Design of Machine Elements

Design for Dynamic Load

Dr. R. Prasanth Kumar

Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad

Course: ME3130
July-Nov 2014

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Introduction
A dynamic (or variable or repeated or alternating or fluctuating) load is one that varies
with time.
Machine members can fail under cyclic loading for large number of cycles even if the
stress levels are much lower than the material’s ultimate strength or even yield strength!
This kind of failure is called fatigue failure.
About 80% failures of mechanical components are due to fatigue failure resulting from
fluctuating stresses.
Fatigue failures start at stress raisers, which may be mechanical or metallurgical in nature
Examples:
I Automobile axles, springs, turbine blades, airplane wings, gears, rail wheels, bridges etc.

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Fatigue Failure
Definition
Fatigue failure is the phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated or fluctuating stresses
that are less than the ultimate tensile strength of the material.

Fatigue fractures are progressive

I begin as minute cracks that grow under the action of fluctuating stress
Three stages in fatigue fracture:
I Initiation
F Scratches and defects due to manufacturing, poor design
I Propagation
F Repeated loading increases size of cracks
I Final fracture
F Cracks have grown in sufficient size

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Fluctuating Stresses

σmax + σmin
σm =
2
σmax − σmin
σa =
2

Figure
I (a) Fluctuating stress with
high frequency ripple
I (b) & (c) Nonsinusoidal
fluctuating stress
I (d) Sinusoidal fluctuating
stress
I (e) Repeated stress
I (f) Completely reversed
sinusoidal stress
[Shigley, 8e; page 293]
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Fatigue Strength
Definition
Fatigue strength is the maximum reversed stress that a standard specimen can sustain for the
given number of cycles without fatigue failure.

Statement of fatigue strength value must always be accompanied by the statement of

number of cycles.
Fatigue strength of a material can be obtained from S-N curve generated by testing on
standard specimen

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Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Testing and S-N Diagram (Wöhler Diagram)
Completely reversed sinusoidal stresses are Results obtained are plotted with N on
applied by applying pure bending moment horizontal axis and Sf on vertical axis
Number of revolutions (N ) till the Plotted on Semi-log or log-log paper to
appearance of first fatigue crack is emphasize the bend
recorded for each stress amplitude (Sf )

[Bhandari, 3e; page 153]

[Shigley, 8e; page 266]

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Endurance Limit
Definition
The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of
cycles without fatigue failure.

For ferrous materials like steels, S-N curve becomes asymptotic at about 106 cycles
indicating stress amplitude corresponding to infinite number of cycles.
For nonferrous materials and alloys, the curve does not become horizontal and continues
to slope down even after 106 cycles
I For these materials, fatigue strength Sf is reported at a specific number of cycles

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Notch Sensitivity
Notch is a generic term that refers to any geometric contour that disrupts the force flow.
Endurance limit is lowered by the presence of notches due to stress concentration.
It has been found experimentally that some materials are less sensitive to stress raisers in
fatigue loading.
Actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration is less
than the amount calculated using theoretical stress concentration factor Kt .
For fatigue loading, fatigue stress concentration factor Kf is defined as
Endurance limit of notch-free specimen
Kf = .
Endurance limit of notched specimen
Notch sensitivity q is defined as
Kf − 1
q= . q varies between 0 and 1.
Kt − 1
Usually, Kf is calculated from the equation Kf = 1 + q(Kt − 1).
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Corrected Endurance Limit
Taking fatigue stress concentration into account, corrected endurance limit for actual part
can be defined as
S0
Se = e ,
Kf
where Se0 is the endurance limit of the standard rotating beam specimen. Approximate
relationships: for steels, Se0 = 0.5Sut ; for cast iron and cast steels, Se0 = 0.4Sut
In practice, there are several other factors that influence the actual endurance limit as
given by
S0
Se = Ksurf Ksize Kload Ktemp Krel e ,
Kf
where Ksurf is surface finish factor, Ksize is size factor, Kload is load modifaction factor,
Ktemp is temperature modification factor, and Krel is reliability factor.
These factors are either calculated using empirical relations or taken from design data
charts.
R. P. Kumar (IITH) Design of Machine Elements Design for Dynamic Load 9 / 24
Corrected Endurance Limit
For axial loading Ksize = 1. For non-rotating or
Surface finish factor Ksurf
non-circular members, area that is stressed
b
Ksurf = aSut if Ksurf > 1, set Ksurf = 1 above 95% of maximum stress is equated to
similar area in rotating beam specimen:

[Shigley, 8e; page 280]

Size factor Ksize

I Greater the size, higher the chance of
failure. For bending and torsion,

[Shigley, 8e; page 280]

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Corrected Endurance Limit
Approximate value of Ksize
d mm Ksize
Reliability factor Krel
d ≤ 7.5 1.00
7.5 < d ≤ 50 0.85
d>50 0.75
Load factor Kload

Kload = 1 for bending,

= 0.85 for axial,
= 0.59 for torsion.

Temparature factor Ktemp

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Completely Reversed Stresses - Design for Infinite and Finite Life
Case I: Infinite life
Case II: Finite life
I Endurance limit is the criterion for failure I Locate the point A with coordinates
[3,log10 (0.9Su )]
I Locate the point B with coordinates
[6,log10 (Se )]
I Join AB, which is the criterion for finite
life problems
I Depending upon life desired N , draw a
vertical line passing through log10 (N) on
the abscissa.
I This line intersects AB at F . Join FE
cutting the vertical axis at E.
I E corresponds to fatigue strength
S-N diagram for finite life corresponding to N cycles.

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Completely Reversed Stresses - Design for Infinite and Finite Life
Example: Infinite Life

A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440N /mm 2 ) in hot rolled and normalized condition is
shown in the figure. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30 kN. The
notch sensitivity factor q can be taken as 0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size
factor is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the plate thickness for infinite life.

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Completely Reversed Stresses - Design for Infinite and Finite Life
Example: Infinite Life

A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440N /mm 2 ) in hot rolled and normalized condition is
shown in the figure. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30 kN. The
notch sensitivity factor q can be taken as 0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size
factor is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the plate thickness for infinite life.

Answer: 36.84 mm

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Completely Reversed Stresses - Design for Infinite and Finite Life
Example: Finite Life

A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is subjected to a reversed bending stress of 250

N/mm2 . The bar is made of steel 40C8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2 ). Calculate the life of the bar
for a reliability of 90%.

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Completely Reversed Stresses - Design for Infinite and Finite Life
Example: Finite Life

A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is subjected to a reversed bending stress of 250

N/mm2 . The bar is made of steel 40C8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2 ). Calculate the life of the bar
for a reliability of 90%.
Answer: Ksurf = 0.4681, Ksize = 0.8159, Kload = 1, Krel = 0.897, Se0 = 300 N/mm2 ,
Se = 102.77 N/mm2 , N = 24,693 cycles

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Cumulative Damage in Fatigue
Miner’s Equation
In some applications, components are subjected to different stress levels for each work
cycle.
I Cumulative damage is calculated by summing the contribution from each work cycle using
Miner’s equation
Suppose a component is subjected to completely reversed stresses σ1 for n1 cycles, σ2 for
n2 cycles, and so on.
Let N1 be the number of stress cycles for fatigue failure when only σ1 is acting.
I One stress cycle consumes 1/N1 of its life, similarly n1 cycles at this stress level consume
n1 /N1 of its life.
n1 n2 nx
+ + ··· + =1
N1 N2 Nx
If fractions of total number of cycles are given as n1 = α1 N , n2 = α2 N , etc., then
α1 α2 αx 1
+ + ··· + = where α1 + α2 + · · · + αx = 1.(∵ n1 + n2 + · · · + nx = N )
N1 N2 Nx N
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Cumulative Damage in Fatigue
Miner’s Equation

Example:
The work cycle of a mechanical component subjected to completely reversed bending stresses
consists of the following three elements:
(i) ±350 N /mm 2 for 85% of time
(ii) ±400 N /mm 2 for 12% of time
(iii) ±500 N /mm 2 for 3% of time
The material for the component is 50C4 (Sut = 660 N /mm 2 and the corrected endurance
limit of the component is 280 N /mm 2 . Determine the life of the component.

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Cumulative Damage in Fatigue
Miner’s Equation

Example:
The work cycle of a mechanical component subjected to completely reversed bending stresses
consists of the following three elements:
(i) ±350 N /mm 2 for 85% of time
(ii) ±400 N /mm 2 for 12% of time
(iii) ±500 N /mm 2 for 3% of time
The material for the component is 50C4 (Sut = 660 N /mm 2 and the corrected endurance
limit of the component is 280 N /mm 2 . Determine the life of the component.
Answer: N = 62,723 cycles

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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Soderberg, Modified Goodman, and Gerber Lines
Non-zero mean stress has an effect on fatigue failure when it is present with an
alternating component. In this case, fatigue diagram is plotted as follows:
I Mean stress is plotted on abscissa, and stress amplitude on ordinate.
I For static load, σa = 0; Syt or Sut is the criterion of failure.
I For completely reversed stress, σm = 0; Se is the criterion of failure.
For higher values of mean stress, failure
occurs at lower values of alternating
component.
Soderberg line is a line joining Se on the
ordinate to Syt on the abscissa.
Modified Goodman line is a line joining Se
on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa.
Gerber line is a parabolic curve joining Se
on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa.
[Adapted from Bhandari, 3e; page 167]
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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Soderberg, Modified Goodman, and Gerber Lines

Gerber parabola fits the failure points of test data in the best possible way.
Modified Goodman line is beneath the scatter of this data, and hence safer.
Equation for Soderberg line is given by Sm and Sa are limiting stresses for mean
stress and stress amplitude respectively.
Sm Sa
+ =1 Permissible mean and amplitude stresses
Syt Se
are given by:
Equation for Modified Goodman line is
Sm Sa
given by σm = σa =
Sm Sa fs fs
+ =1
Sut Se σm σa 1
+ =
Equation for Gerber curve is given by Syt Se fs
2
Sm Sa

+ =1
Sut Se
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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Example

A machine component is subjected to fluctuating stress that varies from 40 to 100 N /mm 2 .
The corrected endurance limit stress for the machine component is 270 N /mm 2 . The ultimate
tensile strength and yeild strength of the material are 600 and 450 N /mm 2 respectively. Find
the factor of safety using
(i) Gerber theory, (ii) Soderberg line, (iii) Modified Goodman line. Also, find the factor of
safety against static failure.

R. P. Kumar (IITH) Design of Machine Elements Design for Dynamic Load 19 / 24

Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Example

A machine component is subjected to fluctuating stress that varies from 40 to 100 N /mm 2 .
The corrected endurance limit stress for the machine component is 270 N /mm 2 . The ultimate
tensile strength and yeild strength of the material are 600 and 450 N /mm 2 respectively. Find
the factor of safety using
(i) Gerber theory, (ii) Soderberg line, (iii) Modified Goodman line. Also, find the factor of
safety against static failure.
Answer:
Sa = nσa , Sm = nσm where n is the factor of safety.
(i) 5.41, (ii) 3.75, (iii) 4.39
Syt
Static load: n = σmax = 4.5

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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Augmented Modified Goodman Diagrams

Modified Goodman diagram is further modified such that it does not cross the yield line.

Fluctuting axial or bending stresses Fluctuting torsional shear stresses

[Bhandari, 3e; page 169]

[Bhandari, 3e; page 168]

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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Example: Bending

A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2 and Syt = 380 N/mm2 )
as shown in figure. The force P acting at the free end varies from -50 N to +150 N. The
expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity factor at the
fillet is 0.9. Determine the diameter d of the beam at the fillet cross-section.

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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Example: Bending

A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (Sut = 600 N/mm2 and Syt = 380 N/mm2 )
as shown in figure. The force P acting at the free end varies from -50 N to +150 N. The
expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity factor at the
fillet is 0.9. Determine the diameter d of the beam at the fillet cross-section.

Answer: Ksurf = 0.8279, Ksize = 0.85 assuming 7.5<d<50 mm, Krel = 0.897, Kt = 1.44,
Kf = 1.396, Se = 135.65 N/mm2 , θ = 63.435◦ , Sa = 121.87 N/mm2 , d = 11.87 mm.
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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Example: Torsion

A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel 27Mn2 (Sut = 500 N/mm2 and Syt = 300 N/mm2 ) is
subjected to a fluctuating torque which varies from -100 N-m to +400 N-m. The factor of
safety is 2 and the expected reliability is 90%. Neglecting the effect of stress concentration,
determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume distortion energy theory of failure. (Use
Sse = 0.577Se , Ssy = 0.577Syt with Kload = 1)

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Design for Fluctuating Stress with Non-zero Mean
Example: Torsion

A transmission shaft of cold drawn steel 27Mn2 (Sut = 500 N/mm2 and Syt = 300 N/mm2 ) is
subjected to a fluctuating torque which varies from -100 N-m to +400 N-m. The factor of
safety is 2 and the expected reliability is 90%. Neglecting the effect of stress concentration,
determine the diameter of the shaft. Assume distortion energy theory of failure. (Use
Sse = 0.577Se , Ssy = 0.577Syt with Kload = 1)
Answer: Ksurf = 0.8689, Ksize = 0.85 assuming 7.5<d<50 mm, Krel = 0.897, θ = 59.04◦ ,
d = 29.87 mm

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Combined Loading Modes
Axial, Bending, and Torsion

Given a combined loading situation, Von Mises stress (Distortion Energy Theory) is given by
s
(σx − σy )2 + (σy − σz )2 + (σz − σx )2 + 6(τxy
2 + τ2 + τ2 )
yz zx
σ0 = .
2

For planar stress situation with axial, bending, Then, Von Mises alternating and mean
and torsion, components of stress are given by
q q
σ0 = σx2 − σx σy + σy2 + 3τxy
2 . σa0 = 2 − σ σ + σ 2 + 3τ 2
σxa xa ya ya xya
q
0 2 −σ σ 2 2
Let σxa and σxm be alternating and mean σm = σxm xm ym + σym + 3τxym
components of normal stress.
Let τxya and τxym be alternating and mean Using these in fatigue design equation,
components of shear stress. 0
σm σ0 1
+ a = .
Syt Se fs
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References
Machine Design: An Integrated Appraoch, 2e, Norton
Mechanical Engineering Design, 8e, Shigley
Design of Machine Elements, 3e, Bhandari

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