Cable and Tensile Membrane Structures

Presented to AR. Jearlene Daleon Lipa

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND FINE ARTS
MANUEL S. ENVERGA UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION
(An Autonomous University)
Lucena City, Quezon

In partial fulfillment of the requirements in BT115: Building Technology 5-Alternative

Building Construction Systems (Section A017) by

Kiara Shaira Ada

Ma. Kyla Victoria Gagasa

Andre Eiael L. Llanes

Wally Orellana

Kevin Villanueva

October 2024
Introduction

Tensile structure refers to the construction of roofs using a membrane held in place on
steel cables. Their main characteristics are how they work under stress tensile, their ease of
pre-fabrication, their ability to cover large spans and their malleability. This structural system
calls for a small amount of material thanks to the use of thin canvases, which when stretched
using steel cables, create surfaces capable of overcoming the forces imposed upon them.

Predominantly used in coverings of sports centers, arenas, and industrial and

agroindustrial constructions, tensile structures are based on the old systems used during the
Roman Empire. However, from the Roman period until the mid-20th century, due to the low
demand, usability, and lack of manufacturers of cables, canvasses, and connections capable of
resisting the forces generated, there were few technological advances. It was only after the
Industrial Revolution and the triggering of the era of Fordism that new developments were able
to meet the intrinsic needs of this construction system. The low cost of mass production and the
demand for systems capable of adapting to the most varied terrains with large spans, such as
circus tents, for example, encouraged the development of the technique.

The instability caused in previous models by the application of interlaced cables and
very light covers, resulting in structural deficiencies, was solved during the middle of the last
century. This was done thanks to a system of steel cables and fiber membranes with a high
degree of strength, together with layers of waterproof coatings, giving protection against
ultraviolet rays, fungus, and fire, and allowing greater or less translucency and reflectivity.

Structurally, the system is formalized by combining three elements: membranes, rigid

structures such as poles and masts, and cables.

The membranes of PVC-coated

polyester fibers have greater ease in factory
production and installation; lower cost; and
medium durability—around 10 years.

Figure 1. Image Source: Munich Olympic

Stadium / Behnisch and Partners & Frei Otto.
Image© 準建築人手札網站 Forgemind ArchiMedia
via Flickr License CC BY 2.0
 PTFE-coated glass fiber membranes
have superior durability—around 30 years; and
greater resistance to the elements (sun,
rain, and winds); however, they require skilled
labor.

Figure 2. Image Source: National Stadium of

Brasilia "Mané Garrincha" / Castro Mello
Architects. Image © Bento Viana

In this system, there are two types of support: direct and indirect. The direct supports are
those in which the construction is arranged directly on the rest of the building structure, while
the second case is arranged from a raised point such as a mast.

The cables, which are responsible for the distribution of the tensile stresses and the
hardening of the canvasses, are classified in one of two ways according to the action they
perform: load-bearing and stabilizing. Both types of cable cross orthogonally, ensuring strength
in two directions and avoiding deformations. The load-bearing cables are those that directly
receive the external loads, fixed at the highest points. On the other hand, the
stabilizing cables are responsible for strengthening the load-bearing cables and crossing the
load-bearing cables orthogonally. It is possible to avoid attaching the stabilizing cables to the
ground by using a peripheral fixation cable.

Figure 3.
Image Source: Nomenclatures of the cables (translations from Portuguese: "Cabo
Periférico"=Peripheral Cable; "Cabo de Crista"=Ridge-Line Cable; "Cabos de Vale"=Valley
Cables; "Cabos Estabilizantes"=Stabilizing Cables). Image © Matheus Pereira
 Further, some nomenclatures for different cables are generated according to their
position: a ridge-line cable refers to the uppermost cable; while valley cables are fixed below all
other cables; radial cables are stabilizer cables in the form of a ring. Ridge-line cables support
gravitational loads while valley cables support wind loads.

Types of Tensile Structures

Classifying tensile structures is made on the plane in which the tensile forces act in the
structure. On this basis, the tensile structure is divided into the following types:

1. Linear Tensile Structures

Linear tensile structures are the structures in which all the members are in linear tensile
forces. The compression members support this linear member, but tensile members carry out
the major loads. A common example of this structure is cable-suspended bridges. The main
pillars act as compression members, but the whole load is carried out by the cables which are in
tension.

Figure 4. Tensile
forces acting on a suspended bridge.

Linear tensile structures are further classified into the following types,

 Suspension bridges

 Draped cables

 Cable-stayed beams or trusses

 Cable trusses
  Straight tension cables

2. Three-dimensional Tensile Structures

Three-dimensional tensile structures, is a compilation of elements that are primarily in

tension, with the compression being transferred to a central mast and down into the ground.
The most common occurrence of three-dimensional tension can be seen at sports arenas and
usually serve as roofs for these structures.

Figure 5. Tensegrity Tensile Structures

Three-dimensional tensile structures are further classified into the following types,

 Bicycle wheel (can be used as a roof in a horizontal orientation)

 3D cable trusses

 Tensegrity structures

3. Surface-Stressed Tensile Structures

Surface-stressed tensile structures are the same as the other 2 tensile structures, but
the surface members are tension-bearing members. Fabric tensile structures are great
examples of Surface-stressed tensile structures, where the vertical pillars hold the specially
designed fabric in tension.

Figure 6. Fabric Tensile structure

Surface-stressed tensile structures are further classified into the following types,

 Fabric structure

 Prestressed membranes

 Pneumatically stressed membranes

 Gridshell

Tensile Fabric Materials

Tensile fabric architecture is a captivating realm where engineering meets architecture,

resulting in visually stunning and structurally innovative structures.

This architectural discipline relies on the use of various materials that possess unique
properties to create lightweight, flexible, and translucent membranes that can span large
distances and transform spaces.
1. PVC - Acrylic

Acrylic Lacquered PVC (Polyvinyl

Chloride), commonly known as PVC fabric, is
a versatile and widely used material in fabric
structures.

Combining the durability and strength

of PVC with the wide choice of stock colours
makes it an ideal choice for a range of
applications. Mostly used for shade canopies,
Figure 7. PVC - Acrylic
temporary event structures and industrial
halls. This product has a typical design life of 15 years.

2. PVC - PVDF

PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride)

lacquered PVC fabric is a prominent material
used in tensile fabric architecture, renowned
for its exceptional durability, weather
resistance, and aesthetic versatility.

This combination of PVC fabric as a

base material with a PVDF coating results in a
Figure 8. PVC - PVDF
robust and long-lasting architectural
membrane that can withstand the harshest environmental conditions. Typical design life is 20+
years.

3. Silicone Glass

Silicone coated Glass Fibre fabric is a unique

and innovative material widely used in tensile fabric
architecture and made by Valmeira Glass in the U.K.

This material combines the strength and

durability of fibreglass with the exceptional heat

Figure 9. Silicone Glass

resistance and transparency of silicone, resulting in a versatile fabric with a range of desirable
properties.

4. PTFE Glass

PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) glass,

commonly referred to as PTFE-coated fibreglass
fabric, is a highly advanced and widely used
material in the field of tensile fabric architecture.

With exceptional strength, durability,

translucency, and self-cleaning properties, thanks to
its Teflon surface, PTFE glass offers a myriad of
Figure 10. PTFE Glass
benefits for creating iconic and long-lasting
architectural structures. It is also non-combustible to B.S 476 Class O.

5. PVC Glass

PVC- glass, a combination of PVC (Polyvinyl

Chloride) and woven glass fibre, is a versatile
material used in the realm of interior tensile fabric
architecture.

This unique hybrid brings together the

advantages of both PVC and glass, resulting in a
fabric that possesses exceptional qualities for
Figure 10. PVC Glass architectural applications. Ideal for interior shading
and livening up the interior of a building.

Shapes of Tensile Structures

The four basic shapes used in the tensile structures are:

1. Conical Tension Structure

Highly effective for covering large areas, a conical tension structure is easily identified by
its tent-like shape. Conical designs can feature either single or multiple masts. For both design
options, membranes are tensioned between a ring at the pinnacle and the lower perimeter
support columns. Cones are especially effective in areas that need to comply with high rain or
snow load regulations.

Figure 11. Conical Tension Structure

2. Hypar or Anticlastic Structure

As one of the most common of all tensioned membrane structures due to its
aesthetically pleasing look, hypar (hyperbolic paraboloid) shapes are notable for their
excellence with shape retention and water runoff. These structures rely on two opposing
curvatures, also known as anticlastic, for their stability. This type of structure is ideal for shade
over seating areas or high-traffic walkways.

Figure 12. Hypar or Anticlastic Structure

3. Parallel Arch or Barrel Vault Structure

These symmetrical curved parallel arch designs form an incredibly functional tensioned
membrane canopy that can span long distances such as a sports arena or smaller areas such
as an entryway. Depending on the spans, a barrel vault system can be a very cost-effective
way to incorporate tensile membranes on a project due to the repetitive nature of the design and
efficiencies of materials.

Figure 13. Parallel Arch or Barrel Vault Structure

4. Cable Net & Membrane Structure

For long-span tensile membrane roofing applications typically found in stadiums or large
spaces, 3D cable net or cable grid structures are an efficient solution for lightweight tensile
architecture.

Figure 14. Cable Net & Membrane Structure

Classifications of Tension Members

The types of structure and method of end connections determine the type of tension
member in structural steel construction. Tension members may be broadly grouped into four
groups.

1. Wires and cables,

 2. Rods and bars

3. Single structural shapes and plates

4. Built-up members

(i) Wires and Cables

The wire types are used for hoists, derricks, rigging slings, guy wires, and hangers for
suspension bridges.

(ii) Rods and Bars

The square and round bars shown in the figures are quite often used for small tension
members. The round bars with threaded ends are used with pin connections at the ends instead
of threads.

Figure 15. Square and circular rods and bars.

The ends of rectangular bars or plates are enlarged by forging and bored to form eye
bars. The eye bars are used with pin connections. The rods and bars have the disadvantage of
inadequate stiffness resulting in noticeable sag under the self-weight.

(iii) Single Structural Shapes and Plates

The single structural shapes, i.e. angle sections and tee-sections as shown in the figures are
used as tension members. The angle sections are considerably more rigid than the wire ropes,
rods, and bars. When the length of the tension member is too long, then the single-angle
section also becomes flexible.
 Figure 16. Single structural shapes for the tension member

The single-angle sections have the disadvantage of eccentricity in both planes in a

riveted connection. The channel section has eccentricity in one axis only. Single channel
sections have high rigidity in the direction of the web and low rigidity in the direction of the
flange. Occasionally, I-sections are seen as tension members. The I-sections have more rigidity,
and single I-sections are more economical than built-up sections.

(iv) Built-up Sections

Two or more than two members are used to form built-up members. When the single
rolled steel section cannot furnish the required area, then built-up sections are used. The
double-angle sections of unequal legs shown in the figure are extensively used as tension
members in the roof trusses. The angle sections are placed back-to-back on two sides of a
gusset plate. When both the angle sections are attached on the same side of the gusset, then
the built-up section has eccentricity in one plane and is subjected to tension and bending
simultaneously. The two angle sections
may be arranged in the star shape (i.e.
the angles are placed diagonally opposite to
each other with legs on the outer sides).
The star-shaped angle sections may be
connected by batten plates. The batten
plates are alternatively placed in two
perpendicular directions. The star arrangement provides a symmetrical and concentric
connection. Two angle sections as shown in Figure (a) are used in the two-plane trusses where
two parallel gussets are used at each connection. Two angle sections as shown in Figure (b)
have the advantage that the distance between them could be adjusted to suit connecting
members at their ends. Four-angle sections as shown in Figure (c) are also used in the two-
plane trusses. The angles are connected to two parallel gussets. Angle sections connected by
plates as shown in Figure (d) are used as tension members in bridge girders.
Figure 17. Built- up steel sections

A built-up section may be made of two channels placed back-to-back with a gusset in
between them. Such sections are used for medium loads in a single-plane truss. In two-plane
trusses, two channels are arranged at a distance with their flange turned inward. It simplifies the
transverse connections and also minimizes lacing. The flanges of two channels are kept
outwards, as in the case of chord members or long-span girders, to have greater lateral rigidity.
The heavy built-up tension members in the bridge girder trusses are made of angles and plates.
Such members can resist compression in a reversal of stress takes place.

Variety of Cable Functions

1. Catenary Cables

Catenary cables run along the perimeter of a

fabric membrane inside a pocket or aluminum straps
(for longer spans) creating a curved perimeter edge.
This helps with the smooth tensioning of the fabric. It
provides a natural curved shape but not necessarily a
continuous radius, similar to that of a cable hanging
freely between two points. The typical catenary curve

Figure 18. Catenary Cables

is 10% of the cable length. A 5% curve would require two times the load to apply the same
amount of fabric tension as the 10% curve.

2. Guy Cables

Known in some applications as “stay” cables,

guy cables are tensioned cables that are designed to
add stability to a free-standing structure or compression
member. In the photo to the right, the guy cables are
between the ends of each compression member to
stabilize them from lateral movement. The lower guy
Figure 19. Guy Cables cables support the compression members against uplift.

3. Tie Back Cables

Technically also a type of “guy” cable, tie-back

cables are used to support columns in the opposing
direction of the fabric tension. They help to reduce the
size and cost of the compression columns, and they
require additional foundations, more real estate, and
traffic control.
Figure 20. The Back Cables

4. Ridge Cables

Ridge cables offer supplemental support to the

fabric to help with resisting deflections and stress that
may be caused by snow loads or long spans. In this
specific application, ridge cables may also be known as
“radial cables” since they radiate from the center to the
membrane corners. Even though these cables are
more difficult to see because they follow the fabric, their
Figure 21. Ridge Cables function is very important.
5. Safety Cables

Safety cables serve two essential functions for

tensile architecture. The cables hold up the
compression members before the fabric is installed.
They also serve as a backup system in the unlikely
event of a failure with the fabric. A responsible
tensioned fabric structure design will remain standing
Figure 22. Safety Cables
even without the fabric.

Advantages of Tensile Structures

1. Shelter of environment (sun, rain, wind)

2. Translucency in general, possibility of designing light effects

3. Light weight & Durability

4. Endless form possibilities, catching character

5. Short building time, off-site manufacturing of structure, less site interruption time

6. Large spans
 7. Recyclability and Eco-friendliness

8. Adaptability to exciting building technologies (steel, glass, cement, stone)

9. Simplicity of maintenance & easy repair or replacement

Disadvantages of Tensile Structures

1. Little to no rigidity

2. Loss of tension is dangerous for stability

3. Thermal values limit use

Cost of Tensile Structures

The cost of installed custom tensile structures can range from Php15,000 to Php 60,000
per square meter. This includes structural supports, cables, and fittings, but does not include
foundations which are dependent on local soil conditions. Costs vary due to the complexity of
the design, local wind or snow conditions, quality of materials and connections, and area of
structure required.

Standard frame structures with tensile membranes can be as low as Php7,500 per sq.m
installed and air structures can range from Php6,000 to Php12,000 per sq.m installed. Air
structures do need continuous air support and as a result, have higher operating energy costs
than tensile structures.

Notable Examples of Tensile Structures

Munich Olympic Stadium / Frei Otto + Gunther Behnisch

 Figure 23. Image Source: Christian Scheja via Flickr License CC BY 2.0

German Pavilion at Expo 67 / Frei Otto + Rolf Gutbrod

Figure 24. Image

Source: McGill Library via Flickr License Public Domain Mark 1.0

Millennium Dome / Richard Rogers (RSHP)

 Figure 25. Image Source: James Jin via Flickr License CC BY-SA 2.0

Denver Union Station / SOM

Figure 26. Image

Source: Robert Polidori

St. Christopher's Pavilion / Sérgio Bernardes

 Figure 27. Image Source: Cortesia de Bernardes Arquitetura

Maracanã Stadium Roof Structure / schlaich bergermann partner

Figure 28. Image

Source: Marcus Bredt cortesia de schlaich bergermann partner

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Eide Indusries (2018). Understanding the Cable Functions for Tensile Architecture. Tension
Structures. Retrieved from: https://www.tensionstructures.com/understanding-the-cable-
functions-for-tensile-architecture/

J&J Carter (2024). TENSILE FABRIC MATERIALS. J&J CARTER. Retrieved from:
https://www.jjcarter.com/tensile-fabric-materials
Mishra, G. (2021). Tensile Structures – Types, Shapes, and Advantages. The Constructor.
Retrieved from: https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/tensile-structures-types-
shape/5816/

Mishra, G. (2021). Types of Tension Members in Structural Steel Construction. The Constructor.
Retrieved from: https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/types-of-tension-members/
4800/

Pereira, M. (2018). Tensile Structures: How Do They Work and What Are the Different Types?
ArchDaily. Retrieved from: https://www.archdaily.com/887462/tensile-structures-how-do-
they-work-and-what-are-the-different-types