.26 Motor inside an electric drill

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 4.5.5 The d.c. motor

Practical work

A model motor the tube from the first end. The bare ends act
The motor shown in Figure 4.5.27 is made from as the commutator.
a kit. e Push the axle through the metal tube of the
wooden base so that the block spins freely.
a Wrap Sellotape round one end of the metal f Arrange two 0.5 metre lengths of wire to act
tube which passes through the wooden block. as brushes and leads to the supply, as shown.
b Cut two rings off a piece of narrow rubber Adjust the brushes so that they are vertical
tubing; slip them on to the taped end of the and each touches one bare end of the coil
metal tube. when the plane of the coil is horizontal. The
c Remove the insulation from one end of a motor will not work if this is not so.
1.5-metre length of SWG 26 PVC-covered g Slide the base into the magnet with opposite
copper wire and fix it under both rubber rings poles facing. Connect to a 3 V battery (or other
so that it is held tight against the Sellotape. low-voltage d.c. supply) and a slight push of
This forms one end of the coil. the coil should set it spinning at high speed.
d Wind 10 turns of the wire in the slot in the
wooden block and finish off the second end of 3 List the variables in the construction of a
the coil by removing the PVC and fixing this simple d.c. motor.
too under the rings but on the opposite side of 4 How would the motion of the coil change if you
reversed the current direction?
Sellotape brushes

bare ends
of coil

wooden block axle

metal rubber
tube rings
split pin

base

magnet

rivet
to battery yoke

coil in slot

Figure 4.5.27 A model motor

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Moving-coil galvanometer The soft iron cylinder at the centre of the coil
is fixed and along with the concave poles of the
A galvanometer detects small currents or small magnet it produces a radial field (Figure 4.5.28b),
p.d.s, often of the order of milliamperes (mA) or i.e. the field lines are directed to and from the
millivolts (mV). centre of the cylinder. The scale on the meter
In the moving-coil pointer-type meter, a coil is is then even or linear, i.e. all divisions are the
pivoted between the poles of a permanent magnet same size.
(Figure 4.5.28a). Current enters and leaves the coil
by hair springs above and below it. When there is a
current, a turning effect acts on the coil (as in an Test yourself
electric motor), causing it to rotate until stopped by 14 How would the turning effect on a current-
the springs. The greater the current, the greater the carrying coil in a magnetic field change if
a the size of the magnetic field is increased
deflection which is shown by a pointer attached to b the direction of the magnetic field is
the coil. reversed?
a
10
5
15 In the simple d.c. electric motor of Figure
4.5.29, the coil rotates anticlockwise as seen by
15

pointer the eye from the position X when current flows

in the coil. Is the current flowing clockwise or
20

anticlockwise around the coil when viewed from

coil above?
N
concave
pole S
terminals
soft iron
N
cylinder
hair

S
spring
b view from above
radial field
X

Figure 4.5.29

16 Explain the function of the split-ring

commutator and brushes in a d.c. motor.

soft iron coil

cylinder
Figure 4.5.28 Moving-coil pointer-type galvanometer

4.5.6 The transformer

FOCUS POINTS
Describe the construction of a simple transformer.

Explain how a simple iron-cored transformer works.

Understand the terms primary, secondary, step-up and step-down and correctly use the transformer equation.
Describe how high-voltage transformers are used in the transmission of electricity and why high voltages
are preferred.

Use the correct equations to calculate efficiency in a transformer and to explain how losses in cables
are reduced by transmitting power at greater voltages.

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 4.5.6 The transformer

Many household devices such as electronic keyboards, toys, lights and telephones require a
lower voltage than is provided by the mains supply and a transformer is needed to reduce the
mains voltage. When two coils lie in a magnetic field, variations in the current in one coil induce a
current change in the other. In this section you will learn that this effect is used in a transformer to
raise or lower alternating voltages. The voltage transformation depends on the ratio of the number
of turns of wire in each coil. Alternating current generated in a power station is transformed into
a very high voltage for long-distance electrical transmission. This reduces the size of the current
flowing in the transmission cables and minimises the energy lost to heat due to the resistance of
the cables.

Transformers of electromagnetic induction and can be shown

A transformer transforms (changes) an alternating with the arrangement of Figure 4.5.31. Coil A is
voltage from one value to another of greater or the primary and coil B the secondary.
smaller value. It has a primary coil and a secondary to 6 V d.c.
coil, consisting of insulation-coated wires wound on
a complete soft iron core, either one on top of the
other (Figure 4.5.30a) or on separate limbs of the
core (Figure 4.5.30b).
rheostat sensitive
a soft iron
centre-zero
meter

coil A coil B
(600 turns) (600 turns)
tapping key

primary secondary Figure 4.5.31 A changing current in a primary coil (A)

induces a current in a secondary coil (B).
b soft iron Switching on the current in the primary sets
up a magnetic field and as its field lines
grow outwards from the primary, they cut the
secondary. A p.d. is induced in the secondary
until the current in the primary reaches its steady
value. When the current is switched off in the
primary secondary primary, the magnetic field dies away and we
can imagine the field lines cutting the secondary
Figure 4.5.30 Primary and secondary coils of a
as they collapse, again inducing a p.d. in it.
transformer
Changing the primary current by quickly altering
the rheostat has the same effect.
Mutual induction The induced p.d. is increased by having a soft
When the current in a coil is switched on or off iron rod in the coils or, better still, by using coils
or changed in a simple iron-cored transformer, wound on a complete iron ring. More field lines
a voltage is induced in a neighbouring coil. then cut the secondary due to the magnetisation
The effect, called mutual induction, is an example of the iron.

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Practical work
Transformer equation
An alternating voltage applied to the primary
induces an alternating voltage in the secondary.
Mutual induction with a.c. The value of the secondary voltage can be shown,
An a.c. is changing all the time and if it flows for a transformer in which all the field lines cut the
in a primary coil, an alternating voltage and secondary, to be given by
current are induced in a secondary coil. primary voltage primary turns
=
Connect the circuit of Figure 4.5.32. All wires secondary voltage secondary turns
used should be insulated. The 1 V high current
In symbols
power unit supplies a.c. to the primary and the
lamp detects the secondary current. Vp Np
=
Find the effect on the brightness of the lamp of Vs Ns
a pulling the C-cores apart slightly A step-up transformer has more turns on the
b increasing the secondary turns to 15 secondary than the primary and Vs is greater than
c decreasing the secondary turns to 5. Vp (Figure 4.5.33a). For example, if the secondary
high current
has twice as many turns as the primary, Vs is about
iron C-cores
power unit twice Vp. In a step-down transformer there are fewer
turns on the secondary than the primary and Vs is
less than Vp (Figure 4.5.33b).
lamp (2.5 V 0.3 A)
a b

Vp VS Vp VS

1 V a. c.

Figure 4.5.33 Symbols for a transformer: a step-up

spare (Vs > Vp); b step-down (Vp > Vs)
wire

primary
(10 turns)
secondary
(10 turns)
Test yourself
17 The main function of a step-down transformer
Figure 4.5.32 is to
A decrease current
5 In the circuit of Figure 4.5.32, if a d.c. supply B decrease voltage
were used instead of an a.c. supply would C change a.c. to d.c.
you expect the lamp to light? Explain your D change d.c. to a.c.
answer. 18 A transformer has 1000 turns on the primary coil.
The voltage applied to the primary coil is 230 V a.c.
6 In the circuit of Figure 4.5.32 would you
How many turns are on the secondary coil if the
expect the brightness of the lamp to output voltage is 46 V a.c.?
increase or decrease if you lowered the A 20 B 200
voltage to the primary coil? C 2000 D 4000

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 4.5.6 The transformer

Energy losses in a transformer These are reduced by using a laminated core made
of sheets, insulated from one another to have a
If the p.d. is stepped up in a transformer, the high resistance.
current is stepped down in proportion. This must
be so if we assume that all the electrical energy Leakage of field lines
given to the primary appears in the secondary, All the field lines produced by the primary may not
i.e. that energy is conserved and the transformer cut the secondary, especially if the core has an air
is 100% efficient or ‘ideal’ (many approach this gap or is badly designed.
efficiency). Then
power in primary = power in secondary
Worked example
IpVp = IsVs
A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230 V to
where Ip and Is are the primary and secondary 10 V to operate an answering machine.
currents, respectively. Np
a What is the turns ratio, , of the transformer windings?
I Vp Ns
∴ s =
Ip Vs primary voltage, Vp = 230 V
secondary voltage, Vs = 10 V
So, for the ideal transformer, if the p.d. is N p Vp 230 V 23
doubled the current is halved. In practice, it is turns ratio = = = =
N s Vs 10 V 1
more than halved, because of small energy losses
b How many turns are on the primary if the secondary has
in the transformer arising from the following 100 turns?
three causes. secondary turns, Ns = 100
Resistance of windings From a,
The windings of copper wire have some resistance Np 23
=
and heat is produced by the current in them. Ns 1
Large transformers like those in Figure 4.5.34 ∴ Np = 23 × Ns = 23 × 100
have to be oil-cooled to prevent overheating. = 2300 turns

c What is the current in the primary if the transformer

is 100% efficient and the current in the answering
machine is 2 A?
efficiency = 100%
∴ power in primary = power in secondary
Ip × Vp = Is × Vs
Vs × I s 10 V × 2 A 2
∴ Ip = = = A = 0.09 A
Vp 230 V 23
Note that in this ideal transformer the current is stepped
up in the same ratio as the voltage is stepped down.

Figure 4.5.34 Step-up transformers at a power station Now put this into practice
1 A transformer steps down the mains supply from 240 V to
Eddy currents 12 V to operate a doorbell.
The iron core is in the changing magnetic field N
a What is the turns ratio p of the transformer windings?
of the primary coil and currents, called eddy Ns
currents, are induced in it which cause heating. b How many turns are on the primary if the secondary
has 80 turns?

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

2 A transformer steps up an a.c. voltage of 240 V to 960 V.

reliable and cuts costs by enabling smaller, less
a Calculate the turns ratio of the transformer efficient stations to be shut down at off-peak
windings. periods.
b How many turns are on the secondary if the
primary has 500 turns? Advantages of high-voltage transmission
3 A transformer is 100% efficient. The current in the The efficiency with which transformers step
primary is 0.05 A when the p.d. is 240 V. alternating p.d.s up and down accounts for the use
Calculate the current in the secondary where the p.d.
of a.c. rather than d.c. in power transmission.
is 12 V.
Higher voltages are used in the transmission of
electric power so that smaller currents can be used
to transfer the energy. Advantages of high-voltage
transmission of electricity include:
Transmission of electrical power (i) reducing the amount of thermal energy lost in
Grid system the transmission cables
The National Grid is a network of cables, mostly (ii) allowing wires with small cross-sectional areas to
supported on pylons, that connects all the power be used; these are cheaper and easier to handle
stations in a country to consumers. In the largest than the thicker wires required to carry large
modern stations, electricity is generated at currents.
25 000 V (25 kilovolts = 25 kV) and stepped up in a High p.d.s require good insulation but are readily
transformer to a higher p.d. to be sent over long produced by a.c. generators.
distances. Later, the p.d. is reduced by substation
transformers for distribution to local users Key definition
(Figure 4.5.35). Advantages of high-voltage transmission of electricity
At the National Control Centre, engineers (i) lower power loss in transmission cables
(ii) lower currents in cables so thinner/cheaper cables
direct the flow of electricity and re-route it when can be used
breakdown occurs. This makes the supply more

275 KV or 400 kV

132 kV

25 kV

power station transformer Supergrid transformer grid

towns
heavy
light industry
farms villages industry

415 V or 230 V 11 kV 33 kV

transformer transformer transformer

Figure 4.5.35 The National Grid transmission system in Britain

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 4.5.6 The transformer

Power loss in transmission cables Going further

Power cables have resistance, and so electrical
energy is transferred to thermal energy during the Applications of eddy currents
transmission of electricity from the power station Eddy currents are the currents induced in a piece of
to the user. The power P lost as thermal energy in metal when it cuts magnetic field lines. They can be
cables of resistance R is given by quite large due to the low resistance of the metal.
They have their uses as well as their disadvantages.
P = I 2R
Car speedometer
In order to reduce energy losses the current I in The action depends on the eddy currents induced in a
the cables should be kept low. thick aluminium disc (Figure 4.5.36), when a permanent
magnet, near it but not touching it, is rotated by a cable
driven from the gearbox of the car. The eddy currents
Worked example in the disc make it rotate in an attempt to reduce the
relative motion between it and the magnet (see Topic
A power station transfers 200 000 W of electrical power to 4.5.2). The extent to which the disc can turn, however,
consumers. is controlled by a spring. The faster the magnet rotates,
a Calculate the current in the transmission cables if the the more the disc turns before it is stopped by the
power is transferred at spring. A pointer fixed to the disc moves over a scale
i 10 000 V marked in mph (or km/h) and gives the speed of the car.
power transferred P = IV so
200 000 W 40 scale
I = P/V = = 20 A
10 000 V pointer

20
60

ii 400 000 V
aluminium
power transferred P = IV so N
disc
200000 W
80

I = P/V = = 0.5 A cable to

400000 V S
gearbox
b Calculate the energy loss in cables of resistance 400
if the power is transferred at spring magnet
i 10 000 V
Figure 4.5.36 Car speedometer
power lost in cables P = I2R = (20 A)2
= 1.6 × 105 W Metal detector
ii 400 000 V
The metal detector shown in Figure 4.5.37 consists of
power lost in cables P = I2R = (0.5 A)2 = 100 W a large primary coil (A), through which an a.c. current
c Is it preferable to transfer the power at the greater or is passed, and a smaller secondary coil (B). When the
smaller voltage? detector is swept over a buried metal object (such
Greater because less energy is transferred to thermal as a nail, coin or pipe) the fluctuating magnetic field
energy in the transmission lines at the smaller current lines associated with the alternating current in coil
and higher voltage. A ‘cut’ the hidden metal and induce eddy currents in
it. The changing magnetic field lines associated with
Now put this into practice these eddy currents cut the secondary coil B in turn
1 A power station transfers 300 000 W of electrical and induce a current which can be used to operate an
power to consumers. alarm. The coils are set at right angles to each other
a Calculate the current in the transmission cables if so that their magnetic fields do not interact.
the power is transferred at
i 20 000 V
a.c.
ii 200 000 V.
b Calculate the energy loss in cables of resistance to alarm
primary
400 if 300 000 W of power is transferred at secondary coil (A)
i 20 000 V coil (B)
ii 200 000 V.
2 Calculate the electrical power transferred to thermal
energy in transmission lines of resistance 375 when hidden metal object
210 000 W is transferred at 700 000 V.

Figure 4.5.37 Metal detector

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 4.5 you should know and After studying Topic 4.5 you should be able to:
understand: describe experiments to show electromagnetic
Faraday’s explanation of electromagnetic induction induction
the right-hand screw and right-hand grip rules
for relating current direction and magnetic field predict the direction of induced e.m.f.s and
direction currents and describe and explain the operation
the action and applications of a relay and a of a simple a.c. generator
loudspeaker draw sketches and describe an experiment to
that a rectangular current-carrying coil identify the pattern of magnetic field lines arising
experiences a turning effect in a magnetic field from currents in straight wires and solenoids
and that the effect is increased by increasing the
number of turns on the coil, the current in the coil identify regions of different magnetic field
or the strength of the magnetic field strength around a solenoid and straight wire
and describe the effect on their magnetic fields
how to use Fleming’s left-hand rule for relating of changing the magnitude and direction of the
directions of force, field and current current
the terms primary, secondary, step-up and step- describe an experiment that demonstrates a force
down in relation to a transformer acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic
the use of transformers in the high voltage field, and recall the factors which influence the
transmission of electrical power size and direction of the force
the reasons why greater voltage a.c. is preferred explain the action of a simple d.c. electric
with reference to the equation P = I 2R. motor
describe the construction of a transformer and
use the transformer equation Vs/Vp = Ns/Np

explain the action of a transformer and recall

and use the equation Ip × Vp = Is × Vs for an ideal
transformer.

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 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions
1 a Describe an experiment to demonstrate 4 a Describe an experiment to plot the
electromagnetic induction. [4] magnetic field lines around a straight
b State the factors affecting the magnitude current-carrying wire. [4]
of an induced e.m.f. [3] b Sketch the magnetic field lines (including
[Total: 7] their direction) around a current-carrying
2 a Describe the deflections observed on the solenoid. [4]
sensitive, centre-zero galvanometer G c What happens if the direction of the
(Figure 4.5.38) when the copper rod XY is current in the wire is reversed? [1]
connected to its terminals and is made [Total: 9]
to vibrate up and down (as shown by the 5 Part of the electrical system of a car is shown
arrows), between the poles of a U-shaped in Figure 4.5.40. Explain why
magnet, at right angles to the magnetic a connections are made to the car body [2]
field. [2] b there are two circuits in parallel with
b Explain the behaviour of the galvanometer the battery [2]
in part a. [4] c wire A is thicker than wire B [1]
d a relay is used. [2]
Y
G contacts
N A
S
B starter coil
X switch
starter
motor
Figure 4.5.38 relay

[Total: 6]

3 A simple a.c. generator is shown in Figure connections

4.5.39. to car body
a Name A and B and describe their Figure 4.5.40
purpose. [3] [Total: 7]
b Describe changes that could be made to
6 Explain how a loudspeaker works.
increase the e.m.f. generated. [3]
[Total: 6]
c Sketch a graph of e.m.f. against time for
the generator and relate the position of 7 a Describe an experiment to show that a
the generator coil to the peaks, troughs force acts on a current-carrying conductor
and zeros of the e.m.f. [4] in a magnetic field, including the effect
of reversing the current or the direction of
the magnetic field. [5]
N b A current-carrying coil experiences a turning
axis of
rotation
effect in a magnetic field. State the effect
on the magnitude of the turning effect of:
A i increasing the current in the coil [1]
ii reducing the number of turns on
the coil [1]
S
iii increasing the strength of the magnetic
field. [1]
B
[Total: 8]
Figure 4.5.39 [Total: 10]

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 4.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS

8 An electric motor is used to raise a weight

12 Two coils of wire, A and B, are placed near one
attached to a string. Select which of the
another (Figure 4.5.41). Coil A is connected to
following is not used to transfer energy in the
a switch and battery. Coil B is connected to a
process.
centre-reading moving-coil galvanometer, G.
A Mechanical working
a If the switch connected to coil A were
B Heating
closed for a few seconds and then opened,
C Electrical working
the galvanometer connected to coil B
D Electromagnetic waves
would be affected. Explain and describe,
[Total: 1]
step by step, what would actually
happen. [7]
9 a Draw a labelled diagram of the essential
b What changes would you expect if a
components of a simple d.c. motor. [3]
bundle of soft iron wires was placed
b Explain how continuous rotation is
through the centre of the coils? Give a
produced in a d.c. motor and show how
reason for your answer. [3]
the direction of rotation is related to
c What would happen if more turns of wire
the direction of the current. [4]
were wound on the coil B? [1]
c State what would happen to the
A B
direction of rotation of the motor you
have described if
i the current direction was reversed [1]
ii the magnetic field was reversed [1]
iii both current and field were
reversed simultaneously. [1] G

[Total: 10] Figure 4.5.41

[Total: 11]
10 a Describe the construction of a simple
transformer with a soft iron core. [4]
b Explain the function of a step-up 13 a Explain the use of transformers in the
transformer. [2] transmission of electrical power. [3]
c A step-up transformer is used to obtain a b Give two reasons for the use of high
p.d. of 720 V from a mains supply of 240 V. voltages in the transmission of
Calculate the number of turns that will electricity. [2]
be needed on the secondary if there are [Total: 5]
120 turns on the primary. [4]
[Total: 10]
11 a Calculate the number of turns on the
secondary of a step-down transformer
which would enable a 12 V lamp to be used
with a 230 V a.c. mains power, if there are
460 turns on the primary. [4]

b Assuming there are no energy losses,

what current will flow in the secondary
when the primary current is 0.10 A? [4]
[Total: 8]

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