3.

Agriculture and the environment

3.1. Soil composition

Mineral particles: a combination of rock fragments and other inorganic substances.
They are formed due to the physical, chemical and biological weathering of the parent rock.
Organic content: a mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms and their dead remains.
Air: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral particles and organic content). Air
enters the soil by diffusion.

Water: held within the pore spaces (water that is available for plant growth). Water enters
the soil when there’s precipitation or when the soil is irrigated.
The proportion of these components depends on:
 Type of soil
 The way it has been managed;
 Local climatic conditions
 Size of the mineral particles.

3.2. Soils for plant growth

 Soil is the cheapest and most abundant medium in which water, mineral nutrients,
anchorage and oxygen can be supplied to a plant.
 Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and a range of other
elements to construct proteins and carry out life processes
Organic content: decomposers that produce humus (rich in nutrients)
Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil; aerate the soil; and spread organic matter
through the soil.
Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody items; aid plants to take up nutrients
through their roots.
Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste products to simple chemicals; some convert
nitrogen to nitrates ‫ ؞‬important in the nitrogen cycle.
High levels of organic matter:
 Increase the water-holding capacity (like a sponge)
 Increase air spaces in the soil
 Increase no. of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in the soil, providing additional
drainage and less compaction
 Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds on to mineral nutrients).
Soil pH: Depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water that flows into the area
 Affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots
 Affects the availability of nutrients
 Farmers can try changing the pH of the soil either to acidify it (using fertilisers that
have an acidic effect) or make it alkaline (adding ground limestone).

Drainage: The capacity of the soil to drain water must be medium (no water loss; no surplus
amount of water).
Ease of cultivation: how easily the soil can be ploughed.
3.3. Agriculture types
Irrigation: supplying water to the crops.
 A large percentage of a plant is made up of water
 Essential for cell activity; Used in photosynthesis
 Mineral nutrient uptake requires water in the soil
 The water must be free from pollution and low in salt.
Trickle drip system

Weed control: weed-killing chemicals are known as herbicides.

 They must be controlled because they: Compete with crops for light,
water and nutrients
 Reduce the quality of a seed or grain crop
 Might be poisonous
 Make cultivation difficult
 Can block drainage systems with excessive growth; Can be a source of
pests and diseases
 Can look untidy (impact on tourism areas).
 Advantages of herbicides: Easier to manage
Alternatives may be less effective: Cheaper; Results are more predictable; Less
labour needed; Effect is more rapid.
Alternatives to herbicides are cultural controls: Hand weeding and hoeing;
Weed barriers; and Flame guns.
Crop disease is caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses (pathogens.)
The most common are fungal diseases and are controlled by fungicides.

Insect control: insect-controlling chemicals are called insecticides.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): the DNA of one organism is inserted
into another
Controlled environments:
Greenhouse: used to manage the environment for plant growth.

3.5. Impact of agriculture

Overuse of herbicides and insecticides: Regular use of one insecticide can
cause resistance within the pest population.
Solution: use a range of different pesticides.
Unintended environmental damage: beneficial insects like bees are also
affected and the food web is disturbed.
Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and may affect the next crop.
Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals into nearby lakes.
Overuse of fertilisers: The addition of extra mineral nutrients is a waste of
money and resources if the soil has reached its maximum level
 Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching
 Excess water containing dissolved fertilisers drains into nearby lakes and
rivers, leading to eutrophication
 Nitrates from fertilisers if consumed can cause diseases such as blue-
baby syndrome
 Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn, the availability
of minerals
 Too much of trace elements can be toxic to the plant. Too much fertiliser
dehydrates the plant (scorching); an Imbalance of nutrients makes the
plant produce lots of foliage, but no flower.
Solution: strict limits on where, when and how the fertilisers must be applied;
can be replaced with organic fertilisers.
Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water logging:
 Damage to soil structure ‫ ؞‬soil is compacted
 Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant roots from
getting enough oxygen
 Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away with water
 High levels of runoff ‫ ؞‬soil erosion.
Soil capping: the surface of the soil becomes hard.
Salinization: The salt content of the soil can increase.
 Irrigation water soaks into the soil to a great depth
 Salts dissolve in the water at a great depth
 Water evaporates from the field
 Water and salts are drawn up to the surface
 Salt remains at the surface and kills plant roots.
 Prevents soil cultivation as it’s difficult to cultivate soil with a high water
content.
Overproduction and waste: Waste from overproduction: the unsold proportion
of the crop.
Waste of storage space: may take longer to sell a crop; some crops need special
conditions.
Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need to travel longer
distances.
Waste of quality products: low quality means less demand.
Waste of labour: not an efficient use of time and labour if too much is
produced.
Exhaustion of mineral ion content: The farmers use the soil over and over again
with little to no rest which leaves the soil depleted of nutrients and minerals.
Solution: crop rotation, mixed cropping and leaving the land fallow.
Soil erosion:
Overcultivation: soils that are cultivated regularly lose soil structure and are
more vulnerable to erosion as they break down into smaller particles.
Cash crops replacing food crops: Most commercial farmers prefer to grow crops
that generate more cash. This causes a decline in the staple food available.

3.6. Causes and impacts of soil erosion

Causes of soil erosion: Removal of natural vegetation: no more roots to bind
the soil together or slow down the torrents of water, so flash flooding and
rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry it away.
Overcultivation: ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles.
These are more easily carried away by wind.
Overgrazing: livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level,
sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil. Animals trample down the plants
and their hoofs compact the ground.
Wind erosion: deforestation (due to the need for space, excessive grazing,
increase in the development of arable crops) increases the chance of soil
getting eroded by wind.
Water erosion: heavy rainfall carries the particles away.
  Excess run-off water that can’t be absorbed by soil transports the soil
from that area
 Soil compaction reduces infiltration
 Gully erosion (volume of water erodes local soil further) forms deeper
and deeper crevices.
Impacts of soil erosion:
Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is absent (subsoil lacks nutrients
ad air spaces).
Organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat: impact on the entire
ecosystem.
Silting up of watercourses: flooding occurs as water bodies can’t hold excess
water (space taken up by silt).
Silt deposits can form lagoons: providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Silt
affects the quality and availability of water for drinking.
Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer: preventing light from
reaching the underwater plants (low oxygen levels in the ecosystem no
photosynthesis).
Desertification: the process by which fertile land becomes desert. Severe
droughts lead to migration of the whole community. Risk of famine and
malnutrition, leading to lesser food sources.

3.7. Managing soil erosion

Terracing: prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on steep slopes.
In a natural slope: water runs down, increasing in speed and volume, carrying
soil in the run-off.
In a terraced slope: water is held in the flat terraced areas, causing less risk of
run-off and more chance of infiltration. Often used for the cultivation of rice.
Contour ploughing: ploughing of land along the contour in a parallel way.
Ridges and troughs (furrows) run along the contour. Each furrow holds water
and prevents large torrents of water from running down the slope, preventing
the formation of gullies and run-off of topsoil. Useful for all gradients of slopes.
 Bunds: artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to hold back water.
Useful for crops that require moist soils e.g. rice. The water is retained on the
terrace. Increases the quantity and fertility of the soil.
Windbreaks: a permeable barrier used to reduce the impact of wind on an
area. Without windbreaks, the soil is eroded. Solid structures, like walls, force
the wind into smaller spaces, increasing wind speed and causing eddy currents.
Permeable structures, like vegetation, allow some wind to pass through,
decreasing its speed and thus, the amount of wind erosion.
Advantages: additional habitats for beneficial insects; roots of the windbreak
prevent erosion due to run-off.
Maintaining vegetation cover: Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has
been harvested prevents soil erosion. It also provides more nitrogen to the soil,
increasing its fertility, for the next major crop. When cultivating, the legumes
can be simply ploughed.
‘No dig’ method: Existing vegetation is left until the new crop is grown. Rather
than cultivating the soil, herbicides are applied to kill the weeds. Roots of the
existing vegetation bind the soil until the major plant is established.
Risks: herbicide residues build up. If the control of the cover vegetation is
ineffective, it may compete with the main crop as a weed.
Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure: Provides additional air
gaps in the soil ‫ ؞‬improves soil structure
 Increases decomposers in the soil as they feed on the matter
 Adds nutrients to the soil after decomposition. Acts like a sponge,
holding the extra water, and preventing dehydration of the soil
 Reduces soil erosion as the organic matter acts like a base for smaller
particles.
Planting trees: A row of trees acts as a windbreak. Tree canopy can provide
shade for smaller plants that don’t thrive for sunlight. Provide a natural habitat
for animals, that feed on pests; Tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to the
organic matter.
Mixed cropping: growing more than one type of plant in the same area.
Resources in the soil, like nutrients, are used more efficiently. Intercropping:
rows of a different crop are grown between the rows of the main crop. This
maximises the use of space and other resources.

3.8. Sustainable agriculture

Aims of sustainable agriculture: Meeting the needs of the population for
agricultural products
 Making efficient use of non-renewable resources
 Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural processes with
farming techniques
 Sustaining the economic independence of farmers.
Organic fertilisers: Are slow acting reduces the risk of eutrophication
Are a waste product using them saves on disposal costs Are already present on
many farms with minimal transport costs Do not require energy for their
manufacture Also improve soil structure.
Managed grazing: Prevention of overgrazing
 Ensure sufficient grazing
 Maintaining appropriate soil fertility by animal waste
 Maintaining good drainage prevents compaction of the soil.
Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops: reduces pesticide use.
Use of drought-resistant varieties of crops: reduces water usage for irrigation.
Use of herbicide-resistant varieties of crops: reduces herbicide use.
Rainwater harvesting: the collection of rainwater, for example from the roofs of
buildings, and its storage in a tank or reservoir for later use.