Tuition Classes X (CBSE) Module-I

CHAPTER - 03
CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Food ,Clothes, Medicines and many of the things related to our daily life are based on the versatile
element carbon. In addition, all living structures are carbon based. There are millions of carbon
compounds are known to exist. Therefore carbon is called the king of elements.
 Earth crust has 0.02% carbon (carbonates, hydrogencarbonates, coal and petroleum)
 Atmosphere has 0.03% of CO2
Bonding in carbon
The reactivity of elements (ie the ability of the elements in take part in bonding) explained as their
tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell, i e attain noble gas configuration
 Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing electrons from the outermost
shell
 If we consider some of the properties of ionic compounds, we can see that they have high melting and
boiling points and conduct electricity in solution and molten state
If we consider carbon compounds, most of them are poor conductors of electricity and have low
melting and boiling points.
Therefore we can conclude that the bonding in carbon compounds does not give rise to any ions and
the forces of attraction between the molecules are not very strong
That is the bonding in carbon compounds are different from ionic compounds
The atomic number of carbon = 6
 electronic configuration = 2,4
 carbon needs to gain or lose 4 electrons to attain noble gas configuration
But the formation of C4– anion is not possible as it is difficult for the six protons to hold on to 10
electrons
The formation of C4+ cation is not possible as it require a large amount of energy to remove 4 electrons.
Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of carbon or with
atoms of other elements. The shared electron belong to the outer most shells of both the atoms and
lead to both atoms attaining the noble gas configuration
The bonds formed between two atoms by the mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms are
called covalent bonds
eg: H2 molecule

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Atomic number of H = 1. Hence H has 1 electron in its K shell. So two H atoms share their electrons to
form a molecule of H2 and each H atom attains the electronic configuration of nearest noble gas He

H× ×H ×
HH × HH

Hydrogen atoms shared electrons

H2 molecule

Note : Valence electrons are represented by dots or crosses

The shared pair of electrons constitutes a single covalent bond between the two hydrogen atoms
A single covalent bond is also represented by a line between the two atoms
eg : H–H
O2 molecule
Atomic number of oxygen = 8
electronic configuration = 2,6
 O requires two more electrons to attain the noble gas configuration

×× ××
× ×× ××
× H ×× ×× H
× × O=O
×× ×× ×× ××

Here two electrons contributed by each oxygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of electrons. This is
said to constitute a double bond between the two atoms
N2 molecule
Atomic number of N = 7
electronic configuration = 2,5

:N N N H
N
,N N

Here the three shared pairs of electrons constitutes a triple bond between the atoms
CH 4
Atomic number of carbon = 6
electronic configuration = 2,4
Carbon has 4 electrons in its valence shell (outer shell). It needs 4 more electrons to attain the noble
gas configuration. So carbon is tetravalent or the valency of carbon atom is 4 i.e. carbon can form 4
bonds around it
Atomic number of H = 1
electronic configuration = 1

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That is the valency of hydrogen atom is 1

H H

H
H C H C
H H H C H
,
H
H
H

 Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points because the intermolecular force of attraction
between the covalently bonded molecules are weak
 Covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity because electrons are shared between
atoms (i e strong bond within the molecule) and therefore no charged particles are formed
Allotropes of carbon
Allotropy: The existence of a chemical element in two or more forms, which may differ in the arrangement
of atoms or occurance of molecules that contain different numbers of atoms. They have varying
physical properties
The allotropes of carbon are diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene
Diamond  Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms forming a rigid 3D structure
 Diamond is the hardest substance known on earth
 Will not conduct electricity
 Melting point is about 4027°C
 It is used for cutting glass as it is the hardest substance
Graphite
 Here each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane forming a hexagonal
array
 One of these bonds is double bond (thus the valency is satisfied)
 Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays (graphene) being placed in layers one above the
other
 It is soft, smooth and slippery,  it can be used as a dry lubricant
 It is a very good conducture of electricity
Buckminsterfullerene (C60)
It contains pentagonal and hexagonal rings. Here 60 carbon atoms are joined together. Here the
carbon atoms are arranged in the shape of football
 It is looked like the geodesic dome designed by the US architect Buckminster fuller, the molecule was
named fullerene
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Versatile nature of carbon

Carbon forms millions of compounds. This outmembers by a large margin the compounds formed by
all the other elements put together. It is due to
1) Catenation: It is defined as the self linking of atoms of an element to form chains and rings. (i e direct
bonding between atoms of same element to form chains)
 Carbon has this unique ability of catenation
 Carbon forms long chains, branched chains & rings
 In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds
 No other element have catenation to the extent seen in carbon compounds
 Silicon forms chains upto 7 or 8 atoms but these compounds are very reactive
 Carbon -carbon bonds are very strong and hence stable. Therefore forms large number of compounds
2) Tetravalency of carbon
 Since carbon has a valency of 4, it is capable of bonding with 4 other carbon atoms or 4 other atoms
of some monovalent elements
 The bonds between carbon and other elements are very strong making this compounds very stable
 One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size
Organic compounds  Initially carbon compounds were extracted from living organisms. Therefore
it was postulated that a vital force was necessary for their synthesis  these compounds are called
organic compounds
Saturated and unsaturated compounds
Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bond between carbon atoms are called saturated
compounds
Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called unsaturated
compounds. They are more reactive than saturated carbon compounds
Examples
1) Ethane (C2H6)
To get the structure first link the carbon atoms with single bond and then use H atoms to satisfy the
remaining valencies of carbon
Step I: C–C

H H

C H
H C
H H
Step II: H C C H
H H
H H

electron dot structure of ethane

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2) Ethene (C2H4)
Step 1: Carbon atoms linked together with a single bond
C–C

Step II: Satisfy the remaining valencies by H atoms

H H
C C
H H

Step III : Satisfy the remaining valency with a double bond

H H
C C
H H

3) Ethyne (C2H2)

Step I: C–C

Step II: H C C H

Step III : H C C H
Chains, Branches and Rings

Formulae and structures of saturated compounds of carbon and hydrogen

No of C Name Formula Structure

H C H
1 Methane CH 4
H

H H

H C C H
2 Ethane C 2H 6
H H

H H H
3 Propane C 3H 8
H C C C H

H H H

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H H H
H
4 Butane C4H 10 H C C C C H

H H H H

H H H H
H

H C C C C C H
5 Pentane C5H 12

H H H H H

H H H H
H H

6 Hexane C6H 14 H C C C C C C H
H H H H H H

If we construct the carbon skeleton with 4 carbon atoms, there are two different possibilities

C
C–C–C–C and
C C C
Filling the remaining valencies by H,

H C H
H
H H H
H H
H C C C C H and
H C C C H
H H H
H H H H

We can see that both these structures have same molecular formula C4H10. Such compounds having
identical molecular formula but different structures are called structural isomers
Carbon atoms may arranged in the forms of a ring
eg: C6H12

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H
H H
C H
C C C
H H
C C H C C
H
C C
C C H H
H H

C6H6(Benzene)

H H
C C

H C C H

C C
H
H

All the carbon compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen  Hydrocarbons. Saturated
hydrocarbons  Alkanes. Unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double bonds 
Alkenes. Those containing one or more triple bonds  Alkynes.
Carbon also forms bonds with other elements such as halogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphure
Hydrogen atoms on a hydrocarbon chain can be replaced by these elements. Each elements that
replacing the H atoms of a hydrocarbon are called heteroatoms
These hetero atoms or groups containing hetero atoms are responsible for the specific properties of
the compound regardless of the length and nature of the carbon chain. Hence these atoms or groups
are called functional groups.
Examples of functional groups

Heteroatom Class of compounds Formula of functional group

Cl/Br Halo (chloro/bromo) alkane –Cl,–Br

Oxygen 1. alcohol –OH

O
2. Aldehyde C H

O
3. Ketone C

O
4. Carboxylic acid C OH

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Homologous series
The chemical properties of CH3OH, C2H5OH C3H7OH and C4H9OH are all very similar. Such series
of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes for H atom in a carbon chain are called
a homologous series.

 Here the successive members are differ by a –CH2 unit or by a mass of 14u

 The chemical properties, which are determined by the functional group remain similar in a homologous
series.

 As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation in physical properties is seen
Homologous series of alkane
CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, C5H12
Homologous series of alkene
C2H4, C3H6, C4H8, C5H10
The general formula for alkane, alkene and alkyne can be represented by CnH2n+2, CnH2n & CnH2n-2
For alkane, n = 1,2,3....
For alkene & alkyne, n = 2,3,4....
Nomenclature of carbon compounds
Step I: Identify the number of carbon atoms in the compound
II: If functional group is present, it is indicated by suffix or prefix
III: If the suffix is started with a vowel, delete the final letter ‘e’ of hydrocarbon and then add the suffix
IV: If the carbon chain is unsaturated, the ‘ane’ of alkane is replaced by ‘ene’ & ‘yne’ respectively for
alkene and alkyne
Examples
Class of compounds Prefix / suffix Example

H H H

H C C C Cl
Halo alkane Chloro / bromo etc H H
H
Chloropropane

H H H

Alcohol Suffix -ol H C C C OH

H H H

Propanol

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H H H
Aldehyde Suffix -al
H C C C O

H H

Propanal

H H

Ketone Suffix -one H C C C H

H O H

Propanone

O
H H

H C C C OH
Carboxylic acid Suffix -oic acid
H H
Propanoic acid

H H
H
H C C =C
H
Alkene Suffix -ene
H
Propene

H C C C–H
Alkyne Suffix -yne
H
Propyne

Chemical properties of carbon compounds

1) Combustion
 Burning process of carbon compounds are called combustion
 Here carbon converts to CO2 with the release of heat and light

 Chemically it is an oxidation reaction C  O 2  CO2  heat and light

CH 4  2O 2  CO 2  2H 2O  heat and light

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CH 3 CH 2 OH  3O 2  2CO 2  3H 2 O  heat and light

Saturated hydrocarbons  clean flame
Unsaturated carbon compounds  Yellow flame with black smoke
Limiting the supply of air  sooty flame due to incomplete combustion
Oxidation

eg: Alkaline KMnO4 , (Heat)

CH3 CH2 OH CH3COOH
or Acidified K2Cr2O7,

Substances those are capable of adding oxygen to others are known as oxidising agents. eg:
KMnO4,K2Cr2O7 etc
If a substance gains oxygen during a reaction, it is said to be oxidised. If a substance loses oxygen
during a reaction, it is said to be reduced
Addition reaction
Addition of some elements into unsaturated hydrocarbons is called addition reaction
eg: Alkenes and alkynes add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts such as palladium or nickel to give
saturated hydrocarbons

H H
R R H2/Ni
C=C R C C R
R R
R R

Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur at a different rate without the reaction itself
being affected.
Substitution reaction
If one type of atom or group of atoms replaces another, it is called substitution reaction.
eg: chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon one by one.
light
CH 4  Cl2   CH3 Cl  HCl
Some important compounds of carbon
1) Ethanol
Properties
 liquid at room temperature
 melting point  156 K
 Boiling point  351K
 Active ingredient in all alcoholic drinks
 Used as solvent
 Used in medicines such as tincture iodine, cough syrups & many tonics

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 Soluble in H2O

 Consumption of small quantities of ethanol causes drunkenness

Reactions

a) with sodium

2Na+2CH3CH2OH 2CH3 CH2O–Na++H2

sodium ethoxide

Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon

hot con.H 2SO 4

CH 3  CH 2  OH   CH 2  CH2  H 2 O

Concentrated H 2SO 4 is a dehydrating agent which removes H2O from alcohol

1) Ethanoic acid

 Commonly called acetic acid

 it is a carboxylic acid

 5.8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar

 widely used as a preservative in pickles

 melting point is 290K & hence often freezes during winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name
glacial acetic acid

 Carboxylic acids are acidic in nature, but they are weak acids than mineral acids like HCl

Reactions

a) Esterification reaction

Carboxylic acids on reaction with alcohol in presence of acid catalyst to give esters is called esterification
reaction

O
CH3 COOH+CH3CH2.OH CH3 C O
eg: CH2 CH3+H2O
Ethanoic acid Ethanol Ester

Esters are,
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 sweet smelling substances

 used in making perfumes and as flavouring agents

Saponification

Easters on reaction with NaOH (alkali) gives the original alcohol and sodium salt of the carboxylic acid. It is
called saponification. Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid

O
CH3 C O C2H5 NaOH C2H5OH+CH3COONa

b) Reaction with a base

With a base ethanoic acid gives a salt and water

CH 3 COOH+NaOH CH 3 COONa+H2 O
sodium ethanoate / sodium acetate

Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

This reaction gives a salt, CO2 and H2O

2 CH 3 COOH  Na 2 CO3  2CH3 COONa  H 2 O  CO2

CH 3COOH  NaHCO3  CH 3COONa  H 2 O  CO 2

Soap and detergents

Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids

Detergents are generally sodium salt of sulphonic acids or ammonium salts with chloride or bromide
ions.

 Most dirt is oily in nature and does not dissolve in water

 The ionic end of soap interacts with water while the carbon chain interacts with oil. The soap molecules
thus forms structures called micelles. This forms an emulsion in water and helps in pulling out the dirt
and we can wash our clothes clean.

 While bathing with hard water and soap, foam is formed with difficulty and an insoluble substance
(scum) remains after washing with water. It is due to the reaction of soap with calcium and magnesium
salt which cause the hardness of water. This problem can be overcome by using detergents as they
do not form insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.

 Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes

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QUESTIONS

1. Draw the electron dot structure of ethyne and carbon tetrachloride?

2. Write the structural formulae of all the isomers of pentane

3. Write the names of the following compounds

H H H H
H H H H O H C C C C =O
A) H C C C C C OH B)
H H H
H H H H

4. Name the functional groups present in the following compounds?

A) CH 3 COCH 2CH 3 B) CH 3 CH 2 COOH

C) CH 3OH D) CH 3CHO

5. What are hydrocarbons. Give examples of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

6. How ethene is prepared from ethanol. Give the reaction involved in it?

7. Both carbon and silicon exhibit catenation. Compare the ability of catenation of two elements with
reasons ?

8. Explain the following reactions with examples?

A) hydrogenation

B) oxidation

C) substitution

D) saponification

9. Why detergents are better cleansing agents than soaps. Explain?

10. An organic compound A on heating with concentrated H2SO4 forms a compound B which on addition
of one mole of hydrogen in presence of Ni forms a compound C. One mole of compound C on
combustion forms two molecules of CO2 and 3 moles of H2O. Identify the compounds A,B,C and
write the chemical equations of the reactions involved.

11. What is homologous series? Explain with an example

12. Explain the mechanism of the cleaning action of soaps?

13. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuel for most applications

14. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and chemical
properties?

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15. Give a test that can be used to differentiate between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons

16. Which of the following statements are usually correct for carbon compounds?

i) a good conductor of electricity

ii) a poor conductor of electricity

iii) have strong forces of attraction between their molecules

iv) do not have strong forces of attraction between their molecules

A) i and ii B) ii and iii

C) i and iv D) ii and iv

17. A molecule of ammonia has

A) only single bonds

B) only double bonds

C) only triple bonds

D) two double bonds and one single bond

18. Buckminsterfullerene is an allotropic form of

A) phosphorus B) sulphur C) carbon D) tin

Alkaline.KMnO4+heat
19. CH3CH2 OH CH3COOH . In the above reaction alkaline KMnO4 act
as

A) reducing agent

B) oxidising agent

C) catalyst

D) dehydrating agent

20. Oils on treating with hydrogen in presence of palladium or nickel catalyst form fats. This is an
example of

A) addition reaction

B) substitution reaction

C) Displacement reaction

D) Oxidation reaction

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21. In which of the following compounds, –OH is the funcitonal group?

A) Butanone B) Butanol C) Butanoic acid D) Butanal
22. Pentane has the molecular formula C5H12. It has
A) 5 covalent bonds B) 12 covalent bonds
C) 16 covalent bonds D) 17 covalent bonds
23. The structural formula of benzene is

H H
C H
H C H
H H C C H
C C
A) H B) C C H
C
H C C H H C H
H
HH
H

H H
H C C
H H H
C) C C D) C C H

C C
H C C H H C C H
H
H H

24. Vinegar is a solution of

A) 50% - 60% acetic acid in alcohol

B) 5%-8% acetic acid in alcohol

C) 5% - 8% acetic acid in water

D) 50%-60% acetic acid in water

25. Which among the following does not belong to the same homologous series?

A) CH4 B) C2H6 C) C3H8 D) C4H8

26. The hetero atoms present in CH3 CH2 O CH2 CH2 Cl are

i) Oxygen ii) Carbon iii) Hydrogen iv) Chlorine

A) i and ii B) ii and iii

C) iii and iv D) i and iv

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27. Which of the following is not a straight chain hydrocarbon?

H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

A)
CH3

B) H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

H 3C CH 2 CH 2 CH 2
C)
CH 3

H3C
D) CH CH2 CH2 CH3
H3C

28. The name of the compound CH 3  CH 2  CHO is

A) Propanal B) Propanone C) Ethanol D) Ethanal

29. The first member of alkyne homologous series is

A) Ethyne B) Ethene C) Propyne D) Methane

30. Carbon forms four covalent bonds by sharing its four valence electrons with four univalent atoms.
After the formation of four bonds, carbon attains the electronic configuration of

A) helium B) neon C) argon D) Krypton

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