Arguments Containing Compound two statements is completely determined by the

Statements truth value of its conjuncts.

(Simple and Compound Statements)
Take note: a conjunction is true if both its
All statements can be divided into two kinds: conjuncts are true, but false otherwise. For this
Simple and Compound mean a conjunction is a truth – functional
Simple statement: does not contain any other compound statement, and its conjuncts are truth
statement as a component part – functional component of it.
Compound statement: does contain another
statement as a component part Since conjunctions are truth – functionally
compound statements, our dot symbol is a truth
Ex: Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons will – functional connective. Given any two
be discontinued or this planet will become statements p and q there are just four possible
inhabitable. sets of truth values they can have and in every
case the truth value of their conjunction 𝑝 ∙
It is a compound statement that contains, as its 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 Ʌ 𝑞 is uniquely determined. The four
components, the two simple statements: possible cases can be exhibited as follows:
1. Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons
will be discontinued. In case p is true and q is true, 𝒑 ∙ 𝒒 is true
2. This planet will become inhabitable. In case p is true and q is false, 𝒑 ∙ 𝒒 is false
Conjunction: a compound statement formed by In case p is false and q is true, 𝒑 ∙ 𝒒 is false
inserting the word ‘and’ between two In case p is false and q is false, 𝒑 ∙ 𝒒 is false
statements. Two statements so combined are
called conjuncts. Representing the truth values true and false by
Ex: Roses are red and violets are blue. the capital letters “T” and “F”, respectively, the
way in which the truth value of a conjunction is
The word ‘and’ has other uses: determined by the truth values of its conjuncts
Ex: Castor and Pollux were twins. can be displayed more briefly by means of a
truth table as follows:
It is not compound, but a simple statement P q 𝒑∙𝒒
asserting a relationship. T T T
T F F
We introduce the dot ( ∙ ) or ( Ʌ ) as a special F T F
symbol for combining statements conjunctively. F F F
Using this notation the preceding conjunction is Since it specifies the truth value of 𝑝 ∙ 𝑞 in every
written: possible case, this truth table can be defining the
𝑝 ∙ 𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 Ʌ 𝑞 dot symbol. Other English words such as:
Moreover Also Although
Every statement is either true or false, so we can Furthermore Nevertheless
speak of the truth value of a statement, where
the truth value of a true statement is true and Even the comma and semicolon are also used to
the truth value of false statement is false. There conjoin the two statements into a single one,
are two broad categories into which compound and all of them can be translated into the dot
statements can be divided, according to whether symbol, so far as the truth table as concerned.
or not there is anything other than the truth
values of its component statements that Negation Statement
determines the truth value of the compound The statement “It is not the case that lead is
statement. The truth value of the conjunction of heavier than gold” is also a compound, being the
negation (or denial or contradictory) of its single (You are entitled to both cream and sugar if you
component statement “lead is heavier than wish to have them)
gold”. We introduce the symbol(~), called a curl
or a tilde to symbolize negation. There are often In Latin the word ‘vel’ expresses the inclusive
alternative formulations in English of the sense of the word ‘or’ and the word ‘aut’
negation of a given statement. Thus where L expresses the exclusive sense. It is customary to
symbolize the statement “lead is heavier than use the first letter of ‘vel’ to symbolize ‘or’ in its
gold”, the different statements are: inclusive sense. Where p and q are any two
statements whatever, their weak or inclusive
It is not the case that lead is heavier than gold. disjunction is written 𝒑 𝚟 𝒒. The symbol ‘𝚟’,
It is false that lead is heavier than gold. called a wedge or a vee, is a truth – functional
It is not true that lead is heavier than gold. connective, and is defined by the following truth
Lead is not heavier than gold. table:

All indifferently symbolized as ~L. More P q 𝒑𝚟𝒒

generally, where p is any statement whatever, its T T T
negation is written ~p. Since the negation of a T F T
true statement is false and the negation of a F T T
false statement is true, we can take the following F F F
truth as defining the curl symbol: An obviously valid argument containing a
p ~p disjunction is the following Disjunctive Syllogism:
T F
F T The United Nations will become more
responsible or there will be a third world war.
Disjunctive Statements The United Nations will not become more
When two statements are combined responsible.
disjunctively by inserting the word ‘or’ between Therefore, there will be a third world war.
them, the resulting compound statement is a
disjunction (or alternation), and the two Uses of Parenthesis, Brackets, and Braces
statements so combined are called disjuncts (or Those are familiar for punctuating mathematical
alternatives). expressions is familiar. In the absence of a
special convention, no number is uniquely
In the case of disjunction ----- statements of the denoted by the expression ‘6 + 9 ÷ 3’, although
form ‘p or q’ ---- intuitive logic offers two when punctuation makes clear how its
alternative interpretations. In ordinary language constituents are to be grouped, it denotes either
or is sometimes used in: 5 or 9.
Exclusive sense (p or q but not both)
Inclusive sense (p or q or both) Punctuation is needed to resolve ambiguity in
the language of symbolic logic too, since
Ex: A writer who says you may have “coffee, tea, compound statements may themselves be
or milk” uses the word “or” in an exclusive sense. combined to produce more complicated
compounds.
Extra payment is generally required if you want
more than one beverage, on the other hand: Ambiguity is present in 𝑝 ∙ 𝑞 𝚟 𝑟, which could be:
The conjunction of 𝒑 with 𝒒 𝚟 𝒓 or
A waiter who offers “cream or sugar” uses the The disjunction of 𝒑 ∙ 𝒒 with 𝒓
word or in an inclusive sense. These two different senses are unambiguously
given by different punctuations:
 𝒑 ∙ (𝒒 𝚟 𝒓) Another is:
(𝒑 ∙ 𝒒) 𝚟 𝒓 ‘Charlene will be either secretary or treasurer.’
In case p and q are both false and r is true. Express as:
The first punctuated expression is false ‘Charlene will be secretary or Charlene will be
(Since its first conjuncts is false) treasurer’.
The second punctuated expression is true
(Since its second disjuncts is true)
Negation of a Disjunction
Another ambiguity is ~𝑝 𝚟 𝑞, which might mean: - Is often expressed by using the phrase
(~𝑝) 𝚟 𝑞 or neither – nor.
~(𝑝 𝚟 𝑞) Thus the disjunction:
This is resolved, by our convention does apply to ‘Either Alice or Betty will be elected.’
the first component 𝑝 rather than to the larger
expression 𝑝 𝚟 𝑞. Is denied by the statement:
‘Neither Alice nor Betty will be elected.’
The word ‘either’ has a variety of different uses
in English. Perhaps the most useful function of The disjunction would be symbolized as:
the word ‘either’ is to punctuate some 𝑨𝚟𝑩
compound statements. Thus, the sentence:
More stringent antipollution measures will be Its negation:
enacted and the laws will be strictly enforced or ~(𝑨 𝚟 𝑩) Or as ~𝑨 ∙ ~𝑩
the quality of life will be disregarded still This means that at least one of two statements
further. is true is to assert that both of the two
can have its ambiguity resolved in one direction statements are false.
by placing the word ‘either’ at its beginning, or in
other direction by inserting the word ‘either’ Order of the Words ‘Both’ and ‘Not’
right after the word ‘and’. It is the same as There is a great difference between:
𝒑 ∙ 𝒒 𝚟 𝒓 discussed in the preceding paragraph. Alice and Betty will not both elected.
And
Not all conjunctions are formulated by explicitly Alice and Betty will both not be elected.
placing the word ‘and’ between complete In symbols:
sentences, as in: ~(𝑨 ∙ 𝑩)
‘Charlie is neat and Charlie is sweet.’ And
It expresses as: ~𝑨 ∙ ~𝑩
‘Charlie is neat and sweet.’ Use of Unless as Expressing the Disjunction
of Two Statements
Ex: Our resources will soon be exhausted unless
The familiar: more recycling of materials is effected.
‘Jack and Jill went up the hill.’
Can be express as: Unless more recycling of materials is effected
‘Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill.’ our resources will soon be exhausted.

It is the same with disjunctions: Can be expressed as:

‘Either Alice or Betty will be elected.’ Either more recycling of materials is effected or
Express briefly as: our resources will soon be exhausted.
‘Either Alice will be elected or Betty will be
elected.’ And symbolized as: 𝑴 𝚟 𝑬
Prepared by: Mr. Allen Vic Eredia