Theory of Metal Cutting

Presented by:
Dr Jawad Sarwar
Prepared by:
Dr Awais A. Khan
Manufacturing Technology
Broad classification of Engineering Manufacturing Processes.
 It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various manufacturing
processes existing and are being practiced presently because very large
number of processes have been developed till now and the number is still
increasing exponentially with the growing demands and rapid progress in
science and technology.
 However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in
four major groups as follows
Shaping or forming
 Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a
given material taken in three possible states:
 in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
 in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
 in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
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Joining process
 Welding, brazing, soldering etc.
Removal or Cutting process
 Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.
Regenerative manufacturing Process
 Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw materials in different
form:
 liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
 powder – e.g., selective sintering
 sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
 wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modeling)
Out of the fore said groups, Regenerative Manufacturing is the latest one which
is generally accomplished very rapidly and quite accurately using CAD and
CAM for Rapid Prototyping and Tooling.
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Material Removal Processes – Metal Cutting Process

 A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is

removal of material from a starting work part so the remaining part
has the desired geometry

 Traditional Process (Machining) – Material removal by a sharp

cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling

 Nontraditional processes - Various energy forms other than sharp

cutting tool to remove material. e.g., Laser and Electron Beam
machining

 Abrasive processes – Material removal by hard, abrasive particles,

e.g., grinding
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Why Machining is Important

 Variety of work materials can be machined

 Most frequently used to cut metals

 Variety of part shapes and special geometric features possible, such as:

 Screw threads

 Accurate round holes

 Very straight edges and surfaces

 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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Disadvantages with Machining

 Wasteful of material

 Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least in the

unit operation

 Time consuming

 A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given

part than alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
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Machining in Manufacturing Sequence

 Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as

casting, forging, and bar drawing

 Other processes create the general shape of the starting work part

 Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and

special geometric details that other processes cannot create
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Machining Operations

 Most important machining operations

 Turning

 Drilling

 Milling

 Other machining operations

 Shaping and planing

 Broaching

 Sawing
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Turning

Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating

work piece to form a cylindrical shape
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Drilling

Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a

rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
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Milling

(c) peripheral milling (d) face milling.

Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across

work to cut a plane or straight surface
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Machine Tool - Definition

 A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably

valued device or system of devices in which energy is expended to
produce jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of chips with
the help of cutting tools moved past the work surface's.
Basic functions of Machine Tools

 Machine Tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat,

cylindrical or any contour on the preformed blanks by machining
work with the help of cutting tools.
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The physical functions of a Machine Tool in machining are

 Firmly holding the blank and the tool

 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank

 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.

 Control of the machining parameters, (speed, feed and depth of cut).

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Classification of cutting tools

▪ Single-Point Cutting Edge Tools

▪ One dominant cutting edge

▪ Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius

▪ Turning uses single point tools

▪ Multiple Point Cutting Edge Tools

▪ More than one cutting edge

▪ Motion relative to work achieved by rotating

▪ Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge tools

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▪ Cutting Tools

a. Single-Point Cutting Tool b. Multi-Point Cutting Tool

Figure (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b) a helical
milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.
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Tool signature for single point cutting tool

Flank
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Tool signature for single point cutting tool
▪ Shank
▪ It is the main body of the tool
▪ Flank
▪ The surface of the tool adjacent to the cutting edge
▪ Face
▪ The surface on which the chip slides
▪ Nose
▪ It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect
▪ Nose Radius
▪ Strengthens finishing point of tool
▪ Cutting Edge
▪ It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the
work piece
▪ Side cutting edge angle
▪ Angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank
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Tool signature for single point cutting tool
▪ End cutting edge angle
▪ Angle between end cutting edge and the line normal to the tool shank
▪ Side Relief angle
▪ Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at
right angle to the side flank
▪ End Relief angle
▪ Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at
right angle to the end flank
▪ Side Rake angle
▪ Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge
▪ Back Rake angle
▪ Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
measured in a plane perpendicular to the side cutting edge
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Single Point Cutting Tool Terminology-2D

Ƴ
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Single Point Cutting Tool Terminology – 3D
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Cutting Tool Materials
 Carbon steels, High-speed steels
 Cast carbides, Cemented carbides, Coated carbides
 Cermets, Ceramic Tools
 Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN)
 Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials
 Harder than work piece.
 High toughness
 High thermal shock resistance
 Low adhesion to work piece material
 Low diffusivity to work piece material
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Theory of Metal Cutting
▪ Metal cutting or machining is the process of producing a work piece
by removing unwanted material from a block of metal, in the form of
chips.
▪ This process is most important since almost all the products get their
final shape and size by metal removal, either directly or indirectly.

Figure (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process,

(b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
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Orthogonal and oblique cutting
 Orthogonal cutting
 The cutting edge of the tool is straight and perpendicular to the direction
of motion.
 Oblique cutting
 The cutting edge of the tool is set at an angle to the direction of motion.
The Mechanism of Cutting
 Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip.
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

 Orthogonal Cutting - assumes that the cutting edge of the tool is set in a
position that is perpendicular to the direction of relative work or tool
motion. This allows us to deal with forces that act only in one plane.

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting
▪ Ideal Orthogonal Cutting is when the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
perpendicular to the direction of motion.

▪ During machining, the material is removed in form of chips, which are

generated by shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane.

 The surface the chip flows across is called the face or rake face.

 The surface that forms the other boundary of the wedge is called the flank.

 The rake angle is the angle between the tool face and a line perpendicular to
the cutting point of the work piece surface.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
◼ The relief or clearance angle is the angle between the tool flank and the
newly formed surface of the work piece angle.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Orthogonal cutting model:
 t1 = un deformed chip thickness
 t2 = deformed chip thickness (usually t2 > t1)
 α = rake angle
 If we are using a lathe, t1 is the feed per revolution.
The Mechanism of Cutting
 In turning, w = depth of cut and t1= feed
The Mechanism of Cutting

Cutting force (Fc) is tangential and Thrust force is axial (Ft)

Cutting forces in a turning operation

Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Chip thickness ratio (or) cutting ratio

t1
Cutting ratio = r =
t2
where
▪ r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
▪ t1 = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation;
▪ t2 = chip thickness after separation
Which one is more correct?
 r≥1
 r ≤1
 Chip thickness after cut always greater than before, so chip ratio always
less than 1.0
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Shear Plane Angle
▪ Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear
plane angle ө can be determined as:

r cos 
tan  =
1 − r sin 
where
▪ r = chip thickness ratio or cutting ratio;
▪  = Rake angle
▪ ө = Shear angle
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Shear Plane Angle Proof
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Shear Strain in chip formation

θ
θ -α

(a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting
Shear Strain in chip formation

 Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following equation,

based on the preceding parallel plate model:

 = tan(θ - ) + cot θ

where

  = shear strain

 θ = shear angle

  = rake angle of cutting tool

Rake Angle α
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Chip formation
▪ Mechanics of metal cutting is greatly depend on the shape and size of
the chips formed.

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction.
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Four Basic Type of Chips in Machining are

• Discontinuous chip

• Continuous chip

• Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

• Serrated chip
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Discontinuous chip

 When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the deformed material
gets fractured very easily and thus the Chip produced is in the form
of discontinuous segments

Reasons

 Brittle work materials

 Low cutting speeds

 Large feed and depth of cut

 High tool-chip friction

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Continuous chip

 Continuous chips are normally produced when machining steel or

ductile materials at high cutting speeds. The continuous chip which
is like a ribbon flows along the rake face.

Reasons
 Ductile work materials

 High cutting speeds

 Small feeds and depths

 Sharp cutting edge

 Low tool-chip friction

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Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
▪ When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining ductile
materials, some particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face near the tool tip.
When such sizeable material piles upon the rake face, it acts as a cutting edge
in place of the actual cutting edge is termed as built up edge (BUE). By virtue
of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work material

Reasons

 Ductile materials

 Low-to-medium cutting speeds

 Tool-chip friction causes portions of

chip to adhere to rake face

 BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

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Serrated chip

• Semi Continuous ( saw tooth appearance) chips produced when machining

tool steels or Harden materials at high cutting speeds.

Reasons
 Hard and brittle work material
 The workpiece is having hard inclusion
and impurities

 Low-to-medium cutting speeds

 Tool-chip friction causes portions of

chip to adhere to rake face

 BUE forms, then breaks off, cyclically

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Chip Breakers

▪ Long continuous chip are undesirable

▪ Chip breaker is a piece of metal clamped to the rake surface of the tool which
bends the chip and breaks it

▪ Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry, thereby controlling
the chip flow

Fig. (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker Clamped
on the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers
Force & Velocity Relationships
and the Merchant Equation
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Forces Acting on Chip

 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting
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Cutting Force and Thrust Force

 F, N, Fs and Fn cannot be measured directly, in order to measure these

forces the forces acting on the tool to be measured initially

 Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Forces in metal cutting: (b) forces acting on the tool that can be measured
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Resultant Forces

 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

 R' must be equal in magnitude to R

 R’ must be opposite in direction to R

 R’ must be collinear with R

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Shear Stress
▪ Shear stress acting along the shear plane

Fs
S=
As
▪ where As = area of the shear plane

t1 w
As =
sin 

▪ Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting

 Shear Stress- Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Shear angle and its significance
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle

 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower

shear force, cutting forces, power, and temperature

Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher θ with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller θ with a
corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Force Calculations
 The forces and angles involved in
cutting are drawn here,

 Having seen the vector based

determination of the cutting
forces, we can now look at
equivalent calculations:

F
= tan  = 
N
Where  = The coefficient of friction
 Force Calculations

Where the Resultant force R is Given by

R = Fc2 + Ft 2 = Fs2 + Fn2 = F 2 + N 2

Force

Calculations
We can write the cutting and
thrust forces in terms of the
shear force:
Velocity Calculations
 Having seen the vector based
determination of the cutting
forces, we can now look at
equivalent calculations:
 Vc= Cutting velocity (ft/min) as
set or measured on the machine
 Vs= Shearing velocity
 Vf= Frictional velocity

Using the sign rules:

Vs Vc
=
sin ( 90 −  ) sin ( 90o +  −  )
o

Also,
Vc sin ( 90 −  )
o
Vc cos  Vc sin 
Vs = = Vf =
sin ( 90 +  −  ) cos ( −  )
o
cos ( −  )
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The Merchant Equation
▪ To determine θ he assumed the minimum energy principle applied in
metal cutting so that the deformation process adjusted itself to a
minimum energy condition.

 Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation can occur, the
work material will select a shear plane angle θ that minimizes energy,
given by

 
 = 45 + −
2 2

 Derived by Eugene Merchant

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What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

 To increase shear plane angle

 Increase the rake angle ()

 Reduce the friction angle (β) or coefficient of friction

 
 = 45 + −
2 2
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Power and Energy Relationships
 There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the power consumed in
cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast we can cut, or how large the motor
on a machine must be. Having both the forces and velocities found with the
Merchant for Circle, we are able to calculate the power,
 The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc . Vc in kw
Pc = Fc . Vc / 33,000 in HP
where
 Pc = cutting power in KW
 Fc = cutting force in KN
 Vc = cutting speed in m/min
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Power and Energy Relationships
 There are a number of reasons for wanting to calculate the power consumed in
cutting. These numbers can tell us how fast we can cut, or how large the motor
on a machine must be. Having both the forces and velocities found with the
Merchant for Circle, we are able to calculate the power,
 The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc . Vc in kw
Pc = Fc . Vc / 33,000 in HP
where
 Pc = cutting power in KW
 Fc = cutting force in KN
 Vc = cutting speed in m/min
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Power and Energy Relationships
◼ Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is given by

P HPc
Pg = c HPg =
E or E
where
❑ E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
❑ Typical E for machine tools  90%

◼ There are losses in the machine that must be considered when estimating the size of
the electric motor required:

Pc
Pg = + Pt
E
Where
❑ Pt = power required to run the machine at no-load conditions (hp or kW)
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Power and Energy Relationships

 Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of metal cut (power to cut
one cubic inch per minute)

 Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc HPc
PU = or HPU =
RMR RMR

 where RMR = material removal rate

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Power and Energy Relationships
▪ Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fc  Vc Fc
U = Pu = = =
R MR Vc  t1  w t1  w

 Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

 Specific energy is in fact pressure and sometimes is called specific cutting

pressure: Fc
U=
A
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Cutting Temperature

▪ Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat

▪ This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip

▪ The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip

High cutting temperatures

▪ Reduce tool life

▪ Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator

▪ Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due to thermal expansion of

work material
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Process Parameters
 Speed (v), Feed (f), Depth of Cut (d)
 Material Removal Rate (MRR) = f x d x v
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Shear angle and its significance

▪ Shear angle(θ) is the angle made by the shear plane with the
cutting speed vector.

▪ Shear angle is very important parameter I metal cutting.

Higher the shear angle, better is the cutting performance.

▪ In metal cutting it is observed that a higher rake angles give

rise to higher shear angles
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Cutting Fluids

 A fluid which is used in machining as well as abrasive machining

processes to reduce friction and tool wear

Function of cutting fluids

 Lubrication

 Cooling

 Chip removal

Types

 Straight Oil (Petroleum based oils)

 Soluble Oil (water based oils)

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