NDT - Visual Examination

The Titanic
GSLV – D3
Columbia Space Shuttle
 What is NDT??

 NDT  Non-Destructive Testing.

 Inspect or measure without harming materials

 The use of noninvasive techniques to

determine the integrity of a material,

component or structure, in order to

quantitatively measure some characteristics

of an object.
 Why NDT??

• Low wastage of materials

• Less Downtime of operations

• Accident Prevention

• Individual areas of concern before failure

• Comprehensive Testing

• Increased Product Reliability.

NDT Test Methods
- Test method names often refer to the type of penetrating medium or
the equipment used to perform that test.
 Visual Testing (VT)
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT/LPT)
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
 Radiographic Testing (RT)
 Acoustic Emission Testing (AE)
 Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR)
 Electromagnetic Testing (ET)
 Guided Wave Testing (GW)
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
 Laser Testing Methods (LM)
 Leak Testing (LT)
 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL)
 Microwave Testing
 Neutron Radiographic Testing (NR)
 Vibration Analysis (VA)
Six Most Common NDT Methods

• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic Particle
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• X-ray Radiography
 Uses of NDE Methods
• Flaw Detection and Evaluation
• Leak Detection
• Location Determination
• Dimensional Measurements
• Structure and Microstructure Characterization
• Estimation of Mechanical and Physical Properties
• Stress (Strain) and Dynamic Response
Measurements
• Material Sorting and Chemical Composition
Determination
 Inspection of Raw Products

• Forgings,
• Castings,
• Extrusions,
• Rolling.
 Inspection of Secondary Processing

• Machining
• Welding
• Grinding
• Heat treating
• Plating
 Inspection of In-Service Damages

• Cracking
• Corrosion
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
 Aircraft Inspection
• Nondestructive testing is used
extensively during the
manufacturing of aircraft.
• NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at
the site of a lightning strike is
shown below.
 Jet Engine Inspection
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period
of time.
• They are completely disassembled,
cleaned, inspected and then
reassembled.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.
 Pressure Vessel Inspection
The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of
a large amount of energy. To
protect against this dangerous
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.
 Rail Inspection
Special cars are used to
inspect thousands of miles
of rail to find cracks that
could lead to a derailment.
 Pipeline Inspection
NDT is used to inspect pipelines
to prevent leaks that could
damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
electromagnetic testing are some
of the NDT methods used.

Remote visual inspection using

a robotic crawler.

Magnetic flux leakage inspection.

This device, known as a pig, is
placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography of weld joints.
Visual Testing (VT)
 Commonly used test method in industry.
 Most test methods require that the operator look at the surface of
the part being inspected  visual inspection is inherent in most of
the other test methods.
 As the name implies, VT involves the visual observation of the
surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface
discontinuities (and also inner defects).

 Human eye is most valuable NDT tool.

 No substitute for visual inspection nor it can replace other NDT

techniques.

 Helps in detecting surface defects – Corrosion, Surface finish and in

welds: Undercut, Lack of penetration & Under fill etc.
VT can be classified as Direct visual testing, Remote
visual testing and Translucent visual testing.

 Basic procedure: Illumination of the test object and

examination with eye / visual aid.

 Visual aids: Optical aids include low-power magnifiers,

microscopes, telescopes and also specialised devices
such as borescopes, endoscopes and other fibre-optic
devices for the inspection of restricted access areas.

 Vision may be enhanced using instruments such as

charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted
viewing systems (Remote Viewing).
For in-situ viewing (Ex: Aircraft, Jet Engine inspections):
 Magnifying Glasses
 Microscope: Viewing the object using combination of lenses

to obtain high magnification.

For remote viewing (Ex: pipeline & pressure vessels
inspection):
 Borescope: Designed to inspect the inside of a narrow
tube, bore or a chamber.
 Endoscope: Like a Borescope with a superior optical
system and high intensity light source.
 Fiberscope: Flexible fiber optic borescope in which the tip

can be manipulated by remote control. Latest instruments

are with CCD camera attachment.
 These devices can also be used with television camera systems.
 High-speed visual inspection with automated output is possible and
television techniques may use enhanced image and pattern recognition
methods.
 Remote photography of inaccessible surfaces, such as inside a
radioactive environment, is also possible.
 High-speed cine is also used for studying fast events. Arrays of optical
diodes can be used instead of television cameras.

Challenges in VT:
 Requires adequate illumination of the test surface
 Proper eye-sight of the tester (Jaeger Number 1 Test Chart or
equivalent at a distance of not less than 30 cm).
LIGHT SOURCE

OBJECTIVE LENS

DISTAL TIP

VIEWING HEAD

REMOTE CONTROL
Acknowledgements:
All images are taken from Google search.
NDT – Liquid Penetrant Test
 Introduction
• Penetrant Testing, or PT, is a nondestructive testing
method that builds on the principle of Visual
Inspection.
• PT increases the “seeability” of small discontinuities
that the human eye might not be able to detect
alone.
 Terminologies Used
• Capillary Action - the tendency of certain liquids to
travel or climb when exposed to small openings.
• Contrast - the relative amount of light emitted or
reflected between the indication and its
background.
• Defect - a discontinuity that affects the
usefulness of a part or specimen.
• Developer - a finely divided material applied over
the surface of a part to help promote reverse
capillary action and thus bring out a penetrant
indication.
• Discontinuity - any interruption in the normal
physical structure of a part or weld. It may or
may not affect the usefulness of a part.
• Dwell Time - the period of time that a penetrant
or developer must remain in contact with the
surface of a part under test.
 Terminologies Used
• Emulsification Time - the time allowed for the
emulsifier to render the penetrant water washable and
thus allow the part to be washed.
• Emulsifier - a material applied over a film of
penetrant that renders it water washable.
• Evaluation - the process of deciding as to the severity
of the condition after an indication has been
interpreted.
• False Indication - an indication caused by improper
processing; not caused by a relevant or non-relevant
condition.
• Flash Time - the time required for the solvent to
evaporate from the surface of a part when used to
pre-clean or remove excess penetrant.
• Fluorescent Dye - a dye which becomes fluorescent
(gives off light) when exposed to short wave radiation
such as ultraviolet light.
 Terminologies Used
• Indication - the visible evidence or penetrant bleed-
out on the surface of the specimen
• Interpretation - the process of evaluating an indication
in an attempt to determine the cause and nature of
the discontinuity.
• Non-Aqueous Developer - a developer in which
developing powder is applied as a suspension in a quick
drying solvent
• Penetrant - a liquid used in fluorescent or visible dye
penetrant inspection to penetrate into the surface
openings of parts inspected via these methods
• Relevant Indication - an indication that has been
determined not to be false or non-relevant - and
actual defect
• Seeability - the characteristic of an indication that
enables it to be seen against the adverse conditions of
background, outside light, etc.
 Terminologies Used
• Sensitivity - the ability of a penetrant to detect
surface openings. Higher sensitivity indicates smaller
discontinuities can be detected
• Ultraviolet Light (or Black Light) - light energy just
below the visible range of violet light (356
nanometers).
• Viscosity - the resistance of a fluid to the motion of
its particles
• Washability - the property of a penetrant which
permits it to be cleaned from the surface of a part by
washing with water
 Basic working principle - A liquid with high surface wetting characteristics/ very low
viscosity (highly fluid) is applied to the surface of a component under test.
 The penetrant “penetrates” into surface breaking discontinuities/ fissures/ voids that
are open to the surface via capillary action and penetration mechanism.
 Once the excess penetrant is removed, the penetrant trapped in those voids will flow
back out, creating an indication.
 Penetrants may be "visible“ (they can be seen in ambient light) or fluorescent
(requires the use of a "black" light).
 When performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is
clean and free of any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from
entering voids or fissures open to the surface of the part.
 After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the surface for a
specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is
carefully cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the surface.
 When removing the penetrant, the operator must be careful not to remove
any penetrant that has flowed into voids.
 A light coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time
("developer dwell time") to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to
seep up into the developer, creating a visible indication.
 Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected visually,
with the aid of a black light for fluorescent penetrants.
 Most developers are fine-grained, white talcum-like powders that provide a
colour contrast to the penetrant being used.
 With good inspection technique, visual indications of any discontinuities
present become apparent.
 Penetrant testing can be performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials,
but does not work well on porous materials.
 Capillary Mechanism
• Every step of the LPT is vital
to promote capillary action.
• Rising or climbing of a liquid
when confined to small
openings due to surface
wetting properties of the
liquid.
• Some examples:
– Plants and trees draw water up
from the ground to their branches
and leaves to supply their
nourishment.
– The human body has miles of
capillaries that carry life
sustaining blood to our entire
body.
Materials Visualized using PT?

Any material
that has a
relatively
smooth, non-
porous surface
on which
discontinuities
or defects are
suspected.
 Materials not suitable for PT?
• Components with rough
surfaces, such as sand
castings, that trap and hold
penetrant.
• P/M components
• Porous ceramics
• Wood and other fibrous
materials.
• Plastic parts that absorb or Defect indications become less
distinguishable as the
react with the penetrant background “noise” level
increases.
materials.
• Components with coatings
that prevent penetrants from
entering defects.
Types of Defects/ Discontinuities detected
using PT?

Only surface defects like in

– Rolled products - cracks,
seams, laminations.
– Castings - cold shuts, hot
tears, porosity, blow holes,
shrinkage.
– Forgings – cracks, laps,
external bursts.
– Welds – cracks, porosity,
undercut, overlap, lack of
fusion, lack of penetration.
Basic Process of PT
1) Clean & Dry Component 4) Apply Developer
2) Apply Penetrant

5) Visual Inspection
3) Remove Excess Penetrant

6) Post Clean Component

 Choices of Penetrant Materials
Penetrant Type
I Fluorescent
II Visible

Method

A Water Washable
B Postemulsifiable – Lipophilic (Oily organic
compound insoluble in water
but soluble in organic solvents)
C Solvent Removable
D Postemulsifiable – Hydrophilic
(strong affinity for water)

Developer Form
Dry Powder
Wet, Water Soluble
Wet, Water Suspendable
Wet, Non-Aqueous
 Penetrant Materials
To perform well, penetrants are formulated based on
the following important characteristics:
– Spreading easily over the component surface

– Easy to be drawn into surface breaking defects (Not too viscous

or too fluid  affects capillary action or other mechanisms)

– Remain in the defect but remove easily from the surface of the
part.

– Remain fluid through the drying and developing steps  easy to

draw back to the surface.

– Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly  produces easy to see

indications.

– Not be harmful to the inspector or to the material being tested.

 Sensitivity Levels
• Higher the sensitivity level  smaller the defect that the
penetrant is capable of detecting.
• The five sensitivity levels are:
– Level 4 - Ultra-High Sensitivity
– Level 3 - High Sensitivity
– Level 2 - Medium Sensitivity
– Level 1 - Low Sensitivity
– Level ½ - Very Low Sensitivity
• Increase in sensitivity level  Increase in number of non
relevant indications also (even small s/f features will be shown as
indications).
• Hence, penetrant selection is important, which will find only the
defects of interest but not produce too many non relevant
indications.
 Visible Vs Fluorescent PT
• Inspection  performed using visible
(or red dye) or fluorescent penetrant
materials.
• Visible - performed under white
light; Fluorescent - performed using
an ultraviolet light in a darkened
area. Photo Courtesy of Contesco
• All are all in the level 1 sensitivity
range.
• Fluorescent PT is more sensitive than
visible PT because the eye is more
sensitive to a bright indication on a
dark background. Sensitivity ranges
from 1 to 4.
 6 Steps of Penetrant Testing

1. Pre-Clean
2. Penetrant Application
3. Excess Penetrant
Removal
4. Developer Application
5. Inspect/Evaluate
6. Post-clean
 Pre-cleaning – Step 1

• Parts must be free of dirt, rust,

scale, oil, grease, etc. to perform
a reliable inspection.
• The cleaning process must remove
contaminants from the surfaces of
the part and defects, and must
not plug any of the defects.

Solvent Cleaning
Detergent Cleaning
Vapor Degreasing
Steam Cleaning
Ultrasonic Cleaning
Etching
 Caution about Metal Smearing
Some machining, surface finishing and cleaning Before Smearing
operations can cause a thin layer of metal to
smear on the surface and prevent penetrant
from entering any flaws that may be present.

Etching of the surface prior to inspection is

sometimes required. After Smearing

After Etching
 Penetrant Application – Step 2

Many methods of
application are
possible such as:
– Brushing
– Spraying
– Dipping/
Immersing
– Flow-on
 Dwell Time

• The penetrant solution

must be allowed to
“dwell” on the surface
of the part to allow the
penetrant time to fill
any defects present.
• The dwell time vary
according to penetrant
type, temperature,
material type and
surface finish.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3
The removal technique depends upon the type of
penetrant used, as stated earlier.
– Solvent Removable
– Water Washable
– Post Emulsifiable
 Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3
Penetrants are also classified by the method of

removing the excess penetrant.

• Solvent Removable
- penetrants are removed by wiping with a cloth
dampened with solvent.
- Supplied in aerosol cans for portability
- Primarily used for spot checks.
• Water Washable
- penetrants are removed with a course spray of
water.
- Easiest to employ
- Most cost effective when inspecting large areas.
 Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

• Post-Emulsifiable
- penetrants are water-washable only after
they have reacted with an emulsifier solution.

- A post-emulsifiable system is used when

washing the penetrant out of the defect is a
concern.

- The emulsifier is given time to react with the

penetrant on the surface but not the
penetrant trapped in the flaw.
Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

Solvent Removable (cont.)

Any time a solvent is
used in the penetrant inspection
process, a
suitable flash time is
required to allow excess solvent to
evaporate.
 Developer Application – Step 4

The method of developer application is dependent

on the type of developer used.

Types are:
– Dry

– Wet

– Non-aqueous Wet
 Developers

• The role of the developer is to pull trapped

penetrant out of defects and to spread it
out on the surface so that it can be seen.
Also provides a light background to
increase contrast when visible penetrant is used.
• Developer materials are available in several different forms
– Dry Powder is a mix of light fluffy powder that clumps together where
penetrant bleeds back to the surface to produces very defined indications.
– Wet, Water Suspendable is a powder that is suspended in a water
that covers the surface with a relatively uniform layer of developer when
the water is evaporated. The solution is somewhat difficult to maintain as
the powder settles out over time.
– Wet, Water Soluble is a crystalline powder that forms a clear solution
when mixed with water. The solution recrystallizes on the surface when
the water is driven off. Indications sometimes lack definition and look
milky. Not recommended for use with water-washable penetrants.
– Wet, Non-Aqueous - is supplied in a spray can and is the most sensitive
developer for inspecting small areas. It is too costly and difficult to apply
to large areas.
 Developer Application – Step 4
Dry Powder Developer
• Prior to applying a dry
powder developer, the
component must be
thoroughly dried. Drying
is usually accomplished in
a hot air circulating
oven.
• The developer is then
applied by immersing the
part in the powder or by
dusting of the part with
the powder.
• The part can also be
placed in a developer
dust cloud chamber.
Developer Application – Step 4
Wet Developer (water- suspended and
water- soluble)

• Wet developers are applied by

immersing or spraying the part
while it is still wet from the
penetrant removal process.

• The part is completely coated and

the excess liquid allowed to drain
to prevent pooling

• The part is then dried in a hot air

circulating oven.
 Developer Application – Step 4

Non-aqueous Developer (AKA Solvent-

Suspended)
• Non-aqueous developer is applied by
a aerosol spray to a thoroughly
dried and cooled part.
• A thin even coating should be
applied. The coating should be
white but still slightly transparent
when performing a visible dye
penetrant inspection, and even
thinner when performing a
fluorescent penetrant inspection.
Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5

 Inspector evaluates the

penetrant indications against
specified accept/reject
criteria and attempts to
determine the origin of the Non-relevant weld geometry indications

indication.

 Indications are judged to be

either relevant, non-relevant
or false.

Relevant crack indications from an

abusive drilling process
 Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5

 A very important step

of evaluation is to
document findings on an
inspection report form or
other record keeping
form.

 This is supported with

drawings or photos of
indications, etc.
 Post Clean – Step 6

 Final step: To thoroughly

clean the part that has been
tested to remove all
penetrant processing
materials.

 Residual materials could

possibly affect the
performance of the part or
affect its visual appeal.
Penetrant Inspection Systems
Penetrant systems can be highly portable or
stationary.

Image courtesy of Nebraska Army National Guard

Portable Penetrant System Stationary Penetrant

System
Verification of Penetrant System Performance

Since penetrant testing involves

multiple processing steps, the
performance of the materials
and the processes should be
routinely checked using
performance verification tools,
which include:
– PSM/TAM Panels (Penetrant
System Testing and
Monitoring)
– Crack Sensitivity Panels
– Run Check Panels
Advantages of Penetrant Testing

• Relatively ease of use.

• Can be used on a wide range of material types.
• Large areas or large volumes of parts/materials can be
inspected rapidly and at low cost.

• Parts with complex geometries are routinely inspected.

• Indications are produced directly on surface of the part
providing a visual image of the discontinuity.

• Initial equipment investment is low.

• Aerosol spray cans can make equipment very portable.
 Limitations of Penetrant Testing

• Only detects surface breaking defects.

• Requires relatively smooth nonporous material.
• Pre-cleaning is critical. Contaminants can mask defects (False
indication).

• Requires multiple operations under controlled conditions.

• Chemical handling precautions necessary (toxicity, fire, waste).
• Metal smearing from machining, grinding and other operations
inhibits detection. Materials may need to be etched prior to
inspection.

• Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals.

 Summary

• Penetrant testing (PT)  most widely used

nondestructive testing methods.
• Popularity is attributed to two main factors 
relative ease of use and its flexibility.
• However, PT involves a number of processing steps
that must be closely control to achieve optimal
sensitivity.
Acknowledgements:
All images are taken from Google search.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING
 Magnetism???
 Magnetism - ability of a matter to attract other matter to itself.

 Objects that possess the property of magnetism are said to be

magnetic or magnetized.

 Magnetic lines of force can be found in and around the objects that
are magnetized.

 Magnetic pole - Point where the magnetic line of force exits or

enters the material.

Magnetic lines of force

around a bar magnet
Characteristics of Magnetic Field Lines:
• Form complete loops.
• Do not cross.
• Follow the path of least resistance.
• All lines have the same strength.
• Have a direction such that they cause poles to attract or repel.

Opposite poles attracting Similar poles repelling

 Classification of Magnetic Materials
 When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of
the material's electrons will be affected.
 This effect is known as Faraday's Law of Magnetic Induction.
 However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an
external magnetic field.
 This reaction is dependent on a number of factors, such as the atomic
and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field/
magnetic moments associated with the atoms.
 The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins. These
are the electron motion, the change in motion caused by an external
magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
 In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs.
 Electrons in a pair spin in opposite directions.
 Classification of Magnetic Materials
 So, when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause
their magnetic fields to cancel each other.
 Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.
 Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net
magnetic field and will react more to an external field.
 Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or
ferromagnetic.

MATERIALS

FERROMAGNETIC DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC

DIA-MAGNETIC:
 Possess a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
 Slightly repelled by a magnetic field
 Material does not retain the magnetic properties when the
external field is removed.
 All the electron are paired in these materials, so there is no
permanent net magnetic moment per atom.
 Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the
electron paths under the influence of an external magnetic field.
 Most elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, gold
and Quartz (silicon dioxide) are diamagnetic.
PARA-MAGNETIC:
 Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields.
 These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field
 Does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is
removed.
 Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired
electrons, and from the realignment of the electron paths caused by
the external magnetic field.
 Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, oxygen, molybdenum, lithium,
and tantalum.

FERROMAGNETIC:
 Materials which can be strongly magnetized and are suitable for MPT.
 Ex: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt alloys & precipitation hardening steels (17-4PH)

 These materials are not magnetized in direct proportion to the applied

magnetizing force.
 Beyond the saturation point, part cannot be further magnetized.
 MAGNETS

PERMANENT TEMPORARY

 ALNICO series (metallic)

(8% aluminum, 14% nickel,

24% cobalt, 3% copper, 1.25% titanium, and the balance iron)

 INDOX family (ceramic)

(produced by calcination of barium, lead, or strontium ferrite,

compaction, and final sintering.)
MAGNETIC LINES OF FLUX:

 The magnetic lines of forces existing in a magnetic field is called

magnetic flux.

 The lines of flux ran through the magnets from south to north,
exiting the north pole and re entering the south pole.

 The lines of flux formed closed loops that never crossed.

RELUCTANCE:

 It is the resistance of a material to the establishment of magnetic

field.

The reluctance of material determines the magnitude of flux produced.

PERMEABILITY:

 It is the ability of a material to permit the magnetization.

 Numerically it can be expressed as B/H.

where, B  Flux Density

H  Magnetizing Force
 HYSTERESIS CURVE FOR FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

 When ferromagnetic parts are subjected to a magnetizing current, magnetic

domains tend to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field.
 After the magnetizing force is removed, many of the domains remain aligned in the
magnetized direction until a magnetic force in the opposite direction causes them to
return to their original random state.
 The force required to return the magnetic domains to their random orientation is
known as the coercive force.
 METHODSOF GENERATING MAGNETIC FIELD

Direct Magnetization Indirect Magnetization

Clamping the component
between two electrical Permanent Magnets or Yoke
contacts

Clamps or Prods Central Conductor

Electromagnets

coils and solenoids

 DIRECT MAGNETIZATION
 With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the

component.

 The flow of current causes a circular magnetic field to form in and

around the conductor.

 When using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to

ensure that good electrical contact is established and maintained

between the test equipment and the test component to avoid
damage of the component (due to arcing or overheating at high
resistance points).
1. CLAMPING THE COMPONENT BETWEEN TWO ELECTRICAL CONTACTS

 One way involves clamping the component between two electrical

contacts in a special piece of equipment.

 Current is passed through the component and a circular magnetic

field is established in and around the component.

 When the magnetizing current is stopped, a residual magnetic field

will remain within the component.

 The strength of the induced magnetic field is proportional to the

amount of current passed through the component.

 2. CLAMPS or PRODS
 A second technique involves using clamps or prods, which are attached

or placed in contact with the component.

 Electrical current flows through the component from contact to

contact.

 The current sets up a circular magnetic field around the path of the

current.
 INDIRECT MAGNETIZATION

 Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external

magnetic field to establish a magnetic field within the component.

 As with direct magnetization, there are several ways that indirect

magnetization can be accomplished.

1. PERMANENT MAGNETS:-

 The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a

magnetic field.

 However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field

strength and the difficulty of placing and removing strong permanent

magnets from the material.
PERMANENT ELECTRO MAGNET
MAGNET
2.ELECTROMAGNET (or YOKE):-
 Electromagnets in the form of an adjustable horseshoe magnet (called a yoke)
eliminate the problems associated with permanent magnets and are used
extensively in industry.
 Electromagnets only exhibit a magnetic flux when electric current is flowing
around the soft iron core.
 When the magnet is placed on the component, a magnetic field is established
between the north and south poles of the magnet.

3.CENTRAL CONDUCTOR:-
 Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using the
magnetic field of a current carrying conductor.
 A circular magnetic field can be established in cylindrical components by using a
central conductor.
 Typically, one or more cylindrical components are hung from a solid copper bar
running through the inside diameter.
 Current is passed through the copper bar and the resulting circular magnetic
field establishes a magnetic field within the material.
4. COIL & SOLENOIDS:-

 When the length of a component

is several times larger than its

diameter, a longitudinal
magnetic field can be
established in the component.

 The component is placed

longitudinally in the concentrated
magnetic field that fills the
center of a coil or solenoid.

 This magnetization technique is

often referred to as a "coil
shot".
 Different Modes of Magnetization
 Central conductor: an electrically conductive bar usually made of copper used

to introduce a circular magnetic field in to a test specimen.

 Coil: an electrical conductor such a copper wire or cable that is wrapped in

several or many loops that are brought close to one another to form a strong
longitudinal magnetic field.

 Heads: electrical contact pads on a wet horizontal magnetic particle

inspection machine. The part to be inspected is clamped and held in place
between the heads and shot of current is sent through the part from the
heads to create a circular magnetic field in the part.

 Prods: two electrodes usually made of copper or aluminum that are used to
introduce current in to a test part. This current in turn creates a circular
magnetic field where each prod touches the part. (Similar in principal to a
welding electrode and ground clamp).

 Yoke: a horseshoe magnet used to create a longitudinal magnetic field. Yokes

may be made from permanent magnets or electromagnets.

 MAGNETIC FIELDS DISTRIBUTION ANDINTENSITY

1. LONGITUDINAL FIELD:-

 When a long component is magnetized using a solenoid having a

shorter length, only the material within the solenoid and about the
same length on each side of the solenoid will be strongly magnetized.

 This occurs because the magnetizing force diminishes with

increasing distance from the solenoid.
2. CIRCULAR FIELDS:-

 A circular magnetic field is formed in and around a conductor due to

the passage of electric current through it.

 Right hand thumb rule for direction of magnetic field.

 DEMAGNETIZATION

 After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually

necessary to demagnetize the component.

Magnetic fields can:

 affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

 Interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.

 Create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc

blow may cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled
from the weld.
 Cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and
increase wear.
REMOVAL OF A FIELD MAY BE ACCOMPLISHED IN SEVERAL WAYS….

 By heating the material above its curie temperature (for instance,

the curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770°C).

- When steel is heated above its curie temperature then it is cooled

back down, the orientation of the magnetic domains of the individual
grains will become randomized again and thus the component will
contain no residual magnetic field.

 Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing magnetic

field will return the dipoles to a nearly random orientation

throughout the material.

- This can be accomplished by pulling a component out and away from

a coil with AC passing through it.
 Basic Procedure

Basic steps involved:

 Component pre-cleaning

 Introduction of magnetic field

 Application of magnetic media

 Interpretation of magnetic particle indications

Pre-cleaning:

 When inspecting a test part with the magnetic particle method,

it is essential for the particles to have an unimpeded path for

migration to both strong and weak leakage fields alike. The part’s
surface should be clean and dry before inspection.

 Contaminants such as oil, grease, or scale may not only prevent

particles from being attracted to leakage fields, they may also

interfere with interpretation of indications.
 Importance of Magnetic Field Direction

 Being able to magnetize the part in two

directions is important, because the best
detection of defects occurs when the lines of Flux Leakage
magnetic force are established at right angles to
the longest dimension of the defect.
 This orientation creates the largest disruption of
the magnetic field within the part and the
greatest flux leakage at the surface of the part.
 An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the
magnetic field and the defect is necessary to
form an indication. No Flux Leakage
 Since defects may occur in various and unknown
directions, each part is normally magnetized in
two directions at right angles to each other.
Application of Magnetic Media (Wet Versus Dry)
 MPI can be performed using either dry
particles, or particles suspended in a
liquid.

 With the dry method, the particles are

lightly dusted on to the surface.

 With the wet method, the part is

flooded with a solution carrying the
particles.

 The dry method is more portable.

 The wet method is generally more

sensitive since the liquid carrier gives
the magnetic particles additional
mobility.
Dry Magnetic Particles

 Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors.

 A color that produces a high level of contrast against the

background should be used.

Wet Magnetic Particles

 Wet particles are typically supplied as visible or fluorescent.

 Visible particles are viewed under normal white light and

fluorescent particles are viewed under black light.
 Interpretation of Indications

 After applying the magnetic field, indications that form must be

interpreted. This process requires that the inspector distinguish

between relevant and non-relevant indications.

Crane Hook with Service Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet
Particle Method
 Gear with Service Induced Crack

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Drive Shaft with Heat Treatment Induced Cracks

Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Lack of Fusion in SMAW Weld

Indication

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Toe Crack in SMAW Weld

Visible, Dry Powder Method

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection:

 Can detect both surface and near sub-surface defects.

 Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.

 Pre-cleaning of components is not as critical as it is for liquid

penetrant inspection method. Most contaminants within a flaw

will not hinder flaw detectability.

 Fast method of inspection and indications are visible directly on

the specimen surface.

 Considerably low cost compared to many other NDT methods.

 Very portable inspection method especially when used with

battery powered equipment.
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection:

 Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as aluminum,

magnesium or most stainless steels.

 Inspection of large parts may require use of equipment with

special power requirements.

 Some parts may require removal of coating or plating to achieve

desired inspection sensitivity.

 Limited subsurface discontinuity detection capabilities. Maximum

depth sensitivity is approximately 0.6” (under ideal conditions).

 Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often necessary.

 Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is important.

 Flaw depth cannot be measured.

Acknowledgements:
All images are taken from Google search.
Eddy Current Testing
Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection:

 Only for ferromagnetic materials.

 Low productivity due to time-taking operations such as surface

cleaning

 Low reliability due to the human factor (like physical effort in holding the

Yoke or Prod) and surface condition influence (like coatings or paintings)

 High cost for material expendables

 Impossibility to estimate the flaw depth.

 Eddy Current???
 A coil of conductive wire is excited with an alternating electrical
current.
 This wire coil produces an alternating magnetic field around itself.
 The magnetic field oscillates at the same frequency as the current
running through the coil.
 When the coil approaches a conductive material, currents opposite
to the ones in the coil are induced in the material — eddy currents.
 Variations in the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability
of the test object, and the presence of defects causes a change in
eddy current and a corresponding change in phase and amplitude
that can be detected by measuring the impedance changes in the
coil. Where, Z = Impedance; R = Resistance; XL =
Inductance resistance; XC = Capacitance resistance.
 Eddy Current Testing
 Eddy Currents (FOUCAULT CURRENT) are defined as Oscillating Electrical
Currents Induced in a Conductive Material by an Alternating Magnetic Field,
due to Electromagnetic Induction.
 They flow in circles at and just below the surface of the material.
 Interruptions in the flow of eddy currents, caused by imperfections,
dimensional changes, or changes in the material's conductivity and
permeability properties, can be detected with proper equipment.
 Eddy current testing can be used on all electrically conducting materials
with a reasonably smooth surface.
 The test equipment consists of a generator (AC power supply), a test coil
and recording equipment, e.g. a galvanometer or an oscilloscope.
 Used for crack detection, material thickness measurement (corrosion
detection), sorting materials, coating thickness measurement, metal
detection, etc.
 Eddy Current Instruments
Voltmeter
Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
 Principles of Eddy Current Testing

 When a AC passes through

a test coil, a primary
magnetic field is set up
around the coil
 The AC primary field
induces eddy current in
the test object held below
the test coil
 A secondary magnetic
field arises due to the
eddy current
 Mutual Inductance - The Basis for Eddy
Current Inspection
 The magnetic field produced by
circuit 1 will intersect the wire in
circuit 2 and create current flow.
 The induced current flow in circuit
2 will have its own magnetic field
which will interact with the
magnetic field of circuit 1.
 At some point P, the magnetic field
will consist of a part due to i1 and a
part due to i2. These fields are
proportional to the currents
producing them.

The flux B through circuits is the sum of two parts.

 B1 = L11i1 + L12i2 = L1i1 + i2M
B2 = L22i2 + L21i1 = L2i2 + i1M
L11 and L22 represent the self inductance & L12 and L21 represent the mutual
inductance of each of the coils. The constant M, called the mutual inductance of
the two circuits and it is dependent on the geometrical arrangement of both
circuits.
 Principles of Eddy Current Testing

 The strength of the

secondary field depends
on electrical and
magnetic properties,
structural integrity,
etc., of the test object
 If cracks or other
inhomogeneities are
present, the eddy
current, and hence the
secondary field is
affected.
 Principles of Eddy Current Testing

 The changes in the

secondary field will be
a ‘feedback’ to the
primary coil and affect
the primary current.
 The variations of the
primary current can be
easily detected by a
simple circuit which is
zeroed properly
beforehand.
 Depth of Penetration
 Eddy currents  closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux.
 They travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited to the area of
the inducing magnetic field.
 They concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their
strength s with distance from the coil as shown in the image.
 Their current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon
is known as the skin effect.
 The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to about 37% of the
surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration ().
Eddy Current Intensity and Depth of Penetration
Following parameters govern the intensity and
depth of penetration of eddy currents:
• Frequency
• Conductivity
• Permeability

f : frequency in Hertz
: conductivity in m/.mm2
: relative permeability
 Types of Probes

Specimen
 Absolute probe

- Surface probe

- Internal bobbin probe

- Encircling probe

 Differential probe

 Reflection probe Ref. source: “The impedance plane and probes” pdf, Insight Vol
46 No 6 June 2004
 Applications of Encircling Probes

 Mainly for automatic production

control.

 Round bars, pipes, wires and similar

items are generally inspected with

encircling probes

 Discontinuities and dimensional

changes can be revealed

 In-situ monitoring of wires used on

cranes, elevators, towing cables is also

an useful application
 Applications of Internal Bobbin Probes

 Primarily for examination of tube

in heat exchangers and oil pipes

 Become increasingly popular due

to the wide acceptance of the

philosophy of preventive

maintenance.
 Common eddy current reference
standards include:

Conductivity
standards.

Flat plate
discontinuity
standards.
 Flat plate metal
thinning standards
(step wedges).

Hole discontinuity
standards.
 Representation of ET Results

 The impedance plane diagram

is a very useful way of
displaying eddy current data.

 The strength of the eddy

currents and the magnetic
permeability of the test
material cause the eddy
current signal on the
impedance plane to react in a
variety of different ways.
 Plane response for conductive but weak magnetic materials
• If the eddy current circuit is balanced in air and then placed on a
piece of aluminium, the resistance component will increase (eddy
currents are being generated in the aluminium and this takes
energy away from the coil, which shows up as resistance).
• However, the inductive reactance of the coil decreases (the
magnetic field created by the eddy currents opposes the coil's
magnetic field and the net effect is a weaker magnetic field to
produce inductance).
• If a crack is present in the material, fewer eddy currents will be
able to form and the resistance will go back down and the
inductive reactance will go back up.
• Changes in conductivity will cause the eddy current signal to
change in a different way.
 Plane response for conductive and magnetic materials
• When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel,
something different happens.
• Just like with aluminium (conductive but not magnetic), eddy
currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which shows up
as an increase in the coils resistance.
• And, just like with the aluminium, the eddy currents generate
their own magnetic field that opposes the coils magnetic field.
However, you will note for the diagram that the reactance
increases.
• This is because the magnetic permeability of the steel
concentrates the coil's magnetic field. This increase in the
magnetic field strength completely overshadows the magnetic field
of the eddy currents.
• The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will
produce a change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen
with aluminium.
 Applications of ET

 Crack Detection

 Material Thickness

 Coating Thickness

 Conductivity Measurements for:

- Material Identification

- Heat Damage Detection

- Case Depth Determination

- Heat Treatment Monitoring

 Advantages of ET
 Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

 Flaw depth can be measured

 High sensitivity for microscopic flaws

 High inspection speed/ single pass scanning

 No surface preparation needed

 Easy to automate inspection processes

 No surface contact, no couplant, no radiation

 Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials

 Detect cracks up to 3 mm depth in the case of paintings/coatings

 Limitations of ET

 Only conductive materials can be inspected

 It is sensitive only for metallic components of thickness up to 6mm

only.

 Surface must be accessible to the probe

 Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques

 Reference standards needed for setup

 Depth of penetration is limited

 Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding

and probe scan direction are undetectable

Acknowledgements:
All images are taken from Google search.