UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF

1
INSTRUMENTS
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PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. Define the following terms,
(a) Resolution
(b) Sensitivity.
Ans:
(a) Resolution
It is defined as the increment in the input of the instrument for which the output remains constant i.e., when the input given
to the instrument is slowly increased for which the output remains same until the increment exceeds a definite value.
(b) Sensitivity
It is defined as the ratio of change in output to that of change in the quantity being measured. Sensitivity is also known as
incremental sensitivity or linear sensitivity.
∆Co
∴ Sensitivity = =
∆Ci
The sensitivity differs for different values of input as shown in the figure (a) but when the calibration curve is straight line,
then the sensitivity remains constant over the entire range and is given as the slope of calibration curve as shown in the figure (b).
For better performance of the system the sensitivity of an instrument should be high.

Figure (a): Incremental Sensitivity

Figure (b): Linear Sensitivity

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Q2. Define the following, Q4. Define the following dynamic characteristics,
(a) Error (a) Lag
(b) Expected value. (b) Dynamic error.
Ans: Ans:
(a) Error (a) Lag
In any device, when the measured value or indicated It is the delay in response of the output signal to the
value of measurand differs from its true value then this changes in the input signal. It depends on the characteristics of
difference between the measured value and true value is referred the system only. It is also known as measuring lag. For different
as error. types of input signal, measuring lag can be specified in different
ways.
In an ideal device the error is zero i.e., the output is
always equal to the true value of the measurand. When the (b) Dynamic Error
measured value exceeds the true value of measurand the error
Dynamic error is determined as the algebraic numerical
is said to be positive. By minimizing the error of the device, its
difference between the true value of the quantity and the value
accuracy can be increased. recorded by the measuring instrument at any instant, when the
(b) Expected Value measurand is a function of time. It is also known as measurement
error.
It is nothing but the design value. It is the most possible
value that computations describe one should expect to measure. Under steady state, when the step-input function is
applied to the measuring system then the response is represented
Q3. Define the following dynamic characteristics, by the ratio of the amplitude of output signal to that of the
(a) Speed of response measurand, this ratio is known as static sensitivity of the system.
For the calculation of dynamic error the understanding of static
(b) Fidelity. sensitivity is essential. Under the input function of time the
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(a)
dynamic error comprises of both the transient and steady state
components. For indicating instruments, the steady state error
(a) Speed of Response is calculated at any instant from the information of the values
It is the quickness of an instrument with which it responds of the measurand and its corresponding recorded signal at that
to the sudden changes in amplitude of the input signal. instrument.

Speed of response can also be stated as the total time

taken by the system to come closer to steady state condition.
Speed of response of a system can be evaluated by knowing the
measurement lag of that system.
(b) Fidelity
For a time-varying input the quality of indication by the
instrument is referred as fidelity. The perfect fidelity is obtained
only by a zero order system i.e., fidelity is the degree of nearness
with which the output reproduces the time varying input within
Figure (a): Ramp-input
a conversion factor. But for higher order systems the output
cannot reproduce the input signals constantly at all instant and
for all types of input time varying function. Under steady state
conditions for sinusoidal input functions the perfect fidelity of
an instrument would indicate that the waveforms of the output
and input signals occur simultaneously with each other at all
instants. Hence, there will be neither amplitude error nor phase
error. Fidelity requirements is generally associated to cover
deficiency in amplitude frequency characteristics and with the
applications the fidelity requirements differ.
Figure (b): Sinusoidal Input
It’s specification is reduced, while describing the working
of electronic amplifiers and such other electronic apparatus The dynamic error is a function of time for sinusoidal
meant for entertainment. Thus fidelity is maintained for a wider input function and it is a constant in case of ramp-input function
range of frequencies. as shown in the figures above.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.3
Q5. Explain the procedure how to find errors in measurement with example.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-2, Q1(a)

The procedure steps used to find the errors in measurement is as follows,

Step-1
Compute the actual or arithmetic mean of the given observations.
Sum of observations
Mean ( X ) =
Number of observations
N
/ Xi
i=1
=
N
Step-2
Compute the deviations by subtracting the each value of variable from the arithmetic mean.
i.e., x = X – X
Step-3
Calculate the square of the deviations obtained in step-2 and determine the sum of squared deviation, Sx2 and divide it by
total number of observations.
N
/ (X i – X )
i=1
s2 =
( N – 1)
Step-4

Calculate the value of standard deviation by computing the square root of the value obtained in step-3.
Step-5
Calculate the standard error by dividing the value of standard deviation by the square root of number of observations.
σ
i.e., standard error =
N
Example
Calculate the standard error for the data,
140, 160, 190, 145, 175
Step-1
140 + 160 + 190 + 145 + 175
Mean ( X ) =
5
810
=
5
= 162
Step-2 and Step-3

X x=X–X x2

140 –22 484

160 –2 4
190 28 784
145 –17 289
175 13 169
Sx = 810 Sx = 1730
2

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Step-4
Standard deviation,
s = Σ x2
=1730
= 41.59
Step-5
σ
Standard error =
N
41.59
=
5
= 18.6
Q6. What are the types of performance characteristics of an instrument?
Ans:
Instrument Characteristics
The performance characteristics of an instrument can be classified into two types. They are as follows,
1. Static characteristics and
2. Dynamic characteristics.
Static calibration is a process which determines the static characteristics of an instrument. Static calibration determines
the relationship between the output signal and the quantity under study experimentally. The static characteristics of an instrument
are accuracy, precision, sensitivity, linearity, stability, error, threshold etc.
Some of the dynamic characteristics are, Dynamic error, Fidelity, Lag, Speed of response.
Q7. Write short notes on accuracy.
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(a)

Accuracy
The closeness of the measured value with respect to the true value is called as accuracy.
Accuracy is influenced by the affects of disturbing inputs such as temperature, humidity and also by the limits of intrinsic
errors and instability of natural zero. Under certain operating conditions accuracy can also be determined by calibrating.
The accuracy of the whole system depends upon the accuracies of each individual instruments in that system. Generally,
the accuracy of the instrument depends upon the natural limitations of the instrument as well as on the shortcomings in the
measurement process.
Q8. Write short notes on precision.
Ans:
Precision
The instrument ability to reproduce a certain group of readings within a given accuracy is known as precision i.e., if a
number of measurements are made on the same true value, then the degree of closeness of these measurements is called precision.
Precision of an instrument depends upon the random errors. It refers to the ability of an instrument to give its readings
again and again in same manner for constant input signals. Instruments having high accuracy should also be highly precise.
Q9. A person using an ohmmeter reads the measured value as 470 Ω instead of 47 Ω. What kind of error
does this represent? Justify.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(a)

If a person reads the measured value as 470 Ω instead of 47 Ω from an ohmmeter then that error represents gross error.
Gross errors are human errors which are caused by the user or an operator by taking wrong readings, readings with parallax error,
improper calculations etc., from the instrument.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.5
Q10. Discuss the main difference between accuracy and precision.
Ans:
1. Accuracy represents the degree of correctness of the measured value with respect to the true value.
On the other hand, precision represents the degree of repeatability of several independent measurements of the desired
input at the same reference conditions.
2. Accuracy and precision involved in a measurement are dependent on the systematic and random errors respectively.
3. It is instructive to note that a precise measurement may not necessarily be accurate and vice-versa.
4. The difference between accuracy and precision has been illustrated in the figure. The arrangement may be thought to
correspond to the game of darts where one is asked to strike a target represented by centre circle. The centre circle then
represents the true value, and the result achieved by the striker has been indicated by the mark “×”.

(a) High accuracy (b) Low accuracy (c) Low precision

High precision High precision Low accuracy
Figure
Q11. Give a classification of voltmeters.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(a)

Generally, the voltmeters are classified into following types.

1. Permanent magnet moving coil voltmeter.
2. Moving iron voltmeter.
3. Electro dynamometer type voltmeter.
4. Rectifier type voltmeter.
5. Induction type voltmeter.
6. Electrostatic type voltmeter
(a) FET input electronic D.C voltmeter.
(b) Average responding voltmeter.
(c) D.C coupled peak responding voltmeter
(d) Peak to peak reading voltmeter.
7. Digital voltmeter
(a) Ramp type DVM.
(b) Integrating type DVM.
(c) Successive approximation type DVM.
(d) Continuous balance DVM.
Q12. Draw the multirange A.C voltmeter.
Ans:
Basic schematic of multirange A.C voltmeter is shown in figure. This circuit is used to measure various ranges of A.C.
voltage signals.

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Figure: Multirange A.C. Voltmeter

From the above figure, it is noted that a chain of multipliers are formed by resistors R1, R2, R3 and R4 whose voltage ranges
are 1 kV, 250 V, 50 V, 10 V respectively.
Resistor R5 acts as a multiplier whose voltage range is 2.5 V. In order to improve the rectifier operation resistor R6 acts as
a meter shunt.
Q13. Give the applications of Ayrton shunt.
Ans:
1. In many multirange meters an Ayrton shunt is used to replace the function of a make-before-break switch.
2. It is used along with galvanometer in comparison method of D.C resistance measurement.
3. In ayrton shunt method of resistance measurement, the contact resistance doesn’t affect the accuracy of the meter.
Therefore, it can be used in those applications which require highly accurate resistance values.
Q14. What are the applications of precision rectifier?
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(a)

1. As the precision rectifier eliminates the errors arising due to voltage drop (i.e., cut-in voltage of the diode) by employing
op-amp, it can be used in various precision instrumentation applications, to know the peak value of the input under
measurement.
2. As the op-amp can withstand large differential voltages, this circuit can be used with those measurement circuits which
are operating at very high frequencies.
3. In signal processing applications, which deal with very low values of current, voltage and power, precision rectifier is used
for various purposes.
4. A precision rectifier can also be used as clipper and clamper.
Q15. What are the advantages of using a thermocouple instrument?
Ans:
1. A thermocouple instrument provides greater accuracy of the order of ±1%, upto frequencies of 50 MHz.
2. It can be used for the measurements of both A.C, D.C currents and voltages.
3. It can be easily converted into voltmeter with the help of few series resistors and low current thermocouples.
4. It can measure R.M.S values of both voltage and current waveforms irrespective of the frequency of waveform.
5. Its performance does not affected by errors arising due to stray magnetic fields.
Q16. A voltmeter is accurate to 97% of its full scale reading, if it is used to read 200 V on a 400 V scale,
calculate the absolute error and the percentage of error.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.7
Ans:
Given that,
Accuracy = 97% of full scale reading
Range of voltmeter = 400 V
True voltage, v = 200 V
Absolute error = ?
Percentage error = ?
We have,
The magnitude of absolute error at full scale, δV = 0.97 × 400 = 388 V
The percentage error at true voltage is given by,

%E=

= 194%
Q17. The output voltage of an amplifier measured at eight different intervals using the same digital voltmeter
has the following readings in volts 20.00, 19.80, 19.85, 20.05, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25,19.95. Which is the most
precise measurement? Justify.
Ans:
Given that,
The light different values of an amplifier using digital voltmeter is given by,
20.00, 19.80, 19.85, 20.05, 20.10, 19.90, 20.25, 19.95
Precise value = ?
The mean of different measurements yields a precise measurement. Thus, the mean of eight different values are,

Mean =

= =
\ Mean = 19.98
Therefore, the precise measurement is 19.98.
Q18. A digital voltmeter has a read-out range from 0 to 9,999 counts. Determine the resolution of the instrument
in volts when the fullscale reading is 9.999 V.
Ans:
Given that,
Digital voltmeter range = 0 to 9999 counts
Full-scale reading, Vfsd = 9.999 V
Resolution of the voltmeter, R = ?
The resolution of the digital voltmeter is given by,
R=

Resolution R = 1 mV

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PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
1.1 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS, STATIC CHARACTERISTICS,
ACCURACY, RESOLUTION, PRECISION, EXPECTED VALUE, ERROR, SENSITIVITY. ERRORS IN
MEASUREMENT, DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS – SPEED OF RESPONSE, FIDELITY, LAG AND
DYNAMIC ERROR

Q19. Discuss the performance characteristics of an instrument.

Ans: (Dec.-13, Set-1, Q1(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q2(a))
Performance characteristics of an instrument are classified into two types. They are,
(a) Static characteristics
(b) Dynamic characteristics.
(a) Static Characteristics
The characteristics which describe the performance of measuring instruments or medical instruments when subjected to
low frequency inputs or D.C inputs are referred to as static characteristics.
Let the measurement system or instrumentation system be subjected to a wide range of fixed input signals, then the quality
of the measurement process is known by the properties of the resulting output response.
However some sensors and measuring systems do not have static characteristics because they provide the response only for
time-varying input signals and do not respond to time-invariant signals. One of the examples of such type of system is piezoelectric
device.
Some of the static characteristics are,
1. Accuracy
2. Precision
3. Sensitivity
4. Linearity
5. Threshold
6. Hysteresis
7. Resolution
8. Stability
9. Reproducibility
10. Dead zone
11. Range and span
12. Drift
13. Static error.
1. Accuracy
Accuracy can be defined as the degree of closeness with which the output of the instrument reaches the true value of the
quantity being measured.
The term accuracy describes how close the measurement is to the true measured quantity.
or
It is defined as the ratio of the difference between the measured value and true value to the true value. Generally this ratio
is expressed in terms of percentage of full scale output value.
The accuracy of the measuring system is expressed as,
Percentage of true value,

or
Percentage of full scale deflection,

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.9
2. Precision Hysteresis can be noticed when the input/output
The ability of the measuring system to reproduce characteristics for an instrument are not the same
the same output values among several independent (i.e., different) for increasing values of inputs than for
measurements under specified conditions or within a decreasing values of inputs.
given accuracy is referred to as precision and is expressed 7. Resolution
in terms of deviation in measurement. Resolution of a measuring instrument can be stated as
Let us consider an example in which an input of ‘any smallest increment in the measured variable that can
accurately known value is applied to the transducer. With be noticed or detected by that instrument with certainty’.
this known input if the measuring instrument produces If an instrument has high resolution then it can distinguish
its output which lies between ± 1%, then the precision very small changes in the input quantity.
of the measuring instrument can be ± 1%. Therefore, an 8. Stability
instrument is said to be highly precise if it produces same
It is the ability of the instrument to have the same stan-
output for an applied input though the measurement is
dard of performance over a prolonged period of time.
repeated a number of times. Hence, precision can also be
The need for calibrating the instrument frequently is less
stated as the degree of repeatability of a measurement.
for a instrument having high stability.
3. Sensitivity
9. Reproducibility
For answer refer Unit-I, Q1. Topic: Sensitivity.
It is nothing but the degree of closeness with which a
4. Linearity given value of a variable may be repeatedly measured
Linearity can be defined as the closeness of actual over a period of time.
calibration curve of the instrument to the idealized or
straight line within a given range of full scale output.
The reproducibility of an instrument is the ability to
or produce the same value of output (response) for equal
It can be stated as the deviation of output curve of inputs applied over a period of time.
measuring instrument from a specified or idealized 10. Dead Zone
straight line, and is illustrated in figure.
Dead zone (dead band) can be defined as the largest
variation in the value of input for which the instrument
can not respond and produces no output.
11. Range and Span
Range is the lower and upper limits of the instrument in
which it is designed to function or operate to determine,
indicate and record the measured variable.
Span is similarly defined as the total operating range of
the instrument.
12. Drift
It indicates the change in the output of the instrument
(transducer) for a zero input (i.e., the change of base
line), or change in its sensitivity with time, change in
Figure
humidity, temperature or some other factor.
Since the linearity is one of the most desirable Drift is an undesirable characteristic of any instrument.
characteristics of the measuring instrument, the design
13. Static Error
of the instrument should be such that the output signal
is a linear function of the input signal. The accuracy of a given instrument is calculated in terms
of its error.
5. Threshold
The static error of an instrument is nothing, but the
Threshold of an instrument can be stated as the smallest difference between the measured value and the exact
quantity of input below which the output will not be value of the quantity run on i.e., (Static error = Measured
detected. It can be specified as percentage of maximum value – Exact true value).
scale deflection or as absolute value in terms of units of (b) Dynamic Characteristics
input. The characteristics of an instrument which are considered
6. Hysteresis while measuring a quantity that varies with time (i.e., measur-
It is defined as the maximum difference in the output and is time-variant) are known as dynamic characteristics. The
with the same value of input (within the specified dynamic characteristics are determined from the mathematical
range), when approaching first from the increasing model of the system i.e., a differential equation of first order or
values of the measurand and then decreasing values of second order with constant coefficients.
the measurand. For remaining answer refer Unit-I, Q3.

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Q20. Explain the dynamic response of a second order instrument.
April-18, Set-3, Q2(b)
OR
List and define the dynamic characteristics of an instrument. Explain the dynamic response of a second
order instrument.
Ans: May-13, Set-2, Q1(a)
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of an instrument which are considered while measuring a quantity that varies with time (i.e. measurand
is time-variant) are known as dynamic characteristics. The dynamic characteristics are determined from the mathematical model
of the system i.e., a differential equation of first order or second order with constant coefficients.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are as follows,
(i) Speed of Response
The speed with which a system responds (i.e., produces an output) to the sudden changes in the dynamic quantity applied
to it is known as speed of response. For a step input, the time taken by the response of the system to reach the steady state
is specified as speed of response.
(ii) Measurement Lag
The time delay taken by the measuring system to produce the output in response to a change in the quantity being measured
is known as measurement lag. Measurement lag depends only on the characteristics of the system.
(iii) Fidelity
Some of the input quantities undergo changes with respect to time. The characteristic of a measuring instrument to respond
to the changes in the measured quantity at every instant of time is known as fidelity. Excellent fidelity of a system refers to
an error-free response of the system (i.e., at all instants under steady state condition, the output signal waveform is exactly
similar to the input signal waveform).
(iv) Dynamic Error
The difference between the value indicated by the measurement system and the true value of the quantity (which is a
function of time) is known as dynamic error. As the dynamic response of a system consists of steady state response and
transient state response, the dynamic error also comprises of transient error and steady state error.
(v) Dynamic Range
The range of values of a certain quantity (for example, temperature, pressure, voltage, ..., etc.,) for which the measuring
instrument can produce a faithful response under dynamic conditions is known as dynamic range of the instrument.
Dynamic range is represented as the ratio of the maximum value to the minimum value for which the system can respond
effectively.
(vi) Bandwidth
The range of frequencies within which the dynamic sensitivity of the system lies within a specified band (For example,
± 2% band) of static sensitivity of the system is known as ‘bandwidth’ of the system. The amplitude versus frequency
characteristics of a system are flat within the bandwidth of the system.
(vii) Settling Time
The time required by the response of the system (after the application of a step input to it), to reach and stay within the
close range of the steady state output value is known as ‘settling time’. The settling time depicts the speed of response of
the system. If the settling time is small it can be inferred that the speed of response of the system is high.
(viii) Time Constant
Time constant is defined as the time required for the output of the system to reach 63.2% of the final output value.
It is preferred to have a low time constant in order to have high speed of response. Time constant depends on the parameters
of the system.
Dynamic Response of a Second Order Instrument
Assume that a 2nd order system is subjected to a unit step input,
∴ r(t) = u(t) and
1
R(s) =
s
The normalized transfer function of 2nd order system is,

G(s) =

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.11
The output response of the system is,
C(s) = G(s).R(s)
By substituting G(s) and R(s) in the above equation we get,
1
C(s) = . ... (1)
s
If the system is under damped, the damping ratio is less than 1 i.e., ξ < 1. Therefore for this system the roots of the
characteristics equation are a complex conjugate pair.
If a unit step input is applied to a 2nd order under damped system then its response is given by,
C(s) = G(s) R(s)

= =

To get the output response in time domain form first apply partial fractions and then take inverse Laplace transform to the
above equation. In time domain the output can be given by,

C(t) =

= =

Where,
ωd = Frequency of damped oscillations
1 − ξ2
φ = sin–1 1 − ξ 2 = cos–1 ξ = tan–1
ξ
For the unit step input the dynamic error is determined by,
em(t) = r(t) – C(t)

And the steady state error is,

ess = em (t ) t →∞ = 0
Thus, for a unit step input the steady state error of a 2nd order under damped system is ‘0’ and the final steady state response
of the system is,
Css = C(t) = 1
The output response characteristics of 2nd order under damped system when subjected to unit step input is illustrated below.

exp ^ –ξω n t h
1–ξ 2

exp ^ –ξω n t h
1–ξ 2

Figure: Response of 2nd Order Under Damped System for Unit Step Input

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Q21. Define and derive static and dynamic error.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q1(a)

Static Error
It is defined as the difference between measured value and the exact value of the quantity. Mathematically, it is given as,
Static error, dA = Am – At
Where,
Am = Measured value
At = Exact or true value of the quantity.
Dynamic Error
For answer refer Unit-I, Q18, Topic: Dynamic Error.
Mathematically, it is given as dynamic error, em(t) = r(t) – c(t)
Where,
r(t) = Value indicated by the measurement
c(t) = True value of the quantity.
Q22. Distinguish between static and dynamic characteristics of an instrument.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q1(a)
The following difference between static and dynamic characteristics is as shown in the below table,

Static Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics

1. When the measurand does not vary with time, then 1. When the measurand is a time varient, then varient,
the static characteristics of an instrument are then the dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
determined. determined.
2. Static characteristics are determined by a process 2. Dynamic characteristics are determined from the
called static calibration in which the relationship mathematical model of the system which is in diffe-
between output signal and the measurand is rential equation form of first order or second order
experimentally determined. with constant coefficients.
3. During static calibration the parameters effecting 3. The dynamic characteristics of any system consists
the system except the desired input signal are held of two components, they are the characteristics of the
constant. system itself and the nature of its input function.
4. In static calibration the measured quantity is related 4. The performance of an instrument under dynamic
with some standard of known accuracy. conditions can be determined by subjecting its primary
element to a variety of unknown and predetermined
variations in the output obtained.
5. The terms which specify the static characteristics 5. The terms which specify the dynamic characteristics
are accuracy, precision, linearity, thre shold, measurement lag, speed of response fidelity, dynamic
sensitivity, hysteresis etc. error, bandwidth, time constant etc.

Certain instruments satisfying few criteria and having satisfactory static characteristics can also be used under dynamic
characteristics.
Q23. List out the sources of errors.
Dec.-13, Set-4, Q1(a)
OR
Explain the different types of errors that may occur in measurements. Describe their sources and
precautions to minimize them.
Nov.-11, Set-2, Q1
OR
What are the general classes of errors? Explain their sources and precautions to be taken to minimize
them.
Nov.-10, Set-2, Q1(a)
OR

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.13
What are the general classes of errors? These undesirable errors can be reduced by the following
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q2(a) ways,
The measurement process is not always confined to (i) Arrangement must be made to keep the conditions
steady values i.e., no measurement can be made with perfect approximately constant.
accuracy, but it is important to find out what the accuracy is and (ii) Employing hermetically sealing to certain compo-
how different errors have entered into the measurement. Errors nents in the instrument, which eliminate the effects
may come from various sources and are generally classified into of the humidity dust, etc.
three types. They are,
(iii) Magnetic or electrostatic shields must be provided.
1. Gross errors
(c) Observational Errors
2. Systematic errors and
These errors are produced by the experimenter. The most
3. Random or accidental errors.
frequent error is the parallax error introduced in reading
1. Gross Errors a meter scale.
Gross errors are caused mainly due to insufficient
These errors are caused by the habits of individual ob-
knowledge, in reading instrument, recording and calculating
serves. To minimize parallax errors modern electrical
measurement results. These errors may also occur due to incor-
instruments have digital display of output.
rect adjustment of instrument and computational mistakes. It
is not possible to eliminate the errors completely but it can be 3. Random or Accidental Errors
minimized by the following precautions. Errors caused due to the random variations in the
(a) Special attention should be taken in reading and parameters or in the system of measurement are called Random
recording the data. or Precision errors. These errors vary in magnitude and may be
(b) The experimenter should not be dependent on one either positive or negative. The following are some of the main
reading only, at least three or even more readings contributing factors to the random errors.
must be taken. (a) Certain Human Errors
2. Systematic Errors These errors occur due to inconsistency in estimating
Systematic errors are mainly involved with the instru- successive readings from the instrument by an
ments, components used in measurement and due to improper experimenter. To reduce these errors it is necessary
handling, misuse of instrument and due to overloading of the to exercise extreme care with mature and considered
instrument. This type errors are further divided into three cat- judgement in recording the observations.
egories. They are,
(b) Errors Caused due to the Disturbances to the
(a) Instrumental errors
Equipment
(b) Environmental errors and
Precision errors in the instrument may arise from the
(c) Observational errors.
outside disturbances to the measuring system. These
(a) Instrumental Errors disturbances may be variations or mechanical vibrations.
These errors are essential in measuring instruments due Poorly controlled processes also lead to random errors.
to their mechanical structure and due to calibration or
(c) Errors Caused by Fluctuating Experimental
operation of the instrument or measuring devices which
causes the instrument to read too high or too low along Conditions
its entire scale. For example, in the D’Arsonval moment, These errors are caused due to some uncontrolled
friction in bearings of different moving element possi- disturbances which influence the instrument output.
bly causes incorrect readings. There are many kinds of Line voltage fluctuations, vibrations of the instrument
instrumental errors, depending upon the type of instru- supports, etc., are common examples of this type.
ment used. These errors can be minimized by using the
Q24. Draw the block diagram of the measuring
following methods.
system and explain the function of each stage
(i) Choosing appropriate instrument for the specific of this system.
measurement application.
Ans:
(ii) After determining the instrumental errors, correc-
tion factors should be applied. The generalized measuring system consists of three main
(iii) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully. functional elements. They are,
(b) Environmental Errors 1. Primary sensing element, which senses the quantity
under measurement.
These errors are caused due to changes in the environ-
mental conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, 2. Variable conversion element, which modifies
that may affect the instrument characteristics, such as the suitably the output of the primary sensing element.
affects of changes in temperature, humidity, barometric 3. Data presentation element that renders the
pressure or if magnetic field or electrostatic field. indication on a calibrated scale.

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1.14 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Quantity Primary Variable Variable Data Data

to be Sensing
sensing Conversion
conversion M anipulation
manipulation Transmission
transmission Presentation
presentation
measured element element element element element

Data conditioning element

Figure: Functional Elements of a Measuring System

(i) Primary Sensing Element
The measurand first comes into contact with primary sensing element where the conversion takes place. This is done by a
transducer which converts the measurand (or) measured quantity into a usable electrical output. The transduction may be
from mechanical, electrical (or) optical to any related form.
(ii) Variable Conversion Element
The output of the primary sensing element is in the electrical form suitable for control, recording and display. For, the
instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output to some other suitable form preserving
the original information. This function is performed by the variable conversion element. A system may require one (or)
more variable conversion suitable to it.
(a) Variable Manipulation Element
The signal gets manipulated here preserving the original nature of it example, an amplifier accepts a small voltage
signal as input and produces a voltage of greater magnitude. The output is the same voltage but of higher value,
acting as a voltage amplifier. Here the voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element since it amplifies
the voltage.
The element that follows the primary sensing element in a measurement system is called signal conditioning element.
Here the variable conversion element and variable manipulation element are collectively called as Data conditioning
element or signal conditioning element.
(b) Data Transmission Element
The transmission of data from one another is done by the data transmission element. In case of spacecrafts, the control
signals are sent from the control stations by using radio signals.
The stage that follows the signal conditioning element and data transmission element collectively is called the
intermediate stage.
(iii) Data Presentation Element
The display (or) readout devices which display the required information about the measurand, forms the data presentation
element. Here the information of the measurand has to be conveyed for, monitoring, control (or) analysis purposes.
(a) In case of data to be monitored, visual display devices are needed like ammeters, voltmeters and so on are used.
(b) In case of data to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, T.V equipment, storage type C.R.T, printers and so on
are used.
Q25. Explain the types of test signals used in determining dynamic characteristics of measurements applied
to a system.
Ans:
The dynamic characteristics or analysis is classified with respect to time and frequency as time domain analysis and fre-
quency domain analysis.
1. In time domain analysis the input is applied to the system and the behaviour of the system is studied as a function of time.
2. In frequency domain analysis the input is a sinusoidal one and the behaviour of the system is studied as a function of
frequency.
The standard test signals used for time domain analysis are as follows,
(i) Step input
(ii) Ramp input
(iii) Parabolic input
(iv) Impulse input.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.15
(i) Step Input
The continuous time step input u(t) is defined as,

u(t) = and discrete time step input u(n) is defined as, u(n) =

(a) Continuous Time Step Input (b) Discrete Time Step Input
Figure (1)
Therefore, a unit step input represents a signal which changes its level from 0 to 1 in zero time and it reveals a great deal
about how quickly the system responds to an abrupt change in the input signal.
(ii) Ramp Input
The ramp input is defined in continuous time as

1, t ≥ 0
r(t) = 
0 t < 0
And in discrete time as,

n n ≥ 0
r(n) = 
0 n < 0

(a) Unit Ramp Signal (b) Discrete Ramp Signal

Figure (2)
A unit ramp signal starts at zero and increases with constant slope of unit with respect to time.
(iii) Parabolic Input
The parabolic input is defined as,

t 2 ; t ≥ 0
r(t) = 
0 ; t < 0
And in discrete time as

n 2 n ≥ 0
r(n) = 
0 n < 0

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1.16 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The signals are given below,

(a) Unit Parabolic Signal (b) Discrete Parabolic Signal

Figure (3)
This signal is also called as acceleration input since the input signal is proportional to square of time and represents a
constant acceleration.
(iv) Impulse Input
It is also called as a δ(delta) function. The continuous time impulse input is given by,
δ(t) = 0 for t ≠ 0
And discrete time impulse input is given by,
1, n = 0
δ(n) = 
0 n ≠ 0
The unit impulse is defined as the signal which has a zero value every where except at t = 0. Where the magnitude is finite.

Figure (4)
In frequency domain analysis, the system behaviour is studied through the sinusoidal signal because the time varying
signals such as step, ramp, parabolic inputs can be expressed in terms of sinusoidal signal of different amplitudes and frequencies.
A continuous time sinusoidal signal is given as
x (t) = A sin(ωt + φ)
Where, A = Amplitude
ω = Frequency in radians/sec.
φ = Phase angle in radians.
2π
A sinusoidal signal is an example of a periodic signal, the period of which is T = .
ω
The discrete time version of a sinusoidal signal is given by,
x(n) = A sin(ωn + φ)
Where, ω = angular frequency in radians/cycle.

(a) Continuous Time Sinusoidal Signal (b) Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signal
Figure (5)

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.17
Q26. Explain the significance of the number of significant figures in a stated quantity with examples.
Ans: (April-18, Set-4, Q2(a) | Nov.-11, Set-3, Q1(a))

Significant Figures
The number of meaningful digits used to express a numerical value (measured value of a quantity) are known as significant
figures. Significant figures indicate the precision of the measurement and the magnitude of the measurand. The measured value
should be expressed in more number of significant figures because the more significant figures, the higher will be the precision.
Significance of Significant Figures
1. Significant figures insures the quality of the data.
2. It makes the information unambigous and easier.
3. It provides good numerical accuracy leading to mathematical errors.
Let us consider three numbers, 100 grams, 100. grams and 100.00 grams.
The “100 grams” has only one significant figure i.e., ‘1’ is at hundred’s place and it is only accurate to the approximatel
values of 100 grams. The “100 grams” has three significant figures i.e., the last significant number is at one’s place and it is ac-
curate to the approximate gram, which is near to 100 grams than 101 grams or 99 grams. The “100.00 grams” has five significant
figures i.e., the last significant figure is at hundredths place and it is accurate to the nearest 0.01 grams, which is closer to 100.00
grams than 100.01 or 99.99 grams.
Consider an example in which the measured voltage across a resistor in a circuit is specified as 50 V. It indicates that the
measured voltage may be close to 49 V or 51 V. This specification has two significant figures. If the measured voltage is specified
as 50.0 V then it indicates that the value may be close to 49.9 V or 50.1 V. This specification has three significant figures.
Thus, from the above illustration it can be observed that the specification with three significant figures is more precise than
the one with two significant figures.
Q27. The current passing through a resistor of 100 ± 0.2 ohm is 2.00 ± 0.01 A. Using the relationship P = I2R,
calculate the limiting error in the computed value of power dissipation.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q1(b)

Given that,
I = 2.00 ± 0.01 A
R = 100 ± 0.2 W
Expressing the guaranteed limits of both current and resistor for the purpose of calculation, we have,
I = 2.00 ± 0.5%
R = 100 ± 0.2%
For finding out the limiting error in the value of power dissipation, we need to evaluate the maximum and minimum values
of power dissipation.
Maximum power dissipation occurs at high values of current and resistance i.e.,
I = I + 0.5% I
= 1.005 I and
R = R + 0.2% R = 1.002 R
Pmax = (1.005 I )2 (1.002 R)
= 1.012 I 2R
Similarly, minimum power dissipation occurs at lowest values of I and R.
Pmin = (0.995 I )2 (0.998 R)
= 0.988 I 2R

Error % = × 100 = ± 1.2%

Therefore, the limiting error in the computed value of power dissipation is ± 1.2% i.e., the power dissipation falls in the
limits 0.988 P and 1.012 P.

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1.18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q28. A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1 kW/V is connected across an unknown resistance in series with a
milli ammeter reading 80 V on 150 V scale. When the milli ammeter reads 10 mA. Calculate the (i) apparent
resistance of the unknown resistor (ii) actual resistance of the unknown resistor, and (iii) error due to
the loading effect of the voltmeter?
Ans: April-18, Set-1, Q2(b)

Given that,
Sensitivity of voltmeter, S = 1 kW/V
Voltage = 80 V
Range of voltmeter = 150 V
Current in ammeter, I = 10 mA
To determine,
(i) Apparent resistance of the unknown resistor
(ii) Actual resistance of the unknown resistor
(iii) Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter
(i) Apparent Resistance of the Unknown Resistor
After neglecting the resistance of milli-ammeter, the total circuit resistance is given as,
V
RT =
I
180
=
10 × 10 –3
= 8 × 103 W = 8 kW
\ The apparent resistance of unknown resistor, R = RT = 8 kW
(ii) Actual Resistance of the Unknown Resistor
The resistance in voltmeter,
Rm = Sensitivity × Voltmeter range
= 1 × 103 W/V × 150 V

= 150 × 103 W
\ Rm = 150 kW
We know that,
Voltmeter is in parallel with unknown resistances, thus, unknown resistance (actual) is obtained as,
R R
Rx = T m
R m –R T

8 × 103 × 150 × 103

=
150 × 103 – 8 × 103

\ Rx = 8.45 kW
(iii) Error Due to the Loading Effect of the Voltmeter
The percentage error due to loading effect of the voltmeter is given by,
Actual resistance – Apparent resistance
% Error = × 100
Actual resistance
8.45 × 103 – 8 × 103
=
8.45 × 103
\ % Error = 5.325%

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.19
Q29. The following values are obtained from the measurements of the value of a resistor: 147.2 W, 147.4 W,
147.9 W, 147.1 W, 147.5 W, 147.6 W, 147.4 W,147.6 W,147.5 W. Calculate (a) Arithmetic mean
(b) Average deviation (c) Standard deviation.

Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q2(b)

Given that,

The values obtained from the measurements of the value of a resistor,

x1 = 147.2 W, x2 = 147.4 W, x3 = 147.9 W, x4 = 147.1 W, x5 = 147.5 W, x6 = 147.6 W, x7 = 147.4 W, x8 = 147.6 W,

x9 = 147.5 W

To determine,
(a) Arithmetic mean, xr = ?
(b) Average deviation, Dr = ?
(c) Standard deviation, s = ?

(a) Arithmetic Mean, xr

Arithmetic mean of the readings,

x1 + x 2 + x3 + x 4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8 + x9
xr =
Total number of measurements

147.2 + 147.4 + 147.9 + 147.1 + 147.5 + 147.6 + 147.4 + 147.6 + 147.5

=
9
= 147.467 W

\ Arithmetic mean, xr = 147.467 W

(b) Average Deviation

Deviation of the measurements from mean,

d1 = x1 – xr = 147.2 – 147.467 = –0.267

d2 = x2 – xr = 147.4 – 147.467 = –0.067

d3 = x3 – xr = 147.9 – 147.467 = 0.433

d4 = x4 – xr = 147.1 – 147.467 = –0.367

d5 = x5 – xr = 147.5 – 147.467 = 0.033

d6 = x6 – xr = 147.6 – 147.467 = 0.133

d7 = x7 – xr = 147.4 – 147.467 = –0.067

d8 = x8 – xr = 147.6 – 147.467 = 0.133

d9 = x9 – xr = 147.5 – 147.467 = 0.033

Average deviation,
| d1 | + | d 2 | + | d3 | + | d 4 | + | d5 | + | d6 | + | d7 | + | d8 | + | d9 |
Dr =
n
0.267 + 0.067 + 0.433 + 0.367 + 0.033 + 0.133 + 0.067 + 0.133 + 0.033
=
9
\ Average deviation, Dr = 0.1703

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1.20 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(c) Standard Deviation

Standard deviation,
n
/ d i2
i=1
s =
n –1

(–0.267) 2 + (–0.067) 2 + (0.433) 2 + (–0.367) 2 + (0.033) 2 + (0.133) 2 + (–0.067) 2 + (0.133) 2 + (0.033) 2

=
8
0.440001
=
8

= 0.2345

\ Standard deviation, s = 0.2345

1.2 D.C VOLTMETERS–MULTI-RANGE, RANGE EXTENSION/SOLID STATE AND

DIFFERENTIAL VOLTMETERS
Q30. Explain how the range of D.C voltmeter is extended.
Ans: (April-18, Set-3, Q1(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q1(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q2(b))

Figure shows the meter with a multiplier.

Figure
In the above figure, series resistance (Rse) is connected with the basic meter movement which is converted into a voltmeter.
In this case Rse acts as a multiplier. The voltage of the circuit is measured by combining the meter movement and series resistance.
The current which is flowing through the basic meter limits by Rse.
In the above figure,
V = Device full range voltage
V1 = Voltage across the basic meter movement
Rse = Series resistance
Im = Full scale deflection current of the movement
Rm = Internal resistance of the coil.
∴ From the above figure,
V1 = ImRm ... (1)

V = Im(Rm + Rse) ... (2)

V
⇒ Rse = − Rm
Im

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.21
The multiplying factor for multiplier is given by,
V
m =
V1
From equations (1) and (2), we get,
I m ( Rm + Rse )
∴ m =
I m Rm

 Rse 
⇒ m = 1 + 
 Rm 

∴ Rse = Rm (m – 1) ... (3)

∴ Equation (3) is known as resistance of multiplier.

Q31. List out different D.C voltmeters and explain any one voltmeter in detail.

Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q2(a)

The following are the different D.C voltmeters.

1. D’Arsonval D.C voltmeter.
2. Permanent magnet moving coil D.C voltmeter.
3. Electro dynamometer type D.C voltmeter.
4. Rectifier type voltmeter
5. Electrostatic type voltmeter.
6. Moving iron (MI) D.C voltmeter.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil D.C Voltmeter
PMMC instrument is used for measuring D.C quantities only, because the deflecting torque produced is proportional to
the voltage or current to be measured. Hence, it acts as a moving coil ammeter or voltmeter as shown in figure.
Construction: A PMMC voltmeter consists of moving coil, magnet system, control system, damping system, pointer and scale.
The moving coil consists of number of turns mounted on copper or aluminium former which provides mechanical strength to the
coil and damping torque. The coil is pivoted on jewel bearings so that its sides lie in the air gap between U-shaped permanent mag-
net. The control system produces controlling torque which is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs. The damping system
produces damping torque for allowing the pointer to reach the rest position within a short duration of time over graduated scale.

Figure
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1.22 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The principle of working of PMMC voltmeter is same as that of working of a D.C motor i.e., Whenever, a current-
carrying coil is placed in the magnetic field, it experiences a force, and tends to move. When the current to be measured is
made to flow through the coil, a deflecting torque proportional to the flux density and dimensions of the coil is produced
which makes the coil to move. As the coil moves, the pointer shows deflection on the scale. The deflecting torque proportional
to the coil voltage and the magnitude of the voltage flowing through the coil is indicated by a pointer which moves over a
graduated scale. When deflecting torque is equal to the controlling torque, a balance condition is attained and the pointers
shows zero deflection.
Q32. With neat sketch explain the solid state voltmeter.
Ans:
The solid state voltmeter using IC 741C is shown in figure below.

Figure: Solid State Voltmeter Using IC 741C

Solid state voltmeter is a directly coupled amplifier whose gain is very high. In order to provide a negative feedback an
appropriate resistance between the output terminal of IC 741C (i.e., pin number 6) and inverting input terminal of IC 741C
(i.e., pin number 2) is provided. This arrangement gives the flexibility to adjust the gain of the Op-amp 741C to any suitable lower
 R2 
value. The gain of the Op-amp is determined by the ratio,  .
 R1 

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.23

R2
∴ From the above figure, = = 100
R1
In this case the Op-amp 741C provides the gain whose value is 100.
From the figure, it is noted that for stability under stray pick-ups the 0.1 µF capacitor is connected across the 100 kΩ
resistor. In between terminals 1 and 5 a pot is connected whose value is 10 kΩ and its centre tap connected to –5 V supply. This
potentiometer is used for adjusting zero output for zero input conditions hence it is known as zero set.
The Op-amp 741C is protected by the diodes D1 and D2. These diodes are at non-conducting mode under normal conditions,
in this case the maximum voltage across diodes D1 and D2 is 10 mV (0.01 V). Depending upon the polarity of the voltage either
diode D1 or D2 conducts when the voltage appears across these diodes more than 100 mV (0.1 V) then the op-amp 741C is protected.
An indicator shown in figure uses a µA scale of 50 to 1000 µA full scale deflection. In this case maximum full scale
deflection is obtained by adjusting the resistor R4.
Q33. How a basic D’Arsonval movement is converted into multirange voltmeter? Explain it using neat diagram.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q1(b)

A multirange voltmeter is obtained from a D.C voltmeter by connecting a number of multipliers along with a range switch.
A large number of workable ranges are available with a range switch. A multirange voltmeter with a four position switch is shown
in figure (1).

Figure (1): Multirange Voltmeter with a Four Position Switch

Figure (1), V1, V2, V3 and V4 are voltages and R1, R2, R3 and R4 are multipliers. A more practical arrangement of a multirange
voltmeter is multipliers connected in series string and is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Multipliers Connected in Series String

Multipliers connected in series string has following advantages than the circuit shown in figure (1). Except resistor R4
remaining all have the standard resistance values. Therefore, resistors R1, R2 and R3 are available very easily in precision tolerances.
Resistor R4 is specially manufactured to meet the circuit requirements which is a low range multiplier.

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1.24 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q34. What is meant by voltmeter sensitivity? Explain its relevance in circuit applications.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q1(b)

Let, Rtot = Total circuit resistance and

Ω
V = Range voltage then their quotient always be at 1000 is known as voltmeter sensitivity. This value is same
V
for all voltage ranges.
It is also called as Ohms-per-volt rating of a voltmeter. Sensitivity is denoted with ‘S’, which is the reciprocal of the full
scale deflection current of the meter movement (IFSD).
1 JK Ω NO
∴ Sensitivity, S = K O
I FSD KL V OP
Sensitivity or Ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter is shown in figure.

Figure: Multipliers Connected in Series String

In the above circuit,
V = Voltage range, as set by the range switch and
Rm = Internal resistance of the meter movement.
Total circuit resistance, Rtot = S × V
∴ Multiplier resistance, RS = Rtot – Rm
(S × V) – Rm
=
Q35. Differentiate between a true r.m.s meter and an average responding meter.
Ans: (April-18, Set-4, Q1(a) | Nov.-10, Set-4, Q1(a))

True R.M.S Meter Average Responding Meter

1. A voltmeter which is designed to measure the r.m.s 1. An A.C electronic voltmeter which measures the
value of any typical waveform like square wave, sine average value of the A.C input voltage is known as
wave, sawtooth wave etc., is known as true r.m.s known as average responding meter.
responding voltmeter or true r.m.s meter.
2. The performance of true r.m.s meter employing one 2. At low voltage ranges the volt-ampere characteristics
thermocouple, exhibits non-linear behaviour. To avoid are non-linear. Therefore, at low voltages, the accuracy
non-linear behaviour, two thermocouples are used in the of the meter is low.
same thermal environment.
3. The thermocouple produces slow response. Therefore, 3. When the signals of radio frequencies are applied, the
the overall response of the meter becomes sluggish. distributed capacitance of the series resistance affects
the performance of the meter.
4. The r.m.s value indicates how much able the A.C signal 4. Its power consumption is low.
is in delivering the power to a resistive load and
measures the equivalent heating value of the signal.
5. It is expensive. 5. It is economical.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.25
Q36. List out different AC voltmeters and explain the working of any one voltmeter in detail.

Ans: April/May-17, Set-2, Q2(b)

The following are the different types of A.C voltmeters.

1. Average responding voltmeter

2. Peak responding voltmeter

3. True R.M.S responding voltmeter

4. Tuned voltmeter

5. Heterodyne type voltmeter.

True R.M.S Responding Voltmeter

For answer refer Unit-I, Q37.

Q37. Explain about true r.m.s voltmeter.

Ans:

True r.m.s voltmeter is a type of voltmeter whose working is based on the fact that the heating power of a signal is
proportional to the square of the r.m.s voltage of the signal (i.e., P ∝ Vr2.m.s ). This voltmeter indicates the value of R.M.S voltage
by measuring the heating power of the signal. When a heating element is heated by the power of the signal, its temperature
increases. A thermocouple placed in close proximity to the heater element, will produce an output voltage (Vo) corresponding
to the temperature of heater element. This voltage is proportional to the heating power feeded to the heater element and thus
proportional to the r.m.s voltage of the signal.
i.e.,
Vo = f (P)

= K .Vr2.m.s

∴ Vo ∝ Vr2.m.s

Generally a thermocouple exhibits non-linear characteristics. To eliminate the non-linear effects of measuring thermocouple,
another thermocouple (balancing thermocouple) is used along with the measuring thermocouple. Both these thermocouples are
kept in the same thermal environment. The balancing thermocouple is used as a feedback element so that the non-linear effects
of balancing thermocouple cancels the non-linear effects of measuring thermocouple.

The block diagram of a true r.m.s voltmeter is shown in figure. The input section of the D.C amplifier and the two ther-
mocouples connected to its input form a bridge circuit. Initially, the bridge is balanced.

The signal to be measured is first amplified by an A.C amplifier and then fed to the heating element of the measuring
thermocouple. As the element gets heated by the amplified signal, the output voltage of the measuring thermocouple changes
and the bridge becomes unbalanced. The D.C amplifier amplifies this voltage which corresponds to unbalance. The output of the
D.C amplifier is fed back to the heating element of the balancing thermocouple in order to balance the bridge. The bridge attains
balance condition when the output voltage of balancing thermocouple equals to the output voltage of measuring thermocouple.
When the bridge is balanced, the D.C current of the heating element of balancing thermocouple is equal to the A.C current of
the heating element of measuring thermocouple. Hence, the D.C current at balance is directly proportional to the r.m.s voltage
of the input signal. Thus the r.m.s voltage of the input signal is determined from the indication of the D.C current on the output
indicating meter of true r.m.s voltmeter.

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1.26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure: True R.M.S Voltmeter

Q38. What are the effects of using a voltmeter of low sensitivity? Explain with an example.
Nov.-11, Set-4, Q1(a)
OR
Explain voltmeter sensitivity and voltmeter loading effect.
(Nov.-10, Set-1, Q1(a) | Model Paper-I, Q2(b))
OR
Define voltmeter sensitivity. What is the loading effect of a D.C voltmeter? Explain with an example.
Ans:
Voltmeter Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a voltmeter is defined as the reciprocal of the full-scale deflection current (Ifrd) of the basic movement.
It is denoted by the symbol ‘S’ and expressed in Ω/V.

Voltmeter sensitivity, S = W/V

Where, Ifsd is the amount of current required to deflect the pointer of basic meter to its full-scale position.
Voltmeter sensitivity is also known as ohms-per-volt rating of the voltmeter. It can also be expressed as the ratio of total
resistance of the circuit (Rt) to the voltage range (V) of the voltmeter.
i.e.,
Rt Rm + Rs
S= = ( Rt = Rm + Rs)
V V
Where,
Rm = Internal resistance of movement
Rs = Multiplier resistance.
The above expression of voltmeter sensitivity can be used to determine the resistance of the multiplier resistor used in a
voltmeter circuit to extend the range of the voltmeter.
Loading Effect of a D.C Voltmeter
The loading effect of a D.C voltmeter refers to the phenomenon in which a negative error is produced in the voltmeter
reading (measured voltage), due to the low internal resistance (i.e., low sensitivity of the voltmeter).
A voltmeter is connected in parallel to the circuit whose voltage is to be measured. Hence, if a voltmeter having a low
sensitivity is used to measure the voltage.
(a) Across low resistance circuits, it provides correct readings.
(b) Across high resistance circuits, the voltmeter acts as shunt for that portion of the circuit and hence, the equivalent resistance
of that portion decreases. As a result, the voltmeter indicates a voltage value lower than the actual voltage. This effect is
known as loading effect of the voltmeter.
To avoid the loading effect, a voltmeter of high sensitivity should be used.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.27
Example of Loading Effect v Hence, it can be observed that the voltmeter high
Let us consider, sensitivity (i.e., 20000 Ω/V) provides accurate
Range of voltmeters = 50 V measurement of voltage (i.e., 49.74 V) across the resistor
R2.
(i) Measurement of Voltage Across R2 Using a Voltmeter
having a Sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V v Loading effect is introduced when voltmeter of low
Resistance of voltmeter, RV = Sensitivity × Range sensitivity (i.e., 1000 Ω/V) is used to measure the voltage
= 1000 × 50 across R2.
RV = 50 kΩ Q39. With a block diagram, explain the operation of
When voltmeter is connected across R2, the parallel 3-bit flash converter.
combination of R2 and RV reduces the equivalent resistance
across R2 which is calculated as follows, Ans:
R2 .RV Parallel comparator type ADCs are used in those
Req = =
R2 + RV applications where the analog signal is required to be converted
into digital with high speed, since it is the fastest ADC compared
= 8.33 kΩ
to all other types of ADCs. It is also known as flash type or
Then, voltage across R2 as measured by this voltmeter simultaneous type ADC.
will be,
Its operating principle involves the comparison of analog
VR2 =
input voltage to be converted into digital with a set of reference
voltages. For this it requires (2n – 1) comparators. Therefore,
it is possible to compare the analog input simultaneously with
= different reference voltages spaced 1 LSB apart. The functional
block diagram of a 3-bit parallel comparator type ADC is shown
= 45.44 V in following figure.
(ii) Measurement of Voltage Across R2 with a Voltmeter
having a Sensitivity of 20,000 Ω/V
Resistance of voltmeter, RV = Sensitivity × Range
= 20000 × 50 = 106
RV = 1 MΩ
Similarly, due to the resistance of this voltmeter, the
equivalent resistance will be,
R2 .RV
Req =
R2 + RV

= 9.9 kΩ
Voltage across R2 as measured by the above voltmeter
will be,

= 49.74 V
Actual voltage across R2 is,
R2
VR2 = ×V
R1 + R2

= 50 V Figure: Functional Block Diagram of Parallel Comparator ADC

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1.28 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
A 3-bit parallel comparator ADC requires 7 comparators since 23 – 1 = 7. The inverting input of each comparator is connected
to the reference voltage (i.e., different reference voltage levels obtained by a voltage divider) and the non-inverting inputs are
connected to unknown analog signal. Therefore, each comparator compares the unknown input signal with the reference voltage
and produces either high or low outputs. Those comparators whose non-inverting voltage (unknown input voltage) is less than
the inverting voltage (reference voltage) produce low output i.e., 0. Similarly those comparators whose non-inverting voltage is
greater than the inverting voltage produce high output i.e., 1. When these high and low output codes are applied to 8 to 3 priority
encoder, the encoder converts them into binary codes. This conversion process takes place within 100 ns or even less time. In
other words, the conversion time of parallel comparator type ADC is ≤ 100 ns. This conversion time depends on the speed of the
comparators and priority encoder.
Advantages
1. It is the fastest technique.
2. The circuit design is simple.
Disadvantages
1. It is not suitable for analog to digital conversion with more than 3 to 4 digital output bits.
2. Since this technique requires 2n – 1 comparators, the number of comparators increases with the increase of number
of bits.
Q40. Define crest factor with respect to true r.m.s voltmeter. What are typical r.m.s voltmeter specifications?
Ans:
Crest Factor
Crest factor can be defined as the ratio of peak value of input waveform to the R.M.S value of that waveform i.e.,

Crest factor =

The crest factor of a pure sinusoidal waveform is equal to 1.414. The non-sinusoidal waveforms have crest factor greater
than 1.414.
10
A laboratory type true R.M.S voltmeter can measure inputs having a crest factor of .
1
Specifications of True R.M.S Voltmeter
Parameter Specifications
1. Measurement functions (i) Peak value
(ii) R.M.S value
(iii) D.C voltage
(iv) Frequency.
2. Peak Measurements
(i) Voltage measuring range : 0.1 mV to 500 V
(ii) Frequency range : D.C to 10 MHz
(iii) Selectable high pass filter : 10 Hz, 100 Hz, 1000 Hz
(iv) Selectable low pass filter : 20 kHz, 100 kHz, 1 MHz (40 dB/decade)
3. R.M.S Measurements
(i) Voltage measuring range : 50 µV to 300 V
(ii) Frequency range : D.C to 30 MHz
(iii) Selectable high pass filter : 10 Hz, 100 Hz, 1000 Hz
(iv) Selectable low pass filter : 20 kHz, 100 kHz, 1 MHz (40 dB/decade)
4. D.C Voltage Measurements
Voltage measuring range : 0 to ±300 V
5. Frequency Measurements
(i) Frequency measuring range : 0.02 Hz to 30 MHz
(ii) Resolution : 0.1 MHz, 5 digit display

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.29
6. General Specifications
(i) Input supply voltage : 230 V A.C ±10%, 50 Hz ± 5%
(ii) Range of operating temperature : 0 to 55oC
(iii) Calibration data : Traceable to International/national standards to be provided.
(iv) Calibration certificate : Traceable to NIST/International Standards to be provided.
Q41. A PMMC instrument with a full scale deflection of 100 µA and an internal resistance of 2000 Ω is available.
It is to be converted into 0-5 V, 0-10 V, 0-25 V and 0-50 V multirange voltmeter using individual multiplier
resistors for each range. Calculate the values of the individual resistors.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-1, Q1(b)
Given that,
Full scale deflection current, Ifsd = 100 µA
Internal resistance, Rm = 2000 Ω
Desired voltage ranges = 0 - 5 V, 0 - 10 V, 0 - 25 V and 0 - 50 V
Multirange voltmeter (to be designed)
Employing multipliers connected in series string connection is shown below.

Figure (1)
For 0 - 5 V Range
V = 5 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V4 position and the total circuit resistance is given by,

Rtot = =

= 50,000 Ω
∴ RTotal = 50 k Ω

The multiplier resistance, R4 = Rtot – Rm

= 50 × 103 – 2000

For 0 - 10 V Range
V = 10 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V3 position and the total circuit resistance is given by,

Rtot = = = 100000 Ω

∴ RTotal = 100 k Ω

The multiplier resistance, R3 = Rtot – (R4 + Rm)

= 100 × 103 – (48 × 103 + 2 × 103)
= 50 × 103

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1.30 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
For 0 - 25 V Range
V = 25 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V2 position and the total circuit resistance is given by,

Rtot = = = 250000 Ω

The multiplier resistance,

R2 = RTotal – (R3 + R4 + Rm)
= 250 × 103 – (50 × 103 + 48 × 103 + 2 × 103)
= 150 × 103

For 0 - 50 V Range
V = 50 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V1, position and the total circuit resistance is given by,
V
RTotal = =
I fsd
= 500000 Ω

The multiplier resistance, R1= Rtot – (R2 + R3 + R4 + Rm)

= 500 × 103 – (150 × 103 + 50 × 103 + 48 × 103 + 2 × 103)
= 250 × 103

The multirange voltmeter with the designed values of multipliers is shown below,

Figure (2): Multirange Voltmeter

Q42. A basic D Arsonval movement with an internal resistance Rm = 50 Ω and scale current Ifsd = 0.5 mA is to
be converted into a multi range D.C voltmeter with ranges of 0 - 10 V, 0 - 50 V, 0 - 250 V and 0 - 500 V.
Show the arrangement with the help of neat diagram with values of resistances used.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q1(b)

Given that,
Full scale current, Ifsd = 0.5 mA
Internal resistance, Rm = 50 Ω
Desired voltage ranges = 0 - 10 V, 0 - 50 V, 0 - 250 V and 0 - 500 V
Multi-range voltmeter employing multipliers connected in series string connection is shown in figure (1),

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.31

Figure (1)
For 0 - 10 V Range
V = 10 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V4 position and the total circuit resistance is given by,

Rtotal = = = 20,000 Ω

∴ Rtotal = 20 kΩ
The multiplier resistance, R4 = Rtotal – Rm
= 20 × 103 – 50
R4 = 19950
= 19.95 kΩ

For 0 - 50 V Range
V = 50 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V3 position and the total circuit resistance is given by,
Rtotal =

= 100000
∴ Rtotal = 100 kΩ
The multiplier resistance, R3 = Rtotal – (R4 + Rm)
= 100 × 103 – (19.95 × 103 + 50)
= 80000

For 0 - 250 V Range

V = 250 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V2 position and the total circuit resistance is given by,
Rtotal =

= 500000
∴ Rtotal = 500 kΩ
The multiplier resistance, R2 = Rtotal – (R3 + R4 + Rm)
= 500 × 103 – (80 × 103 + 19.95 × 103 + 50)
= 400000

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1.32 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
For 0 - 500 V Range
V = 500 V
The switch ‘S’ is at V1 position and the total circuit re-
sistance is given by,

Rtotal =

= 1000000 Ω
∴ Rtotal = 1000 kΩ Figure
The multiplier resistance,
R1 = Rtotal – (R2 + R3 + R4 + Rm) Rm × Rx
∴ Req = ... (1)
= 1000 × 10 – (400 × 10 + 80
3 3 Rm + Rx
× 103 + 19.95 × 103 + 50) The equivalent resistance is given by,
= 500000
Req = = 40000 Ω = 40 kΩ

The multirange voltmeter with the designed values of The meter resistance, Rm is given by,
multipliers is shown in figure (2),
Rm = Sensitivity × Voltmeter range

= 30 × 103 × 100
Rm = 3 MΩ

Substituting the values of Req and Rm in equation (1), we

get,

40 ×103 =

Figure (2): Multirange Voltmeter Þ 40 × 103 (3×106+ Rx) = 3 × 106 × Rx

Q43. A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 30 k/V reads Þ 1.2 × 1011 + 40 ×103 Rx = 3 × 106 × Rx
80 V on a 100 V scale, when connected across
an unknown resistor. The current through the Þ 1.2 × 1011 = Rx [3 × 106 – 40 × 103]
resistor is 2 mA. Calculate the % of error due
to loading effect. 1.2×1011
Þ Rx =
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q2(b)
3×106 –40×103

Given that, = 40540.54 W

Sensitivity of voltmeter, S = 30 kΩ/V
= 40.45 kW
Voltage, V = 80 V
Range of voltmeter = 100 V The percentage error due to loading effect is given by,
Current, I = 2 mA
To determine, Rx − Req
% Error = × 100
Unknown resistance, Rx = ? Rx
% error due to loading effect = ?
When a voltmeter is connected across the unknown (40.45×103) – (40×103)
resistance (Rx), the measured or meter resistance is in parallel = ×100
40.45×103
with R x. Therefore, the equivalent resistance (R eq) is the
parallel combination of Rx and Rm. This results in error in the
measurement due to the meter.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.33
Therefore, the meter scale is non-linear and is becomes
1.3 A.C VOLTMETERS–MULTIRANGE, RANGE crowded at the lower end of a low range voltmeter. Due to the
EXTENSION, SHUNT high forward resistance of the diode, the lower end of a voltmeter
Q44. Draw the basic circuit of an A.C voltmeter and has low sensitivity. Figure (3) shows the general rectifier type
explain. A.C voltmeter.
Ans:
The basic circuit of an A.C voltmeter is shown in
figure (1).

Figure (3): General Rectifier Type A.C. Voltmeter

In figure (3), for positive half cycle of A.C input signal
diode D1 conducts. When D1 conducts, the meter deflects
according to the average value of this positive half cycle of A.C
input signal.
To draw more current through the diode D1, a resistor R1
Figure (1): A.C. Voltmeter shunt the meter movement.
The A.C voltmeter is a rectifier type device which uses The diode D2 conducts during negative half cycle of
a PMMC movement along with a rectifier circuit. A bridge A.C input signal and the current passes through the measuring
rectifier shown in above figure uses silicon diodes. circuit in an opposite direction. This current by passes the meter
Silicon diode has high forward current and low reverse movement.
current these are preferred in a bridge rectifier. A rectifier bridge Q45. Explain how the range of an A.C. voltmeter is
produces a full wave D.C signal at its output. The movable coil extended.
of the meter has some inertia therefore, it indicates steady state
deflection. Ans:

This steady deflection is proportional to the average value The A.C. voltmeter is a rectifier type device which uses
of the current (Iavg). Figure (2) shows the RMS and average value a PMMC movement along with a rectifier arrangement. The
of current. basic circuit of an A.C. voltmeter is shown in figure.

Figure: A.C. Voltmeter

Figure (2): R.M.S and Average Value of Current The four diodes are used as rectifying elements which
In this type of voltmeter the meter scale should be form a full-wave rectifier bridge. Rectifier element converts A.C
calibrated to indicate the R.M.S value of an alternating sine wave to a unidirectional D.C and a meter responsive to D.C is used
input. At low values of forward current the practical rectifiers to indicate the value of rectified A.C. Generally silicon diodes
exhibits non-linear characteristics. are used in the bridge rectifier since a silicon diode has high

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1.34 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
forward current and low reverse current. Rectifier instruments than the current through the shunt, thereby protecting the meter
are frequently used for the measurement in communication movement. This reduces the sensitivity of meter movement.
circuits and all other light current work. In the above figure, the The series combination of resistor R3 and the meter movement
value of the current is limited by RS (multiplier) which does not is in parallel with resistor R1, R2 when the SW is connected to
exceed the current rating of PMMC instrument. position “2”. Therefore, the current through the shunt resistance
The D.C sensitivity of a rectifier type device is given by, is less than the current through the meter movement.
The resistors R1, R2 and R3 are together in parallel with
SD.C = ... (1)
meter movement when the switch is in position “3”. Now the
current flowing through the shunt is very little whereas the
Where, IFSD = Full scale deflection current current flowing through the meter is very high. Hence the
The A.C. sensitivity of a rectifier type device is different sensitivity of meter movement is increases.
for half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier. The A.C.
Applications
sensitivity of a half-wave rectifier with sinusoidal input is given
by, For answer refer Unit-I, Q13.
SA.C = 0.45 SD.C. ... (2) Q47. What is meant by precision rectifier? Explain
The A.C sensitivity of a full-wave rectifier with its working principle and its suitability in
sinusoidal input is given as, SA.C. = 0.9 SD.C. ... (3) measurement applications.
The above given equations are not valid for non- Ans:
sinusoidal input waveforms.
A circuit, which is designed to rectify the voltages whose
Consider, range is below the cut-in voltage of diode is called precision recti-
V = Applied voltage and fier. As it is difficult to rectify millivolt signal at high frequencies
V1 = Voltage drop across the PMMC instrument. using conventional diode, the precision rectifier is designed. In
Therefore, to extend the range of a half-wave rectifier a precision rectifier, the conventional diode is connected in the
for A.C voltmeter the value of multiplier is, feedback path of an operational amplifier. Therefore, the cut-in
RS = SA.C. V– Rm– Rd voltage gets divided by the open-loop gain of the op-amp. Hence,
the cut-in voltage is almost neglected or eliminated and it becomes
∴ RS = 0.45 SD.C. V – Rm– Rd ( SA.C.= 0.45 SD.C.) possible to rectify the millivolt signals at high frequencies.
To extend the range of a full-wave rectifier for A.C
voltmeter the value of multiplier is The circuit diagram of a precision halfwave rectifier is
shown in figure (1).
RS = 0.95 SD.C. V – Rm – 2Rd
Q46. What is ayrton shunt? Describe it with a neat
sketch. Specify its applications.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q1(a)

Ayrton Shunt
It is also known as universal shunt. Figure shows the
basic circuit of an ayrton shunt.

Figure (1): Precision Halfwave Rectifier

When the input voltage is positive or greater than zero
i.e., Vi > 0, the output voltage of the op-amp exceeds the cut-in
voltage of the diode. Therefore, the diode becomes forward
biased and conducts current through it, due to which a positive
output voltage appears at the output. Thus for Vi > 0, the circuit
acts like a voltage follower.
Figure: Ayrton Shunt When the input voltage is negative or less than zero i.e.,
It avoids the possibility of using the meter in the circuit Vi < 0, the output voltage of the op-amp will be negative, due to
without a shunt. This is the most important merit of the ayrton which the diode becomes reverse biased and does not conduct.
shunt. Therefore no current is passed to load resistor RL and no volt-
age appears at the output. Thus for Vi < 0, the circuit acts like
From the above figure, it is noted that the series
an open circuit.
combination of resistors R2, R3 and the meter movement is in
parallel with R1 when the switch (SW) is connected to position The input and output waveforms of halfwave precision
“1”. Therefore, the current through the meter movement is less rectifier are shown in figure (2).

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.35
The overall shunt resistance should be small in order to
enable the ammeter to measure large currents i.e., as the current
range increases, the shunt resistance should decreases.
Hence,
For 2 A range, shunt includes R1, R2 and R3 ⇒ Shunt
resistance, RS = R1 + R2 + R3
For 5 A range, shunt includes R1 and R2 ⇒ RS = R1 + R2
For 10 A range, shunt includes only R1 ⇒ RS = R1
Since, the shunt has to be designed for current ranges,
the current flow through the meter (Im) should be considered as
full scale deflection current.
i.e., Im = Ifsd = 1 mA.
The input current (I) is considered as the range current.
Figure (2): Input and Output Waveforms This range current gets divided into shunt current (IS) and meter
Applications current (Im) at node A.

For answer refer Unit-I, Q14. i.e., I = Is + Im

Q48. Design a universal ayrton shunt to provide an For 2 A Range

ammeter with a current range of 2 A, 5 A, 10 A The switch is thrown to 2 A range position.
using a D’ Arsonval movement with an internal ⇒ R1 + R2 + R3 is in parallel with meter resistance, Rm
resistance Rm = 50 Ω and full scale deflection
current of 1 mA. ⇒ RS = R1 + R2 + R3

Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q1(b)

I = 2 A = 2000 mA
I = 1 mA
Given that,
Is = I – Im
Internal resistance of d’Arsonval movement,
= 2000 – 1
Rm = 50 Ω
= 1999 mA
Full scale deflection current of ammeter,
Since, shunt and meter are in parallel, the voltage drop
Ifsd = 1 mA across shunt and meter will be equal.
Desired current ranges = 2 A, 5 A, 10 A i.e., Vs = Vm
In this problem, an Ayrton shunt has to be designed for IsRs = ImRm
three current ranges. Hence, this Ayrton shunt should consist (1999 mA) (R1 + R2 + R3) = (1 mA) (50 Ω)
of 3 shunt resistances.
Let R1, R2 and R3 be the shunt resistances of the Ayrton R1 + R2 + R3 =
shunt as shown in the figure.
R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.0250125 Ω ... (1)
For 5 A Range
The switch is thrown to 5 A range position.
⇒ R1 + R2 is in parallel with R3 + Rm
⇒ Rs = R1 + R2
I = 5 A = 5000 mA
Im = 1 mA
Is = 5000 – 1 = 4999 mA
IsRs = Im(R3 + Rm)
(4999 mA) (R1 + R2) = (1 mA)(R3 + 50)

R1 + R2 = ... (2)
Figure

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1.36 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
For 10 A Range
1.4 THERMOCOUPLE TYPE RF AMMETER
I = 10 A = 10000 mA
The switch is thrown to 10 A range position. Shunt Q49. What is the principle and operation of a
includes only R1 i.e., R1 is in parallel with (R2 + R3 + Rm) thermocouple type RF ammeter?
⇒ Rs = R1 April/May-18, Set-1, Q2(a)
Is = I – Im
OR
= 10000 – 1
Draw the sketch and explain the principle and
= 9999 mA operation of thermocouple type ammeter.
Vs = Vm
April/May-17, Set-3, Q2(b)
IsRs = Im(R2 + R3 + Rm)
OR
(9999 mA)(R1) = (1 mA) (R2 + R3 + 50)
Explain the principle and operation of a
R2 + R3 + 50 = 9999 R1 thermocouple type RF ammeter.
R2 + R3 = 9999 R1 – 50 ... (3)
(May-13, Set-1, Q1(b) | Model Paper-II, Q2(a))
Substituting the value of R2 + R3 from equation (3) into
OR
equation (1), we have,
Discuss thermocouple type RF ammeter in
R1 + (R2 + R3) = 0.0250125 Ω
detail.
R1 + 9999R1 – 50 = 0.0250125
Ans:
10000R1 = 50.0250125
RF Ammeter
R1= 0.0050025 Ω
Generally RF ammeters are thermocouple instruments.
Substituting the value of R1 + R2 from equation (2) into
The junction of thermocouple made with two dissimilar metal
equation (1), we have,
and voltage is developed by heating the junction. In this case
R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.0250125 Ω a sensitive D.C. microammeter is used to indicate output of a
thermocouple. The principle used in thermocouple is known
+ R3 = 0.0250125 as ‘Thermo Electricity’. As the junction of the thermocouple
is heated, some amount of D.C. voltage is generated. This is
R3 + 50 + 4999R3 = (4999)(0.0250125) known as Thermoelectric action. In this device, the junction of
5000 R3 + 50 = 125.0374 two metal wires are heated by the current, which is measured in
thermocouple instrument. As the junction of the thermocouple
R3= is heated, the voltage produced is directly proportional to the
heating effect. Therefore, the D.C microammeter driven by
R3= 0.0150074 Ω this output voltage, that gives a reading proportional to the
Substituting the values of R1 and R3, we get the value of magnitude of the A.C. input.
R2. Different types of thermocouples are as follows,
R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.0250125 1. Mutual type
(0.0050025) + R2 + (0.0150074) = 0.0250125 2. Contact type
R2 = 0.0050026 Ω 3. Separate heater type and
∴ The shunt resistances of ayrton shunt are, 4. Bridge type.
R1 = 0.0050025 Ω
1. Mutual Type
R2 = 0.0050026 Ω
R3 = 0.0150148 Ω
Hence,
For 2 A range, the shunt resistance,
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.0250125 Ω Figure (1)
For 5 A range, the shunt resistance, Figure (1) shows the mutual type thermocouple. In
R3 = R1 + R2 = 0.0100050 Ω mutual type, the alternating current cannot passed through the
For 10 A range, the shunt resistance, metal wire of a heater, it passes through the thermocouple. The
sensitive D.C. ammeter shunts the thermocouple which is the
Rs = R1 = 0.0050025 Ω basic drawback of this device.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.37
2. Contact Type Q50. Explain the bridge type thermocouple
Figure (2) shows the contact type thermocouple. arrangement and mention its applications.
Ans: (April/May-17, Set-1, Q3(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q1(a))

Bridge Type Thermocouple

For answer refer Unit-I, Q41, Topic: Bridge Type.
As the name suggest, a bridge circuit arrangement is used
in the construction. To all the four arms of the bridge, thermo-
couples are attached. The thermocouples are kept in a vacuum,
so that there is an absence of oxygen and high sensitivity can
be obtained. This is due to the prevention from heat loss by
conduction process and thus the operation is performed at high
temperature. A vacuum thermocouple can also be used but it
Figure (2) requires 1 mA for full scale deflection whereas the bridge circuit
arrangement in air requires 100 mA for full scale deflection.
These are low sensitive devices compared to mutual type.
In the above figure X-Y is the thermocouple element. This type The air heaters used for heating the element is made up
has separate thermocouple leads, that conduct away the heat of non-corroding platinum alloy. One of the disadvantage of
from metal wire of the heater. thermocouple heaters are that can take only small overloads
without getting damage. This is because of the operation car-
3. Separate Heater Type
rying out near the burnout point at normal conditions.
Separate heater type thermocouple is shown in figure (3). The materials such as constantan against copper alloy
of manganin or platinum are generally used to form a ther-
mocouple. This type of junction exhibits the thermal e.m.f of
45 µV/°C approximately.
Applications
1. Many heat cool combination heaters use thermocouple
bridges for extruding and blow moulding machines.
2. These are used in industries for obtaining high degree
or accuracy.

1.5 OHMMETERS–SERIES TYPE, SHUNT

Figure (3) TYPE
In the above figure (3), the thermocouple element has
Q51. Draw the series type ohmmeter and explain its
kept near the heater wire. This thermocouple insulated from the
operation.
heater wire by a glass bead. Due to the temperature drop in the
glass bead. This arrangement makes the instrument sluggish April/May-17, Set-3, Q1(a)
and low sensitive. In RF current measurements this type is fre- OR
quently used. The sensitivity of the thermocouple is increased
With neat sketch explain the operation of series
by placing this arrangement in a vacuum. Hence, loss of heat
type ohmmeter. Also explain how it is calibrated.
by radiation is eliminated by this device.
Ans:
4. Bridge Type
Figure (1) shows the series type ohmmeter.
The figure (4) shows the bridge type thermocouple.

Figure (4)
This is one of the mutual type of thermocouple instru-
ment. Sensitivity of this device is high. This type get avoids the
shunting effect of the ammeter. Figure (1): Series Type Ohmmeter
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1.38 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
In the above figure (1) the resistor R1 and battery E are value of R1 is very high compared to the Rm. The current flowing
connected in series with D’Arsonval movement. The ends of through the R2 is decreased and the current flowing through
resistor R1 and battery E are connected to X and Y terminals the meter, movement is increased, if R2 is varied. This brings
respectively. the pointer to the full scale deflection position. The series type
Across these terminals a resistor R is connected which ohmmeter is frequently used for general service work due to
is a unknown resistor. The current which is flowing through it’s simple and popular design. The value of unknown resistor R
the meter movement depends on the magnitude of the resistor determines the values of R1 and R2 that gives half the full scale
R. Hence the deflection of the meter movement is directly deflection.
proportional to the value of unknown resistor R.
RH = R1 + (R2 || Rm)
In the above figure (1),
 R2 Rm 
= R1 +  
Rm = Internal resistance of the D’Arsonval  R2 + Rm 
movement
E = Battery Where, RH = Half of full scale deflection resistance.
Therefore, 2RH is the total resistance presented to the battery
R = Unknown resistor
 V 
R1 = Current limiting resistor and   is the battery current required to supply half scale
 2 RH 
R2 = Zero adjusting resistor. deflection.
Calibration The battery current must be doubled, in order to produce
full scale current.
Figure (2) shows the dial of series ohmmeter. Initially
the terminals X and Y are shorted. Therefore, current through E
unknown resistor (R) is maximum i.e., R = 0. ∴ ITotal = and ... (1)
RH
In this case maximum current flows in the circuit. Now I2 = ITotal – Ifsd ... (2)
the resistor R2 connected in shunt with the meter is adjusted until
Where,
the movement shows full scale current i.e., Ifsd. This position of
pointer is marked as ‘0’ Ohms on the scale. Itot = Total current of the circuit
I2 = Current flowing through the shunt resistor R2
Ifsd = Full scale deflection current
∴ Esh = Em
⇒ I2R2 = Ifsd Rm

Figure (2): Dial of Series Type Ohmmeter

R2 = ... (3)
In the same way to mark ‘∞’ on the scale, the terminals X
and Y are opened. Therefore, current through unknown resistor From equations (2) and (3), we get,
(R) is zero i.e., R = ∞. In this case no current flows in the circuits,
and the pointer does not show any deflection. Therefore, this R2 = ... (4)
position of pointer is marked as ‘∞’ on the scale.
From equations (1) and (4), we get,
Intermediate markings on the scale are made by
connecting various known values of the unknown resistance to
R2 =
terminals X and Y. Measurement of various values of standard
resistance cheeks the accuracy of the instrument. The voltage of
the internal battery of series ohmmeter is decreased with time
and age. Because of this drawback, if the value of unknown
resistor is zero the meter does not read ‘0’ Ohms. In order to ∴ R2 = ... (5)
bring the pointer back to ‘0’ Ohms, the zero adjusting resistor R2
is adjusted which is across the meter movement. The full scale  R2 Rm 
We know that, RH = R1 +  
deflection current is adjusted by varying R1 value to compensate  R2 + Rm 
for the voltage drop which does not require zero adjusting
resistor R2 in the circuit. Due to this the calibration of the scale  R2 Rm 
⇒ R1 = RH –   ... (6)
is affected hence varying by R2 is much better solution. The  R2 + Rm 

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.39
From equations (5) and (6), we get,

R1 = RH –

RH –
=

RH –
=

∴ R1 = RH –

Q52. Discuss shunt type ohm meter with neat sketch. How is calibrated?
Ans:
Figure (1) shows the shunt type ohm meter.

Figure (1): Shunt Type Ohm Meter

From the above figure (1), it is noted that a resistor R1 and a D’Arsonval movement are connected in series with a battery.
In the above figure (1) resistor R1 is an adjustable resistor and resistor R is the unknown resistor. The unknown resistor R is
connected across the terminals X and Y, in parallel with D’Arsonval movement. The switch SW is used to connect the battery to
the circuit when used.
In the above figure (1),
E = Battery
R1 = Adjustable resistor
R = Unknown resistor
Rm = Internal resistance of the D’Arsonval movement
Calibration
Figure (2) shows the dial of shunt type ohmmeter.

Figure (2): Dial of Shunt Type Ohm Meter

Initially the terminals X and Y are shorted. Therefore, the unknown resistance R = 0. In this case no current flows through
the meter because it is by passed by the short circuit. This position of pointer is marked as 0 Ω on the scale.

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1.40 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Now to mark ∞ Ohms on the scale, the terminals X and Y are opened. Therefore, the unknown resistance R = ∞. In this
case the maximum current flows through the meter by adjusting the value of R1, and the pointer shows full scale deflection on the
scale. This position is marked as ∞ on the scale.
By connecting various known values of the standard resistors to the terminals X and Y the intermediate markings of pointer
position are made on the scale corresponding to Ifsd, the shunt type ohmmeter has a ‘0’ Ohms mark at the left side of the scale and
an ‘∞’ Ohms mark at the right side of the scale which is shown in figure (2).
In case of low values of resistance measurements this type of ohmmeter is frequently used. Therefore, for the measurement
of low values of resistance shunt type ohmmeter is used as a test instrument in the laboratory.
Q53. Differentiate between series type ohmmeter and shunt type ohmmeter.
Ans: (Dec.-13, Set-2, Q1(a) | Nov.-11, Set-3, Q1(b) | Model Paper-II, Q2(b))

Series Type Ohmmeter Shunt Type Ohmmeter

1. It doesn’t have ON/OFF switch. 1. It consist of an ON/OFF switch.

2. The dial of series type ohmmeter has an ‘∞’ Ohms 2. The dial of shunt type ohmmeter has a ‘0’ Ohms mark
mark at the left side of the scale and a ‘0’ Ohms mark at the left side of the scale and an ‘∞’ Ohms mark at the
at the right side of the scale. right side of the scale.
3. The series type ohmmeter is frequently used for 3. In case of low values of resistance measurements shunt
general service work due to its simple and popular type ohmmeter is used as a test instrument in the
design. laboratory.
4. In series type ohmmeter, resistor R1 and battery E 4. In shunt type ohmmeter, resistor R1 and D’Arsonval
are connected in series with D’Arsonval movement. movement are connected in series with a battery E.
5. In this type the current flowing through the meter 5. In this type the current flowing through the meter
movement depends on the magnitude of the movement not depends on the magnitude of the
unknown resistor R. unknown resistor R.
6. The battery voltage of series type ohmmeter is 6. The battery voltage of shunt type ohmmeter is not
decreased with time and age. decreased with time and age.

Q54. A series ohmmeter uses a 50 Ω basic movement requiring a full scale deflection of 1 mA. The internal
battery voltage is 5 V. The desired scale marking for half scale deflection is 2000 Ω. Calculate,
(a) Values of R1 and R2
(b) Maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 10% drop in battery.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q1(b)
Given that,
Meter resistance, Rm = 50 Ω
Full scale deflection current, Ifsd = 1 mA
Internal battery voltage, V = 5 V
Half scale deflection resistance, Rh = 2000 Ω
Drop in battery voltage = 10%
(a) In series ohmmeter circuit, the value of current limiting resistance is expressed as,

R1 = Rh –

= 2000 – = 2000 – 20

Similarly, for a series ohmmeter the current limiting resistance (R2) is given by,

R2 = =

R2 = = 33.33 Ω

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.41
(b) Internal battery voltage is 5 V. It is also given that, there
is a 10% drop in the battery voltage. Therefore 10% of =
5 V is over 0.5 V.
The battery voltage with 10% drop, =
= 5 V – 0.5 V = 4.5 V
Now, the maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 10% = 1.61 × 10–3
drop in battery is calculated as, Percentage of full scale deflection currents at which meter
would read 100 Ω is given by,
R2 = =
=
100
= = 40 Ω
4.5 − 2
=
∴ Maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 10% drop in
battery = 40 Ω. = 80.5%
Q55. A shunt type ohmmeter uses a basic meter Q56. A series ohmmeter uses a 50 Ω basic movement
with a full scale current of 2 mA and an internal requiring a full scale deflection of 1 mA. The
resistance of 25 Ω. The battery has an emf of internal battery voltage is 3 V. The desired
1.5 V. Find: (i) The value of resistance R1 (ii) At scale marking for half scale deflection is
what point will 100 Ω be marked on the scale? 2000 Ω. Calculate:
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-1, Q1(b)
(i) Values of R1 and R2
Given that,
(ii) Maximum value of R2 to compensate for a
Full scale deflection current, Ifsd = 2 mA 10% drop in battery.
Internal resistance, R m = 25 Ω Ans: Dec.-13, Set-3, Q1(b)
Battery e.m.f, V = 1.5 V Given that,
To determine, Meter resistance, Rm = 50 Ω
(i) Resistance value, R1 = ?
Full scale deflection current, Ifsd = 1 mA
(ii) Percentage of full scale if Rx = 100 Ω
Internal battery voltage, V = 3 V
(i) When the terminals are kept open (i.e, Rx = ∞) the
maximum current flows through the meter is given by, Half scale deflection resistance, Rh = 2000 Ω
V Drop in battery voltage = 10%
If sd =
R1 + Rm (i) In series ohmmeter circuit, the value of current limiting
resistance is expressed as,
∴ 2 × 10–3 =
R1 = Rh –
1.5 = (R1 + 25) × 2 × 10–3
1.5 = 2 × 10–3 R1 + 50 × 10–3 1 × 10 −3 × 50 × 2000
= 2000 –
∴ 2 × 10–3 R1 = 1.5 – 50 × 10–3 3
= 2000 – 33.33
R1=

∴ R1= 725 Ω Similarly, for a series ohmmeter the current limiting

When an unknown resistor is connected across X and Y
(ii) resistance (R2) is given by,
terminals, the current flow through the meter is given by,
V Rx R2 =
= ×
R R Rm + R x
R1 + m x
Rm + R x
=
=
R2 = 100 Ω

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1.42 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(ii) Internal battery voltage is 3 V. It is also given that, there (ii) A.C Voltmeter
is a 10% drop in the battery voltage. Therefore 10% of
3 V is over 0.3 V. The A.C voltmeter section of a multimeter is shown in
figure (2). In case of A.C voltage measurements the half wave
The battery voltage with 10% drop, rectifier rectifies the output voltage of a device (or A.C voltage
applied at the input) and then passes through the meter. The
= 3 V – 0.3 V = 2.7 V
purpose of the other diode connected across the meter is for
Now, the maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 10% protection. When a reverse voltage passes across the diodes,
drop in battery is calculated as, the diode conducts and hence the current by passes the meter
in the reverse direction.
R2 =

1 × 10 −3 × 50 × 2000
=
2.7 − (1 × 10 −3 × 2000)
100
=
2.7 − 2
= 142.85 Ω
∴ Maximum value of R2 to compensate for a 10% drop in
battery = 142.85 Ω.

1.6 MULTIMETER FOR VOLTAGE,

CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS
Q57. Explain how a multimeter can be used as, Figure (2): A.C Voltmeter Section of a Multimeter
(i) D.C voltmeter (iii) D.C Ammeter
(ii) A.C voltmeter D.C ammeter section of a multimeter is shown in
(iii) D.C ammeter figure (3).

(iv) Ohm meter.

Ans:
(i) D.C Voltmeter
D.C voltmeter section of a multimeter is shown in
figure (1).

Figure (3): D.C Voltmeter Section of a Multimeter

The above shown figure (3) is used for the measurement
of D.C milliamperes and amperes. Current can be measured up
Figure (1): D.C Voltmeter Section of a Multimeter to 0.5 A (500 mA) using + (Positive) and – (Negative) terminals.
Jacks marked shown in figure (3) (+10 A and –10 A) are used
A D.C 5000 V is shown in figure, which is an external for the measurement of current in the range of 0 to 10 Amps.
voltage jack. This external voltage jack is used for the
measurement of D.C voltage up to 5000 V. Current in the range of 0 to 10 Amps.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.43
(iv) Ohmmeter
The Ohmmeter section of a multimeter is shown in figure (4).

Figure (4): Ohm Meter Section of a Multimeter

From the above figure (4), it is observed that the total circuit resistance of ohmmeter and 102 Ω resistor are connected in
parallel in 10 kΩ resistor range where as the resistor of 102 Ω is disconnected from the circuit in the 1 MΩ range is 10 kΩ. The
half scale deflection on the 10 kΩ range is 100 Ω. The internal resistance of ohmmeter section of a multimeter is 10 kΩ for the 1
MW range which is shown in figure (4) and the internal resistance is 100 Ω for the 10 kΩ range. A range switch is connected to
a suitable shunt resistance which changes the range of an ohmmeter. Different ranges of ohmmeter is obtained by using different
values of shunt resistance.
Q58. Draw the block diagram of a digital multimeter and explain it.
Ans:
The basic block diagram of a digital multimeter is shown in figure.

Figure: Block Diagram of a Digital Multimeter

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1.44 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The basic input blocks of analog multimeter and digital multimeter are same. The input voltage is attenuated by the
attenuator to a required level. First the D.C input is attenuated and then applied to A to D converter.
The function of analog to digital converter is to convert analog signal into digital form. Hence the output of ADC is digital
is processed and displayed. The A.C input voltage is applied to AC converter after attenuating by A.C attenuator. The AC converter
now rectifies the attenuated A.C signal.
Then the rectified output of A.C converter is applied to ADC. The ADC converts the rectified D.C into an equivalent digital
form which is then processed and displayed.
When current is passed through precision shunt resistors, voltage is obtained. This voltage is then processed and displayed
in the units of current. An Ohms converter shown in figure, is used for the measurement of Ohms. The Ohms converter of an
electronic analog ohmmeter consist a constant current source which is made to pass through a resistor of unknown value and the
voltage developed across the unknown resistor is measured and then displayed in the units of resistance.
Q59. Define the sensitivity of a multimeter. Explain the operation of a multimeter using a simple block diagram.
(April-18, Set-3, Q2(a) | May-13, Set-3, Q1(a) | Model Paper-III, Q2(a))

OR
Define the sensitivity of a multimeter. Draw the block diagram of a simple multimeter and explain its
operation.
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-3, Q1(a)
Sensitivity of Multimeter
The sensitivity of a multimeter can be defined as the reciprocal of the maximum scale or full scale deflection current of
the meter. It is specified interns of ohms (Ω)/Volt (V).
i.e.,

Sensitivity = Ω/V

Block Diagram of a Simple Multimeter

The basic block diagram of a digital multimeter is shown in figure.

Figure: Block Diagram of a Digital Multimeter

The basic input blocks of analog multimeter and digital multimeter are same. The input voltage is attenuated by the
attenuator to a required level. First the D.C input is attenuated and then applied to A to D converter.
The function of analog to digital converter is to convert analog signal into digital form. Hence the output of ADC is digital is
processed and displayed. The A.C input voltage is applied to A.C converter after attenuating by A.C attenuator. The A.C converter
now rectifies the attenuated A.C signal.
Then the rectified output of A.C converter is applied to ADC. The ADC converts the rectified D.C into an equivalent digital
form which is then processed and displayed.
When current is passed through precision shunt resistors, voltage is obtained. This voltage is then processed and displayed
in the units of current. An Ohms converter shown in figure, is used for the measurement of Ohms. The Ohms converter of an
electronic analog ohmmeter consist a constant current source which is made to pass through a resistor of unknown value and the
voltage developed across the unknown resistor is measured and then displayed in the units of resistance.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.45
Q60. Explain with a neat block diagram of a dual slope digital voltmeter.
Ans:
Basic Principle

Figure (1)
Initially, the dual slope integrating type DVM integrates the input voltage Vi. The slope of the integrated signal is propor-
tional to the input voltage under measurement. After certain period of time say t1, the supply of input voltage Vi is stopped, and a
negative voltage –Vr is applied to the input of the integrator. Then the output signal of integrator will have negative slope, and is
constant and also proportional to the magnitude of the input voltage.
Block Diagram and Working
The block diagram of a dual slope integrating type DVM is shown in figure (2),

Figure (2): Block Diagram of Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM

The major blocks of a dual slope integrating type DVM (dual slope analog to digital converter) are,
1. An op-amp employed as an integrator
2. A level comparator
3. Oscillator for generating time pulses
4. Decimal counter
5. Block of logic circuitry.
Initially a pulse is applied to reset the counter and the output of flip-flop will be at logic ‘0’. The switch Sr is in open con-
dition and the switch Si is in closed condition. Now, the capacitor ‘C’ starts to charge. Once the output of the integrator becomes
greater than zero, the output state of the comparator changes which in turn opens the AND gate.
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1.46 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
When the gate opens the output of the oscillator (clock pulses) are allowed to pass through it and applied to the counter.
Now the counter counts the number of pulses fed to it. As soon as it reaches its maximum count that is the counter is preset to
run for a time period t1, in this condition the maximum count will be ‘9999’, and for the next immediate clock pulse the count
changes or goes to ‘0000’ and the flip-flop will be activated. Therefore, the output of flip flop becomes logic ‘1’ which in turn
activates the switch drive circuitry. This makes the switch Si to open and Sr to close (i.e., the supply of Vi will be stopped and the
supply of Vr is applied to the integrator) with this applied signal the output of the integrator will be a constant negative slope i.e.,
its output signal linearly decreases to zero. This again makes the output of the comparator to change its state which in turn closes
the gate. Here, the discharging time t2 of the capacitor is proportional to the input voltage signal Vi. During this discharging period
the counter indicates the count. As soon as, the negative slope reaches zero volts the comparator changes its output state to ‘zero’
which in turn locks the gate. Once, the output of integrator becomes zero (or the input of the comparator is zero) the counter will
be stopped. And the counted pulses are displayed (which directly gives the input voltage).
Derivation
While charging the capacitor, we have,
t1
V0 = – ∫
0
Vi dt

V0 = – ... (1)

While discharging the capacitor, we have,

t2

V0 = ∫– V dt
0
r

V0 = – ... (2)

Now, subtract equation (2) from equation (1), we get,

V0 – V0 = – –

0 = +

Vi = ×

Vr t 2
∴ Vi =
t1
If, T = Period of oscillator and
n1, n2 = Counts indicated by the counter respectively
n2T n2
Then, Vi = Vr or Vi = Vr
n1T n1
Vr
Where, Vr and n1 are constants and if, = K then,
n1
Vi = Kn2 ... (3)
From the above equation, it is clear that the measured voltage signal’s accuracy does not depend on the time constant of
the integrator.
Advantages
1. Depending on the requirement the accuracy and speed can be varied.
2. It can provide the output with an accuracy of ± 0.05% in 100 ms.
3. This technique exhibits excellent noise rejection since the integration process eliminates both noise and super imposed A.C.

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.47
Q61. How the working of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter be explained?
April-18, Set-2, Q2(a)
OR
Explain the functioning of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter.
Ans:

Figure: Block Diagram of Potentiometric Type Digital Voltmeter

Basic Principle
The operating principle of a potentiometer type digital voltmeter is to compare the voltage under measurement with a
known fixed value of reference voltage. The reference voltage is varied by varying the arm of calibrated potentiometer to get null
condition or a balance condition between these two voltages. At, balance condition the voltage setting of potentiometer gives the
value of unknown voltage (voltage under measurement).
Operation
Initially, the voltage to be measured is filtered and attenuated to a particular level and then applied to the input of comparator.
The comparator is also referred to as an error detector. The reference voltage from the reference voltage source is supplied to the
potentiometer. Based on the location of the sliding contact on the potentiometer, the feedback voltage varies and is applied to the
comparator circuit. Then, the comparator compares both the voltage to be measured and feedback voltage, and produces some
output known as error signal, which is equal to the difference of the two voltages. This error signal is then applied to the error
amplifier. The error amplifier strengthens the error signal and supplies its output to the potentiometer adjustment device. Depending
on the magnitude of the amplified error signal, the potentiometer adjustment devices moves the arm of the potentiometer (sliding
contact) towards right or left side on the POT. Thus, the potentiometer adjustment device places the arm in such a position where
the voltage on the POT(or feedback voltage) becomes equal to the applied unknown input voltage, when the feedback voltage is
equal to the unknown voltage, the resulting error signal will be ‘0’ (no error) and no voltage is applied to potentiometer adjustment
device. Hence, the sliding contact comes to rest. Now at this point, the potentiometer adjustment device position is displayed on
the digital readout. The displayed numerical readout is the measure of the unknown input voltage.
In the block diagram shown above the error detector or comparator may be a chopper.
Q62. What are the possible errors in dual slope integrator and suggest methods to minimize and to eliminate
them?
Ans:
Possible errors in dual slope integrator and methods to minimize and eliminate them are described below.
1. The leakage current of the capacitor used in the integrator circuit introduces error in the process of integration. Due to
this integration error, the voltmeter produces a finite reading even in the absence of the input voltage. This error can be
minimized and also eliminated by modifying the input circuitry i.e., the input to the voltmeter is connected to ground and

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1.48 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
an autozero capacitor is connected to the output of the Ans: (Dec.-13, Set-2, Q1(b) | Model Paper-III, Q2(b))
integrator through an electronic switch. Thus a capacitor
Given that,
is connected in the feedback path of the integrator. Due
to this feedback element the output of the integrator is Internal resistance, Rm = 50 Ω
zero in the absence of input voltage. Full scale deflection current, Ifsd = 2 mA
2. As the integrator used is an op-amp integrator, the op-
Desired voltage ranges = 0 - 10 V, 0 - 50 V,
amp offset voltage, bias currents and offset currents
0 - 100 V and 0 - 250 V
introduce errors. In order to eliminate offset voltages
or offset errors, two dual-slope cycles are required for Multirange voltmeter employing multipliers connected
a complete conversion process. The two converters in series string connection is shown in figure (1).
differ from each other. For a few converters the sum and
difference of the two time periods produce an output
with very small or almost negligible offset error. Also
another sum or difference gives a correction factor. Thus,
an offset error is eliminated.
3. Instrumental errors arise due to the use of comparators (as
they cause comparator errors). Therefore, performance
accuracy of the voltmeter decreases. These comparator
errors can be eliminated by employing more sophisticated
techniques.
Q63. How minimum voltage ranges are limited in low Figure (1)
cost (AVO) voltmeter in A.C range? What circuit
arrangement is used to convert A.C. to D.C in For 0 - 10 V Range
such voltmeters? V = 10 V
Ans: The switch ‘S ’ is at V4 position and the total circuit
Signal generators are the sources of electrical signals resistance is given by,
used for the purpose of testing and operating different kinds of 10
electrical equipment. A signal generator provides different types R tot= =
of waveforms such as sine, triangular, square and pulse etc. The 2 × 10 – 3
output frequency of a signal generator is fixed. It ranges from = 5000 Ω
very low frequencies to many GHz. A signal generator can also ∴ R tot= 5 kΩ
generate special video signals. Some of the special features of
a signal generator are attenuation, modulation and sweeping. The multiplier resistance,
Signal generators are mainly used in, R4 = R tot – Rm
(i) Measuring the frequency response of amplifiers = 5 × 103 – 50
(ii) Alignment of radio receivers.
= 4950
Function generator is one of the types of signal generators.
However, the basic difference between a signal generator and a ∴ R4 = 4.95 kΩ
function generator is that, a function generator provides different For 0 - 50 V Range
types of waveforms whose frequency values can be varied and
V = 50 V
adjusted, whereas the signal generator output cannot be varied.
A function generator can provide sine, square, pulse and triangle The switch ‘S ’ is at V3 position and the total circuit
in the range of D.C to few MHz. resistance is given by,
Another difference between a signal generator and a 50
function generator is that a signal generator provides one kind R tot= =
2 × 10 – 3
of output at a time, where as a function generator provides
different outputs simultaneously i.e., it can generate sawtooth = 25000 Ω
signal to drive the horizontal deflection system of CRO and ∴ R tot= 25 kΩ
simultaneously square wave to test the linearity of an amplifier
circuit. Thus, a function generator generates only basic signals. The multiplier resistance,

Q64. Convert a basic D’ Arsonval movement with R3 = R tot – (R4 + Rm )

an internal resistance of 50 Ω and a full scale = 25 × 103 – (4.95 × 103 + 50)
deflection current of 2 mA into a multi range D.C
= 20,000
voltmeter with voltage ranges of 0 - 10 V, 0 - 50 V,
0 - 100 V and 0 - 250 V. ∴ R3 = 20 kΩ

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UNIT-1 Performance Characteristics of Instruments 1.49
For 0 - 100 V Range We know that,
V = 100 V
Vo = –
The switch ‘S ’ is at V2 position and the total circuit
resistance is given by,
t1 = – ... (1)
R tot = = = 50000 Ω
Substituting the above values in equation (1), we get,
∴ R tot = 50 kΩ
The multiplier resistance, t1 = –
R2 = R tot – (R3 + R4 + Rm ) = – 0.05 s
= 50 × 103 – (20 × 103 + 4.95 × 103 + 50)
= 25,000
∴ R2 = 25 kΩ Q66. Two ammeters are joined in series in a circuit
For 0 - 250 V Range carrying 100 A. One ammeter has a resistance of
V = 250 V 10000 ohm shunted by 0.10 ohm while the other
The switch ‘S ’ is at V1 position and the total circuit ammeter has a resistance of 150 ohm shunted
resistance is given by, by 0.02 ohm, if the shunts are interchanged
what would be the readings of the instruments?
R tot = =
Ans: (April-18, Set-2, Q2(b) | April/May-17, Set-3, Q2(a))

= 1,25,000 Ω Given that,

∴ R tot= 125 kΩ Two ammeters are joined in series,
The multiplier resistance, Current, I =100A
R1 = R tot – (R2 + R3 + R4 + Rm )
Ammeter-I
= 125 × 103 – (25 × 103 + 20 × 103 + 4.95
× 103 + 50) Resistance, R1 = 10000 W
= 75,000 Shunted resistance, Rsh = 0.10 W
1
∴ R1 = 75 kΩ Ammeter-II
Resistance, R2 = 150 W
Shunted resistance, Rsh = 0.02 W
2

To determine,
Readings of the instruments if the shunts are
interchanged i.e.,
I1 = ?
I2 = ?

Figure (2): Multirange Voltmeter Ammeter-I

Q65. A dual slope integrating type of A/D converter The shunted resistance is given by,
has an integrating capacitor of 0.1 microfarad Im1R1
and a resistance of 100 kohms connected. If Rsh =
1 I–Im1
the reference voltage is 2 V, and the output of
an integrator is not to exceed 10 V, what is the Im1×10000
0.10 =
maximum time reference voltage? 100–Im1
Ans:
0.10(100 – Im ) = Im × 10000
Given that, 1 1

C = 0.1 × 10 F –6 10 – 0.10 Im = 10000 Im

1 1

R = 100 × 103 Ω 10000.1 Im = 10

1
Vi = 2 V 10
Im =
V0 = 10 V 1 10000.1
t1 = ? = 9.99 ×10–4 A
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Ammeter-II \ The readings of instruments if the shunts are
Im2 R2 reading interchanged in ammeter-I, I1= 20A
Rsh = Reading in ammeter-II, I2–500A
2 I–Im2

Im2 ×150
0.02 =
100 –Im2

0.02(100 – Im ) = Im × 150
2 2

2 – 0.02 Im = 150 Im
2 2

2 = 150.02
2
Im =
2 150.02
= 0.01333 A
If the shunts are interchanged,
The current flowing through ammeter-I,
Rsh2
II'mm11’ = I ×
R1 + Rsh2
0.02
= 100 ×
10000 + 0.02
= 100 × 1.999 ×10–6

= 1.999 × 10–4 A
Current flowing through ammeter-II,

Rsh1
II'mm22’ = I×
R2 + Rsh1
0.10
= 100 ×
150 + 0.10
= 100 × 6.6622 ×10–4

= 0.0666 A
Reading in ammeter-I is given by,
Im1'
I1 = ×I
Im1
1.999×10 –4
= ×100
9.99×10 –4
= 19.99A

- 20 A
Reading in ammeter-II,
Im2'
I2 = ×I
Im2
0.0666
= ×100
0.0133
= 500.75A
- 500A

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.1

Marketed by:

UNIT SIGNAL GENERATION AND

2
WAVE ANALYZERS
SIA GROUP

PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. What are the precautionary measures to be taken in a signal generator application?
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(b)
A signal generator is an instrument, which can produce various types of waveforms such as sine wave, square wave,
triangular wave, saw-tooth wave, pulse trains etc. As it can generate a variety of waveforms it is widely used in applications like
electronic troubleshooting and development, testing the performance of electronic equipments etc. In such applications a signal
generator is used to provide known test conditions (i.e., desired signals of known amplitude and frequency).
Hence, the following precautionary measures should be taken while using a signal generator for an application.
1. The amplitude and frequency of the output of the signal generator should be made stable and well known.
2. There should be provision for controlling the amplitude of signal generator output from very small to relatively large
values.
3. The output signal of generator should not contain any distortion and thus, it should possess very low harmonic contents.
4. Also, the output of the signal generator should be less spurious.
Q2. List the standard specifications of a signal generator.
Ans:
The standard specifications of a signal generator are listed as follows,
1. Frequency Response
Within ±1 dB of a 1 kHz reference signal over the given frequency range.
2. Frequency Stability
Very small (almost negligible) shift in output frequency for ±10% variation in line voltage.
3. Accuracy of Calibration
±2% under normal operating conditions.
4. Distortion
Less than 0.5% for f < 500 kHz, greater than 1% for f > 500 kHz.
5. Balanced Output
Obtained better than 1% balance when output is maximum.
Q3. Explain the important specifications for sine/square wave generators.
Ans:
Specifications of Sine/Square Wave Generator
1. Output frequency range = (10 Hz - 100 Hz) and (10 kHz - 100 kHz)
2. Output amplitude of square wave = 5 mV - 5 V (r.m.s)
3. Output amplitude of square wave = (0 - 20 V) P - P
4. Output impedance = 600 Ω
5. Adjustment of square wave = 30% - 70%
6. Input voltage = 220 V
7. Input power = 7 watts
8. Input frequency = 50 Hz

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Q4. List the important specifications of function (c) USASI Noise
generator. It is the noise whose spectrum is equal to the energy
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(b) distribution of music and speech frequencies.
Specifications of Function Generator Pink noise
USASI noise
Parameter Specifications
1. Output waveform (i) Sine wave Volts per unit
frequency
(ii) Square wave bandwidth White noise
(iii) Triangular wave Frequency
(iv) Ramp up Figure
(v) Ramp down Q6. Describe sweep generator related to signal
2. Frequency characteristics generators.
(i) Sine wave → 10 - 3 MHz Ans:
Sweep generator is a type of signal generator, which
(ii) Square wave → 10 - 3 MHz
generates a sinusoidal voltage signal whose frequency varies
(iii) Triangular wave → 10 - 3 MHz (swepts) continuously over a known frequency range.
(iv) Ramp signal → 10 - 3 MHz Sweep generator consists of a Voltage Tuned Oscillator
3. Resolution → 10 - 3 MHz (VTO) and a ramp voltage generator. The output frequency of
a VTO can be varied by varying (tuning) its input voltage. The
4. Accuracy → Less than 50 PPM output of ramp generator is applied as input to the VTO. When
5. Sine wave harmonic distortion → Upto 100 KHz : - 50 dB a ramp voltage is applied to the VTO, the output frequency of
typical VTO sweeps from low to high frequency over the frequency
6. Square wave distortion 100 MHz : – 40 dB typical range of ramp signal, as the instantaneous value of ramp signal
increases from zero to its final value.
7. Overshoot → Rise time / Fall time : < 35 ns
Sweep generator is usually employed for analyzing the
8. Linearity → 1% frequency response of amplifiers, filters, etc.
9. Power consumption → Less than 35 ns
Q7. What is meant by arbitrary waveform?
10. Jitter → Less than 0.1% Ans:
11. Operating environment → 30 W (Average) Arbitrary Waveform
12. – 50°C, 80% relative humidity. Arbitrary waveform can be defined as a waveform which
Q5. Describe the random noise related to signal does not have a particular predefined shape or characteristics.
generators. The amplitude and frequency of an arbitrary waveform vary in a
random manner. An arbitrary waveform may possess periodicity
Ans: April-18, Set-4, Q1(b)
at some times and non-periodicity at other times. It may also
Random Noise include transients, noise components etc.
A signal whose instantaneous magnitude varies at ran- An arbitrary waveform can be generated by superimpos-
dom instants of time and which do not contain any periodic ing either noise or D.C offset voltages upon a standard signal or
frequency component is known as random noise. by introducing gaps between waveform bursts or by perform-
ing various modulations (such as amplitude, frequency, phase
The power density of random noise varies in three dif- modulations) on a standard signal.
ferent ways with respect to frequency with a certain frequency Arbitrary waveforms are used as test signals to determine
range. Thus, there are three different power density spectrums whether the test equipment is functioning properly and also to
of random noise. Based upon the characteristics of these spec- detect any faults if present in the equipment. In this respect,
trums, random noise is classified into 3 types as follows, arbitrary waveform is applied as input to the test equipment and
its response is analyzed as the arbitrary waveform progresses
(a) White Noise
through the equipment.
It is a type of random noise whose power density remains
constant at all frequencies usually within the frequency Q8. List the applications of wave analyzers.
April-18, Set-1, Q1(b)
range 20 Hz to 25 kHz.
OR
(b) Pink Noise
What are the applications of wave analyzers?
It is a random noise whose power density varies inversely OR
proportional with the square root of frequency. This noise
State the engineering applications of wave
is used in the analysis of bandwidth. analyzers.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.3
Ans:
The wave analyzer is widely applied in following three measurements. They are,
1. Electrical measurements
2. Sound measurements
3. Vibration measurements.
In industries there are heavy machineries which produces a lot of sound and vibrations, it is very important to determine
the amount of sound and vibrations because if it exceeds the permissible limit it would create a number of problems. The source
of noise and vibrations is first identified by wave analyzer and then it is reduced by further circuitry.
Q9. Compare the selectivity characteristics of the spectrum analyzer and wave analyzer.
Ans:
The comparison of selectivity characteristics of the spectrum analyzer and wave analyzer are as follows,
Characteristics Spectrum Analyzer Wave analyzer
1. Frequency range 1. Its frequency range is typically 1. Its frequency range is typically below
from 1 MHz to 40 GHz. 50 MHz.
2. Accuracy 2. Signal frequencies cannot be 2. Signal frequencies can be measured
measured accurately. very accurately.
3. Display 3. A calibrated graphical display is 3. In place of CRT, wave analyzer consist
provided on CRT screen of spectrum of indicating device. Hence, an integrated
analyzer in which voltage is displayed view of a spectrum is not possible.
on the vertical axis and frequency on
the horizontal axis.
Q10. Define the terms dynamic range and harmonic mixing.
April-18, Set-2, Q1(b)
OR
Explain the following terms associated with spectrum analyzer,
(i) Sensitivity
(ii) Dynamic range
(iii) Harmonic mixing.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(b)

(i) Sensitivity
The sensitivity of spectrum analyzer is defined as the ability to detect small signals. In case of measurement of low-level
modulation, the sensitivity of a spectrum analyzer is very useful.
(ii) Dynamic Range
The ability of a spectrum analyzer is to display and detect small and large signals simultaneously is known as dynamic
range. It is also defined as the ability of a spectrum analyzer to interact with two or more signals. In case of measurements of low-
level modulation the wide dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer is very useful. The input mixer of a spectrum analyzer produces
its own distortion since, it is a nonlinear device. Usually, dynamic range of spectrum analyzer is expressed in dB.
(iii) Harmonic Mixing
The frequency range of a spectrum analyzer is increased with harmonic mixing. The function of mixer is to mix the input
signal frequency with the fundamental frequency of the voltage tuned local oscillator. Usually at the input of the spectrum ana-
lyzer, a LPF is used which will removes the spurious inputs with the harmonics of the local oscillator. But, if we place a BPF at
the input of the spectrum analyzer instead of LPF then it extends the frequency range of the spectrum analyzer.
Q11. What are the applications of spectrum analyzer?
April-18, Set-3, Q1(b)

OR
What are the applications of spectrum analyzer? Why is it called real time analyzer?
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Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(b)

Applications of Spectrum Analyzer

Spectrum analyzers are used,
1. To check the spectral purity of signal sources
2. To evaluate local electromagnetic interference problems
3. To test transmitters
4. To analyze signatures
5. To analyze pure sinusoid with no modulation or harmonic distortion.
6. To analyze the modulated signals
7. To find the intermodulation content
8. In oceanography
9. In RADARs
10. In bio-medical field.
Spectrum Analyzer called as Real Time Analyzer
Real time analyzer is defined as the analyzer, which analyzes the effects of changes in its input frequencies and indicates
them on its spectrum display i.e., it displays the entire spectrum of the signal frequencies on the screen. As the function of the
spectral analyzer is to provide graphical display of the spectrum of frequencies on the CRT with amplitude of signal versus
frequency i.e., amplitude (voltage) on y-axis and frequency on x-axis, the spectrum analyzer is also referred as realtime analyzer.
Q12. What is the dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer with a third order intercept point of + 15 dbm and a
noise level of – 75 dbm?
Ans:
Given that,
The third order intercept, Ip = + 15 dbm
Noise level, MDS = – 75 dbm
Dynamic range, Rd = ?
The dynamic range of spectrum analyzer is given as,
2
Rd =
[I – MDS]
3 p
2
= [15 – (– 75)]
3
2
= [90]
3
= 60 dB
∴ Dynamic range, Rd = 60 dB

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.5

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

2.1 SIGNAL GENERATOR-FIXED AND VARIABLE, AF OSCILLATORS

Q13. List out the difference between fixed frequency and variable AF oscillator in detail.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q1(b)

OR
With neat diagrams, discuss about fixed and variable AF oscillators.
OR
What is the basic difference between a signal generator and an oscillator? Discuss fixed and variable
AF oscillators.
Ans:
Signal generators are the sources of electrical signals used for the purpose of testing and operating different kinds of
electrical equipment. A signal generator provides different types of waveforms such as sine, triangular, square, pulse etc., whereas
an oscillator provides only sinusoidal signal at the output.
The AF oscillators are divided into two types. They are as follows,
1. Fixed frequency AF oscillator
2. Variable frequency AF oscillator.
1. Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator
Many instrument circuits contain oscillator as one of its integral parts to provide output signal within the specified fixed audio
frequency range. This specified audio frequency range can be 1 kHz signal or 400 Hz signal. The 1 kHz frequency signal is used to
excite a bridge circuit and 400 Hz frequency signal is used for audio testing. A fixed frequency AF oscillator employs an iron core
transformer. Due to this a positive feedback is obtained through the inductive coupling placed between the primary winding and
secondary winding of the transformer and hence fixed frequency oscillations are generated.
2. Variable Frequency AF Oscillator
It is a general purpose oscillator used in laboratory. It generates oscillations within the entire audio frequency range i.e.,
from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
This oscillator provides a pure, constant sine wave output throughout this AF range. The examples of variable AF oscillators
used in laboratory are RC feedback oscillator, beat frequency oscillator.
Q14. What are signal sources? What are their desirable characteristics? Give an overview of different signal
sources used.
Ans:
Signal Sources
Signal sources are nothing but signal generators. A signal generator can provide different types of waveforms such as sine,
triangular, square, pulse etc.
The purpose of these electrical signals is to test and operate different kinds of equipment.
Application of Signal Generators
1. Measuring the frequency response of amplifiers.
2. Alignment of radio receivers.
Characteristics of Signal Sources
1. The signal frequency must be stable and well known.
2. It has controllable output amplitude, whose range is from very small values of relatively large values.
3. The output signal of a signal source must be free from distortion.

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Different types of signal generators are function generators, pulse generators and pulse frequency generators. Generally,
oscillators are sine-wave generators that are both in the radio frequency and audio frequency ranges. Oscillator is an instrument,
which provides only a sinusoidal output signal. One of the most useful electrical and electronic measuring instrument is oscillator.
An oscillator may also be known as signal generator, function generator or test oscillator, which are based upon the oscillator
application or design. A sine wave signal of known amplitude and frequency is generated by an oscillator, which is the basic
element of all signal sources. The frequency range of an oscillator is from a few Hz to GHz. Two basic blocks of an oscillator are
as follows,
(a) An oscillator
(b) An attenuator.
The performance of an oscillator depends upon the functioning of an oscillator and an attenuator blocks. Oscillators are
basically classified into two types. They are as follows,
(i) Based on the design principle used
(ii) Based on the frequency range.
A function generator is a device, whose output waveforms are sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and pulse trains.
Q15. Define the various pulse parameters used in the specifications of signal generators.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-3, Q2(b)
The various parameters of a pulse are shown in the figure,

Figure: Various Pulse Parameters

Definitions of various pulse parameters used in the specifications of signal generators are as follows,
1. Rise Time
The time required by the pulse to rise from 10% to 90% of its amplitude is called as pulse rise time. It is also referred as
leading edge transition time.
2. Fall Time
The time required by the trailing edge of the pulse to fall from 90% to 10% of its amplitude is called as pulse fall time. It
is also referred as trailing edge transition time.
3. Linearity
The maximum deviation of the rising edge of the pulse from the straight line drawn between the 10% and 90% of its
amplitude is known as linearity. It is always expressed as percentage of pulse amplitude.
4. Preshoot
The distortion or deviation of the pulse before reaching the base line i.e., at the start of the pulse is known as pulse preshoot.
5. Overshoot
The maximum height or peak distortion immediately following the leading edge of the pulse is known as overshoot of the
pulse.
6. Ringing
The positive and negative peak distortion on pulse top or base excluding pulse overshoot is called as ringing.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.7
7. Settling Time
The time taken by the pulse ringing to settle within the
specified percentage of the pulse amplitude is called as
settling time. It is measured from the 90% of the leading
edge.
8. Rounding
The curvature of the pulse at its leading and trailing edges
is known as pulse rounding.
9. Droop or Sag
Pulse droop or sag is defined as the fall of amplitude of
the trailing edge of the pulse with respect to time.
10. Pulse Width
Pulse width is defined as the interval between the leading
and trailing edge medians (or) it is the interval between
the 50% points on leading and trailing edges of the pulse.
11. Pulse Period
Pulse period is defined as the time interval between the Figure (1): Circuit of Phase Shift Oscillator
equal points on the waveform. The two main stages of a phase shift oscillator are,
12. Duty Cycle 1. An amplifier stage containing operational amplifier in
It is defined as the ratio of pulse width to the pulse period. inverting mode.
13. Pulse Repetition Rate 2. R.C cascade circuit acting as a feedback network.
It is the reciprocal of pulse period and indicates how Since the op-amp is connected in inverting mode the
frequently a pulse occurs. signal applied at its inverting input is shifted by 180º at the
14. Pulse Jitter output.

It is a measure of short-term instability of one event with The function of R.C cascade circuit is to feed the output
respect to the other event. signal back to the input and to provide the remaining 180º phase
shift in order to obtain the required oscillations at the output.
Q16. What is AF oscillators and explain its operation Therefore, the total phase shift of the oscillator around the loop
along with circuit diagram? becomes 0º or 360º.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q3(a) At a particular frequency the phase shift of R.C cascade
feedback network becomes accurately 180º and the gain of the
AF Oscillators
amplifier stage becomes large. At this particular frequency the
An oscillator which provides sinusoidal oscillations oscillator will oscillate and produces sinusoidal waveform at
with in the audible range i.e., 20 Hz to 20 kHz is known as AF the output.
(Audio Frequency) oscillator. Based on the load requirements, The frequency at which the circuit oscillates and
the output impedance of AF oscillator is maintained between produces sinusoidal oscillations is known as frequency of
50 Ω to 600 Ω. The AF oscillators are divided into two types. oscillation and it can be represented as,
They are, 1
1. Fixed frequency AF oscillator f0 =
2π 6 RC
2. Variable frequency AF oscillator
Of the above two types of oscillators variable frequency
0.065
∴ f0 = ... (1)
oscillators are most widely used-general purpose-laboratory RC
type oscillator. The examples of variable AF oscillators used in At this frequency of oscillation f0, the gain of the
laboratory are RC feedback oscillator, beat frequency oscillator.
oscillator should be nearly 29.
The operation of an RC feedback oscillator is discussed
below. R2
i.e., = 29
Sinusoidal Oscillator: Sinusoidal oscillator (or wave generator) R1
generates variable frequency sine wave signal at its output.
One of the widely used sinusoidal oscillator is phase shift R2 = 29 R1 ... (2)
oscillator. The schematic arrangement of phase shift oscillator Thus, when the gain of phase shift oscillator is 29 and the
is shown in figure (1) and its sinusoidal output waveform is phase shift is 360º, the circuit generates sinusoidal waveform
shown in figure (2). with frequency f0.

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Figure (2): Sinusoidal Output of Phase Shift Oscillator

In order to get the oscillations within the required frequency range select a capacitor value C and then determine the
resistance value R using equation (1).
By connecting two zener diodes back to back as shown in figure (1) the amplitude of the output can be maintained at
required value.

2.2 STANDARD AND AF SINE AND SQUARE WAVE SIGNAL GENERATORS

Q17. Draw the block diagram of a signal generator and explain its operation.
April/May-17, Set-4, Q3(a)
OR
Discuss the working of standard signal generator with a neat sketch.
Dec.-13, Set-3, Q2(a)
OR
What is a standard signal generator? Explain with a neat block diagram.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q3(a)
A signal generator that generates known and controllable voltages is known as a standard signal generator.
The block diagram of a standard signal generator is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Standard Signal Generator

The basic elements of a conventional standard signal generator are RF oscillator, wide-band amplifier and output attenuator.
An Amplitude Modulated (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM) signal can be obtained at the output of the generator through
a modulation circuit (external oscillator and modulation oscillator). The modulation of the carrier frequency is indicated by a
meter. The carrier frequency can be modulated with either a sine wave, triangular wave, pulse wave or a square wave.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.9
An oscillator which produces a constant output over any frequency range such as a highly stable RF oscillator employing
an LC tank circuit is used to generate a carrier frequency. The frequency of oscillations of this carrier wave/signal can be adjusted
by the frequency range control and the vernier dial setting.
The external oscillator or an internal sine wave generator can be used for Amplitude Modulation (AM) of the carrier signal.
The modulation process is carried out in an output amplifier circuit. The modulated carrier is then fed to the output attenuator.
Finally, the level of the output voltage can be read through an output meter.
The frequency stability depends on the design of the LC tank circuit of the RF oscillator. As the frequency range switching is
achieved through selection of appropriate capacitors, the instrument requires some time to stabilize at the new resonant frequency.
In high frequency oscillators, the oscillator circuit should be isolated from the output circuit so that the oscillator
characteristics such as amplitude, frequency distortion etc., are not affected by the changes taking place in output circuit. Buffer
amplifiers are used for such isolation purpose.
The standard signal generator is mostly used in testing of radio receivers and transmitters. They are also used as a power
source for the measurement of properties such a gain, bandwidth, Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N) standing wave ratio etc.
Q18. Explain the block diagram of an AF sine and square wave generator.
Dec.-13, Set-2, Q2(a)
OR
Draw the block diagram of a pulse generator and explain the operating principle.
May-13, Set-1, Q2(a)
OR
Draw the block schematic of an AF sine and square wave generator and explain the operating principle.
May-13, Set-3, Q2(a)
OR
Explain audio frequency generator using Wien bridge oscillator.
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q2(a)
OR
With a neat block diagram discuss about an AF sine wave generator.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q3(a)
As the name suggest an AF sine and square wave generator produces either sine wave or square wave output. It employe a
Wein bridge oscillator, sine wave amplifier, square wave shaper, square wave amplifier and attenuator. The schematic arrangement
of these blocks is shown below.

Figure: Block Diagram of AF Sine and Square Wave Generator

The Wien bridge oscillator operates effectively in audio frequency ranges. It produces oscillations whose frequency can
be varied by varying the capacitance value of the capacitor of the oscillator. Also the frequency value can be varied in steps by
switching in different values of resistors. The oscillations of Wien bridge oscillator are applied to either sine wave amplifier or
sine wave shaper through function key. When the key is connected to position 1, the output oscillations are connected to sine wave
amplifier and then to attenuator. Therefore, the oscillations are amplified and then attenuated and a pure sine wave is available at
the output. Depending on the requirement the amplitude of this sine wave can be varied from 5 mV to 5 V (r.m.s value).

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When the key is connected to position 2, the oscillations are applied to square wave shaper which converts the oscillations
into square wave. The square wave signal is amplified and then attenuated and finally appears as pure square wave at the output.
The amplitude of the square wave can be varied from 0 V to 20 V (peak value).
This generator produces output in the frequency range of 10 Hz to 1 MHz and it requires power of 7 W at 220 V, 50 Hz. The
front panel of the instrument contains,
(i) ON/OFF switch.
(ii) Frequency Multiplier : To choose the frequency range over 5 decades (from 10 Hz to 1 MHz).
(iii) Amplitude Multiplier : To attenuate sine wave output in 3 decades (× 1, × 0.1 and × 0.01).
(iv) Amplitude : To continuously attenuate the amplitude of square wave output.
(v) Variable Amplitude : To continuously attenuate the amplitude of sine wave output.
(vi) Frequency Selector : To select different ranges of frequencies and to vary the frequency in a ratio of 1:11.
(vii) Function Key : To select either square wave or sine wave output.
(viii) Symmetry Control : To adjust the symmetry of square wave from 30% to 70%
(ix) Sync : To synchronize the internal signal with external signal.
Q19. Describe a modern laboratory type signal generator. What technique is used to improve its stability?
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q2(a)

Figure: Modern Laboratory Type Signal Generator

Modern laboratory type signal generator consists of an RF LC oscillator circuit, which generates signals of stable frequencies
ranging from 34 MHz to 80 MHz. The RF LC oscillator supplies required carrier frequency signal in the form of pure sinusoidal
waveform. The highest oscillating frequency output of RF LC oscillator is supplied to the wide band power amplifier assembly
through an untuned buffer amplifier AB1.
The wide band power amplifier assembly comprises two additional buffer amplifiers AB2 and AB3, one main amplifier Am
and a cascaded frequency divider. The oscillating frequency signal from the buffer amplifier AB1 passes to main amplifier Am
via AB2. If low frequency ranges are required, then the oscillating frequency signal is applied to the cascaded frequency divider.
The cascaded frequency divider has 9 frequency dividers of 2:1 ratio to give a maximum divisor of 512. Thus, the frequency
range produced at the output of cascade frequency divider will be equal to the highest range divided by 512 or 29 or 67 – 156 kHz.
Thus, the highest frequency range is imparted to the lowest frequency range and then applied to main amplifier through buffer
amplifier AB3.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.11
All the buffer amplifiers used in all bands are identical The above figure (1) consists of an operational ampli-
and provide high degree of isolation between the master (local) fier, sinusoidal input from an oscillator and the clipping circuit.
oscillator and main amplifier. Therefore, all frequency pulling In this method, the sinusoidal wave clipped to form a square
effects from the variations in operating and loading conditions at wave output. The operational amplifier used in this method is
the output stage and the range switching affects are eliminated. an non-inverting amplifier. It has very high gain, so that, the
The oscillator circuit is tuned to its resonant frequency with the resultant output has high magnitude. The diodes D1, D2, D3 and
help of motor-driven variable capacitor. Fast coarse tuning can D4 forms a clipping circuit. The diodes D3 and D4 are zener
also be done with the help of rocker switch, which is provided diodes, functions along with D1 and D2 to clip the positive and
on the front panel of the signal generator. The rocker switch negative half cycles of high amplitude sinusoidal waveform
connects the indicator gliding along the slide-rule scale of the from an operational amplifier. The output (clipped and ampli-
main frequency dial at an approximate frequency change of fied) waveform is approximately a square wave. The wave is
7% per second. When the indicator gliding is placed correctly clipped at + (VZ3 + VD1) and – (VZ4 + VD2).
on the main dial, the oscillator can be fine tuned by a large The diodes D1 and D2 are forward and reverse biased
rotary switch (control) with each division corresponding to respectively. When a sinusoidal waveform is applied to an op-
0.01% of the main dial setting. The oscillator has both manual erational amplifier and if the op-amp output goes positive, the
and automatic controllers. A motor driven frequency control diode D1 will be forward biased and does allow the output to
provides both local and remote automatic tuning by employing exceed (VZ3 + VD1). If the output of the op-amp goes negative.
programmable automatic frequency control device. The diode D2 will be forward biased and does not allow the
The process of modulation is carried out in the main output to fall below – (VZ4 + VD2).
amplifier by variation of the base voltage by two internally
Therefore, the output of a sine-square converter using
generated modulating signals. i.e., 400 Hz and 1 MHz signals.
diode clipping gives the amplitude of square waveform as,
The amplitude of the modulating signal is adjusted upto 95%
by adjusting the modulation level control.
The advantages of this instrument is its low power con-
Where,
sumption and also it exhibits excellent regulation and stability
with low ripple. The frequency stability of the signal generator VZ = Zener diode voltage (D3 and D4)
is limited by the lowest frequency range of the LC circuit. In VZ3 = Diode D3 voltage
order to improve the frequency stability,
VZ4 = Diode D4 voltage
(i) The master controller should be designed for highest
frequency range. VD = Diode voltages (D1 and D2)
(ii) The cascade arrangement of frequency dividers should VD1 = Diode D1 voltage
be turned ON to produce the lower range. VD2 = Diode D2 voltage.
Q20. Draw the diagram of a sine to square-wave con- The output waveforms are,
version circuit using diode clipping and explain
its operation.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-1, Q2(a)

The sinusoidal input from an oscillator can be converted

into a square wave by using diode clippers. The schematic circuit
of sine-square conversion using diode clipping is shown below.

Figure (2)
Q21. Draw a simple circuit for frequency modulating
an RF signal generator and explain its opera-
tion.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-1, Q2(b)
The RF signal generators are used for amplitude
Figure (1): Sine to Square Wave Conversion using Diode Clipping modulation and frequency modulation. The RF signal generator

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2.12 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
consists of RF oscillator, an amplifier, attenuator and a meter for
attaining desired level. The frequency modulation is performed
at the oscillator stage. The schematic circuit for frequency
modulating an RF signal generator is shown below.

Figure
Q22. What is the need for inserting isolation between
the signal generator output and oscillator in a
simple signal generator? What are the different
ways in which this can be achieved?
Ans:
An oscillator of a simple signal generator needs to be
isolated from the output of the signal generator because any
variations in the load (output circuit of signal generator) will
affect the output characteristics (i.e., amplitude, frequency, etc)
of an oscillator. Usually, the frequency of an oscillator should be
Figure: Basic Circuit for Frequency Modulation using RF Signal very stable when the oscillator is operating at high frequencies
Generator of the order of MHz, because even a small variation in the
frequency will give rise to errors. Hence, an isolation of 20 dB
The frequency modulated RF signal generator consists or more (based upon the type of oscillator circuit) should be
of Low Frequency input (LF), a transistor with its components introduced between oscillator and signal generator output.
(usually a resistors), a Variable Voltage Capacitor (VVC) diode The different ways to achieve an isolation of 20 dB or
and an LC tank or oscillator tank circuit. The VVC diode is a more between oscillator and signal generator output are,
special diode constructed with semiconductor material which 1. Setting the attenuation of attenuator to 20 dB or
operates in reverse bias. The oscillator tank consists of a vari- more.
able capacitor in parallel with inductor. 2. Introducing an isolation amplifier between
oscillator and attenuator.
The low frequency input is applied to the VVC diode.
1. Setting the Attenuation of Attenuator to 20 dB or
The voltage across the VVC diode (CD) tends to vary with the More
help of the transistor and its components. The capacitance C3 is
In a signal generator the output of the oscillator is
coupled with the VVC diode, which is in shunt with the oscil- attenuated by feeding it to a variable attenuator, in order to
lator tank capacitor C4. Thus, the low frequency input varies obtain a signal of desired amplitude (or power level). So, if the
VVC diode capacitance by varying the reverse bias voltage of attenuator is set to provide and attenuate the oscillator output by
a diode and hence the frequency is modulated. 20 dB or more, an isolation of 20 dB will be produced between
the oscillator and the load.
The resultant equation for the modulated resonant fre-
quency is given by, 2. Introducing an Isolation Amplifier between Oscillator
and Attenuator
In this method of achieving isolation, the oscillator
output is amplified by certain amount using a buffer amplifier.
Consecutively, it is attenuated by same amount by a fixed
attenuator before feeding the oscillator output to the variable
Where, attenuator of the signal generator. In this way isolation is
achieved without any change in the signal level of oscillator
L = Inductance in Henry output.
C4= Variable capacitance in Farads To achieve an isolation of 20 dB or more, a 10 dB gain
isolation amplifier followed by a 10 dB fixed attenuator is
CD = VVC diode capacitance in Farads. introduced between the oscillator and variable attenuator as
shown in the following figure. The gain of the isolation amplifier
From the equation of resonant frequency, it is clear that,
and thus the attenuation of a fixed attenuator depends on the
as the diode capacitance CD changes, the resonant frequency
amount of isolation required and also on the attenuation of the
also changes. The output resonant frequency waveform is,
variable attenuator.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.13

Figure
Q23. With respect to construction and circuit configuration, explain how a square wave generator differs from
sine wave generator.
Ans:
Sine Wave Generator
The circuit configuration of a sine wave generator consists of Wein bridge oscillator, sine wave amplifier and attenuator.
The block diagram of a sine wave generator is shown in figure (1).

Figure (1): Block Diagram of Sine Wave Generator

Wein bridge oscillator produces an oscillating output which is usually a sinusoidal (sine) wave. Thus, half of the opera-
tion of a sine wave generator is done by the Wein bridge oscillator. The frequency of oscillations of this oscillator can be varied
by varying its capacitance and thus a sine wave of desired frequency can be generated. The remaining elements of sine wave
generator i.e., amplifier and attenuator are used as signal conditioners to condition the output of Wein bridge oscillator in order
to obtain a sine wave of desired amplitude.
Square Wave Generator
The circuit configuration of a square wave generator consists of the basic elements of a sine wave generator (i.e., Wein
bridge oscillator, attenuator) and square wave shaper and square wave amplifier. Figure (2) shows the block diagram of a square
wave generator.

Figure (2): Block Diagram of Square Wave Generator

A square wave is obtained by feeding the sinusoidal output of the Wein bridge oscillator to the square wave shaper circuit.
The square wave shaper is usually a sine-to-square wave converter. The square wave is further processed through square wave
amplifier and attenuator in order to obtain a square wave of desired amplitude. The frequency of the square wave can be varied
by varying the oscillation frequency of Wein bridge oscillator.
Q24. Discuss in detail about RF signal generators operation.
OR
With a neat diagram explain the working of an RF signal generator.
Ans:
A Radio Frequency (RF) signal generator generates a sinusoidal waveform whose frequency lies in the radio frequency
range (i.e., 100 kHz to 40 GHz). An RF signal generator is made up of the elements such as RF oscillator, amplifier, calibrated
attenuator and an output level meter. The block diagram of RF signal generation is shown in the figure (1) below.
The main element of RF signal generator is the RF oscillator because this element produces the oscillating signal. RF
oscillator is provided with continuous frequency control and frequency range switch so as to obtain a radio frequency signal of
desired frequency.

Figure (1): Block Diagram of RF Signal Generator

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The oscillating output of the oscillator is applied to the calibrated attenuator through the amplifier. An output level meter
is connected between the amplifier and attenuator as shown in the figure (1). The voltage applied to the attenuator is set to a
certain calibration point with the help of an output amplitude control provided in the amplifier circuit. Whenever the oscillation
frequency is changed, the output voltage level must be reset to the calibration point in order to make sure that the output voltage
levels indicated on the calibrated attenuator are correct.
There are two types of oscillators that can be used in RF signal generator. They are,
(i) Hartley oscillator
(ii) Colpitts oscillator.
The circuitry of these oscillators consists of an amplifier circuit and a phase-shifting feedback network. The amplifier
amplifies the input signal as well as shifts the phase of the signal by 180º. The output of the amplifier is fed back to its input
terminal through the feedback network. The feedback network is so designed that it attenuates the amplified signal and shifts the
phase of the inverted signal by further 180º. Thus, an overall phase shift of 360º is achieved. In this manner, the oscillator exhibits
sustained oscillations as the oscillator circuit meets the following two requirements.
(i) Loop phase shift of 360º

(ii) Loop gain of 1

(a) The phase shift network of Hartley oscillator consists of two inductors and one capacitor connected in π configuration.
(b) The phase shift network of Colpitts oscillator consists of two capacitors and an inductor, as shown in the figure (3)
below.
The circuit oscillates at resonant frequency of its phase shift network. Hence, the oscillating frequency is equal to the
resonant frequency which is given by the following equation.
1
f =
2π LT CT
Where,
LT = Total inductance
CT = Total capacitance.

Figure (2): Hartley Oscillator

Figure (3): Colpitts Oscillator

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.15
Q25. List the various controls on the front panel of a signal generator.
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-1, Q2(b)
The front panel of the signal generator consists of following controls:
(i) ON/OFF switch.
(ii) Frequency Multiplier : To choose the frequency range over 5 decades (from 10 Hz to 1 MHz).
(iii) Amplitude Multiplier : To attenuate sine wave output in 3 decades (× 1, × 0.1 and × 0.01).
(iv) Amplitude : To continuously attenuate the amplitude of square wave output.
(v) Variable Amplitude : To continuously attenuate the amplitude of sine wave output.
(vi) Frequency Selector : To select different ranges of frequencies and to vary the frequency in a ratio of 1:11.
(vii) Function Key : To select either square wave or sine wave output.
(viii) Symmetry Control : To adjust the symmetry of square wave from 30% to 70%
(ix) Sync : To synchronize the internal signal with external signal.
(x) Output available: This gives the output (sine or square wave).

2.3 FUNCTION GENERATORS

Q26. With a block diagram explain the working of a function generator producing sine, square and triangle
waveforms.
Nov.-11, Set-3, Q2
OR
Draw the block diagram of a function generator which generates pulse, triangular and sinusoidal
waveforms and explain its operation.
Nov.-10, Set-3, Q2(a)
OR
Draw the block diagram of a function generator and explain its operation.
OR
Explain how a triangular wave form is generated in function generator instrument.
OR
With the help of a block diagram explain the principle of operation of a function generator.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q3(b)

An instrument which provides different types of waveforms whose frequency values can be varied and adjusted over a
wide range (from a hertz to several hundred kilohertz) is referred as function generator. A function generator commonly produces
sine wave, square wave, triangular wave and sawtooth wave. The block diagram representation of a function generator is shown
below.

Figure: Function Generator

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The above shown device is designed to produce sine, square and triangular waves in the range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz
frequencies. The frequency control network is governed by the voltage applied externally or the frequency dial provided on the
front panel of the device. The output of frequency control network (or frequency controlled voltage) regulates the two current
sources i.e., upper constant current source and lower constant current source. The upper constant current source provides current
of constant magnitude to the integrator circuit. Therefore the output voltage of integrator linearly increases with respect to time
and its output voltage is given by the following equation.
t
1
∴ eout = –
C0∫i dt

When the output current of the upper current source increases, the slope of the integrator output voltage decreases and
vice versa. As the positive slope of the output voltage of the integrator reaches a predetermined level, the voltage comparator
multivibrator changes its state. This causes the output of upper current supply to the integrator to cut-off and switches on the
lower current source supply to the integrator. Now the lower current source provides a reverse current of constant magnitude
to the integrator. Therefore, the output voltage of integrator linearly decreases with respect to time. As the negative slope of the
output voltage of the integrator reaches a predetermined level, the voltage comparator multivibrator switches back to its previous
state which causes the output of lower current supply to the integrator to cut-off and switches on the upper current source supply.
Therefore, the voltage waveform appears at the output of integrator is triangular and its frequency can be known by the magnitude
of current produced by the two current sources.
The output of voltage comparator multivibrator is square wave whose frequency is same as that of the triangular wave.
The output of integrator which is triangular wave is given to the resistance diode shaping circuit. This circuit alters the slope of
the triangular wave into amplitude changes and provides sine wave of <1% distortion at the output.
The output section of this instrument contains two output amplifiers. These amplifiers provide two selected waveforms
among the three individually and simultaneously.

2.4 SQUARE PULSE GENERATOR

Q27. Discuss square wave and pulse generator with a neat block diagram.
(April-18, Set-1, Q3(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q2(a))

OR
Draw the block diagram of a pulse generator and explain the operating principle.
May-13, Set-1, Q2(a)

OR
Explain the working of a basic generating loop of a pulse generator.
May-13, Set-4, Q2(a)

OR
Discuss the working of square and pulse generator with a block diagram.
Dec.-13, Set-2, Q2(b)

OR
Sketch a basic block diagram and waveforms for a pulse generator and explain its operation.
Ans: (Nov.-10, Set-1, Q2(a) | Model Paper-II, Q3(b))

Square wave and pulse generators along with CRO used as measuring instruments. The output of these give quantitative
as well as qualitative information about the instrument under test. The basic difference between square wave generator and pulse
generator is concern with ration of pulse width to the pulse period i.e., duty cycle.
The duty cycle of a square wave generator is 50% and the duty cycle of a pulse generator varies between 50% to 95%.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.17

Figure (1): Block Diagram

Figure (2): Basic Generating Loop

Figure (3): Output Waveforms

Figure (1) shows the block diagram of the laboratory type of square and pulse generator. This generator can be operated
as free-running generator. The basic generating loop of this generator is shown in figure (2). It contains two constant current
sources, a simple current switch, schmitt trigger, ramp capacitor. The upper current source provides constant current for charging
the ramp capacitor. As the ramp capacitor charges, the ramp voltage increases linearly. As soon as the positively increasing ramp

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2.18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
approaches predetermined upper limit that is set by the internal Rb
elements of the circuit, the schmitt trigger changes from one state Vut = Vsat × = β Vsat
Ra + Rb
to another. The schmitt trigger can be a bistable multivibrator.
When the schmitt trigger changes its state, its output goes Rb
Where, β =
to negative, the current switch reverses its condition and the Ra + Rb
ramp capacitor discharges linearly. Now the lower constant A narrow negative triggering pulse can be introduced
current source controls this discharging rate. As soon as the through D2 to the non-inverting terminal so that the total signal
negative ramp voltage approaches the predetermined lower at this terminal is,
level, the schmitt trigger comes back to its original state. Thus, Vut = Vut + (– VK)
the complete process will be repeated and negative pulses are Where, VK is the magnitude of the negative trigger. When
produced at the output at a constant rate. the positive input voltage (Vut – VK) becomes less than + 0.7 V,
the output of the op-amp will switch from +Vsat to –Vsat (i.e.,
The output of schmitt trigger is applied to the 600 Ω
stable state to quasi-stable state). Then terminal ‘b’ becomes
and 50 Ω output amplifier. The trigger output circuit inverts the
negative with respect to ground and this voltage is known as
output of schmitt trigger and provides positive triggering pulse.
the lower triggered voltage and is given by,
The output of schmitt trigger is applied to the 600 Ω and 50 Ω
output amplifier. The trigger output circuit inverts the output of Rb
Vlt = – Vsat = – β Vsat
schmitt trigger and provides positive triggering pulse. Ra + Rb
The duty cycle of output waveform is determined by the The potential at node ‘a’ falls exponentially as capacitor
ratio of current I1 to current I2 and is controlled by the setting discharges through ‘RF’ and diode ‘D1’ is reverse biased. When
of symmetry control. The dial of frequency control circuit the voltage across the capacitor i.e., ‘VC’ becomes slightly more
controls the sum of I1 and I2 by providing control voltages to the negative than Vlt, then the op-amp output switches back to +Vsat
base terminals of the current control transistors in the current without any negative trigger. Through the feedback resistor RF,
sources. The ramp capacitor size is chosen by multiplier switch. the capacitor ‘C’ starts charging to +Vsat till it reaches to 0.7 V
The multiplier switch and frequency control provides decade and the capacitor gets clamped to the voltage.
switching and the frequency range of this generator is covered If ‘T1’ is the pulse width of this modulation then T1 is
in 7 decade steps (from 1 Hz to 10 MHz). given by,
Q28. Sketch the circuit and explain with waveforms 1 + VD / Vsat 
an op-amp a stable multivibrator for use as a T1 = RC log  
square-wave generator.  1− β 
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-2, Q2(b) If Vsat >> VD
As the name implies the monostable multivibrator has  1 
one stable state and one quasi (semi) stable state. At the input ⇒ T1 = RC log   ... (1)
terminal, when an external triggering pulse is applied, it changes 1 − β 
We know that,
its state from the stable state to the quasi stable state. It remains
in the quasi stable state for a short period and automatically Rb
β =
switches back to its original stable state. Figure shows the basic Ra + Rb
schematic of monostable multivibrator. By substituting ‘β’ value in equation (1), we get,

 R + Rb 
T1 = RC log  a 
 Rb 
Therefore, the frequency of oscillation of a monostable
multivibrator is given as,
1
fo =
T1

fo =
Figure
Initially, in the stable state, the multivibrator output is at
+ Vsat, at this stage D1 is in forward biased and ‘a’ is clamped to
The % duty cycle of monostable multivibrator is
ground by diode D1 and the voltage across the capacitor C gets
given as,
clamped to 0.7 V. The voltage at the non-inverting input terminal
through R1, R2 voltage divider is upper triggered voltage and is % Duty cycle = × 100
denoted as Vut and is given by,

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.19
Q29. Explain the requirements of pulse with reference to generator.
April-18, Set-3, Q3(b)

OR
List out the requirements of pulse in square and pulse generator.
Dec.-13, Set-3, Q2(b)

OR
What are the requirements of a pulse with reference to generator.
Ans: May-13, Set-2, Q2(b)

Requirements of a Pulse
1. The distortion of a pulse with reference to a generator must be very small.
2. The main features of a pulse are rise and fall time, ringing, drooping or sagging, settling time, jitter, pulse width, overshoot
and undershoot.
3. For attaining high output power and over driving of test circuits, the pulse must have high amplitude and sufficient
attenuation range to produce small amplitude respectively.
4. The Pulse Repetition Rate (PRR) of a generator must be adequate with respect to the experiment to have the range of
frequency control. For example, for analyzing fast circuits PRRs have a frequency of 100 MHz whereas some generators
have pulse burst feature which causes train of pulse instead of continuous pulse output.
5. Some pulse generators are triggered by the outside signal and some generators produce trigger signals.
6. Output impedance is also considered to be an essential requirement. In a fast pulse system, the pulse generator is necessary
to correspond to the cable and cable in turn with the test circuit. If the impedance mismatches then distortion occurs in
pulses.
7. The D.C coupling of the output circuit is required in order to maintain the D.C bias level.

2.5 RANDOM NOISE GENERATOR

Q30. Explain the working of random noise generator with the help of a block diagram.
May-13, Set-4, Q2(b)

OR
With a block diagram explain the operation of a random noise generator.
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q2(b) | Nov.-11, Set-4, Q2(b) | Nov.-10, Set-4, Q2(b))

A generator whose output signal amplitude changes randomly and doesn’t contain any periodic frequency components is
referred to as random noise generator. The block diagram of a random noise generator is shown in figure (1).

Figure (1): Block Diagram of Random Noise Generator

This instrument doesn’t allow several measurements at a single frequency at a time, but it allows only one measurement
to express the performance over a wide band of frequency range. The circuit for generation of random noise consists of noise
source, amplifier, modulator and noise filter.
The noise source can be a semiconductor noise diode. It produces noise frequencies in the range of 80 to 220 kHz. This
noise signal is amplified in the amplifier and then applied to balanced symmetrical modulator where it is mixed down to the band
of audio frequencies. When the output of modulator is given to the filter which controls the bandwidth of the signal and provides
the output in the form of noise power spectrum. The output of spectrum may contain one of the three noise curves. The three
noise curves are white noise, pink noise and USASI noise and are shown in figure (2).
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Figure (2): Noise Spectrum

From figure (2), it is clear that,
(i) White noise covers all frequencies i.e., it has equal power spectral density.
(ii) Pink noise has a spectrum same as that of the red light. Therefore, it is called as pink noise. It has larger amplitudes at low
frequency ranges.
(iii) USASI noise curve is similar to the energy distribution of speech and music frequencies. It helps in the testing of audio
systems such as loud speakers and audio amplifiers.
2.6 SWEEP GENERATOR
Q31. Draw the circuit diagram of sweep generator and explain its operation in detail.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q3(a)
OR
Explain the working of a standard sweep generator with a diagram.
May-13, Set-2, Q2(a)
OR
Explain the working of a standard sweep generator with neat circuit diagram and waveforms.
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q2(a)
OR
Draw a basic block diagram and waveforms for a sweep frequency generator and explain it briefly.
Nov.-11, Set-4, Q2(a)
OR
Draw a basic block diagram and waveforms for a sweep frequency generator and explain its operation.
Ans: (Nov.-10, Set-2, Q2(a) | Model Paper-II, Q3(a))
An instrument whose output is a sinusoidal voltage that varies over a complete frequency band (generally at an audio rate)
slowly and continuously is referred as sweep generator.

Figure: Block Diagram of a Sweep Generator

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.21
The frequency sweeper supplies variable modulating voltage to the RF master oscillator and amplifier circuit. Due to
this the capacitance of this oscillator changes. The approximate value of sweep rate is around 20 sweeps/second. The frequency
sweeper also supplies a varying sweep voltage signal to horizontal deflection plates a cathode ray oscilloscope. Therefore, the
amplitude of the output of the instrument under test will be locked and displayed on the CRT.
The marker generator supplies half sinusoidal signal to the oscillator at any range of frequencies, with in the sweep range.
Also the output of marker is combined with the sweep voltage of the cathode ray oscilloscope at alternate cycles of the sweep.
Therefore, finally it appears superimposed on the output wave. The manual frequency control permits to adjust the resonant
frequency of the RF oscillator. The automatic level control circuit acts as closed loop feedback circuit, measures and controls
the RF level at certain point. It also maintains the power delivered to circuit under test or load at constant and independent of the
variations in the impedance and frequency. The advantage of maintaining the power level at constant point is to provide constant
output calibration with frequency and to avoid any source mismatch.
Waveforms of Sweep Frequency Generator

Figure: Output Voltage of Sweep Frequency Generator

Q32. Discuss about the generation of broadband sweep frequencies using a sweep generator.
April-18, Set-4, Q3(b)
OR
How are broadband sweep frequencies generated using a sweep generator?
Ans: May-13, Set-3, Q2(b)
The broad or wide band frequencies can be generated using a sweep generator. The wide band sweep generator is shown
in figure below.

Figure: Wideband Sweep Frequency Generator

The wide band sweep frequency generator consists of two oscillators. One is voltage controlled oscillator which provides
the oscillating frequency of 400-700 MHz and the other is fixed oscillator which provides 400 MHz oscillating frequency. The
generator maintains the sweeping frequency in the ratio of 2:1. The frequency of the sweeping oscillator is chosen above the widest
sweep width. The generator also comprises of low pass filters amplifier, pin diode attenuator, automatic level control, linearizing
circuits and a sweep voltage generator. The oscillating frequencies from the two oscillator is mixed together and produces 0 - 300
MHz frequency signal. These high frequencies from the oscillators are difficult to mix which are in mega hertz. The difference
output from the mixer is fed to the low pass filter, amplifier and then attenuator where it allows low frequency signal, amplifier
it and then reduces the amplitude to a desired level within few decibels. An Automatic Level Control (ALC) is provided in the
circuit which adjust the output amplitude of the pin diode attenuator automatically.
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The linearizing circuit in the generator is required when there is a linear combination of the two signals. It is generally a
circuit consisting linear elements and the values of the linear elements does not vary with the level of voltage or current.
2.7 ARBITRARY WAVEFORM GENERATOR
Q33. Explain the operation of arbitrary waveform generator.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q2(a)

It is a waveform generator, which generates waveforms based on digital data stored in RAM. This digital data gives the
detail information of the constantly varying voltage levels of an A.C. signal without or with D.C. content. The basic block diagram
of arbitrary waveform generator is shown in below figure.

Figure: Block Diagram of Arbitrary Waveform Generator

In this type of waveform generator, digital data is stored in waveform random access memory. In this type, a cathode ray
oscilloscope is used to measure a waveform in which the data is sampled. A digital to analog converter shown in figure, is used
to read back the memory locations and feeding the data points thereby reconstructing the signal at any time.
From Nyquist sampling theorem we know that,
fs = 2fm
Where,
fs = Sampling frequency
fm = Maximum frequency component of the sampled signal.
If the above condition is satisfied then we can achieve better fidelity. Therefore, the details of the needed signal discovered,
which requires as many points as necessary for digital data stored in RAM. Usually, the stored data points are read by arbitrary
waveform generator whose frequency limits are specified. But, the instrument can operate at a finite maximum frequency. Usually,
the operating frequency or sample rate of this instrument is specified in terms of Msamples/s or Gsamples/s.
Q34. Explain marker generator with neat block diagram.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q2(b)
The marker generator is used to eliminate the limitation of sweep generator, which does not give accurate and precise
measurement of frequency on the traced curve. For this reason, an RF signal generator which is a marker generator in VHF and
UHF bands is used. This generator provides an accurate result when compared to other signal generators.
The generator consists of two generators i.e., sweep generator and marker generator, IF section of receiver, video detector
and a marker pip as shown in figure below,

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.23

Figure: Block Diagram of Marker Generator

The signals from the marker and sweep generator are mixed together and are given as the input to the IF section of the
receiver. The marker generator output is adjusted to the desired frequency range. The signals are heterodyned in order to provide
the sum and difference of the two signal frequencies as the outputs. These outputs are produced at the video detector which
describes the characteristics of amplitude of the circuit. To attain this possibility, the frequency of the sweep generator should be
varied over broad frequency ranges. The vertical deflection on the CRO is not seen if there is no difference in frequency signals.
But the difference in frequency signals. But the difference frequency is generated if the frequency exceeds the marker frequency
and are placed in the pass-band of the vertical amplifier of the deflection plates. Therefore, these signals create a pip on the screen
in addition to the trace with the help of detectors low frequency output.
In the consideration of a sharp pip, a capacitor is placed across the vertical input of the oscilloscope. The shifting of the
pip on the curve is proportional to the variations in marker frequency. Pip can be switched on any point, if the marker frequency
is changed at a time.
The marker generator can be used to produce steady output frequency controlled by a crystal.
2.8 WAVE ANALYZERS
Q35. Draw the basic wave analyzer and explain its operation.
April/May-17, Set-3, Q1(b)
OR
Explain the operation of a wave analyzer with a neat diagram.
Ans:
A wave analyzer is used to measure the magnitude of different harmonics of any typical waveform or it is used to measure
relative amplitude of single frequency components present in a distorted or complex waveform. This instrument selects a signal
of one particular frequency to which it is tuned and rejects all other frequencies. Therefore, it can be referred to as a frequency
selective voltmeter. Based on the frequency ranges used, wave analyzers are divided into two types. They are,
1. Frequency selective wave analyzer (20 Hz to 20 kHz)
2. Heterodyne wave analyzer (10 kHz to 18 MHz).
The circuit diagram of a simple basic wave analyzer is shown in figure below,

Figure: Basic Wave Analyzer Circuit

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2.24 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The basic wave analyzer contains a primary detector and a rectifier. The primary detector is formed by a simple A.C. cir-
cuit and is varied and adjusted for resonance at a particular frequency signal of the particular harmonic which is to be analyzed
or measured. The full wave rectifier having four diodes, acts as an intermediate stage, is used to achieve the average value of the
applied A.C input signal. The output indicating device is nothing but D.C voltmeter which is calibrated to indicate the peak value
of the applied sinusoidal voltage at the input.
When the signal waveform is applied at the input, the primary detector circuit allows only one particular frequency to
which it is tuned and rejects all other frequencies to pass rectifier and the output device. By means of a selector switch a number
of tuned filters are connected to the output device to improve the performance of this instrument.
Q36. Explain the significance and working of frequency selective wave analyzer.
April-18, Set-2, Q3(a)

OR
Define a wave analyzer and classify them. Explain the working of a resonant wave analyzer.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q3(b)

OR
Describe the frequency selective wave analyzer with neat sketch.
Dec.-13, Set-4, Q3(a)

OR
Explain the working of a frequency selective wave analyzer using a block diagram.
Ans: (May-13, Set-4, Q3(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q3(a))

Frequency selective wave analyzers are designed to measure the frequencies of audible range i.e., 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This
analyzer consists of a very narrow passband filter, that can be tuned to a particular frequency component depending on requirement.
The block diagram representation of a frequency selective wave analyzer is shown in figure (1),

Figure (1): Block Diagram of Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.25
The complex waveform which is to be analyzed is fed to the input attenuator that can be adjusted and set by ‘meter range’
switch provided on its front panel. This attenuator allows large range of signal amplitudes to the selective amplifier without loading
it. Now, the attenuated output is applied to a high-Q active filter through driver amplifier circuit. The high-Q active filter is a low-
pass filter that contains RC resonant circuits and filter amplifiers connected in cascade form and allows the selected frequency to
pass and rejects the remaining frequencies. The final amplifier supplies the selected frequency signal to the meter which indicates
the magnitude of selected frequency and to output buffer amplifier which is employed to drive the electronic counter or recorder
or any output device.
In this analyzer the resistors are of precision potentiometer type and the capacitors are of closed tolerance polystyrene type
and these are used to select a particular frequency range. Specifically the capacitors used to select the frequency ranges and the pre-
cision potentiometers used to tune the filter to any required frequency within the selected passband. Therefore, this analyzer is also
known as ‘frequency selective voltmeter’. This analyzer should have very low input distortion that cannot be detected by the analyzer
itself. The analyzer also has a very narrow bandwidth which is about 1% of the selected frequency. The attenuation characteristics
of frequency selective wave analyzer is shown in figure (2),

Figure (2): Attenuation Characteristics

Q37. Explain the working of a heterodyne analyzer using a block diagram.
(April-18, Set-4, Q3(a) | May-13, Set-3, Q3(b))
OR
Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of a heterodyne type wave analyzer.
Nov.-10, Set-3, Q3(a)
OR
Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of a super heterodyne type wave analyzer.
Ans:
Heterodyne wave analyzers are designed to measure frequencies in RF range and also ranges above megahertz. Its operation
depends on the principle of heterodyne or mixing.

Figure: Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

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2.26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
In this analyzer the input to be analyzed is applied through an attenuator and untuned amplifier before being heterodyned
in Mixer-1, to a higher IF (Intermediate Frequency) range with an internal local oscillator. The output frequency of this local
oscillator is varied and adjusted to obtain a constant frequency such that the frequency should be in the passband of IF amplifier.
Therefore, the output of the Mixer-1 is an intermediate frequency signal which is then amplified by 30 MHz IF amplifier. The
output of IF amplifier is again heterodyned with a 30 MHz signal coming from crystal oscillator. Due to this, output of Mixer-2 is
centered on a zero frequency. The subsequent active filter with adjustable bandwidth and symmetrical slopes allows the selected
component of frequency to pass through it and reach meter amplifier and detector whose output can be read by a decibel calibrated
scale.
This heterodyne wave analyzer is also referred to as a heterodyning tuned voltmeter and operates in the range of 10 kHz
to 18 MHz. The bandwidth of the signal can be adjusted and controlled with an active filter and can be at 200 Hz, 1000 Hz and
3000 Hz.

2.9 HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYZERS

Q38. Explain the working principle of a harmonic distortion analyzer.

April-18, Set-1, Q3(b)

OR
Explain the operation of harmonics distortion analyzer.
April/May-17, Set-3, Q3(a)

OR
Explain with the help of block diagram the working of a harmonic distortion analyzer.

(Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q3(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q3(a))

OR

Explain with a neat block diagram, the working principle of a distortion analyzer.

Ans:
Distortion refers to any deviation in any parameter like amplitude, time, shape of an electrical signal from an ideal input
signal. The distortion occurs due to the inherent non-linear characteristics of components and devices that form the electronic
circuit. The non-linear characteristics of the circuit cause some harmonics to take place in the output waveform and the resultant
deviation or distortion is known as harmonic distortion. An accurate measurement of harmonic distortion is achieved by using a
harmonic distortion analyzer, also known as a distortion analyzer. A harmonic distortion analyzer, instead of measuring the distor-
tion resulting from each component, measures total harmonic distortion of the test wave. This analyzer suppresses the fundamental
frequency by employing a high pass filter that has its cut-off frequency a little higher than the fundamental frequency. Therefore,
the high pass filter permits only harmonics to flow through it. Thus, the total harmonic distortion is determined. Harmonic distor-
tion can be measured using resonance bridge method, Wein’s bridge method, bridged T-network method.
Harmonic Distortion Analyzer Employing Bridged T-network Method

Figure (1): Bridge T-network Method

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.27
In the bridged T-network method shown in figure (1), the inductor (L) and capacitors (C) are tuned to the level of fundamental
frequency. Whereas the resistor (R) is varied to bypass the fundamental frequency signals. Since, the tank circuit is tuned to the
fundamental frequency, the fundamental energy signal flows in the tank circuit and then bypasses through the resistor. Therefore,
only harmonic signals reach the output leads and this distorted output is indicated by an output meter. For better performance the
quality factor (Q-value) of the resonant circuit should be 3 to 5. A harmonic analyzer circuit using bridge T-network is shown in
figure (2),

Figure (2): Harmonic Distortion Analyzer Employing Bridge T-network

Initially, the switch (S) is connected to point (P), due to this the adjustable attenuator is not included in the circuit. Now
the bridge T-network is adjusted to suppress the total fundamental frequency i.e., to provide minimum output. When the output
of T-networks is minimum then it means that the network is tuned to full suppression of fundamental frequency.
Next the switch is disconnected from point P and connected to point Q. So, that the bridge T-network is not included in the
circuit. Now, the adjustable attenuator is varied and adjusted till the same reading appears on the output meter. At this condition
the attenuator reading gives the total r.m.s distortion.
The harmonic distortion analyzers based on fundamental suppression principle is easy to design as its cost is low. However,
the limitation of these analyzers is that they indicate total distortion will not give the amplitude distortion of individual components.
Q39. Explain the differences between a wave analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer.
May-13, Set-1, Q3(a)
OR
Differentiate wave analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer.
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q3(b)
OR
What is the difference between a wave analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer?
Ans:
Wave Analyzers Harmonic Distortion Analyzers
1. These are designed to measure the relative 1. These are designed to measure the total harmonic content
amplitude of each harmonic or fundamental present in a distorted or complex waveform.
component separately.
2. They indicate the amplitude of single frequency 2. They do not indicate the frequency and amplitude of each
component. component wave.
3. These are tuned to measure amplitude of one 3. These can be operated within a band of 5 Hz to1 MHz
frequency component within a range of 10 Hz frequencies.
to 40 MHz.
4. These are also known as frequency selective 4. Harmonic distortion analyzer is generally known as a
voltmeters, selective level voltmeters, carrier distortion analyzer.
frequency voltmeters.
5. These are used with a set of tuned filters and a 5. These can be used along with a frequency generator.
voltmeter.
6. Wave analyzers provide very high frequency 6. They measure quantitative harmonic distortion very
resolution. accurately.
7. These can be used for electrical measurements, 7. These can be used to measure frequency stability and
sound, vibration, noise measurement in spectral purity of signal sources.
industries.

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2.28 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q40. Compare a Wien bridge harmonic distortion analyzer to a bridged T-type harmonic distortion analyzer.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q3(b)

Wien Bridge Harmonic Distortion Analyzer Bridged T-type Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
1. The circuit diagram of Wien bridge harmonic distortion 1. The block diagram of harmonic distortion analyzer
analyzer is shown in the following figure, using Bridged T-network is shown in figure (1),

Test Adjustable
Bridge Output
wave Amplifier attenuator
T-network meter
input (0 – 60 dB)

P Q

Figure: Wien Bridge Harmonic Distortion Analyzer Figure (1): Harmonic Distortion Analyzer Employing
Bridge T-network
The component arrangement of bridged
T-network block is shown in figure (2),

Figure (2): Bridge T-network Method
2. The bridge attains its balancing condition only for 2. The L and C components are tuned to fundamental
a fundamental frequency component and remains frequency and a variable resistor is used to bypass
unbalanced for harmonics. the fundamental frequency.
3. At fundamental frequency, the circuit becomes 3. The quality factor (i.e., Q value) of resonant
balanced provided, circuit should be equal to at least 3 to 5.
C1 = C2 = C
R1 = R2 = R
R3 = 2R4
4. In this type of analyzer, the fundamental energy 4. In this type of analyzer, the fundamental energy
is dissipated in the elements of the bridge circuit. is distributed in the tank circuit, and bypassed
by the variable resistor.

Q41. State and explain total harmonic distortion.

Ans: Nov.-11, Set-2, Q3(a)

The non-linear behaviour of circuit produces harmonics of the signal applied at its input. When the sine wave is applied at
the input, then the circuit produces harmonics that contain sine waves with frequency multiples of the fundamental of the signal
applied. The resulting THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) is determined in terms of harmonic content present in the wave and it can
be given as,

Total harmonic distortion =

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.29
A measure of distortion (indicated by a particular Q42. Explain one application of distortion factor
harmonic) is expressed as the ratio of amplitude of harmonic to meter.
the fundamental harmonic distortion. Thus, the harmonic Ans:
distortion is given by, Distortion factor meter is basically used to measure Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD) of a signal. It can be utilized to ana-
V2 lyze the fundamental wave and its various harmonics. Therefore,
D2 =
V1 it is most widely used in the design and development of audio
circuits. It is also used in analog and digital circuit to measure
V3 total harmonic distortion caused due to different components
D3 = (or devices) employed in the circuit.
V1
Measurement of Total Harmonic Distortion
V4 Fundamental suppression type harmonic distortion
D4 = analyzer is used to measure total harmonic distortion. It
V1
does not measure distortion caused by each component. The
simplified block diagram of manual reading type of fundamental
  suppression harmonic distortion analyzer is shown in figure (1),
 
Vn
Dn =
V1
Where,

Dn → Distortion of nth harmonic

Vn → Amplitude of nth harmonic

V1 → Amplitude of the fundamental.

[Here n = 2, 3, 4, 5,......]
Figure (1): Fundamental Suppression Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
Distortion factor or total harmonic distortion can be (Manual Reading Type)
defined as, The basic blocks of this analyzer are signal source,
amplifier under test, notch filter and indicator. The signal source
Total harmonic distortion,
consists very low distortion. This distortion is checked by
measuring its output distortion. Therefore, it is connected into
D22 + D32 + D42 + D52 + ...... Dn2 the analyzer circuitry and its signal is applied to the amplifier
=
under test. This produces harmonics and actual fundamental
frequency, that are applied to the notch filter. The notch filter
V22 + V32 + V42 + V52 + ........ Vn2 then suppresses the fundamental frequency and allows only
=
V1 harmonics to pass through it. When the switch is connected to
point ‘a’, the total fundamental frequency and harmonics (VT)
Percentage harmonic distortion, are indicated by the indicator. When the switch is connected to
point ‘b’, only harmonics (VH) are indicated by the indicator. The
total harmonic distortion value is calculated using the formula
= given below,
VH
Total harmonic distortion = × 100
VT
=
The calibration of the meter is done by connecting the
In case of instrumentation and measurement systems switch in point ‘a’ and adjusting the display reading for full
noise is also observed along with harmonics. Therefore the total scale deflection. Now with the switch connection at point b, the
waveform containing harmonics, noise and the fundamental is reading of the meter is proportional to total harmonic distortion.
determined rather than the measurement of only the fundamental. In ratio reading type of fundamental suppression
Hence the measured value of total harmonic distortion is, harmonic distortion analyzer the value of fundamental (VT)
and the value of harmonic (VH) are read at a time and their
ratio is computed and indicated as total harmonic distortion on
∴ THDM = the output indicating meter. The block diagram of this type is
shown in figure (2),

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2.30 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure (2): Fundamental Suppression Harmonic Distortion Analyzer (Ratio Reading Type)
A commonly used notch filter is of Wien bridge type. Using fundamental distortion harmonic distortion analyzer the total
harmonic distortion can be measured with good accuracy provided the filter has excellent rejection and high pass characteristics.
It should be able to attenuate the harmonics below 1 dB and fundamental below 100 dB. It is also very important to accurately
tune the filter to fundamental of the signal source.
Q43. Explain how distortion occurs during transmission of a waveform or communication signal.
OR
Explain about the following terms,
(i) Distortion in a waveform
(ii) Distortion in a communication signal.
Ans:
Distortions may be introduced in a waveform or a communication signal when they are transmitted from one point to
other point through a transmission channel. The transmission channel consists of various electronic components like amplifier,
heterodyning element etc. The different types of distortions that occur during transmission of an input signal (waveform or
communication signal) are,
1. Linear distortions,
(i) Amplitude distortion
(ii) Phase or delay distortion.
2. Non-linear distortions,
(i) Harmonic distortion
(ii) Intermodualtion distortion.
1. Linear Distortions
(i) Amplitude Distortion
When different frequency components of the input signal are amplified or attenuated by different amounts, the output
signal consists of distortions, known as amplitude distortions (i.e.,) amplitude distortion occurs when the amplification
or attenuation of the signal is not constant over the useful range of frequencies.
(ii) Phase or Delay Distortion
If the phase of the output signal is different from the phase of input signal then such distortion is known as phase
distortion.
Phase distortion leads to delay in the transmission of the signal. Hence, it is also known as delay distortion.
If different amounts of phase shifts occur at different frequencies of an output signal then it becomes necessary to
compensate for such phase distortions. Whereas if same amount of phase shift occurs at all frequencies then such
phase distortion can be ignored.
The phase distortion arises due to the presence of energy storage elements in the transmitting circuit (i.e., reactive
elements such as capacitor and inductor).

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.31
2. Non-linear Distortions (ii) Frequency Distortion
The non-linear distortions in the signal arises due to non- Frequency distortion of a signal takes place when the
linear characteristics of the electronic components like signal is amplified by different amounts at different frequencies.
amplifiers, etc. The two types of non-linear distortions This is caused mainly due to the combination of active devices
are, and components in an amplifier. For example, the non-uniform
frequency response of RC-coupled cascade amplifier refers to
(i) Harmonic Distortion
frequency distortion.
The non-linear characteristics of an electronic (iii) Phase Distortion
circuit gives rise to harmonics in the output signal.
If the phase of an output signal is different from the phase
These harmonics produce distortions in the output
of input signal then such distortion is known as phase distortion.
signal. The distortions caused due to harmonics
are known as harmonic distortions. Harmonic If different amounts of phase shifts occur at different
components occur at frequencies 2f1, 3f1, 4f1...., frequencies of an output signal then it becomes necessary to
(where, f1 = Fundamental frequency of signal). compensate for such phase distortions. While if same amount
of phase shift occurs at all frequencies then such phase distor-
(ii) Intermodulation Distortion tion cannot be ignored. The phase distortion arises due to the
When two signals of different frequencies (f1 and f2) presence of energy storage elements in the circuit (i.e., reactive
are mixed together (i.e., heterodyned) the resultant components such as capacitor, inductor)
signal will be a sum or difference of the actual (iv) Crossover Distortion
frequencies of the signal i.e., f1 ± f2, 2f1 ± f2,.....etc. The improper biasing voltages of the electronic compo-
Thus, when the signals are heterodyned, additional nents of an amplifier (for example, push-pull amplifier) gives
frequency components are generated which are rise to crossover distortion as shown in the figure below.
undesirable and which lead to distortions in the
signal. The distortion caused by heterodyning of
different frequency signals is known as intermodu-
altion distortion.
Q44. Explain different types of distortions caused
by amplifiers.
Dec.-13, Set-3, Q3(a)

OR
Explain about various types of distortions
occurring in signals. How can they be analyzed?
Figure
Ans:
(v) Intermodulation Distortion
Distortion refers to the deviation in any parameter (like When two signals of different frequencies are mixed
amplitude, frequency, shape) of a signal from that of an ideal sig- together (i.e., heterodyned) the resultant signal will be a sum or
nal. The non-linear characteristics of the elements of an electronic difference of the actual frequencies of the signals. Thus, when
circuit gives rise to harmonics in the output signal which in turn the signals are heterodyned, additional frequencies are gener-
causes distortion of the output signal. The distortion caused due ated which are undesirable and thereby leads to distortion. The
to harmonics is known as harmonic distortion. distortion caused by heterodyning of frequencies is known as
The different types of harmonic distortions caused by intermodulation distortion.
an electronic circuit (for example, electronic amplifier) are as The various distortions in the signal can be analyzed
follows, using a distortion analyser (for example, harmonic distortion
(i) Amplitude distortion analyser).
(ii) Frequency distortion Q45. Explain the concept of Wien’s Bridge method of
harmonic distortion analyzer along with circuit
(iii) Phase distortion
diagram.
(iv) Crossover distortion (Refer Only Topic: Harmonic Distortion Analyzer using
(v) Intermodulation distortion. Wien Bride)
(i) Amplitude Distortion April/May-17, Set-4, Q3(b)

When the amplitude of the output signal is not a linear OR

function of the amplitude of input signal under specific condi- Explain the working of harmonic distortion ana-
tions then such type of distortion is known as amplitude distor- lyzer employing resonance bridge and Wien’s
tion. Amplitude distortion occurs when the amplifier gives rise bridge methods and compare them.
to harmonics of the fundamental frequency of the input signal. Ans: May-13, Set-3, Q3(a)

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2.32 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Harmonic Distortion Analyzer using Resonance Bridge
The harmonic distortion analyzer employing resonance bridge for the measurement of total harmonic distortions is shown
in figure (1).

Figure (1): Harmonic Distortion Analyzer using Resonance Bridge

The bridge consists of three resistances, one inductance and capacitance. The inductance and capacitance are turned to
fundamental frequency, so that the bridge is balanced to fundamental frequency. If there is a variation in fundamental frequency, then
the bridge has to be balanced and if the inductance and capacitance of the bridge has fixed values, then this method is compatible
only to the test signal which is having constant frequency. The fundamental frequency in this bridge is to continuously adjusted.
When the bridge is unbalanced, the harmonic distortions can be measured because the harmonic power under the unbalanced
condition sets up at the output terminal of the analyzer.
Indicators are used in the analyzer which indicates the effective or Root Mean Square (RMS) value of all the harmonics.
They can be either thermocouples or square law V.T.V.M’s.
Harmonic Distortion Analyzer using Wien Bridge
The harmonic distortion analyzer employing wien bridge is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Harmonic Distortion Analyzer using wien Bridge

Wien bridge method is used when frequent adjustment of fundamental frequency is required. The test signal is applied
to the bridge. The bridge is made to be balanced for the fundamental frequency. The energy of the fundamental frequency is
dispersed in the elements of the bridge. At the balanced condition, C1 = C2 = C, R1 = R2 = R, R3 = 4R4. The harmonic components
of the signal reaches the output terminals of the analyzer. Further, the output is measured by a calibrated meter.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.33
Comparison of Resonance Bridge and Wien Bridge Method of Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
Resonance Bridge Wien Bridge
1. The circuit diagram of resonance bridge harmonic 1. The circuit diagram of wien bridge harmonic distortion
distortion analyzer is shown in the following analyzer is shown in following figure.
figure.

Figure: Resonance Bridge Harmonic Distortion Analyzer Figure: Wien Bridge Harmonic Distortion Analyzer
2. The elements such as resistance, inductance 2. The elements such as resistances and variable capacitances
and capacitance are used in this bridge. are used in this bridge.
3. Continuous adjustment of fundamental frequency 3. This method is suitable for continuous adjustment of
cannot be done using this method. fundamental frequency.
4. Inductance and capacitance are turned to 4. At fundamental frequency, the circuit becomes balanced
fundamental frequency for the bridge to be provided,
balanced. C1 = C2 = C
R1 = R2 = R
R3 = 2R4

2.10 SPECTRUM ANALYZERS

Q46. Explain with the help of a block diagram the working of a spectrum analyzer.
(Nov./Dec-12, Set-3, Q3(a) | Nov.-10, Set-4, Q3(a))
OR
Explain with the help of block diagram the operation of a spectrum analyzer.
Ans: (Nov.-11, Set-4, Q3(a) | Model Paper-III, Q3(b))
Spectrum analyzer is an instrument designed to provide graphical display of the spectrum of frequencies on the CRT with
amplitude of signal versus frequency i.e., amplitude (voltage) on Y-axis and frequency on X-axis. Spectrum analyzers can be
operated in two techniques namely, parallel filter bank technique and swept frequency technique. A functional block diagram of
a swept frequency spectrum analyzer is shown in figure (1).

Figure (1): Spectrum Analyzer (Swept Frequency Type)

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The input signal to be tested is applied to the mixer. Draw and discuss the spectral displays of vari-
The Sawtooth generator supplies sawtooth voltage signal to ous modulations using spectrum analyzer.
both frequency control components of the voltage tuned local Ans: Nov./Dec-12, Set-1, Q3(a)
oscillator and to the horizontal deflection plates of the CRO.
The oscillator then sweeps between its maximum frequency to Some of the examples of signals that are applied to the
spectrum analyzer, to observe a spectra of display or a graphical
minimum frequency level i.e., within the frequency band at a
display on CRT are,
linear recurring rate and beats with the input signal frequency
to generate an intermediate frequency. This (IF) Intermediate (i) Continuous wave signal
Frequency component is produced whenever a frequency (ii) Amplitude modulation
component is present during the sweep (i.e., the frequency
(iii) Frequency modulation
component of voltage tuned oscillator beats with frequency
component of input signal to provide difference frequency signal (iv) Pulse modulation.
which is nothing but intermediate frequency. The resulting IF (i) Continuous Wave Signal
components are amplified by IF amplifier and then detected in When a continuous wave signal is applied at the input of
detector circuit. This detected signal is then applied to vertical a spectrum analyzer, the signal is slowly swept by the voltage
deflection plates of CRO. Therefore a plot of amplitude versus tuned oscillator of the spectrum analyzer. Due to this a display
frequency appears on the CRT. appears on the CRT screen which is a plot of IF amplifier pass
If a single tuned A.M. wave is applied at the input then band. Therefore, a single spike appears on the CRT screen when
the resulting spectrum at the output is shown in the following this signal is applied because this signal has energy at only one
figures (2) and (3), component of frequency.
This display results when the spectrum width or sweep
width of total RF signal is large (wide), compared with the width
of IF (Intermediate frequency) band in the spectrum analyzer.

Figure (2): Test Wave Display on an Ordinary CRO

Figure (1): Display seen on CRT when Continuous Wave Signal is

Applied
(ii) Amplitude Modulation
If a continuous signal having frequency fc is amplitude
Figure (3): Display seen on Spectrum CRO modulated using an input signal having frequency fs, then two
side band signals having frequencies fc – fs (frequency of lower
Q47. Describe the basic circuit of a spectrum ana- side band signal) and fc + fs (frequency of upper side band signal)
lyzer. Explain how the spectra of the following will be produced. Therefore, the display appears on the CRT
is displayed. screen the signal having frequency fc and the two side band
(i) Continuous wave signals frequency signals (as shown in figure (2)). The magnitudes of
side band frequencies relative to the carrier frequency depends
(ii) Amplitude modulated signals
on the % modulation (percentage of modulation). From the
(iii) Frequency modulated signal display seen on CRT, we can calculate modulation frequency,
(iv) Pulse modulated signal. carrier frequency, non-linear modulation, incidental frequency
modulation, modulation percentage, spurious signal location
Dec.-13, Set-2, Q3
and strength, provided the spectrum width, vertical response
OR and frequency of the spectrum analyzer are calibrated.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.35

Time Amplitude Plot

Frequency Amplitude Plot

Figure (2): Single Tone Amplitude Modulation
(iii) Frequency Modulation
When a continuous wave signal having frequency fc is frequency modulated at a rate fp then an infinite number of side
bands will be produced (as shown in figure (3)). These side bands are placed at some space apart from each other or placed at
intervals of fc + nfp. (n = 1, 2, 3, 4.....). In practice only those side bands which have significant power are considered.

Figure (3): Amplitude Spectra of Single Tone Frequency Modulation

(iv) Pulse Modulation

Figure (4): Rectangular Waveform (in Time Domain)

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When a frequency spectrum of a periodic rectangular pulse train as shown in figure (4) (with zero rise time and no overshoot)
is to be analyzed, the pulse should be divided into separate frequency components. This is done by adding a constant voltage,
fundamental frequency and its third harmonic components are combined algebraically as shown in figure (5),

Figure (5): Addition of Fundamental Cosine and its Harmonics (to form a Rectangular Pulse)
Due to the addition of these waves the pulse becomes a perfect rectangular wave. In frequency domain, the amplitude and
phases of a number harmonics are drawn thereby results a smooth envelop as shown in figure (6),

Figure (6): Spectrum of Perfectly Rectangular Pulse

By using this pulse in amplitude modulating a carrier, the sums and also difference of all harmonic components present
in the pulse and the carrier are produced. Due to this the harmonic frequencies produce a number of sidebands (as in case of
amplitude modulation). On the output display of spectrum analyzer, these side bands are referred to as spectral lines. The resultant
spectrum due to rectangular pulse modulation of a carrier is shown in figure (7),

Figure (7): Output Spectrum of Carrier Amplitude when Modulated by Rectangular Pulse

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.37
The single lines indicate modulation product of the carrier and frequency of modulating pulse with its harmonics. Therefore
the lines are located at some space in frequency by an amount that is equal to the pulse repetition rate of the actual pulse. The
main lobe (in the centre) and side lobes are represented in the figure (7) as groups of spectral lines by (extending above the base
line and below the base line). A perfect rectangular pulse has an infinite number of side lobes.
Q48. Explain the two types of spectrum analyzers.
Ans:
The two types of spectrum analyzers are,
1. Filter bank spectrum analyzer
2. Superheterodyne spectrum analyzer.
1. Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer
The basic block diagram of a filter bank spectrum analyzer is shown in figure (1),

Figure (1): Block Diagram of a Filter Bank Spectrum Analyzer

The filter bank spectrum analyzer consist of n number of filters which are tuned for a fixed frequency and n number of
detectors. The filter is a frequency selective device which passes through certain band of frequencies and rejects remaining
frequencies.
Since, the filter is tuned to a fixed frequency it allows only one band of frequency. The function of a detector is to measure
the power level of the output of the filter.
The output of each detector is a D.C. signal and is applied to electronic sweep switch whose function is to select only
one output of detector at a time and fed to the vertical deflecting plates of the CRT. When the ramp generator sweeps along its
frequency range a line or trace is produced on the CRT screen. The pattern produced on the screen of the CRT is nothing but the
spectral content of the input signal. The drawback of this type of analyzer is that it requires more hardware to meet the resolution
and desired frequency range.
2. Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer
The modern spectrum analyzers use a narrow band superheterodyne receiver. Superheterodying is nothing but mixing of
frequencies in the super or above audio range. The functional block diagram of superheterodyne spectrum analyzer or RF spectrum
analyzer is shown in figure (2),

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Figure (2): Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer or RF Spectrum Analyzer

The RF input to be analyzed is applied to the input attenuator. After attenuating, the signal is fed to low pass filter.
The low pass filter suppresses high frequency components and allows low frequency components to pass through it. The
output of the low pass filter is given to the mixer, where this signal is mixed with the signal coming from voltage controlled
or voltage tuned oscillator. This oscillator is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz range. The output of the mixer includes two signals whose
amplitudes are proportional to the input signal but their frequencies are the sum and difference of the input signal and the frequency
of the local oscillator. Since the frequency range of the oscillator is tuned over 2 to 3 GHz, the IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow
band of frequencies of about 2 GHz. Therefore only those signals which are separated from the oscillator frequency by 2 GHz are
converted to Intermediate Frequency (IF) band. This IF signal is amplified by IF amplifier and then rectified by the detector. After
completing amplification and rectification the signal is applied to vertical plates of CRO to produce a vertical deflection on the
CRT screen. Thus, when the sawtooth signal sweeps, the oscillator also sweeps linearly from minimum to maximum frequency
range i.e., from 2 to 3 GHz. Here the sawtooth signal is applied not only to the oscillator (to tune the oscillator) but also to the
horizontal plates of the CRO to get the frequency axis or horizontal deflection on the CRT screen. On the CRT screen the vertical
axis is calibrated in amplitude and the horizontal axis is calibrated in frequency.
Applications
These analyzers are widely used in the field of,
(i) Bio-medical
(ii) RADARs
(iii) Oceanography.
Q49. What is heterodyning and explain the use of heterodyning in spectrum analyzer along with its circuit
diagram?
Ans: April/May-17, Set-3, Q3(b)

Heterodyning
Heterodyning is defined as the process of mixing (or) combining a high-frequency signal with other equivalent signal to
produce a lower frequency signal. The new signals formed in the process of heterodyning are termed as ‘heterodynes’.
Use of Heterodyning in Spectrum Analyzer
For answer refer Unit-II, Q48, Topic: Superheterodyne Spectrum Analyzer.
The main function of mixer is to mix the input signal frequency with the fundamental frequency of the voltage tuned local
oscillator. Usually, LPF is used at the input of the spectrum analyzer to remove the spurious inputs with the harmonics of the local
oscillator. The frequency range of spectrum analyzer can be increased by using BPF instead of LPF at the input of the spectrum
analyzer.
Hence, the frequency range of a spectrum analyzer is increased with heterodyning (or) harmonic mixing.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.39
Q50. Distinguish between spectrum analyzer and harmonic distortion analyzer.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(b)

Spectrum Analyzers Harmonic Distortion Analyzers

1. Spectrum analyzer provides a display of the signal 1. These are designed to measure the total harmonic content
in frequency domain (i.e., display of amplitude Vs present in a distorted or complex waveform.
frequency).
2. The frequency domain representation of the signal 2. They do not indicate the frequency and amplitude of each
consists of various frequency components of the component wave.
signal, in the form of spectral lines. Hence, spectral
lines indicate the amplitude of the signal at each
frequency.
3. It can be used for spectral analysis in the frequency 3. These can be operated within a band of 5 Hz to 1 MHz
range of few Hz to 40 GHz. frequencies.
4. It is also known as real time spectrum analyzer 4. Harmonic distortion analyzer is generally known as a
because it can display the entire spectrum of the distortion analyzer.
signal frequencies simultaneously on the same screen.
5. – 5. These can be used along with a frequency generator.
6. It is very useful for analysis of complex spectra. 6. They measure quantitative harmonic distortion very
accurately.
7. It is used to measure amplitude, phase, distortion and 7. These can be used to measure frequency stability and
absolute level of sidebands which are introduced in spectral purity of signal sources.
the signal during amplitude of frequency or phase
modulation. It is widely employed in radar, oceano-
graphy and bio-medical fields.

Q51. Explain resolving power, frequency instabilities and dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q3(b)

Resolving Power
Resolving power is a number, which specifies, how close equal-amplitude sinusoids can be and still be resolved. The data
sheet given by the manufacturers indicate the resolving power by testing the 3 dB bandwidths of any available IF-filters. Two
equal amplitude sinusoids separated by the 3 dB bandwidth of a selected IF-filter is shown in the figure (1).

Figure (1)
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Frequency Instabilities

The resolution of spectrum analyzer depends on the frequency instabilities. The frequency instabilities are classified into
two types. They are,

1. Long-term frequency instability

2. Short-term frequency instability.

1. Long-term Frequency Instability

Long-term instability occurs because of the drift in the frequency of local oscillator. It causes the spectrum to move across
the screen. If the movement is very fast it may not be possible to keep the display at the centre of the screen.

2. Short-term Frequency Instability

It occurs because of the phase noise or sideband noise of local oscillator. Hence, it is also known as phase instability. As the
oscillators are either phase or frequency modulated by random noise, the instabilities of local oscillator are moved to any mixer
circuit, which takes the signal of local oscillator and input signals. Hence, the local oscillator phase noise modulation sidebands
results around any spectral component on the display, which is at a distance above the broadband noise floor of the system.

The difference in amplitudes of a displayed spectral component and the phase noise is the function of the stability of local
oscillator and also a function of the resolution bandwidth. The amplitude of the phase noise will be low.

(i) If the local oscillator is highly stable.

(ii) If the resolution bandwidth decreases by a factor of 10.

Figure (2): Phase Noise Appeared Above the Noise Floor

Dynamic Range

For answer refer Unit-II, Q10, Topic: Dynamic Range

Q52. What is the dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer with a 30 kHz, 3 dB bandwidth, a noise figure of 15 dB
and a third order intercept of +25 dBm.

Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q3(b)

Given that,

Bandwidth, BW = 30 kHz

Noise figure, NF = 15 dB

Third order intercept, Ip = 25 dBm

Dynamic range, Rd = ?

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.41
The noise level or the Minimum Detectable Signal (MDS) is given by,

MDS = – 114 dBm + 10 log + NF

= – 114 + 10 log + 15

= – 114 + 10 log(0.03) + 15
= – 114 – 15.228 + 15
MDS = –114.228 dBm
The dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer is given by,
2
Rd =
[I – MDS]
3 p
2
= [25 – (–114.228)]
3
2
= [139.228]
3

2.11 DIGITAL FOURIER ANALYZERS

Q53. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the operation of digital spectrum analyzer.
April-18, Set-3, Q3(a)

OR
Draw the circuit diagram of digital fourier analyzers and explain its operation.
April/May-17, Set-1, Q3(b)

OR
Explain with neat sketch of the digital Fourier analyze.
Dec.-13, Set-4, Q3(b)

OR
Explain the working principle of a digital Fourier analyzer.
May-13, Set-2, Q3(a)

OR
Explain the operation of a digital spectrum analyzer.
Nov.-11, Set-3, Q3(b)

OR
Explain the operating principle of a digital spectrum analyzer. Draw the basic block diagram for a digital
spectrum analyzer and describe its operation.
Ans: (Nov.-10, Set-2, Q3(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q3(b))

A spectrum analyzer, which uses computer algorithm and an analog to digital conversion phenomenon and produces
spectrum of a signal applied at its input is known as digital Fourier or digital FFT or digital spectrum analyzer.
Principle
When the analog signal to be analyzed is applied, the A/D converter digitizes the analog signal (i.e., converts the analog
signal into digital signal). The digitized signal, which is nothing but the set of digital numbers indicating the amplitude of the
analog signal as a function of time is stored in the memory of the digital computer. From the stored digitized data, the spectrum
of the signal is computed by means of computer algorithm.

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Description
The block arrangement of a digital Fourier analyzer is illustrated in the following figure.

Figure: Digital Fourier Analyzer

The analog signal to be analyzed is applied to the low pass filter, which passes only low frequency signals and rejects high
pass spurious signals. This filter section is used mainly to prevent aliasing. The output of low pass filter is given to the attenuator.
The attenuator is a voltage dividing network whose function is to set the input signal to the level of the A/D converter. The use of
attenuator prevents the converter from overloading. The function of A/D converter is to convert the samples of analog data into
digital i.e., to digitize the analog signal. When the output of A/D converter is applied to the digital computer, the computer analyzes
the digitized data and adjusts the attenuator setting accordingly in order to obtain the maximum output from the converter
without any overloading. As soon as all the analog signal is sampled and digitized by the A/D converter, the computer performs
calculations on the data according to the programmed algorithm and the calculated spectral components are stored in the memory
of the computer.
If the spectral display is to be viewed on the oscilloscope, the digital values of spectral components stored in the computer
memory are converted into analog by using D/A converters and then applied to the CRO. Thus, the spectral display of the input
waveform is obtained on the CRT screen.
Advantages
1. The use of computer avoids most of the hardware circuitry such as electronic switches, filters and PLLs. The use of less
hardware reduces the cost of the analyzer.
2. More mathematical calculations can be carried-out on the spectral display.
3. The rate of sampling of analog signal can be modified in order to obtain better spectral display.
Q54. Draw and explain the block diagram of digital signal analyzer. Discuss the processing of one and two
channel systems using relevant expressions for correlation functions, spectral densities and transfer
function.
Ans: May-13, Set-2, Q3(b)

Signal analyzers which use digital methods for obtaining the information passed on the signal are called digital signal
analyzers. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a common digital technique employed in many digital signal analyzers. The block
diagram of a digital signal analyzer as shown in figure uses an FFT algorithm.

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UNIT-2 Signal Generator and Wave Analyzers 2.43
The digital signal analyzer consists of three main sections. They are as follows,
1. Input section
2. Control section
3. Display section.
1. Input Section
In consists of two similar channels, input amplifiers, anti-aliasing filters, ADC converters, noise generators, multipliers
and digital filters.
2. Control Section
It consists of Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) processor, 48 k memory, keyboard or controller.
3. Display Section
It usually consists of a CRT monitor. It also has a character and stroke generator with which signal is passed and displayed
on the CRT.
Working
A signal analyzer basically has two or multiple input signal channels. But generally two input signal channels are used
for determining the cross spectra, correlation functions, coherence functions and transfer functions or frequency response. The
two channels of a digital signal analyzer extends to the input amplifiers. The input signal from the channels is passed to the input
amplifier where the signal is amplified and conditioned. Each input amplifier connects to two anti-aliasing filters. The frequency
of these filters are 300 Hz and 30 kHz as shown in figure.
A 12 bit ADC is connected to the anti-alising filters which converts the signal into digital form. The two analog to digital
converters are in turn linked to the multipliers where the output signal of ADC is multiplied and then passed to the digital filters.
The signal is multiplied based on the type of the analyzer to be used. Base band mode and band selectable mode are the two
types of analyzers. In base band mode, the spectrum is displayed from a D.C to an upper frequency within the bandwidth of the
analyzer whereas in band selectable mode, full resolution of the analyzer is focussed in a narrow frequency band. Thus, the signal
is multiplied by a sine or cosine function depending on the mode of the analyzer to be used.
The processing of the input signal is carried out in control section with the help of an FFT processor. When one channel
is used in the processing, the magnitude and phase spectra of the linear spectrum is provided with respect to time domain as,
Sx( f ) = F [x(t)]
Where,
Sx( f ) is the linear spectrum
F [x(t)] is the Fourier transform of x(t).
The auto spectrum (Gxx( f )) can be obtained from linear spectrum which does not contain phase information as,
Gxx( f ) = Sx( f ) Sx( f )*
Where,
Sx( f )* is the complex conjugate of Sx( f ).
By normalizing the auto spectrum function to a bandwidth of 1 Hz, the Power Spectral Density (PSD) is determined. The
inverse Fourier transform of Gxx( f ) is given by,
Rxx(τ) = F–1 Gxx( f )
Rxx(τ) = F–1 [Sx( f) Sx( f )*]
The autocorrelation function can be obtained by changing the above equation into time domain characteristics of the signal
x(t) as,

Rxx(τ) =

When two channels are used in the processing, the properties of the two signals are combined and determined. The cross-
power spectrum of the two signals x(t) and y(t) is given as,
Gyx( f ) = Sy(t) Sx(t)*

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Where,
x(t) is the input to the system
y(t) is the output of the system
Sy(t) is linear spectrum of y(t)
Sx(t)* is complex conjugate spectrum of x(t)
The transfer function H( f ) of the system having both amplitude and phase spectra is given as,

H( f ) =

The bar in the equation represents time averaged values.

Q55. What resolution, total frequency display and dynamic range would be available from an input signal
that was sampled for 4s at a sampling rate of 20 kHz using a 10 bit conversion?
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q3(b)

Given that,
Time period for sampling, T = 4 sec
Sampling frequency, fs = 20 kHz
Number of bits, N = 10 bit
(i) Resolution, fr = ?
(ii) Total frequency display, ftotal = ?
(iii) Dynamic range, Rd = ?
(i) The resolution or resolution frequency is given by,

fr =

1
=
4
= 0.25 Hz

(ii) The highest frequency of a complete signal is half of the sampling frequency. It is given as,
1
ftotal = ×f
2 s

= 10 × 103 Hz

(iii) The dynamic range of FFT analyzer is given as,

Rd = 20 log 2N
= 20 log 210
= 20 log 1024

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.1

Marketed by:

UNIT
OSCILLOSCOPES

3 SIA GROUP

PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. Write short notes on following terms,
(i) Fluorescence
(ii) Phosphorescence
(iii) Persistence.
Ans:
(i) Fluorescence
CRTs uses different types of phosphors, which are coated inside the CRT screen. When the electron beam strikes the
phosphor crystals, they absorbs the kinetic energy of the electrons and hence their energy level rises. This process is called as
cathodoluminescence. Phosphor emits light during excitation. This light emitting property of phosphor is called fluorescence.
(ii) Phosphorescence
One of the most important characteristic of fluorescent material is phosphorescence. It is the property of the material,
which continues to emit light for some time even after the electron beam is switched off.
(iii) Persistence
The duration for which phosphorescence occurs is a measure of the persistence of the fluorescent material. Different
types of phosphor will have different trace colour, persistence etc. So, the choice among the types of phosphor depends upon the
applications for which it is being employed. Most of the modern CROs use short persistence phosphors like P1, P2, P11, P31 etc.,
due to their fast refresh capability.
Q2. The input attenuator in the vertical amplifier of a general purpose CRO is generally followed by an
emitter follower or cathode follower circuit. Suggest three reasons for using this circuit.
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(c)
Figure shows the basic block diagram of a vertical amplifier.

Figure: Block Diagram of a Vertical Amplifier

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The input attenuator in the vertical amplifier of a general In the ordinary mode of operation of oscilloscope,
purpose CRO is generally followed by an emitter follower or the bandwidth and gain requirements of horizontal amplifier
cathode follower circuit. Reasons for using this circuit are, are different from those of vertical amplifier. In this mode of
operation the vertical amplifier able to reproduce low amplitude,
1. The proper selection of the input attenuator keep the
high frequency signals whose rise time are very fast. Here, the
vertical amplifier within its signal handling capacity.
horizontal amplifier is used for faithful reproduction of sweep
2. The pre-amplifier first element is the input stage, which signal whose amplitude is high and rise time is slow.
consist a FET source follower. The high input impedance
Q5. Define deflection sensitivity of a CRT.
of a FET source follower isolates the amplifier from the
attenuator. Ans: April/May-17, Set-2, Q1(c)

3. The impedance of FET output is medium, which is The deflection sensitivity (S) of a cathode ray tube is
matched with the low impedance input of the phase defined as the deflection of the screen (D) per unit deflection
inverter hence FET input stage is followed by a BJT voltage (Ed).
emitter follower. D
i.e., S = ... (1)
Q3. Discuss the factors affecting the brightness of Ed
the display. Ll d E d
We have, D =
Ans: (April-18, Set-2, Q1(c) | Model Paper-III, Q1(c)) 2d E a

Factors Affecting the Brightness of Display Substituting value of D in equation (1), we get,
Ll d E d 1
The brightness of display produced on the screen of CRT S= ×
depends on, 2d E a E d

(i) The number of electrons present in the beam. Lld

\ S= mV
2dE a
(ii) Luminance efficiency of the phosphor.
Q6. Explain the basic principle of CRO in detail.
(iii) Energy of the emitted beam.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q1(c)
The energy of beam is a product of beam current density,
accelerating potential and writing time. i.e., A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope commonly abbreviated as
CRO, is used to convert electrical signals into visual signals
∴ Beam energy = Current density × Accelerating potential i.e., as a function of time. An electrical signal given to CRT
× Writing time potential appears on the CRT screen as waveform which can be analyzed
Q4. Write short notes on following terms, visually.
(a) Horizontal position The CRO depends on the movement of an electron beam.
The main source of electron beam is the cathode which emits the
(b) External horizontal input. electrons when heated up by indirect heating. Heater supplies
Ans: the heat energy required for the emission of electrons. These
electrons moves towards the pre-accelerating anode through the
(a) Horizontal Position small hole present at the center of the grid. The pre-accelerating
It is tuned clockwise or anticlockwise to shift the trace anode and the accelerating anode supplies the required amount
right or left. It will also shift two traces if the oscilloscope is in of accelerated to hit the screen. Focusing anode provides the
dual trace mode. It does not affect the point at which the trace required focus of the electron beam on the screen. Further the
is triggered. If the horizontal position knob is pulled, the sweep acceleration and focused electron beam passes through the
is multiplied by a factor of 5. It’s a quick way to observe the vertical and horizontal deflecting plates which provides the
details of a waveform. It’s effect is, if 5 cycles are displayed on adjustments in X-plane and Y-plane respectively.
the screen, only one cycle will be displayed when the horizontal A high voltage is applied to the pre-accelerating and
position knob is pulled. accelerating anodes. A voltage of lesser magnitude is applied
(b) External Horizontal Input to the focusing anode. By increasing the potential applied to
the focusing anode, the electron beam appearing on the screen
The final stage of a horizontal deflection system is the become sharper. It is also used to measure the voltage and
horizontal amplifier which serves basically for two purposes. frequency of the input signal.
1. In ordinary mode of operation of oscilloscope, when Q7. Mention the advantages of general purpose
signal is applied to vertical input the horizontal amplifier oscilloscope.
is used to amplify the output of sweep generator. Ans:
2. In the X-Y mode of oscilloscope, horizontal amplifier The following are the advantage of general purpose
the signal applied to its input terminal. oscilloscope are,

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.3
1. It provides a graphical display of the amplitude of a Ans:
signal as a function of time. Hence, it is used to measure
(i) Intensity
various electrical parameters.
2. Amplitude of signals like voltage, current, power etc., This control is used to adjust the intensity (brightness)
can be measured by the oscilloscope. of the light output on CRO screen. Intensity of the light output
3. Apart from amplitude measurement, it can measure depends on the density of electron beam which in turn is a
frequency, phase angle, time delay of the signal, time function of potential between cathode and control grid. This
between two events, and relative timing of two related potential is varied with the help of intensity control.
signals. (ii) D.C Shift
4. It has an advantage over electro-mechanical measuring D.C shift controls are used to centre the spot on the
devices that it can respond very well to high frequency screen. It includes the following controls,
signals because it is completely an electronic device.
5. General purpose CRO’s are used for maintenance of X-shift Control
electronic equipment and laboratory work. It shifts or moves the spot in X-direction (i.e.,
6. It can also be used to measure capacitance, inductance, horizontally on the screen) by applying a D.C voltage
etc. to the X-deflection (i.e., horizontal deflection) plates.
Q8. Explain the function of the following oscillo- Y-shift Control
scope controls,
It shifts or moves the spot in Y-direction (i.e., vertically
(i) Delayed sweep on the screen) by applying a D.C voltage to the
(ii) ALT/CHOP mode. Y-deflection (i.e., vertical deflection) plates.
Ans: (iii) Trigger Level
(i) Delayed Sweep
For answer refer Unit-III, Q30, Topic: Trigger Level
Delayed sweep introduces a certain amount of time Control.
between the trigger point and the starting of the scope sweep.
If the scope is being used in the sweep mode, the horizontal Q10. Discuss the sync selector circuit in brief.
sweep can be delayed for a period of few µs to greater than 10
seconds. Ans:
Due to delayed sweep, an operator can view oscillations Synchronous selector circuit is used to select the source
or ringing caused during small area of a low frequency wave. of synchronization. In order to obtain the stationary pattern
Thus, delayed sweep makes it possible to view a small part of on the CRT, the synchronization is must. Synchronization is
the waveform. basically classified into three types.
Delayed sweep feature of an oscilloscope is used,
(i) Internal Synchronization
(a) To magnify a choosen portion of an under layed
sweep. (ii) External Synchronization
(b) To measure rise time or jitter of waveform. (iii) Line Sychronization
(c) To verify pulse time modulation. (i) Internal Synchronization
(ii) ALT/CHOP mode
In this method, the triggering pulse is achieved from the
For answer refer Unit-III, Q36, Topics: Alternate Mode, signal which is measured through the circuit of vertical amplifier.
Chopp Mode.
In case of alternate sweep, every time the sweep (ii) External Synchronization
generator is triggered to change the electronic switch to different In case of external synchronization an external trigger
channel, it cannot display two simultaneous events. If the signals source is employed to supply trigger pulses. These trigger pulses
are periodic in nature, then this problem can be overcome. If are used to initiate or trigger the signal which is being measured.
the signals are non-periodic in nature, chopped sweep is to be
used. (iii) Line Synchronization
If the signal frequency is comparable with that of In this method, the triggering pulse is achieved when the
chopping frequency then chopped sweep cannot be used and power supply is applied to the CRO.
hence alternate sweep is to be used.
Q11. What are the advantages of dual beam for
Q9. Explain the following oscilloscope controls,
multiple trace oscilloscopes?
(i) Intensity
(April-18, Set-1, Q1(c) | Model Paper-II, Q1(c))
(ii) D.C shift
(iii) Trigger level. OR

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What are the features of a dual beam oscilloscope?
Ans: April-18, Set-4, Q1(c)

The following are the advantages of dual beam for multiple trace oscilloscope are,
1. A multiple trace oscilloscope making use of dual beam provides a simultaneous display of the two input waveforms on
the CRO screen. Hence dual beam CRO is used to compare one signal with another signal.
2. It can capture two fast transient events.
3. It also provides a continuous display of the signals, whereas the display of the two signals provided by a dual trace oscil-
loscope consists of small gaps in the trace.
4. It has two separate vertical channels for two input signals.
5. It can also have two separate time base circuits (i.e. horizontal deflection systems). Hence, in dual beam CRO, two input
signals can be swept horizontally at different rates. Due to this feature, a fast signal can be graphically compared with a
slow signal simultaneously on the CRO screen.
Q12. What are the advantages of an active probe?
Ans:
The following are the advantages of an active probe are,
1. The active probes are widely used to connect fast rising and high frequency signals.
2. Due to very small attenuation factor active probes are frequently used for small signal measurements.
3. The loading effect eliminated by the output impedance of FET source follower is very low.
4. Capacitance of an active probe is very low (i.e., order of 2 to 3 pF).
5. The input impedance of active probes is very high.
Q13. What are the advantages of using –ve HV supply in CRO?
Ans:
The advantages of using negative (–ve) power supply are as follows,
1. When negative supply is applied, the oscilloscope sets up to the ground potential. The deflection plates and accelerating
anodes are mounted near ground potential. So this potential guards the operator from high voltage shocks during plates
connection.
2. The oscilloscope does not need the high voltage blocking capacitors as the measurement of deflection voltages are with
reference to the ground potential.
3. The control knobs and the other probes require less separation (isolation). This means, the unnecessary elements can be
removed from the oscilloscope and the compact size can be reduced.
Q14. Why are the operating voltages of CRT arranged so that the deflection plates are nearly at the ground
potential.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(c)

In order to provide proper emission, acceleration and focusing of electron beam, the cathode ray tube has to be provided
with various D.C voltage levels. The cathode must be provided with a high negative potential so as to ensure proper electron
emission. The grid must also be provided with a high negative potential (Ofcourse, which will be few hundred volts more positive
than cathode) so that, the electron beam accelerates in the electric field. Also, the focusing anode is provided with a high negative
potential.
The post deflection acceleration electrode is provided with a high positive potential so that, a high acceleration of the
electron beam is obtained without affecting the deflection sensitivity.
So, the deflection plates which are located between the focusing anode (high negative potential) and the post deflection
accelerating electrode (high positive potential) are nearly at ground (0 V) potential.
In CRT, the voltage required to deflect the electron beam will be in the order of few hundreds of volts which depends
upon its construction and accelerating voltage. The input sensitivity of most of the CRO’s will be in the order of few millivolts
per division. Hence, the vertical amplifier has to provide a large amount of gain.
But, the arrangement of the operating voltages of the CRT prevents the output of vertical amplifier (also horizontal amplifier)
from being at high potential. Hence, the circuit design becomes simple due to this arrangement.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.5
Q15. Draw the diagram of sync selector and explain.
Ans:
The basic sync selector is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Sync Selector

It is a switch which consists of three modes that is int mode, ext mode and line mode to adjust the oscillope. The signals
from either of the three modes are used to synchronize the horizontal sweep generator.
For remaining answer refer Unit-III, Q10.
Q16. What is the need for a time base generator in a CRO?
Ans:
Time base generator is a generator which produces a signal to deflect on the spot developed on the x-axis of the screen. The
time varying signals produced on the oscilloscopes need time base generators that is proportional with time to display the output
signal on the x-axis or horizontal section of the CRO. The movement of the spot on the screen horizontally i.e., from extreme
left to extreme right is known as sweep. Time base generators are also called as sweep generators. They usually generate saw
tooth voltage and this voltage deflects the spot on the screen at fixed time. Time bases are the combination of sweep circuits and
display gating functions.
The motion of the spot from left to right is due to the sweep signal and the motion of the spot from right to left is invisible.
This phenomena of generating signal by time base generator is known as fly back or retrace. At this time of the process, CRT is
blank.
The sweep generator or time base generator also checks the timing control of the spot motion on the screen. This can be
adjusted by the knobs on the front panel control.
Q17. A Lissajous pattern on an oscilloscope is stationary and has 10 horizontal tangencies and 2 vertical
tangencies. The frequency of horizontal input is 1000 Hz, determine the frequency of vertical input.
Ans:
Given that,
Number of horizontal tangencies = 10
Number of vertical tangencies = 2
Frequency of horizontal input, fh = 1000 Hz
Frequency of vertical input, fv = ?
We know that,
The frequency ratio is given is,
fv
=
fh

fv =

10
= × 1000
2
fv = 5000 Hz
Thus, the frequency of vertical input is 5000 Hz.

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3.6 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

3.1 OSCILLOSCOPES – CRT FEATURES, VERTICAL AMPLIFIERS, HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION

SYSTEM, SWEEP

Q18. List out the different features of CRT in detail.

April/May-17, Set-3, Q1(c)

OR
Explain the important features of CRT.
Ans: (May-13, Set-4, Q4(a) | Model Paper-I, Q4(a))

The important features of Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) are,

(i) Size
(ii) Phosphor
(iii) Operating voltages
(iv) Deflection voltages.
(i) Size
The diameter of the screen is referred by size. CRT is heart of the oscilloscope. CRTs are available in sizes of 1,2,3,5 and
7 inches. CRT size of portable instruments is 3 inches consider a CRT with a number 5GP1 in which 5 indicates the size
of the tube. The horizontal and vertical viewing sizes of CRT are 10 cm and 8 cm respectively.
(ii) Phosphor
Phosphor is nothing but a screen, which is coated with a fluorescent material. The colour and persistence of the trace
are determined by the fluorescent material. Therefore the phosphor indicates the colour and persistance of the trace. The
colours of the trace in electrostatic CRTs are blue, green and blue green colours used for radar are blue-white, orange and
yellow, white is used in TVs. The length of time the trace remains on the screen after the signal has ended is referred by
persistence, which is expressed as short time, medium time and long time.
The designations for phosphor of the oscilloscope are,
P1 is green medium
P2 is blue green medium
P3 is blue very short
P11 is blue short.
A CRT number 5GP1 is a 5 inch Cathode Ray Tube whose persistence is a medium green trace. One of the frequently used
phosphor for photographing from the CRT screen is P11 (blue short).
(iii) Operating Voltages
Heater voltage required by the CRT is of 6.3 volts A.C. or D.C. at 600 mA. Usually, the voltages required by the CRT are
varied based on the type of tube used.
D.C. Voltages Range

1. Control voltage (Negative grid) – 14 V to – 200 V

2. Focussing anode (Positive anode no. 1) – 100 V to – 1100 V

3. Accelerating anode (Positive anode no. 2) 600 V to 6000 V

4. Accelerating anode (Positive anode no. 3) 200 V to 20000 V in some cases.

(iv) Deflection Voltages

The beam is deflected by either A.C. or D.C. voltage. The distance through which the visible spot moves on the CRT screen
is proportional to the peak A.C. amplitude or D.C. The peak A.C. voltage or D.C. required for 1 cm deflection of visible
spot (on the screen) is referred as deflection sensitivity of CRT.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.7
Q19. List out the cathode ray oscilloscope features.
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-4, Q4(a)
A CRO designed with the following specifications is allowed to use in instrumentation applications:
1. Bandwidth
The range of frequencies between which the signal is accurately reproduced on the screen of CRT is referred as bandwidth.
It can also be stated as the range of frequencies over which the vertical amplifier gain lies within ± 3 dB of the proper gain
(or the gain of wide band frequency).
The lower and upper frequency limits of bandwidth are given as f1 and f2 respectively. At f2 the gain of amplifier reduces
by 3 dB.
2. Rise Time
Rise time of a pulse signal is nothing but, the time taken for its rising edge to rise from 10% to 90% of its final amplitude.
The rise time of the oscilloscope should be fast compared to the rise time of the signal to be viewed, such as square pulse
etc. Due to this, the signal is reproduced accurately on the screen.
The rise time of a given oscillator is calculated as,
tr =
Where,
BW = Bandwidth
3. Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a CRO describes the expected deflection of the electron beam for a particular input signal.
The sensitivity of vertical amplifier ranges from 5 mV/Div. to 20 V/Div. The sensitivity of horizontal amplifier ranges from
100 mV/Div. to 0.5 V/Div.
4. Accuracy
The accuracy of vertical amplifier is ± 3% and the accuracy of horizontal amplifier is ± 5%.
5. Graticule
Its value is given as 8 × 10 Div. of 8 mm each.
6. Input Impedance
(i) Trigger circuit → 1 MΩ/30 pf
(ii) Horizontal amplifier → 1 MΩ/50 pf
(iii) Vertical amplifier → 1 MΩ/40 pf
7. Maximum Input Voltage
(i) Vertical amplifier → 400 V(D.C. + A.C. peak)
(ii) Horizontal amplifier → 250 V(D.C. + A.C. peak)
Q20. Explain with a neat block diagram of a horizontal deflection system.
(Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q4(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q4(a))
OR
Draw the block diagram of a basic horizontal deflection section and explain each and every block.
Nov.-11, Set-4, Q4(b)
OR
Draw the block diagram of a horizontal deflection amplifier and explain its working.
Ans:
The horizontal deflection system consists of a time base generator, a trigger circuit and a horizontal amplifier as shown in
figure (1). The time base generator controls the rate at which the beam is scanned across the face of the cathode ray tube and is
adjusted from the front panel.
The trigger circuit, ensures that the horizontal sweep starts at the same point of the vertical input signal.
The horizontal amplifier is similar to vertical amplifier and is required to increase the amplitude of the signals generated
in the sweep generator to the level required by the horizontal deflection plates of the cathode ray tube.

Figure (1): Block Diagram of Horizontal Deflection System

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Trigger Pulse Circuit
The trigger circuit is activated by signals of a variety of shapes and amplitudes which are converted to trigger pulses of
uniform amplitude for the precision sweep operation.
The trigger selection is a 3-position switch, internal-external line as shown in figure (2). The trigger input signal is applied
to a voltage comparator whose reference level is set by the trigger level control on the oscilloscope front panel. The comparator
circuit ‘C’ produces a change in the output whenever the trigger input exceeds the preset trigger levels. The pulse generator that
follows the comparator produces negative trigger pulses each time the comparator output crosses its quiescent level, which inturn
triggers the sweep generator to start the next sweep.

Figure (2): Trigger Pulse Circuit

Time Base Generator
The time base generator using a UJT is shown in figure (3), which is used to produce the sweep. When the power is first
applied, the UJT is OFF and the CT changes exponentially through RT. The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when
VE reaches the peak voltage Vp, the emitter to base diode become forward biased and the UJT triggers ON. This provides a low
resistance discharge path and capacitor discharges rapidly. The emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly and the
UJT goes OFF. The capacitor recharges and the cycle repeats. Here RT, CT are used to improve sweep linearity since RT is used
for continuous control of frequency within a range and CT is changed in steps of changing range. They are sometimes called as
timing resistor and timing capacitor respectively.

Figure (3): Circuit of Time Base Generator Figure (4): Sawtooth Output Waveform

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.9
Horizontal Amplifier
The horizontal amplifier serves two purposes. They are,
1. When the oscilloscope is being used in the ordinary mode of operation to display a signal applied to the vertical input, the
horizontal amplifier will amplify the sweep generator output.
2. When the oscilloscope is being used in the X-Y mode, the signal applied to the horizontal input terminal will be amplified
by a horizontal amplifier.

Figure (5): Block Diagram of the Horizontal Amplifier of an Oscilloscope

Q21. Explain the operation of vertical amplifier used in a CRO.
April-18, Set-2, Q4(a)
OR
Explain the vertical amplifier section of CRT along with block diagram.
April/May-17, Set-4, Q4(a)

OR
Describe about the vertical amplifier used in a CRO.
Dec.-13, Set-3, Q4(a)

OR
Explain the operation of vertical amplifier in CRT.
May-13, Set-1, Q4(b)

OR
Draw the block diagram of vertical amplifier and explain its working.
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q4(b) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q4(b) | Model Paper-II, Q4(a))

Figure shows the basic block diagram of a vertical amplifier,

Figure: Block Diagram of a Vertical Amplifier

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3.10 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The different stages of vertical amplifier is shown in figure, whose gain is fixed and expressed in V/div. The designing
of fixed gain amplifier is more easy. Hence the requirements of both bandwidth and stability are satisfied. The signal handling
capability of vertical amplifier depends on the selection of the input attenuator switch. The pre-amplifier first element is the input
stage, which consist at FET source follower. The high input impedance of a FET source follower isolates the amplifier from the
attenuator. The impedance of FET output is medium, therefore to match this medium impedance with the low impedance input of
the phase inverter. FET input amplifier stage is followed by a BJT emitter follower. The phase inverter produces two anti-phase
output signals. These output signals are used to operate the push-pull output amplifier. The push-pull output amplifier provides
equal signal voltages with opposite polarity to vertical deflection plates of the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).
Q22. Describe the following,
(a) Sources of synchronization
(b) Blanking circuit
(c) Focus control.
Ans:
(a) Sources of Synchronization
Synchronizing selector selects the source of synchronization. Synchronization source are basically classified into three
types,
1. Internal source of synchronization
2. External source of synchronization
3. Line source of synchronization.
1. Internal Source of Synchronization
In this method, the triggering pulse is achieved from the signal which is being measured through the circuit vertical amplifier.
2. External Source of Synchronization
In case of external source of synchronization an external trigger source is employed to supply trigger pulses. These trigger
pulses are used to initiate or trigger the signal which is being measured.
3. Line Source of Synchronization
In this method, the triggering pulse is achieved when the power supply is applied to the CRO.
(b) Blanking Circuit
The beam moves across the cathode ray tube in a straight horizontal line from left to right during the sweep time (Ts), when
the sawtooth sweep voltage is applied to the horizontal deflection plates. In this case, the rate of movement of the spot is greater
than the threshold of persistence of vision which will appear as a solid line.
A spot whose slow movement is noticed below the threshold of persistence of vision. A thin line or invisible line is obtained
from a spot whose movement is rapid. Hence, it is known that the spot remains invisible, when the flyback time is very small. The
flyback time (Tr) is zero, when we consider an ideal case. Therefore, the movement of spot from right to left remains invisible.
The beam movement from right to left causes confusion because of non zero flyback period for practical case. Therefore, the
retrace must be eliminated, which is obtained by applying a high – ve voltage to the grid during the flyback time. Usually, a sweep
generator is used to trigger the blanking voltage.
(c) Focus Control
It depends on the focusing electrode. The focusing electrode serves like a lens. Therefore, its focal length can be varied.
This variation in focal length occurs by varying the potential of the focusing anode.
Q23. Explain blanking and unblanking in an oscilloscope and discuss the need for blanking.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-3, Q4(a)

For answer refer Unit-III, Q22, Topic: Blanking Circuit

The positive pulses appearing in an active state of linear ramp is called unblanking pulse. The bias of this unblanking pulse
is applied to the cathode ray tube, which causes the electron beam to travel to the cathode ray screen.
The blanking pulses suppress the electron beam and drives it to the grid of the CRT. This causes no striking of electron
during the time, when the ramp is falling from high positive level to the low negative level. Thus, electron beam are suppressed
during flyback time, otherwise, the wave display the output with a horizontal line traced by an electron beam. The electron beams
are usually restrained during the flyback time from right to left as shown in below figures,

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.11

Figure (a): Unsuppressed Flyback Figure (b): Suppressed Flyback

The blanking and unblanking pulses of a voltage waveform from the output of a sweep generator is shown in below
figure (c),

Figure (c): Blanking and Unblanking Period in a Voltage Waveform

The linear ramp voltage waveform falls abruptly from a maximum value to the hold off position. During the generation of
a ramp signal, the unblanking pulse is applied in sweep time for adequate intensity of electron beam and when at the maximum
level, a blanking pulse is applied during retrace stage to turn off the electron beam.
During the hold off position, the blanking pulse causes the voltage waveform to come back to its original (start) level.
The blanking circuit is thus needed in an oscilloscope, which allows time for dynamic transient behaviour and also retraced to
disappear.
Q24. Write short notes on portable oscilloscopes.
April-18, Set-3, Q4(a)
OR
Explain in detail the principle of operation of a single beam CRO.
Dec.-13, Set-4, Q4(b)

OR
Write about portable oscilloscopes.
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q4(b)

OR
Draw the block diagram of a basic oscilloscope and explain the functions of each block.
(Nov.-11, Set-2, Q4(b) | Nov.-10, Set-3, Q4(a))

OR
With a neat block diagram, explain the function of each block of a general purpose oscillo-scope.
OR
Draw the block diagram of a general purpose oscilloscope and explain its basic operation.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q4(a)

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Figure shows the basic block diagram of a general 5. Horizontal Amplifier
purpose oscilloscope. A general purpose oscilloscope consist
The sawtooth voltage produce by the time base circuit is
of following parts,
amplified by the horizontal amplifier before it is applied
1. Cathode ray tube to horizontal deflection plates.
2. Vertical amplifier 6. Trigger Circuit
3. Delay line
The signals which are used to activate the trigger circuit
4. Time base circuit are converted to trigger pulses for the precision sweep
5. Horizontal amplifier operation whose amplitude is uniform. Hence the input
6. Trigger circuit signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized.
7. Power supply. 7. Power Supply
The voltages require by CRT, horizontal amplifier and
Input vertical amplifier are provided by the power supply
block. Power supply block of oscilloscope is classified
into two types,
(i) Negative high voltage supply
(ii) Positive low voltage supply.
The range of negative high voltage supply is from 1000
V to – 1500 V. The range of positive voltage supply is
from 300 V to 400 V.
Q25. Write short notes on electrostatic deflection.
Ans:
General arrangement for electrostatic deflection is shown
in figure,

Figure: Block Diagram of a General Purpose Oscilloscope

1. Cathode Ray Tube
It is the heart of the oscilloscope. When the electrons
emitted by the electron gun strikes the phosphor screen
of the CRT, a visual signal is displayed on the CRT.
2. Vertical Amplifier
The input signals are amplified by the vertical amplifier.
Usually, the vertical amplifier is a wide band amplifier
which passes the entire band of frequencies. Figure
3. Delay Line Assume,
As the name suggests that, this circuit is used to delay Va = Voltage of pre-accelerating anode (volts)
the signal for a period of time in the vertical section
e = Change of an electron (columbs)
of CRT. The input signal is not applied directly to the
vertical plates because the part of the signal gets lost, m = Mass of electron (kilogram)
when the delay line not used. Therefore, the input signal Vox = Velocity of electron (meter/sec)
is delayed by a period of time.
Vd = Potential between deflecting plates (volts)
4. Time Base Circuit
d = Distance between deflecting plates (meter)
Time base circuit uses a uni-junction transistor, which
is used to produce the sweep. The sawtooth voltage ld = Length of deflecting plates (meter)
produced by the time base circuit is required to deflect L = Distance between centre of the deflecting plates
the beam in the horizontal section. The spot is deflected and screen (meter)
by the sawtooth voltage at a constant time dependent D = Electron beam deflection on the screen in Y-axis
rate. direction (meter)

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.13
When the electron moves from cathode to accelerating From equations (7) and (8), we get,
anode the loss of potential energy is given as,
Potential energy = eVa ... (1) y =
An electron gain kinetic energy is given as,
1
Kinetic energy = mVox2 ... (2)
2 y =
By equating potential energy and kinetic energy,
We get, This equation looks like a parabolic equation and the
= eVa slope at any point (x, y) is,
2eV a = ... (9)

Vox2 =
m
From the above figure x = ld then we get tan φ value,
2eV a
Vox = ... (3)  V 
m ∴ tan φ = =  ∈y = d 
Vox is the velocity of the electron in the X direction. When  d 
there is no force acting in the X-axis direction the velocity in this
direction remains the same throughout the passage of electrons tan φ = ... (10)
through the deflecting plates.
The intensity of electric field in the Y-axis direction is The electrons travel in a straight line after it leaves the
given as, deflection plates. The electrons travel in the straight line which
Vd is tangent to the parabola at x = ld. At point 0’ this tangent
∈y = ... (4)
d intersects the X-axis whose location is given as,
The force which is acting on electron in the Y-axis
direction is given as,
Fy = e∈y x= =
 Vd   V 
= e   ∈y = d  ... (5)
 d   d 
We know that, ld
x=
F = ma 2
⇒ Fy = may Therefore, from the above equation it is noted that the
apparent origin is at the center of deflection plates.
Where, ay = Acceleration of the electron in Y-axis
direction. The deflection D on the screen is given as,
 Fy  D = L tan φ
∴ ay =  
m  ∴ D =L =L
 e ∈y 
ay =  ( )
  Fy = e ∈y ... (6)
 m  LV d ld
D =
The displacement y at any time t in the Y-axis direction 2d Va
is given as,
1 2 LV d ld
y = a t ∴ Deflection, D =
2 y 2d Va
e ∈y  Q26. Briefly summarize the characteristics of
1  e ∈y  2 
 a y = 
y =   t ... (7) commonly used phosphors.
2 m   m 
Ans:
The above equation is considered when there is no Screens for CRTs
initial velocity in the Y-axis direction.
CRTs uses different types of phosphors, which are
If the velocity in X-axis direction is constant than the coated inside the CRT screen. When the electron beam strikes
displacement x at any time t in the X-axis direction is given as, the phosphor crystals, they absorbs the kinetic energy of the
x = Vox t electrons and hence their energy level rises. This process is
cached as cathodoluminescence. Phosphor emits light during
⇒ t= ... (8) excitation. This first emitting property of phosphor is called
fluorescence. Phosphorescence is the property of the material,
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3.14 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
which continues to emit light for some time even after the electron beam is switched off. It is one of the most important characteristic
of fluorescent material. The duration for which phosphorescence occurs is a measure of the persistence of the fluorescent material.
Different types of phosphor will have different trace colour, persistence etc. So, the choice among the types of phosphor depends
upon the application for which it is being employed. Most modern CROs use short persistence phosphors like P1, P2, P11, P31 etc.,
due to their fast refresh capability.
Medical oscilloscopes require phosphors P7 and P39, whose persistence is very long. The storage type oscilloscopes requires
longer persistence phosphors. In order to maintain sufficient flicker free picture radar require longer persistence phosphors like
P19, P26 and P33. Based on the burn resistance phosphors are classified into three types,
(i) Low burn resistance
Examples : P19, P26, P33.
(ii) Medium burn resistance
Examples : P1, P2, P4, P7 and P11.
(iii) High burn resistance
Examples : P15, P31.
Characteristics of different phosphors are given in the table,

Phosphor Colour Persistence Applications

type Fluorescent Phosphorescence
P1 Yellow-green Yellow-green Medium General purpose oscilloscopes,
radar
P2 Yellow-green Yellow-green Medium General purpose oscilloscopes
P4 White White Medium-short Black and white television
P7 Blue Yellow Medium-short Radar and medical oscilloscopes
P11 Blue Blue Medium-short Photographic recording
P15 Ultra-violet Green Visible-short Flying spot scanner for television
P19 Orange Orange Long Radar
P31 Green Green Medium-short General purpose oscilloscopes,
bright television
P33 Orange Orange Very long Radar
P39 Yellow-green Yellow-green Medium-long Computer graphics and radar

Because of the following advantages P31 is most frequently used phosphor for general purpose oscilloscopes,
(i) Illumination level of P31 phosphor is very high.
(ii) Writing speed of P31 is high.
(iii) Burn resistance of P31 is high which avoid the accidental damage.
(iv) Persistence of P31 phosphor is medium to short which avoids the multiple image display.
Q27. Discuss the timing relations and CRT displays of four common sweep modes.
Ans:
A dual beam oscilloscope uses two separate electron beams, two vertical amplifiers and displays two signals on the CRT
screen simultaneously. It is mainly used in those applications, which require display of non synchronous signals simultaneously such
as in heart-rate monitoring of two patients etc.
Now-a-days a single beam oscilloscope employing multiplexed pair of time-base generators is replacing the use of dual
beam oscilloscope by performing all the tasks of dual beam oscilloscopes. Based on the sophistication of the time-base genera-
tor used additionally, one or two or three time axis displays are obtained in addition with the normal display (i.e., single sweep
display mode). Thus, it is possible to obtain four time axis displays (i.e., four common sweep modes), namely,
1. Single sweep mode
2. Delay sweep mode
3. Mixed sweep mode
4. Switched sweep mode.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.15
1. Single Sweep Mode The timing relations and CRT displays of the four sweep
modes are illustrated in the figure below,
Single sweep mode is a normal display mode in which
one time base generator is used. In this mode, the sweep occurs
at once from the triggering pulse. After the occurrence of the
sweep, the generator will not switch to the initial stage automati-
cally. The operator has to reset the generator.
Single sweep mode is widely used. Where there is a
requirement of displaying and photographing the single phe-
nomena under the undetermined time of events.
2. Delay Sweep Mode
Among the additional three sweep modes, the simple
and most widely used sweep is delayed sweep. This mode uses
two time-base generators but the display occurs due to the
second time-base generator only. In the operation of producing
delayed sweep time-base ramp signal generated by the delay-
ing generator (first time-base generator) is initiated by a trigger
pulse at time t0 and continued till present comparator level say
t1 is reached. The comparator level is set by the ‘division delay
control’. As soon as t1 is reached, the delaying generator stops
whereas the delayed generator (second time-base generator)
begins if it in ‘Auto mode’. Thus, two modes take place based
on the trigger setting of the delayed generator.
When the delayed generator is operating, the delaying
generator acts as a time delay generator. If the delaying genera-
tor is triggered at time t2, then it acts as trigger delay generator.
Now the delay generator gets ready to run at the next trigger
pulse.
This type of sweep mode exhibits high accuracy and
resolution in the application of time-interval measurements.
Figure: Timing Relations and CRT displays of different Common
3. Mixed Sweep Mode
Sweep Modes
The function of mixed sweep mode is exactly same as
Q28. Sketch the focusing section of a CRT and show
that of the delay sweep mode except that the delaying sweep
the equipotential lines and their effect on elec-
generator is displayed first. When external trigger pulse gener- tron beam.
ated at t1, the delayed sweep generator begins to operate at a
faster sweep speed. As soon as its output becomes the same Ans: Nov.-11, Set-1, Q4(a)

as that of the delaying generator, it is displayed instead for the

Focusing System of CRT
remaining sweep cycle.
During the travel of electrons from the electron gun to
The mixed sweep mode is widely used in pulse-train
the screen, they have a tendency to spread away from the main
studies.
beam because of the mutual repulsive forces between them. It
4. Switched Sweep Mode becomes necessary to have some focusing arrangement to bring
This mode displays two separately variable sweep speeds the beam to a sharp focus at the screen. There are two methods
by employing electronic switching i.e., by electronic time of focusing of the electron beam.
sharing between the two time base generators. This electronic (i) Focusing with electric field
switching is exactly same as the switching used in alternate and
chopped modes of dual or multitrace CRO. (ii) Focusing with magnetic field.

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3.16 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(i) Focusing with Electric Field

Figure (1): Electrostatic Focusing Arrangement

Figure (1) shows the functional diagram of an electrostatic focusing arrangement. The pre-accelerating anode, which is a
metal cylinder containing many baffles, collimates the electron beam which enters it through a small opening on the left hand side.
The pre-accelerating and accelerating anodes are connected to the same potential while the focusing anode is connected
to a lower potential.
Due to the difference of potential between focusing anode and the two accelerating anodes a non-uniform field exists on
each of the two ends of the focusing anode. The equipotential surfaces, thus form a “double concave lens”.
The electron beams entering the field at angles other than the normal to the equipotential surfaces, will be deflected towards
the normal and the beam is thus focused towards the centre of the tube axis. By changing the voltage of the focusing anode, the
refractive index of the election lens is changes and therefore the focal point of the beam can be changed. The change in voltage is
brought about by changing the setting of a potentiometer. This control is brought to the front panel of CRO and is marked focus.
(ii) Focusing with Magnetic Field
In some of the cathode ray tubes, the final focusing of the electron beam is achieved with the aid of a magnetic field, produced
either by a permanent magnet or by a current carrying coil of wire, the axis of which is same as that of the beam when magnetic
focusing is used only a single anode is required in the CRT. The principle of magnetic focusing using localized concentrated
magnetic field is shown in figure (2),
The electron has a component of velocity at right angles to the direction of magnetic flux line which experiences a force
that causes it to rotate about the axis. This rotational effect, combined with the axial velocity, bends the path of the electron through
an arc. If the strength of the magnetic field is properly adjusted, then all the electrons leaving a particular point P’ on the object
plane making different angles with the axis of the system, will be deflected so as to return to a common point P on an image
plane or screen. The crossover is thus focused to a point on the fluorescent screen with the aid of magnetic field. The strength of
the magnetic field which can be varied by varying the D.C current through the coil, required to give this focusing action is quite
critical. If the magnetic field is too weak, the electron paths do not bend sufficiently so as to meet in a common point on the screen;
and if the field is too strong, they are bent too much as shown in figure (2),

Figure (2): Focusing Action Due to a Localized Concentrated Magnetic Field

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.17
Q29. How is the vertical axis of an oscilloscope deflected? How does this differ from horizontal axis?
Ans:
Deflection of the vertical axis of an oscilloscope is actually the deflection of electron beam in the vertical direction. To
deflect the electron beam vertically, a pair of parallel plates is used. One vertical deflection plate (V1) is placed above the electron
beam and the other vertical deflection plate is placed below the electron beam.
The vertical axis is deflected by applying vertical deflection voltages to the vertical deflection plates. The vertical deflection
voltage is derived from the input signal to be analyzed by the oscilloscope. Usually, high voltages are required to drive the deflection
plates. Hence, a vertical amplifier is used to amplify the input signal to such an extent that it can deflect the electron beam.
The vertical amplifier amplifies the input signal and produces a two ended signal i.e., two signal voltages of equal amplitude
but of opposite polarities. These two signal voltages are fed to the vertical deflection plates V1 and V2 (Y-plates) of CRO. The
electron beam is a negatively charged beam because it contains electrons (negative charge particles).
When the voltage at V1 is negative then the voltage at V2 will be positive. The positive deflection voltage at V2 attracts the
electron beam to V2 and the negative voltage at V1 repels the electron beam from V1. As a result the electron beam is deflected
vertically downwards (i.e., towards V2 plate).
When the voltage at V1 is positive, then the voltage at V2 will be negative. The positive voltage at V1 attracts the beam to V1
and the negative voltage at V2 repels the beam from V2. As a result the electron beam is deflected vertically upwards (i.e., towards
V1).
The horizontal axis of an oscilloscope is deflected by applying horizontal deflection voltage to the horizontal deflection
plates. The horizontal deflection voltage is derived from a saw-tooth signal.
A pair of parallel plates (H1 and H2) placed vertically on either sides of the electron beam in the CRT, serve as horizontal
deflection plates (X-plates). One plate H1 is kept on left side and other plate H2 is kept on right side of the electron beam.
A saw-tooth signal is amplified by the horizontal amplifier (identical to the vertical amplifier). The horizontal amplifier also
produces two signal voltages of equal amplitude but of opposite polarities. These two voltages are fed to the horizontal deflection
plates.
When the deflection voltage at H1 is negative then the deflection voltage at H2 will be positive. The positive voltage at H2
attracts the electron beam to H2 and the negative voltage at H1 repels the electron beam from H1. As a result, the beam is deflected
horizontally to the right.
Similarly, the beam is deflected horizontally to the left when the voltage at H1 is positive and the voltage at H2 is negative.
The difference in the deflection of vertical and horizontal axis lies in the voltages that drive the respective deflection plates.
The vertical deflection plates are driven by the amplified input signal whereas the horizontal deflection plates are driven by an
amplified saw-tooth signal which serves as a time-base signal.
Q30. Explain the function of each of the following CRO controls,
(a) Focus
(b) Z-axis modulation
(c) Astigmatism
(d) Trigger and calibrator.
Ans:
(a) Focus
The focus control is used to control the density of the electron beam falling on the CRO screen. Focus control involves
adjusting the focal length of the focusing anode. The focusing anode is a type of electrostatic lens which is placed between the
pre-accelerating anode and accelerating anode in the CRT. Its focal length is adjusted by varying its (focusing anode) potential
with respect to the potentials of pre-accelerating and accelerating anodes with the help of a potentiometer.
(b) Z-Axis Modulation
The Z-axis modulation type of control is used to increase the brightness of the trace produced by the electron beam on the
screen. Z-axis modulation is actually a process of modulating the intensity of the trace (i.e., electron beam density) by applying a
periodic signal to the Z-input of the oscilloscope. Hence, it is also known as ‘intensity modulation’. Z-axis modulation is carried
out during normally visible portion of the trace, by introducing a periodic signal between the ground and the cathode or control
grid of CRT (i.e., by applying periodic negative pulses to cathode or by applying periodic positive pulses to control grid). These
periodic pulses modulate the cathode voltage or control grid voltage. The Z-axis modulation brightens the trace during the sweep
period of the electron beam due to which brightened spots are produced in the trace at periodic intervals.
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3.18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(c) Astigmatism Control
The astigmatism control is used to produce a roundest spot. In astigmatism control, the potential between the pre-accelerating
anode and vertical deflection plates is adjusted by varying the potential of pre-accelerating anode with respect to the potential
of vertical deflection plates. Astigmatism control is carried out after positioning the spot at the centre of the screen. The spot is
adjusted at the centre of the screen by turning off the time base and then adjusting the X and Y positioning controls.
(d) Trigger and Calibrator
(i) Trigger Level Control
This control is used to adjust the time at which the displayed waveform commences on the CRO screen. The displayed
waveform commences its positive half cycle at the instant at which the time base is synchronized with the input
wave. Trigger level control (a potentiometer) actual varies the time of synchronization of time base with input wave,
by varying the D.C output level of trigger amplifier.
The figure below illustrates the different instants of commencement of displayed waveform.

Figure
(ii) Calibrator
The calibrator which is used to calibrate the attenuator probes of CRO is usually a square-wave source. This calibrator
is usually inbuilt in the CRO and its output is connected to a terminal on the front panel of the CRO. This terminal
is named as ‘probe-adjust’.
When the attenuator probe is connected to this terminal, the output (square-wave) of calibrator will be displayed on
the screen. The probe is then calibrated by adjusting the probe until a perfect square waveform is obtained on the
screen. The square waveforms corresponding to various compensations are shown in the figure below,

Figure: Square Waves

Q31. A CRT has an anode voltage of 2000 V and parallel deflecting plates of 2 cm long and 5 mm apart. The
screen is 30 cm from the centre of the plates. Find the input voltage required to deflect the beam through
3 cm. The input voltage is applied to the deflecting plates through amplifiers having an overall gain of
100.
Ans:
Given that,
Anode voltage, Va = 2000 V
Length of the Plates ld = 2 cm
Distance between the plates, d = 5 mm
Distance of screen from centre of the plates, L = 30 cm

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.19
Deflection, D = 3 cm
Gain = 100
Input voltage required = ?
We know that,
Electrostatic deflection is given by

D =

2dV a .D
Vd = =
L ld
0.6
=
6 × 10 −3
∴ Vd = 100 V

The input voltage required = = = 1V

Therefore, the input voltage required to deflect the beam through 3 cm = 1 V.
Q32. An electrostatically deflected cathode ray tube has plane parallel deflecting plates which are 2.5 cm
long and 0.5 cm apart and the distance from their centre to the screen is 20 cm. The electron beam is
accelerated by a potential difference of 2500 V and is projected centrally between the plates. Calculate
the deflecting voltage required to cause the beam to strike a deflecting voltage and find the correspond-
ing deflection of the screen.
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-1, Q4(b)
Given that,
Length of deflecting plates, ld = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m
Distance between deflecting plates, d = 0.5 cm
= 0.005 m
Distance between the screen and the centre of the deflecting plates, L = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Accelerating voltage, Ea = 2500 V
Deflecting voltage required to cause the beam to strike a deflecting plate, Ed = ?
Corresponding deflection on the screen, D =?

Figure: Electrostatically Deflected Cathode Ray Tube

From the figure we have,
y D
tan q = =
x L
Where,
ld
x=
2

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3.20 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
For the condition that the electron beam strikes the deflecting plate, we have,
d
y=
2
d
D
∴ 2 =
ld L
2
dL
D =
ld
0.005 × 0.2
D =
0.025
D = 0.04 m = 4 cm

We know that,
Ll d E d
D =
2dE a
2dDE a
Ed =
Ll d

2 × 0.005 × 0.04 × 2500

Ed =
0.2 × 0.025
Ed = 200 V
\ Ed = 200 V and D = 4 cm
Q33. An electrical deflected CRT has a final anode voltage of 2000 V and parallel deflecting plates of
1.5 cm long and 5 mm apart. If the screen is 50 cm from the centre of the deflecting plates. Find:
(i) Beam speed (ii) Deflection sensitivity of the tube (iii) Deflection factor of the tube.
Ans: (April-18, Set-2, Q3(b) | April/May-17, Set-4, Q4(b))

Given that,
Final anode voltage, Ea = 2000 V
Length of deflecting plates, ld = 1.5 cm
= 0.015 m
Distance between the deflecting plates, d = 5 mm
= 5 × 10–3 m
Distance of the screen from the centre of the deflecting plates, L = 50 cm = 0.5 m
To find,
(i) Beam speed, Vx = ?
(ii) Deflection sensitivity, S = ?
(iii) Deflection factor of the tube, G = ?
(i) Beam Speed
We know that,
2 e Ea
The velocity of electron beam, V x =
m
Where,
e = Charge of electron = 1.602 × 10–19 C
m = Mass of electron = 9.109 × 10–31 kg

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.21

2 × 1.602 ×10 −19 × 2000

Vx =
9.109 ×10 −31
= 26523198.8 m/s
∴ Vx ≅ 26.523 × 106 m/s
(ii) Deflection Sensitivity
Deflection sensitivity,
D L ld 0.5 × 0.015
S = = =
Ed 2 d Ea 2 × 5 ×10 −3 × 2000
= 0.375 × 10–3 m/V
= 0.375 mm/V
(iii) Deflection Factor of the Tube
Deflection factor, G is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity, S.
1 1
i.e., G= = = 2666.667 V/m
S 0.375 ×10 −3
∴ G = 2.667 V/mm

3.2 TRIGGER PULSE, DELAY LINE, SYNC SELECTOR CIRCUITS

Q34. Explain the operation of trigger pulse circuit.

(April-18, Set-3, Q4(b) | May-13, Set-3, Q4(b))
OR
With neat sketch explain trigger pulse circuit in detail.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q4(a)
The signals which are used to activate the trigger circuit are converted to trigger pulses whose amplitude is uniform for
the precision sweep operation. To operate trigger generator high value of trigger level is required. But if the trigger level is very
high, the uni-junction transmitter may conduct for very long period of time hence part of the input signal leading edge may be
lost. Figure shows the trigger pulse circuit having 3-position trigger selection switch i.e., internal-external-line.

Figure: Trigger Pulse Circuit

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One of the input of comparator is suppled by a trigger level which is shown in above figure. The CRO front panel consist
of this trigger level control to set the reference level of a comparator. If the input trigger level goes beyond preset trigger level
then the comparator output changes. The output of comparator is given to pulse generator circuit which generates negative trigger
pulse every time the output of comparator crosses its quiescent level. These – ve trigger pulses are required to trigger the sweep
generator circuit to initiate the next sweep. In order to start the next sweep the negative trigger pulses triggers the sweep generator.
The trigger sweep generator consist a sync control or stability control. This is to prevent the display from jittering on the CRT. A
good and fixed stability is maintained by adjusting the sweep speed properly. The sweep speed is adjusted by varying the sweep
rate and sweep range control.
Q35. Why is a delay line used in the vertical section of the oscilloscope?
May-13, Set-2, Q4(c)

OR
Explain the function of delay line in triggered sweep.
May-13, Set-4, Q4(b)

OR
Explain about various time delay lines used in vertical deflection section of a CRO.
Nov.-11, Set-3, Q4(b)

OR
Explain the need for a delay line in the vertical section of a CRO and discuss the working of various
delay lines.
Ans: (Nov.-10, Set-3, Q4(b) | Model Paper-IV, Q4(a))

Delay Line
All electronic circuits in the oscilloscope like attenuators, time base generators, amplifiers cause some amount of time
delay while transmitting signal voltage to deflection plates.
We also known that horizontal signal is initiated or triggered by some portion of output signal applied to vertical plates of
CRT.
So the delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical section of CRT.
A block diagram of such a delay line is shown in the following figure (1),

Figure (1): Block Diagram Showing the Function of Delay Line

We can see that the input signal is not applied directly to vertical plates but is applied to delay line to produce a delay.
Since in the horizontal section operation of sweep generator followed by horizontal amplifier and horizontal deflection plates
takes some time. Introduction of delay gives enough time to sweep generator to send its output to horizontal plates.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.23
There are basically two kinds of delay line.

(a) The lumped-parameter or LC network delay line

(b) Distributed-parameter delay line.

(a) Lumped-parameter Delay Line
Lumped-parameter delay line is also known as T-filter section and is shown in figure (2),

Figure (2)
It consists of cascaded symmetrical LC networks. The cutoff frequency of the filter is given by,

fc = ... (1)

If input frequency < fc then the output Vout is same as that of Vin, but delay by some amount of time.
Therefore, the delay time is given by,

1
ts = ... (2)
π fc
From equation (1) and equation (2), we get,

ts =
This type of delay line has a number of cascaded symmetrical LC networks. Therefore, the total delay time is given by,
td = n ts
Where,
ts = Time delay for single T-section
n = Number of cascaded T-sections.
As the input signal frequency increases, this delay line has some problems i.e., amplitude distortion and phase distortion.
When the high frequency component step voltage as input for the T-filter section, the output waveform as follows.

Figure (3)
Therefore, from the figure (3) it is noted that when the high frequency component step voltage as input for the T-filter
section, the output suffers from overshoot and ringing.

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(b) Distributed-parameter Delay Line
Figure (4) shows the distributed-parameter delay line.

Figure (4)
This type of delay line has a coaxial cable which is specially manufactured and whose inductance per unit length is high.
It has helically wound inner conductor, is shown in figure (4). In this type, the outer conductor is made with braided insulated
wire and connected to the ends of the cable electrically. Therefore, the eddy currents produced in this type are reduced.
This delay line has following parameters.
1. Characteristic impedance, Z0 = 1 kΩ
2. Delay time, td = 180 nsec/meter.

3.3 SIMPLE CRO, TRIGGERED SWEEP CRO, DUAL BEAM CRO

Q36. With a neat diagram, describe the working of a triggered sweep CRO.
April-18, Set-4, Q4(a)

OR
Explain the concept of triggered sweep CRO along with circuit diagram.
April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(c)

OR
Discuss the triggered sweep CRO with neat circuit diagram.
Dec.-13, Set-2, Q4(b)

OR
With neat sketch explain triggered sweep CRO.
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q4(b)

OR
With a circuit diagram explain the working of a triggered time base.
Nov.-10, Set-4, Q4(a)

OR

Draw the neat sketch of triggered sweep circuit and explain it. Draw the trigger pulse and sweep
waveforms.

OR
With a neat block diagram, describe the working of a triggered sweep CRO.
Ans:
Triggered sweep CRO is used to display the signals whose duration is short. Examples for such type of signals are narrow
pulses. In case of triggered sweep CRO the applied input produces substantial pulses that are required to trigger the sweep.
Figure (1) shows the triggered sweep CRO. In this a voltage divider is formed by resistors RC and Rd in such a way that the cathode
voltages (VD) of diode should be lower than the peak voltage (VP) for the conduction of Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.25

Figure : Triggered Sweep CRO

The unijunction transistor is in the non-conducting state, when the power is applied to the circuit. At this movement the
capacitor C1 charges exponentially through R1 towards VBB until the diode D becomes forward biased and starts to conduct. The
voltage across the capacitor does not reaches the peak voltage (VP), which is required for UJT conduction, but is clamped at
diode cathode voltage VD. When a negative pulse of sufficient voltage is given to the base of UJT the peak voltage is momentarily
decreases and UJT fires. This results the discharging of capacitor C1 through the UJT, until the UJT reaches it’s maintaining
voltage. The UJT switches OFF at it’s maintaining voltage and the capacitor C1 charges towards VBB, until it is clamped again at
diode cathode voltage (VD). The output waveform of a triggered sweep CRO is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Output Waveform of a Triggered Sweep CRO

TR : Retrace period
TS : Sweep period
TH : Hold off period
Q37. Explain with the help of block diagram of dual beam CRO.
Dec.-13, Set-2, Q4(a)
OR
Explain the operation of vertical amplifier in CRT.
May-13, Set-1, Q4(b)

OR
Sketch the construction of a dual-beam oscilloscope and explain its operation.
Nov.-11, Set-1, Q4(b)
OR
Explain the operation of a dual beam oscilloscope with a block diagram.
Nov.-10, Set-2, Q4(a)
OR
Draw the block diagram of a dual beam oscilloscope and explain its working.
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3.26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q4(b)

The basic block diagram of a dual beam oscilloscope is shown in figure. Dual beam oscilloscope consist of two sets
of vertical deflection plates and a single set of horizontal deflection plates. Two completely electron beams are used by dual
beam oscilloscope. From the figure, it is noted that the sweep is the same for signal X and signal Y hence only one beam can be
synchronized at one time.

Figure: Dual Beam Oscilloscope

It means that both beams uses a common time base. To obtain both beams locked on the CRT screen, the frequency of the
signal X and Y must be the same. For example, signal X is used as input of an amplifier and the amplifier output as signal Y.
Q38. With neat block diagram explain simple CRO in detail.
Ans:
Figure shows the block diagram of a simple cathode ray oscilloscope. An accurate A.C. calibrating voltage provided by
the A.C. filament, which supplies power to the CRT heaters. The resistors R – R4 forms a voltage divider circuit through which
D.C. voltage of CRT is obtained from the high voltage D.C. supply. Potentiometer (R2) called as focus control since it varies the
potential at the focusing electrode. R4 is the intensity control that varies the control grid voltage.

Figure: Block Diagram of Simple CRO

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.27
The horizontal and vertical deflection plates of a simple CRO are grounded through capacitor C. The output of the sawtooth
sweep generator is connected to the horizontal input by setting SW2 to its linear position. The output of a horizontal amplifier sweep
voltage is applied to horizontal deflection plates after proper amplification. By connecting SW2 to external position, the external
generator output is connected to the input. The internal sweep generator get the synchronizing voltage of the sweep through SW1.
Thus the type of synchronization is selected by switch SW1.

3.4 DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE

Q39. Draw the circuit diagram of dual trace oscilloscope and explain its operation in detail.
April/May-17, Set-3, Q4(a)

OR
Draw the block diagram of dual trace oscilloscope and explain the operation. Use relevant waveforms
if necessary.
May-13, Set-1, Q5(a)
OR
Draw the block diagram of a dual trace CRO and explain it.
Ans:
The block diagram of dual trace oscilloscope as shown in figure (1). It consist of following steps,
1. Single electron gun
2. Two separate vertical input channels
3. Attenuators and pre-amplifiers
4. Electronic switch.

Figure (1): Block Diagram of a Dual Trace Oscilloscope

With the help of electronic switching the two separate input signals can be applied to single electron gun. Produces a dual
trace display. Each separate vertical input channel uses separate attenuators and pre-amplifier stages so, that the amplitude of each
signal can be independently controlled. Output of the pre-amplifiers are given to the electronic switch, which passes one signal at
a time into the main vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope. The time base generator is similar to that of single input oscilloscope.
By using switch S2, the circuit can be triggered on either A or B channel, waveforms, or an external signal, or on line frequency.
The horizontal amplifier can be fed from sweep generator or from channel B by switching S1. When switch S1 is in channel B, its
oscilloscope operates in the X-Y mode in which channel A acts as the vertical input signal and channel B as the horizontal input
signal.
From the front panel several operating modes can be selected for display, like channel B only, channel A only, channels
B and A as two traces, and signals A + B, A – B, B – A or – (A + B) as a single trace. Two types of common operating mode are
there for the electronic switch, namely,
1. Alternate mode
2. Chop mode.
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3.28 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
1. Alternate Mode
In case of alternate mode, electronic switch alternately connects the main vertical amplifier to channel A and B and adds
a different D.C. component to each signal. Due to this D.C. component the beam alternately goes to the upper and lower half of
the screen.
Switching is carried out at the start of each new sweep of the time base generator. To obtain the cathode ray tube spot it
traces the channel A signal on one sweep and the channel B signal on the succeeding sweep. The switching rate of the electronic
switch is synchronized to the sweep rate.
The alternate mode cannot be used for displaying very low frequency signals.

Figure (2): Waveform of a Dual Trace Oscilloscope in Alternate Mode

2. Chop Mode
In chop mode electronic switch runs at a very high frequency of the order of 100-500 kHz. This results in connecting
small segment of waveform A and waveform B, alternately to vertical amplifier to display it on the screen. The display will be a
continuous line for each channel when chopping rate much faster than horizontal sweep rate. In case when the chopping rate is
slow the continuity of the display is lost hence it is preferable to use alternate mode of operation.

Figure (3): Waveform of a Dual Trace Oscilloscope in Chop Mode

Q40. Distinguish between dual trace and dual beam oscilloscopes.
Ans:

Dual Trace Oscilloscope Dual Beam Oscilloscope

1. Dual trace oscilloscope uses one electron beam to 1. Dual beam oscilloscope uses two separate electron
generate two traces on the screen. electron beams to generate display on the screen.
2. As it uses only one electron beam, it requires one vertical 2. As it uses two electron beams, it requires two
amplifier. vertical amplifiers.
3. The two signals are appear to be displayed on the CRT 3. The two signals are displayed on the CRT screen
screen at a time, but not displayed at a time in real time. at a time.
4. Since the two signals are not displayed simultaneously, 4. The two signal should have same frequency values
the displayed signals may possess different frequencies. or the two frequencies should be integer multiples
of each other.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.29

5. As the one beam is shared between two signals, it is not 5. As two separate electron beams are used, it is
so easy to switch rapidly between the traces. easy to switch rapidly between the traces.
6. It is not possible to operate at high speeds, therefore two 6. It is possible to operate at very fast speeds,
separate fast transient signals will not get grabbed. therefore two separate fast transient signals
will get grabbed easily.
7. It can be operated in two modes. They are, 7. The electron beams are generated either by using,
(i) Alternate mode (i) Double gun tube or
(ii) Chopped mode. (ii) Split beam with single electron gun.
8. As it uses one beam, its cost is low. 8. As it uses two beams its cost is high.
9. Its size is small. 9. It size is big.
10. Its weight is less. 10. Its weight is more.

3.5 SAMPLING OSCILLOSCOPE

Q41. Draw the circuit diagram of sampling oscilloscope and explain its operation in detail.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q4(b)
OR
Draw the simplified block diagram of the sampling oscilloscope and explain. Draw the waveforms
pertinent to the operation.
(Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q5(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q5(a))

OR
With a block diagram explain the operation of a sampling oscilloscope.
Nov.-11, Set-3, Q5(b)

OR
With the help of a circuit diagram explain the working of a sampling oscilloscope.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-3, Q5(a)

We know that as the frequency of input signal to vertical amplifier increases, writing speed on the CRO also increases
which in turn reduces the image sensitivity on CRO. High frequency signals demand higher velocity which can be achieved by
high accelerating anode voltage. But this requires higher deflection potential and higher demand on the vertical amplifier.
So, the High Frequency (HF) performance of oscilloscope can be improved by means of sampling technique. In this, HF
signal is converted into low frequency signal. For this, instead of displaying the input signal continuously samples of it are taken
at regular intervals and reconstructed in the form of dots on the screen. The reconstruction of dots gives a continuous signal on
the screen.

Figure (1): Waveforms

Figure (2): Block Diagram of Sampling Oscilloscope

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The input waveform repetitive in nature is applied to sampling gate. The sampling gate is opened for short interval of
time and the input waveform is sampled. At the time of sampling, a trigger input pulse is generated which activates the blocking
oscillator. The output of this oscillator is given to the ramp generator which generates a linear ramp voltage. This ramp voltage is
fed to voltage comparator. Another input to voltage comparator is from staircase generator via an attenuator which controls the
amplitude of staircase signal. The voltage comparator compares the two signals and when both are equal in amplitude, staircase
advances a step and sampling pulse is generated. This sampling pulse opens the sampling gate and the sample taken in this sampled
signal is further applied to vertical deflection plates through vertical amplifier and appears as dot on CRT screen.
Q42. A sampling oscilloscope is being used to observe a 400 MHz sine-wave. A sampling pulse occurs every
3 ns. Draw five cycles of the 400 MHz signal and place a dot at the sampled point on each of the five
cycles.
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q5(b) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q5(b))

Given that,
Frequency of the sine-wave = 400 MHz
Sampling pulse occurs every 3 ns
∴ Time period of the sine-wave = = 2.5 nsec
The input sine waveform and sampling pulses are shown in figure below,

Figure: Input Sine Waveform and Sampling Pulses

3.6 STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

Q43. Explain the principle and working of a storage oscilloscope.

April/May-17, Set-1, Q4(b)

OR
Explain the concept of storage oscilloscope along with circuit diagram.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q4(a)

OR
Explain the working of storage CRO.
Ans:
The disadvantage of conventional oscilloscope is that event occurs once and disappears after a short period of time from
the screen. But storage oscilloscope are capable of retaining the image on the screen for longer periods. CRTs can be classified
as bistable tubes and halftone tubes.
In halftone tube, image can be retained for varying time periods at different image brightness levels. In case of bistable
either storage or no storage is done at one level of image brightness.
Both these tubes for their operation depends on the principle of secondary emission.
When a beam consist of primary electron from the electron gun, strikes the target, some other electrons are separated from
the target which are called as secondary-electrons. These secondary-electrons depends on the velocity of electrons and intensity
of the electron beam.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.31
If Is is current of secondary, which are electrons emitted Q44. Explain the two types of analog storage of
from the target and collected by the collector then the ratio i.e., oscilloscopes.
Is Ans:
is called as secondary emission ratio. Value of this ratio
Ip
The two types of analog storage oscilloscopes are,
depends on velocity of primary electron, intensity of electron
beam and chemical and composition of the target. 1. Mesh storage

The circuit shown in figure (1), shows how the secondary 2. Phosphor storage.
emission ratio δ varies with target voltage Vt. 1. Mesh Storage
Figure (1) shows the structure of mesh storage CRT.
The storage mesh contains a thin layer of dielectric material is
known as storage target. Usually magnesium fluoride is used as
a dielectric material. The position of storage mesh is in between
the phosphor screen and the deflecting plates of the CRT.

Figure (1): Experimental Circuit used to Demonstrate Secondary-

Electron Emission
The electron gun emits a high velocity electrons which
are directed towards the target. This target under favourable
condition emits secondary electron. This target is completely
surrounded by collector which has a small aperture to pass
secondary emission electrons, collection of these electrons gives
Figure (1): Structure of Mesh Storage CRT
secondary current.
The target voltage is adjustable over a wide range ( from The electron beam produced by writing gun hits the
0 to 3,000 V) and the collector voltage is kept few volts high positively charged storage target. The low velocity electrons
above the target voltage. emitted by writing gun attack continuously on storage target.
Therefore, these low velocity electrons passes through the
From the secondary emission curve shown in figure (2),
we can see that striking energy of primary electrons is directly storage target, to the phosphor screen. Hence, the storage
related to this potential difference between electron source and mesh is used to store the image which produced again on the
target. phosphor screen. Therefore, for displaying and storing of the
image the mesh storage CRT consist both phosphor screen and
When target voltage is zero, no striking electron, so no
secondary emission takes place and δ = 0. When the target storage target. The mesh storage CRT composed of writing gun,
voltage is increased from zero the striking energy increases vertical and horizontal deflecting plates, flood gun, collimating
at some +50 V, the number of secondary emission electrons electrode, storage mesh and phosphor screen. The writing gun
number of primary electrons and δ = 1. This point is called is nothing but an electrons gun which emits an electron beam.
as first crossover. When target voltage increases beyond this 2. Phosphor Storage
point δ, increases to some maximum value i.e., (δ = 2) and
decreases until Is = Ip again at (δ = 1). This point is called as Figure (2) shows the target structure of bistable storage
second crossover point. tube,

Figure (2): Typical Secondary-emission Curve

This explanation shows that secondary emission depends
on the target voltage. Figure (2): Target Structure of Bistable Storage Tube

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The bistable storage tube is used in case of phosphor storage oscilloscopes. In this technique the phosphor display target and
storage target are made with same material. In this technique, both the functions of display target and storage target are performed
by the thin phosphor layer. Therefore, it is called as bistable tube. The phosphor used for display and storage targets is P1 phosphor
through which we can obtain better characteristics of secondary emission. The purpose of using scattered phosphor particles in
this case is to remove the boundary migration of stored charge completely. The thickness of phosphor is greater than one particle
and permits a phosphor viewing in a continuous manner. However, the storage may not be possible, if the thickness of threshold
exceeds a particular limit. The conductive backplate is nothing but controlling electrode which is a thin layer of metal film placed
inner side of the face plate. Here this metal film is placed before placing the phosphor material. To obtain uniform writing on the
storage target the voltage applied to the conductive backplate is above 200 V and on the storage for erasing the required voltage
is below 100 V.
Q45. Sketch a diagram to show the construction of a variable persistence storage CRT and explain its
operation.
Nov.-10, Set-1, Q5(a)

OR
What is meant by variable persistence?
Ans:
Persistence
The duration for which the phosphorescence material continues to emit light even after the supply of electron beam is
disconnected, is known as persistence of the phosphor. Different types of phosphor materials have different persistence values.
Variable Persistence
Usually, most of the phosphor materials have short persistence values (i.e., 1 µs to 1s). Some applications such as analysis
of transient inputs require the trace to be displayed for a long time (i.e., high persistence is required to analyze transients). This
is not possible with an ordinary oscilloscope as an ordinary oscilloscope contains short persistence phosphor screen.
Long persistence is achieved through a special oscilloscope known as storage oscilloscope. A storage oscilloscope retains
the trace on the screen for a long time (example, for 1 hour). The persistence provided by a storage oscilloscope is fixed i.e., its
persistence cannot be varied.
Variable persistence is achieved through a modified storage oscilloscope known as variable persistence storage oscilloscope.
Variable Persistence Storage Oscilloscope
The CRT of an ordinary storage oscilloscope consists of a write gun, flood guns, collimator and a screen having a deposi-
tion of phosphor storage layer on its inner surface.
The CRT of variable persistence storage oscilloscope consists of a normal CRT screen (screen layered with low persistence
phosphor), a collector mesh and storage mesh placed before the screen and a storage layer deposited on the inner face of the stor-
age mesh, in addition to the write gun, flood guns and collimator. A potential ranging between 0 volts and – 10 volts is applied
to the storage mesh and a potential of +100 volts is applied to the collector mesh. The schematic of variable persistence storage
oscilloscope is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Variable Persistence Storage Oscilloscope

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.33
Operation
The write gun emits high energy electron beam whereas the flood guns emit low energy electrons. When the high energy
electron beam strikes the storage layer, secondary electrons are emitted from the striked area. This leads to the formation of a
positively charged path on the storage layer. This positively charged path is the shape of input waveform.
The positively charged area on storage layer attracts the flood gun electrons, and other parts of storage layer repel the flood
gun electrons.
The attracted flood gun electrons pass through the positively charged path on storage layer and strikes the CRT screen
and thereby trace the input waveform on the screen. The trace is retained on the screen as long as the positive charged area is not
discharged completely.
Produce for Varying the Persistence of the Trace
Slow erasure of the waveform provides variable persistence feature. The positive charged areas on storage layer are slowly
discharged by applying a train of negative pulses (i.e., – 4 V to – 11 V) to the storage mesh.
The persistence can be shorten or lengthen by either of the following two ways,
1. By Keeping the Frequency of Pulse Constant and Varying the Width of Pulses
Increase in pulse width (i.e., wide pulse) shortens the persistence and decrease in pulse width (i.e., narrow pulse) lengthens
the persistence.
2. By Keeping the Pulse Width Constant and Varying the Frequency
Increase in frequency shortens the persistence whereas decrease in frequency lengthens the persistence.

3.7 DIGITAL READOUT OSCILLOSCOPE

Q46. Explain the working of digital readout oscilloscope with a neat sketch.
Dec.-13, Set-3, Q5(b)

OR
Explain the operation of a digital readout oscilloscope.
Ans: May-13, Set-4, Q5(b)

This type of oscilloscope consist a CRT display and a counter display. Basic block diagram of a digital readout oscilloscope
when measuring voltage is shown in figure. The counter shown in the figure is used to measure the time.

Figure: Digital Readout Oscilloscope when Measuring Voltage

The input signal is sampled by the sampling circuit which advances the position of sampling in fixed increments. This
process of advancing the position of sampling in fixed increments is known as strobing.

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The 0% voltage memory unit and 100% voltage memory units are identified by two intensified portions of the CRT trace.
The 0% and 100% zones position can be shifted to any part of the display. The taps on voltage divider (resistor) are between the
0% memory voltage and 100% memory voltage and are set for start and stop timing. The start and stop comparators are used to
sense the coincidence of the sampled signal with the selected percentage point. The counter is used to count the number of clock
pulses that are proportional to actual sample taken. Nixie tube is a display device through which the digital read out is obtained.
This tube displays the time interval in nanoseconds, microseconds, milliseconds or seconds.

Q47. Draw the block diagram of a digital readout oscilloscope when used for voltage to time conversion and
explain.
May-13, Set-1, Q5(b)

OR
Draw and explain the block diagram of digital readout oscilloscope when used for voltage to time
conversion.
Ans:
The basic block diagram of digital readout oscilloscope for voltage to time conversion is shown in figure below,

Figure: Digital Readout Oscilloscope for Voltage to Time Conversion

When the 0% reference voltage is sampled as is chosen by the voltage memory circuit then the CRT display is obtained.
In this case a voltage is generated by the linear ramp generator. The clock gate shown in figure will open, if voltage of the linear
ramp equals the 0% reference voltage and it will closes, if voltage of the linear ramp equals the 100% reference voltage. The total
number of pulses counted by the counter is directly proportional to the selected reference signal. The Nixie tube display is used
by the counter which readsout the output in millivolts or volts.

3.8 DIGITAL STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

Q48. Describe the working of digital storage oscilloscope with a neat sketch.
Dec.-13, Set-1, Q5(a)

OR
With a block diagram explain the operation of a digital storage oscilloscope.
Nov.-11, Set-4, Q5(a)

OR
Draw the block diagram of a digital storage oscilloscope and explain its operation.
Ans: (Nov.-10, Set-4, Q5(a) | Model Paper-III, Q4(b))

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.35
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Storage cathode ray tube has several limitations. They are as follows,
1. There is a short duration of time, in which it can preserve a stored waveform so the waveform may lost.
2. Trace of storage tube is not as fine as that of a normal CRT.
3. Writing rate of the storage tube is less than that of a conventional CRT which in turn limits the speed of the analog
storage oscilloscope.
4. It is more expensive than a conventional CRT and require additional power supplies.
5. Only one image can be stored. For comparing two traces they are to be superimposed on the same and displayed
together.
Digital storage oscilloscope is used to limit these limitations. In DSO, the waveform to be stored is digitized, stored in a
digital memory and retrieved for display on the storage oscilloscope.

Figure: Block Diagram of DSO

Stored waveform is continuously displayed by repeatedly scanning it. Therefore a conventional CRT can also be used for
the display. The stored display can be displayed continuously as long as the power is applied to the memory which can be supplied
from a small battery.
Digitized waveform can be analysed by oscilloscope or by reading the contents of the memory into the computer. Display
of the stored data is possible in both amplitude versus time and x-y modes. In DSO, fast memory readout is used for CRT display
in addition to this a slow readout is also possible which is used for development of hard copy externally.
Figure shows the block diagram of DSO which consists of,
1. Data acquisition
2. Storage
3. Data display.
Data acquisition is carried out with the help of both analog to digital and digital to analog converters, which is used for
digitizing, storing and displaying analog waveforms. Overall operation is controlled by control circuit which is usually consists
of microprocessor.
Data acquisition portion of the system consist of a Sample-and-Hold (S/H) circuit and an analog to digital converter (ADC)
which continuously samples and digitizes the input signal at a rate determined by the sample clock and transmit the digitized
data to memory for storage. The control circuit determines whether the successive data points are stored in successive memory
location or not, which is done by continuously updating the memories.
When the memory is full, the next data point from the ADC is stored in the first memory location writing over the old data.
The data acquisition and the storage process is continues till the control circuit receive a trigger signal from either the
input waveform or an external trigger source. When the triggering occurs, the system stops and enters into the display mode of
operation in which all or some part of the memory data is repetitively displayed on the cathode ray tube.
In display operation, two DACs are used which gives horizontal and vertical deflection voltage for the CRT. Data from
the memory gives the vertical deflection of the electron beam, while the time base counter gives the horizontal deflection in the
form of staircase sweep signal. The screen display consist of discrete dots representing the various data points but the number of
dot is very large as 1000 or more that they tend to blend together and appear to be a smooth continuous waveform. The display
operation ends when the operator presses a front-panel button and commands the digital storage oscilloscope to begin a new data
acquisition cycle.

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Q49. Write the differences between digital storage oscilloscope and conventional storage oscilloscope.
Ans:
Digital Storage Oscilloscope Conventional Storage Oscilloscope
(DSO) (Analog Storage Oscilloscope (ASO))
1. It can store the given signal indefinitely as long as the 1. In this oscilloscope heavy amount of power is to be
small amount of power is supplied to the memory. supplied to the storage CRT.
2. It always collects the data and stops when triggered. 2. It collects the data only after triggering.
3. It employs normal CRT, hence the cost of the tube 3. The cost of the tube is costlier than the storage tube
is much cheaper than the storage tube used in ASO. used in DSO.
4. It can produce bright image even for high frequency 4. It cannot produce bright image for high frequency
signals. signals.
5. In this oscilloscope, time base is generated by a 5. In this oscilloscope, time base is generated by a ramp
crystal clock. circuit.
6. It has higher resolution than ASO. 6. It has lower resolution than DSO.
7. It has less operating speed than ASO. 7. It has high operating speed than DSO.
8. Because of aliasing effect the useful storage 8. It does not have aliasing effect.
bandwidth is limited.
9. It cannot function under variable persistence storage 9. It can function under variable persistence storage
mode. mode.

3.9 LISSAJOUS METHOD OF FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT

Q50. Explain the measurement procedure of Lissajous patterns with one example.
April/May-17, Set-1, Q4(a)

OR
Explain the method of finding phase, frequency relationship of two waveforms using Lissajous figures.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q5(a)
Phase Measurement
When sinusoidal voltages simultaneously applied to vertical and horizontal plates, the pattern appearing on the CRT is
called as Lissajous pattern.
In this method the standard known frequency is applied to X-plate or horizontal plate. The resulting pattern appeared on
the screen depends on phase relationship between the two frequencies.
Equal voltages of same frequency but of different phase angles cause the pattern to vary from a straight diagonal line to
ellipses of different eccentricities.
The sine of the phase angle between the voltages is given by equation,
y1 x
sin φ = = 1
y2 x2
As shown in figure (1) the gains of horizontal or vertical amplifiers are adjusted so that ellipse fits exactly into a square
marked by lines on the screen.

Figure (1): Determining Angle of Phase Shift

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.37
Frequency Measurement

Lissajous pattern also helps to measure frequency. The signal whose frequency is to be measured is given to Y-plates
or vertical plates and the signal whose frequency is given to X-plates or horizontal plates. Now the known frequency or standard
frequency is adjusted so Lissajous patterns can be obtained on the screen which depends on the ratio of two frequencies. In the
given figure (2),

Let, fv – Unknown frequency signal applied to vertical plates.

fh – Known frequency signal applied to horizontal plates.

Figure (2): Lissajous Patterns Allowing Different Frequency Ratios

Two lines are drawn, one vertical and one horizontal so that they do not pass through any intersection of Lissajous pattern.
Then the number of intersections of the horizontal and vertical lines with the Lissajous pattern are counted separately.

Frequency ratio is given by,

fv
=
fh
So, after finding the tangencies if we know fh we can easily calculate the unknown frequency applied to vertical plate.

All electronic circuits in the oscilloscope like attenuators, time base generators, amplifiers cause some amount of time
delay while transmitting signal voltage to deflection plates.

We also know that horizontal signal is initiated or triggered by some portion of output signal applied to vertical plates of
CRT.

So the delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical section of CRT.
Q51. Calculate the ratio of vertical to horizontal frequencies for an oscilloscope which displays the following
Lissajous figures shown.

Ans: Dec.-13, Set-4, Q5(b)

For a stationary pattern, the ratio of two frequencies is given as,

fy
=
fx

(a)

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Q52. Find the frequency of the vertical plates if the
frequency applied to horizontal plate is 50 Hz
for the patterns shown.

Number of horizontal tangencies = 1

(a) (b)
Number of vertical tangencies = 2
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-2, Q5(b)
Ratio of vertical to horizontal frequencies,
Given that,
fx 2 Frequency of horizontal plates, fx = 50 Hz
∴ = =2:1
fy 1 Frequency of vertical plates, fy = ?

(b)
(a)

Number of horizontal tangencies = 2

Number of vertical tangencies = 1
1
Number of horizontal tangency = = 0.5
Ratio of vertical to horizontal frequencies 2
Number of vertical tangency = 1
fx 1
= = 1: 2 We know that,
fy 2
fy
=
fx
(c)
fy 0.5
=
fx 1
0.5
fy = × fx
1
= 0.5 × 50
∴ fy = 25 Hz
Number of horizontal tangencies = 3
Number of vertical tangencies = 2 (b)
Ratio of vertical to horizontal frequencies
f 2
x = =2:3
fy 3

Number of horizontal tangency = 1

(d)
1
Number of vertical tangency = = 0.5
2
fy 1
Number of horizontal tangencies = 8 ∴ =
fx 0.5
Number of vertical tangencies = 1
1 1
Ratio of vertical to horizontal frequencies fy = × fx = × 50
0.5 0 .5
fx 1
= = 1 : 8 ∴ fy = 100 Hz
fy 8

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.39

3.10 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS OF CRO

Q53. Describe the standard specifications of a CRO.

April-18, Set-3, Q1(c)

OR
Write the standard specifications of CRO.
Dec.-13, Set-4, Q5(a)

OR
What are the standard specifications of CRO?
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q4(b)

Specification of a Single Beam CRO

Vertical Amplifier
(i) Accuracy → 3%
(ii) Sensitivity → 5 mvolts/division to 20 volts/division in 12 calibrated steps in a 1,2,5 sequence
(iii) Rise time → Better than 18 nsec
(iv) Bandwidth → A.C. coupling 0.5 Hz to 200 MHz
D.C. coupling –3 db
(v) I/P impedance → 1 MΩ/40 pF
(vi) VImax (maximum input voltage) → D.C. + A.C. peak 400 volts
Time Base
(i) Accuracy → 5%
(ii) Magnification → Takes the highest speed to 20 nsec/division.
(iii) Sweep ranges → 0.1 µsec/division to 0.5 sec/division in 21 calibrated steps in a 1,2,5 sequence
Triggering
(i) Source → Internal - external - line
(ii) Polarity → Positive/negative
(iii) Input impedance → 1 MΩ/30 pF
(iv) Maximum trigger input → D.C. + A.C. peak 250 volts short term
(v) Internal trigger level → 3 division from 2 Hz-20 MHz
(vi) External trigger level → 3 Vp-p, 2 Hz-20 MHz
Horizontal Amplifier
(i) Calibration → At 1 kHz, 0.2 Vp-p square wave
(ii) Sensitivity → 0.5 volts/division and 100 mvolts
(iii) Power requirements → 230 V A.C., 50 Hz, 50 watts
(iv) Accelerating potential → 4.5 kVolts
(v) VImax (maximum input voltage) → D.C. + A.C. peak 250 volts
(vi) Input impedance → 1 MΩ/50 pF
(vii) Bandwidth → –3 db
(viii) Weight → 10 kg approximately

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3.11 PROBES FOR CRO-ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ATTENUATOR TYPE

Q54. Describe briefly about various probes used in CROs.

(April-18, Set-4, Q4(b) | Nov.-11, Set-2, Q5(a))

OR

Explain various types of probes used for CRO.

Ans: April/May-17, Set-3, Q4(b)

Different Types of CRO Probes

A probe can be any conductor, which is used to connect the test circuit to the cathode ray oscilloscope. The different types
of oscilloscope probes are,

(i) Direct probe

(ii) High impedance probe

(iii) Active probe

(iv) Current probe

(v) High voltage probe

(vi) Differential probe.

(i) Direct Probe

A simple test lead wire of sufficient length used to connect the CRO input to the point of observation is called as direct
probe or simply probe. It is the simplest type of all the probes.

One end of the direct probe contains a crocodile clip or other means to connect the electronic test circuit to the oscilloscope,
whereas the other end of the probe terminates with the form of tips such as, banana tips and lugs at the end of the oscilloscope.
The test leads are shielded by a core material to prevent hum pickup when used with low impedance high level test circuits. A
simple direct probe is shown in the figure (1).
Sheilded core
Connector at
termination

Crocodile
clipe

Figure (1): Direct Probe

Direct probes cannot improve their input impedance which is necessary to prevent loading effects of the circuit. When
these are in use, their stray capacitance gets added with the capacitance of the oscilloscope. Because of this reason, the total input
reactance becomes very low at high frequency conditions. Therefore, the input impedance of the oscilloscope decreases and hence,
the circuit may break.

(ii) High Impedance Probe

A compensated “10 : X probe” is also known as high impedance probe or passive voltage probe. The passive voltage probe is
used to increase the input impedance of the CRO and is used to reduce the effective input capacitance of the CRO. A compensated
“10 : X probe” is shown in figure (2).

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.41

Input

Figure (2): Compensated 10 : X Probe

In the above figure, C1 is the compensating capacitor which is connected in parallel with resistor R1. In the above figure,
co-axial cable is used to connect the head of the probe to the CRO input.
In the above figure,
C2 – Cable equivalent capacitance
Ri – Input resistance of CRO (1 MΩ)
Ci – Input capacitance of CRO (20 pF)
R1 – Probe head resistance (9 MΩ)
C1 – Compensating capacitor.
(iii) Active Probe
The circuit diagram of an active probe using FET as an active element for amplifying the input signal is shown in
the figure (3).

Figure (3): Active FET Probe

In the above circuit, FET is configured as a voltage follower. Hence, FET provides a voltage gain of unity, but it provides
a power gain which leads to an increase in the input impedance. Thus, active probe utilizing FET has high input impedance.
The active probe is connected to the CRO through a coaxial cable. This coaxial cable is driven by the FET voltage follower.
But in order to assure proper impedance matching between FET and cable, a BJT emitter follower stage is introduced between
FET and cable.

The FET is mounted at the tip of the active probe in order to eliminate the capacitance of the cable which connects the
probe and CRO. Also, to avoid the effect of capacitance of the cable on high frequency input signals, the cable is terminated in
characteristic impedance of CRO instead of connecting it to the high input impedance of CRO.

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Limitations of Active FET Probe
The limitation of the active probe using FET is that there is no attenuation of the signal between the probe tip and FET
amplifier. Due to this reason, the FET probe can accept only those signals that lie in the dynamic range of the FET amplifier. The
dynamic range of FET amplifier is less than few volts. Therefore, active FET probe cannot handle large voltage signals.
(iv) Current Probe
The measurement of current using an oscilloscope requires a current probe in order to convert the current into a voltage and
feed it to the oscilloscope. (Because, an oscilloscope is usually designed to accept only voltage inputs). A current probe consists
of two jaws between which the wire carrying the current is clamped. No electrical connection is required between the current
probe and the wire carrying the current to be measured. The oscilloscope can be set to measure the current by just enclosing the
wire between the jaws of the current probe.
There are two working principles of a current probe. They are,
1. Transformer action principle
2. Hall-effect principle.
1. Transformer Action Principle
It allows measurement of only A.C currents.
2. Hall-effect Principle
It allows the measurement of both A.C and D.C currents.
Current Probe Utilizing Transformer Action Principle
In general, the jaws of a current probe consists of a magnetic core structure and a secondary winding wound on this
core. When the current carrying wire is enclosed between the jaws of current probe, a contact is established between the wire
and the magnetic core and then this wire acts as primary winding of the transformer. Due to the flow of current in the primary
winding (current-wire), transformer action takes place. As a result, a voltage (proportional to the current in the wire) is induced
in the secondary winding. Thus the current probe converts the input current into voltage and applies it to the input channel of the
oscilloscope.
This type of current probe is limited for A.C currents only because D.C current does not induce voltage in the secondary
winding of the transformer, in fact it increases the magnetic flux in the core and leads to inaccurate measurements.
Current Probe Utilizing Hall-effect Principle
A current probe working on the principle of hall-effect consists of a hall-effect transducer in its magnetic core structure.
According to the principle of hall-effect, a voltage is developed at the edges of a flat current carrying conductor in the presence
of a magnetic field.
Thus, when a wire carrying either A.C or D.C current enclosed between the jaws of a hall-effect current probe due to hall-
effect, A.C or D.C current gets converted into voltage which can then be applied as input to the oscilloscope.
Hence, it is necessary to use a current probe for measuring current by an oscilloscope.
(v) High Voltage Probe
High voltage probes are made of high impact strength thermoplastic material. They prevent electric shock hazards to the
user. The probe head has high input resistance of about 100 MΩ. A cable is used to connect the probe head to the termination as
shown in the figure (4).

Figure (4): High Voltage Probe

High voltage probes measure high voltages of the order of kilo volts. By adjusting the POT R6, the series resistance R5
and Rin, an attenuation or voltage division ratio of 1000 to 1 is obtained. High voltage probes have very high input impedance
but they are large in size and the circuit is complex as its components are packed very close to each other and hence, they are not
suitable to use at high frequency conditions. The performance of high voltage probes is affected by changes in temperature and
the shunting capacity of the input circuit.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.43
(vi) Differential Probe
Differential probe is a type of active probe with two inputs, one is positive and the other is negative. The circuit of a
differential probe is shown in the figure (5).

Figure (5): Differential Probe

Differential probe produces the difference of the two voltages acting at the two inputs and supplies it to the one channel of
the oscilloscope. It rejects the common mode signals effectively at D.C and at low frequency conditions. It can be used to obtain
bandwidth of 1 GHz signal. It is provided with different controls for D.C offset, D.C reject and coupling.
Differential probes are suitable to use with signals of few volts only and clips off the peaks above certain amplitude level.
They are bulky and have less dynamic range.
Precautions to be taken while using CRO Probes
1. As the input resistance and input capacitance of oscilloscopes changes from one to another, every probe has to be carefully
and correctly adjusted when it is first connected to a particular oscilloscope.
2. Care should be taken while connecting the test circuit to the oscilloscope using probes, because low impedance probes
may alter or disturb the circuit while connecting it to the oscilloscope.
3. Probe should be connected and handled properly and should not touch the metal probe tip of the probe when it is in contact
with a hot circuit.
4. Always operate the probe within its specified voltage limits. Do not allow the input voltage to exceed the maximum input
voltage limit of the probe.
Q55. Explain the working of a compensated “10:X probe’’.
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q5(b)
OR
Draw the diagram of compensated 10 : voltage divider probe and explain it.
Ans:
A compensated “10 : X probe” is also known as high impedance probe or passive voltage probe. The passive voltage
probe is used to increase the input impedance of the CRO and is used to reduce the effective input capacitance of the CRO. A
compensated “10 : X probe” is shown in figure (1),

Figure (1): Compensated 10 : X Probe

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In the above figure, C1 is the compensating capacitor which is connected in parallel with resistor R1. In the above figure,
co-axial cable is used to connect the head of the probe to the CRO input.

In the above figure,

C2 – Cable equivalent capacitance

Ri – Input resistance of CRO (1 MΩ)

Ci – Input capacitance of CRO (20 pF)

R1 – Probe head resistance (9 MΩ)

C1 – Compensating capacitor.

Figure (2) shows the bridge type arrangement of high impedance probe.

Figure (2): Bridge Type Arrangement

In order to get balanced condition of the bridge, the variable capacitor C1 is adjusted.

R1 X C1
∴ =
Ri X (C i + C 2 )

R1 (ωci + ωc2 )
=
Ri ωc1
∴ R1 C1 = Ri (Ci + C2)

In this way the x and y points will be equipotential. Thus, the high impedance probe consisting of resistor R1 and Ri across
 R1 + Ri   9 +1
the input acts as a potential divider. Therefore the attenuation factor is given as   =   = 10.
 Ri   1 
Therefore this probe is known as 10 : X probe.

Q56. Derive the equations for resistive voltage divider and capacitive voltage divider of compensated
attenuator.

Ans:

A compensated attenuator is a combination of both resistive voltage divider and capacitive voltage divider. Figure (1)
shows the simple compensated attenuator, whose high frequency response will be increased by capacitive voltage dividers.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.45

Figure (1): Simple Compensated Attenuator

Usually, CROs uses highly complex resistive and capacitive voltage dividers to extend their frequency ranges. With this
we can extend the frequency range of CROs upto 10,000 kHz and beyond. Figure (2), shows the switchable input attenuator.

Figure (2): Switchable Input Attenuator

The capacitors shown in figure (2) known as switchable input coupling capacitors, which are provided by all CROs. The
input capacitance and input resistance of a CRO are shunted whose values are 10-30 pF and 1 MΩ respectively. The capacitance
of the input impedance at the probe tip is very high whenever a CRO is connected to probe . This high value of capacitance is
obtained due to the shielded cable connection. Usually, an attenuator probe is used for high frequency CROs in which their input
capacitance must be less than 20-30 pF. The input of CRO is connected to probe which is 10:1 attenuator type. The 10 : 1 probe
is known as attenuator probe which reduces the input capacitance of an attenuator as 10 : 1. This probe also reduces sensitivity
of entire CRO. Usually, the CRO probe consist of an adjustable compensating capacitor since the input capacitance of CRO vary
from one type to another.
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The basic circuit of attenuator probe and its equivalent When capacitor is acting alone, the attenuation of the
circuit is shown in the following respective figure, signal can be calculated as,
 X C2 
Vin = Vs  
 XC + XC 
 p 2 

  1  
   
  ωC2  
= Vs  
  1  +  1  
  ωC p   ωC2  
  

 Cp 
∴ Vin = Vs   ... (4)
 C2 + C p 
 
Figure (3): Circuit Diagram of Attenuator Probe
From equation (2) and equation (4), we get,
Rin Cp
=
R p + Rin C2 + C p
The above equation is obtained when both the resistive
network and capacitive network attenuates the signal in the
same proportion.
Q57. Discuss the adjustment of oscilloscope probes
and show the various waveforms that can occur
when adjusting a probe.
Ans: (Nov.-11, Set-4, Q5(b) | Nov.-10, Set-3, Q5(b))
Figure (4): Equivalent Circuit of Attenuator Probe
A probe can be any conductor, which is used to connect
In the above figures, the test circuit to the cathode ray oscilloscope. While connecting
Vs – Signal source voltage the test circuit to the oscilloscope using probes proper care
should be taken because low impedance probes may alter or
Rs – Signal source resistance
disturb the circuit. As the input resistance and input capacitance
Rp – Resistance of probe of oscilloscope changes from one to another, every probe has
Cp – Capacitance of probe to be carefully and correctly adjusted when it is first connected
to a particular oscilloscope.
C1 – Coaxial cable capacitance
If the capacitance of the probe is not adjusted to a correct
Cin – Input capacitance of CRO value, the cathode ray oscilloscope exhibits a factor frequency
Rin – Input resistance of CRO response. The adjustment of the probe is checked by observing
a square wave on the display of CRT. i.e., whenever a probe is
C2 = C1 + Cin connected to the probe adjust terminal, which is provided on
The input voltage of CRO, at medium and low the front panel of CRO, the calibrator (which is used to calibrate
frequencies is given as, the attenuator probes of CRO) provides a square wave output
as shown in figure (1) on the screen.
Vs ( Rin )
Vin = ... (1)
( R p + Rs + Rin )
When, Rp >> Rs, then
Vs ( Rin )
Vin ... (2)
( R p + Rin ) Figure (1): Perfect Square Wave Output
For, Rp = 9 MΩ, Rin = 1 MΩ, equation (2), becomes If the prove is not adjusted to the correct value, the
shape of the square wave will get highly affected. If the input
Vs capacitance of the probe is very small, the leading edge of the
Vin = ... (3)
10 square wave will get rounded off as shown in the figure (2).

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.47

Figure (2): Output Waveform When Input Capacitance

of Probe is Very Small (a) 10 : 1 Probe Circuit (b) Equivalent Circuit
If the input capacitance of the probe is very high, Figure (1)
the leading edge of square wave overshoots as shown in the A 9 MΩ resistor is connected in parallel with an adjustable
figure (3). capacitor. Ccc is the coaxial cable capacitance and C2 is the sum
of oscilloscope input capacitance Ci. At low medium frequencies
the oscilloscope input voltage is given by,
Ri
Vi = Vs
R1 + Rs + Ri
Where, Rs < < R1

Ri
Vi Vs
R1 + Ri
With, R1 = 9 MΩ and

Figure (3): Output waveform When Input Capacitance of Probe is Ri = 1 MΩ
Very High
Vs
An imperfect square wave indicates the prove has been Vi = Vs =
compensated or adjusted to the wrong value. In this case, the
10
probe has to be calibrated by adjusting it until a perfect square Due to the action of capacitors alone the attenuation factor
waveform is obtained on the screen. can be given by,
Q58. State the function and explain the working of a X C2
10:1 probe for CRO.
Vi = Vs
X C1 + X C 2
Dec.-13, Set-3, Q5(a)
1
OR
ωC 2 1
= Vs = Vs
State the function and explain the working of a 1  C2 
10 : 1 probe for a CRO. 1 1   + 1
+  C1 
May-13, Set-2, Q5(b) ωC1 ωC2
OR
C1
Explain the operation of 10 to 1 probe. Vi = Vs
C2 + C1
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q4(b)
When attenuation of the signal using capacitive network
1. An attenuator probe is used to attenuate the input signal, is same as the attenuation using resistive attenuation, then Vi
usually by a factor of 10. across Ri equals Vi across C2 and
2. Attenuator probes offer very high input impedance than Ri C1
=
a 1:1 probe and minimizes the circuit loading. R1 + Ri C2 + C1
3. These probes are also known as 10:1 probes because of The capacitor C1 compensates completely for the presence
the 10-fold attenuation. of C2. Due to the presence of C2 the additional attenuation
4. The figure 1(a) shows the circuit of 10:1 probe whereas and phase shift at high frequencies is eliminated and for all
figure 1(b) shows its equivalent circuit. frequencies the probe-oscilloscope combination is compensated.

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3.48 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The value of C1 required to compensate for C2 given by,
Ri
C1 = C2
R1

Figure (2): Inner Construction of 10 : 1 Probe

The figure (2) shows the inner construction of 10 : 1 probe. Here C1 is the capacitance exists between concentric metal
cylinders that are connected to opposite ends of 9 MΩ (resistor) R1. Adjustment of cylinders for variation of capacitance C1 can
be done using screw threads.
Q59. Draw the circuit of active probe using FET. Explain its operation and limitations.
Ans:
Active Probe Using FET
The circuit diagram of an active probe using FET as an active element for amplifying the input signal is shown in the fol-
lowing figure.

Figure: Active FET Probe

In the above circuit, FET is configured as a voltage follower. Hence, FET provides a voltage gain of unity, but it provides
a power gain which leads to an increase in the input impedance. Thus, active probe utilizing FET has high input impedance.
The active probe is connected to the CRO through a coaxial cable. This coaxial cable is driven by the FET voltage follower.
But in order to assure proper impedance matching between FET and cable, a BJT emitter follower stage is introduced between
FET and cable.
The FET is mounted at the tip of the active probe in order to eliminate the capacitance of the cable which connects the
probe and CRO. Also, to avoid the effect of capacitance of the cable on high frequency input signals, the cable is terminated in
characteristic impedance of CRO instead of connecting it to the high input impedance of CRO.
Limitations of Active FET Probe
The limitation of the active probe using FET is that there is no attenuation of the signal between the probe tip and FET
amplifier. Due to this reason, the FET probe can accept only those signals that lie in the dynamic range of the FET amplifier. The
dynamic range of FET amplifier is less than few volts. Therefore, active FET probe cannot handle large voltage signals.

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UNIT-3 Oscilloscopes 3.49
Q60. Explain the working principles of a current probe.
Ans:
Working Principles of a Current Probe
The measurement of current using an oscilloscope requires a current probe in order to convert the current into a voltage and
feed it to the oscilloscope. (Because, an oscilloscope is usually designed to accept only voltage inputs). A current probe consists
of two jaws between which the wire carrying the current is clamped. No electrical connection is required between the current
probe and the wire carrying the current to be measured. The oscilloscope can be set to measure the current by just enclosing the
wire between the jaws of the current probe.
There are two working principles of a current probe. They are,
1. Transformer action principle
2. Hall-effect principle.
1. Transformer Action Principle
It allows measurement of only A.C currents.
2. Hall-effect Principle
It allows the measurement of both A.C and D.C currents.
Current Probe Utilizing Transformer Action Principle
In general, the jaws of a current probe consists of a magnetic core structure and a secondary winding wound on this
core. When the current carrying wire is enclosed between the jaws of current probe, a contact is established between the wire
and the magnetic core and then this wire acts as primary winding of the transformer. Due to the flow of current in the primary
winding (current-wire), transformer action takes place. As a result, a voltage (proportional to the current in the wire) is induced
in the secondary winding. Thus the current probe converts the input current into voltage and applies it to the input channel of the
oscilloscope.
This type of current probe is limited for A.C currents only because D.C current does not induce voltage in the secondary
winding of the transformer, in fact it increases the magnetic flux in the core and leads to inaccurate measurements.
Current Probe Utilizing Hall-effect Principle
A current probe working on the principle of hall-effect consists of a hall-effect transducer in its magnetic core structure.
According to the principle of hall-effect, a voltage is developed at the edges of a flat current carrying conductor in the presence
of a magnetic field.
Thus, when a wire carrying either A.C or D.C current enclosed between the jaws of a hall-effect current probe due to hall-
effect, A.C or D.C current gets converted into voltage which can then be applied as input to the oscilloscope.
Hence, it is necessary to use a current probe for measuring current by an oscilloscope.
Q61. What is a current probe? Explain its action with a diagram.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q5(a)

Current Probe
An oscilloscope probe, which is designed to measure current flowing in a test circuit without any direct electrical contact
with the circuit is called as current probe.
For remaining answer refer Unit-III, Q60, Topic: Working Principles of a Current Probe.
Current Probe Operating on the Principle of Hall Effect
The current probe is used to measure current flowing in a test circuit without any direct electrical contact with the circuit.
It is clamped around a wire through which current to be measured is flowing, thereby avoiding physical contact with the probe.
This probe is frequently used for the measurement of magnitude of the current from zero or D.C to 50 MHz. The current probe
working on the principle of Hall effect is shown in figure. The current probe using Hall effect principle consists of a feedback
amplifier and a Hall device. In this arrangement, the wire carrying current to be measured acts as the primary winding and the
Hall device is located in the magnetic core of the probe. Hence, due to the presence of magnetic flux in the core current will
be induced in the secondary of the current transformer by the action of Hall effect. This secondary current acts against the flux
developed by the current passing through the wire (i.e., current being measured).

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3.50 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure: Current Probe Using Hall Effect Principle

The static flux in the core becomes zero. Thus, the quantity of secondary current needed to cancel the flux developed by
the current being measured is directly proportional to the quantity and direction of being measured. Thus, the amount of current
passing through the wire is measured.
Here, the quantity of secondary current required to cancel the primary flux is displayed as D.C voltage on the screen of
CRO by means of terminating resistor.
Q62. A given oscilloscope has an input resistance of 10 M ohm shunted by 20 pf. Design a 10 to 1 probe.
Ans:
Given that,
Input resistance of CRO = 10 MΩ
Input capacitance of CRO = 20 p.f
Figure shows the equivalent circuit of a 10 to 1 probe.

Figure: 10 to 1 Probe
The attenuation factor of a 10 to 1 probe is given as,
R1 + Ri
= 10
Ri
R1 + Ri = 10 Ri
R1 = 9 Ri = 9 × 10 MΩ
R1 = 90 MΩ
In order to get the balanced condition of the bridge, the variable capacitor C1 is adjusted.
R1
∴ =
Ri

R1 (ωCi + ωC2 )
=
Ri ωC1
R1C1 = Ri(Ci + C2)
By neglecting C2 the above equation becomes,
R1C1 = Ri Ci
Ri Ci
C1 = =
R1
∴ C1 = 2.22 pf

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.1

Marketed by:

UNIT
A.C BRIDGES

4 SIA GROUP

PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. Give the merits and demerits of Anderson`s bridge?
Ans:
Merits
1. Anderson’s bridge can be used for precise measurement of self-inductance over very large range values.
2. It can operate effectively by employing a fixed capacitor.
3. It can be used for accurate measurement of capacitance in terms of inductance.
4. The balance condition is achieved very easily (For low Q-coils) when compared to Maxwell’s bridge.
Demerits
1. This bridge is more complex compared to Maxwell’s bridge.
2. As this bridge contains more parts it is difficult to manipulate, and the balance equations are more tedious.
3. Shielding of the bridge is difficult since the bridge contains additional junction point.
Q2. Give the merits of Maxwell`s inductance.
Ans:
Merits
1. Selection of R4 and C4 variable elements will make the two balance conditions independent.
2. L1 can be calibrated directly in terms of C4 values since the balance conditions are simple.
3. It is very useful for measuring the inductance at power and audio frequencies.
4. The balance conditions are independent of frequency.
Q3. Give the list of the detectors used in A.C bridges.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(d)

Detectors for A.C Bridges

There are three types of detectors that are widely used for A.C bridges. They are,
1. Headphones
2. Vibration galvanometer
3. Tunable amplifier detectors.
1. Headphones
Headphones are highly sensitive to alternating currents in the frequency range of 250 Hz to 4 kHz and are inexpensive.
Due to these reasons, headphones are commonly used as detectors for measurements in above frequency range.
2. Vibration Galvanometer
It is another type of sensitive detector that can be used for A.C bridges operating in the frequency range of 5Hz-1000 Hz.
Vibration galvanometers are more sensitive than headphones at frequencies below 200 Hz. Hence for frequencies below 200 Hz,
vibration galvanometer is preferred.

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3. Tunable Amplifier Detectors 2. Wheatstone bridge cannot be used for measurement
Tunable amplifier detector is a transistor amplifier that of high resistance also, because a galvanometer is not
can be electrically tuned and can be used for wide range of sensitive to the imbalance of the bridge caused by the
frequencies (i.e., 10 Hz to 100 kHz). By tuning the amplifier high resistance of the bridge. This problem can be
the detector can be made to respond to a narrow bandwidth at overcome by replacing the galvanometer with a Vacuum
the operating frequency of the A.C bridge. In order to detect the Type Volt Meter (VTVM) and by replacing the battery
null condition through tunable amplifier detector the output of with a power supply.
this amplifier is fed to a pointer and scale arrangement. A tuned 3. A Wheatstone bridge cannot be used in high temperature
detector provides high sensitivity when the A.C bridge operates or temperature-varying environment because the
at a single frequency. resistance of the arms of the bridge changes due to
Q4. What are the applications of wheatstone bridge. change in temperature.
Ans: 4. The resistance of the bridge arms also changes due to
Applications of Wheatstone Bridge heating effect of the current passing through the resistance.
1. The basic application of a Wheatstone bridge is mea- Flow of very large current through the resistors leads to a
surement of resistance. It is used to measure medium permanent change of resistance value.
resistance values. Q6. Explain the technique of measuring resistance
2. It can also be used to measure inductance and capacitance using Wheatstone bridge.
values.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(d)
3. Various industrial applications involve measurement
of physical quantities (such as temperature, pressure, One of the most widely used and accurate method
displacement etc) in terms of electrical resistance. The of measurement of medium resistance is the Wheatstone
various industrial applications in which a Wheatstone bridge method. The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit for making
bridge is used are, comparison measurements and works on the principle of null
(i) Temperature measurement systems involving indication i.e., the resulting indication does not depends on the
electrical resistance thermometers as temperature calibration of the null indicating device or the characteristics
sensors. of the device. Therefore high accuracy is obtained from the
Wheatstone bridge. The circuit arrangement of Wheatstone
(ii) Pressure measurement systems involving strain arm. The resistance Rn is the unknown resistance. When the
gauge as secondary transducer. resistances of ratio arms and standard resistor are known, the
(iii) Measurement of static and dynamic strains. resistance of unknown resistor is determined from the following
(iv) It is used with explosimeter to measure the amount equation,
of combustible gases in a sample. R2 R3
4. It is used to find out the faults in telephone cables.
R4 =
R1
5. It is used for measuring the resistance of various types
of wires, relay coils, motor winding etc., and thereby to Q7. List the sources of errors in Wheatstone bridge.
determine the quality of the wire.
April-18, Set-4, Q1(d)
Q5. Explain the limitations of Wheatstone bridge.
OR
April-18, Set-3, Q1(d)
OR Explain the sources of errors in a Wheatstone
bridge.
List out the different limitations of Wheatstone’s
bridge in detail. Ans:
April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(d) Sources of Errors in Wheatstone Bridge
OR The accuracy of measurement of resistance in a wheat-
List out the limitations of wheatstone bridge. stone bridge is affected by the following sources,
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(d) 1. Resistance of connecting leads and contact resistances
Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge effect the bridge measurement.
1. Wheatstone bridge is not suitable for measuring low 2. Thermoelectric Effects
resistances because the resistance of leads and contacts
of the bridge cause errors in the value measured by the The galvanometer deflection is affected by thermo
Wheatstone bridge and thus affects the measurement of electric e.m.f’s which are often present in the measuring
low resistances. circuit.

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.3
3. Temperature Effects
The change in resistance due to variation of temperature causes serious errors in measurement. The errors are more pre-
dominant in the case of resistors which are made up of materials having high temperature coefficients. In the case of copper
having a high temperature coefficient of 0.004/°C, a change in temperature of ± 1°C causes an error of about ± 0.4%.
4. The null detector or the galvanometer should possesses sufficient sensitivity, otherwise it results in error of a null detector.
5. The limited errors of the unknown resistors used in bridge causes serious error. This can be reduce by using resistors of
1% tolerance.
6. The limited values of current should be used in the bridge, otherwise the values of the resistors can be changed perma-
nently.
Q8. What are the possibilities of errors in PMMC ammeter?
April-18, Set-1, Q1(d)

OR
What are the errors in PMMC ammeter?
Ans:
Errors in PMMC Ammeters
The accuracy in a moving coil instruments example, an ammeter is dictated by the following sources of errors,
(i) Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and temperature effects.
(ii) The weakening of springs due to regular usage and temperature effects.
(iii) Variation in Resistance of moving coil with temperature. The copper wire wound has a temperature coefficient of about
0.004/ºC. When this instrument used for measurement of very small currents in the milli-amp or micro-amp range, the
moving coil is directly connected to the output terminals of the instrument. The indication would then decrease by 0.04%
per ºC rise in temperature for a constant current.
Q9. What are the problems associated with shielding? And explain the remedies.
April-18, Set-2, Q1(d)

OR
What are problems associated with shielding? How they are handled?
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(d)

Shielding is defined as a complete or partial covering of a conductor or circuit element to eliminate noise and interferences
and to reduce stray disturbances. Shielding is widely used to eliminate electrostatic fields.
The shielding itself creates problems in the circuitry if there is any flow of current through the shield. If there is any current
flows through the shield, the shield material itself generates secondary fields on the other side of the shielding material. Due to
this the effectiveness of the shield gets reduced. Hence for a shield to be effective, no current should flow through it. Therefore
to prevent any flow of current through the shield, the reference or common should be connected at only one point on the shield.
If the shielding of a cable has different potential at each end, the resulting flow of current induces noise into the shielded
conductors. This is prevented by disconnecting one or other ends of the shield of that cable. But this technique is not satisfactory
in some environments and a guard potential is required.
Q10. Define quality factor and give the expressions for the inductive and capacitive quality factors.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-2, Q1(d)

The quality factor, Q is defined as the ratio of the reactive power the inductor or capacitor to the true power in the resistance
in which is connected in series with the coil or capacitor. Mathematically, it is given as,
Maximum energy stored
Q = 2π ×
Energy dissipated per cycle

\ The quality factor of inductor and capacitor are,

ωL 1 1 L
Q= R = =
ωCR R C
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4.4 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q11. Derive the balance condition of bridge.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-3, Q1(d)

The circuit diagram of basic A.C bridge is as shown in figure below.

A

Z1 Z2

A.C Supply C Detector D

Z3 Z4

Figure
To obtain the balance condition of the bridge, the potential at the point C must be equal to the potential at point D.Thus,
the voltage drop from A to C must be equal to A to D. i.e.,
Þ VAC = VAD ... (1)
Þ I1Z1 = I2 Z2 ... (2)
From figure,
V
I1 =
Z1 + Z3
V
I2 = ... (3)
Z2 + Z4

Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), we get,

JK V NO J V NO
KK OO Z1 = KKK OO Z2
L Z1 + Z3 P L Z2 + Z4 P
V Z1 V Z2
=
Z1 + Z3 Z2 + Z4

Z1( Z2 + Z4) = Z2 ( Z1 + Z3)

Z1 Z2 + Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z1 + Z2 Z3

Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3

Z1+q1Z4 +q 4 = Z2 +q 2 Z3 +q3
RSa In polar form,VW
SS W
SS Z1 = Z1+q1 WWW
SS W
Z1 Z4 Ð (q1 + q4) = Z2 Z3 Ð (q2 + q3) SS Z2 = Z2 +q 2 WWW ... (4)
SS W
SS Z3 = Z3 +q3 WWW
SS W
Z4 = Z4 +q 4 W
T X
\ From equation (4), the balanced conditions of the bridge are,
Z1 Z4 = Z2 Z3

Ð (q1 + q4) = Ð (q2 + q3)

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.5
Q12. Discuss the ‘direct connection’ technique of using Q-meter.
Ans:
Direct connection technique is one of the three methods which are used to connect the unknown components to the testing
terminal of the Q-meter circuit.
In direct connection technique most of the component are connected directly across the testing terminal of the Q-meter as
illustrated below.

Figure: Basic Q Meter Circuit

The circuit is adjusted to resonance either by varying the resonating capacitor or frequency of oscillator. In this technique
the indicated value of Q can be read directly and it can be modified by the setting of ‘multiply Q by’ meter.
Q13. An A.C bridge has the following constants: arm AB capacitor of 0.5 µF in parallel with 1 kΩ resistance;
arm AD resistance of 2 kΩ; arm BC capacitor of 0.5 µF; arm CD unknown capacitor Cx and Rx in series,
frequency 1 kHz. Determine the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.
Ans:
From the given data the following circuit is formed.

Figure
In the figure,

C3 R1
Cx =
R2

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4.6 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Rx = =

Dissipation factor,

D = 2πf Cx Rx

= 2π × 1000 × 0.25 × 10–6 × 2000

Q14. A bridge has 1500 ohm in one arm and its opposite arm has a capacitor of value 0.5 µF. The arm to the
right of resistor arm is given 900 ohm is shunt with a 0.5 µF. The arm opposite to this arm is connected
with the unknown component. Find the value of the component and its dissipation factor.
Ans:

From the above given data the following circuit is formed.

Figure
In the above figure,
C3 R1
Cx =
R2

R2 C1
Rx =
C3

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.7
Dissipation factor,
D = 2πfCxRx
Assume frequency, f = 1000 Hz
= 2π × 1000 × 0.3 × 10–6 × 1500

Q15. The self capacitance of a coil is measured by using the Q meter. The first measurement is at f1 = 1 MHz and
C1 = 500 pF. The second measurement is at f2 = 2 MHz and C2 = 110 pF. Find the distributed capacitance.
Also calculate the value of L.
Ans:
Given that,
f1 = 1 MHz
C1 = 500 pF
f2 = 2 MHz
C2= 110 pF
To determine,
Distributed capacitance, Cd = ?
Inductance, L = ?
From the given data,
i.e., f2 = 2f1
The distributed or self capacitance is given by,
C1 − 4C 2
Cd =
3

= 20 × 10–12
Cd = 20 pF

Inductance of the coil is given by,

L=

= [ ω = 2πf]

1
= 2
4π f12 (C1 + Cd )

= 4.871 × 10–5 H
L = 48.71 µH

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4.8 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
4.1 A.C BRIDGES MEASUREMENT OF INDUCTANCE – MAXWELL’S BRIDGE, ANDERSON
BRIDGE

Q16. Draw the circuit diagram of Maxwell’s bridge and derive conditions of balance.
(April-18, Set-1, Q5(a) | Nov.-10, Set-3, Q6(a))

OR
Explain the operation of Maxwell’s bridge and derive the condition for balance of a bridge.
April/May-17, Set-1, Q5(a)

OR
Draw the circuit diagram of Maxwell’s bridge, explain its operation and derive the equations for unknown
variables.
(Nov.-11, Set-2, Q6(b) | Model Paper-IV, Q5(b))

OR
What is the usual procedure for balancing the Maxwell’s bridge? What is the necessity for following
such a procedure? Explain with the circuit diagram.
Ans:
Maxwell’s bridge is used for the measurement of inductance interms of a standard capacitor whose value is known. The
schematic arrangement of Maxwell’s bridge is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Maxwell’s Bridge

General balancing equation of the above bridge is given by,
Z x Z a = Zb Zc
Zb Zc
⇒ Zx =
Za
Which can be written as,
Zx = Zb ZcYa [Ya is the admittance of arm a ] ... (1)
Where,
1
Ya = + jωCa
Ra
Zb = Rb
Zc = Rc
Zx = Rx + jωLx

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.9
By substituting these in equation (1), we get,

 1 
Rx + jωLx = RbRc  + jωC a  ... (2)
R
 a 
By equating real and imaginary terms we get,
Rb Rc
Rx = and
Ra
Lx = Ca RbRc ... (3)
From the second balance condition (equation (2)) it is
clear that sum of the phase angles of one pair of opposite arms
should be equal to the sum of the phase angles of other pair.
The usual procedure for balancing the Maxwell bridge
involves the following steps,
(i) Initially the resistive element Rc is varied and
adjusted to obtain inductive balance. Figure (1): Anderson’s Bridge
(ii) Then the resistive element Ra is varied and adjusted In the above figure (1), assume that L1 is the self
for resistive balance condition. inductance which is to be measured and R1 is its resistance. r1
is the resistance connected in series with L1 and r, R2, R3, R4
In the adjustment of resistive element Rc, it is observed are non-inductive resistances whose values are known. C is a
that the resistive balance condition is being disturbed and standard fixed capacitor.
changes to another value. This process of balancing is repeatedly
carried out to provide slow convergence to final balance When the circuit is balanced
condition. If this circuit is employed for the measurement of I1 = I3 and I2 = IC + I4 ... (1)
medium-Q coil then this resistance effect can not be noticeable
IC
and the balance condition is obtained after a few adjustments. I1R3 = [ IC = jωCR3I1] ... (2)
jωC
Q17. Draw the anderson bridge and derive the
expression for the unknown inductance. What The other balance equations can be given by,
are the salient features of this bridge circuit? I1(r1 + R1 + jωL1) = I2R2 + IC r and ... (3)
April/May-17, Set-4, Q5(a)
 
IC r + 1  = (I2 – IC )R4 ... (4)
OR jω C 

Draw the circuit diagram of Anderson bridge
By substituting the value of Ic in equation (3), we get,
explain it and derive the equations for unknown
variables. I1(r1 + R1 + jωL1) = I2R2 + I1 jωCR3r
Nov.-11, Set-4, Q6(a) I1(r1 + R1 + jωL1 – jωCR3r) = I2R2 ... (5)
OR By substituting IC in equation (4), we get,
Draw the circuit diagram of Anderson bridge  1 
and derive conditions of balance. I1 jωCR3 r +  = (I2 – I1 jωCR3)R4
 jω C 
Nov.-10, Set-1, Q6(a)
I1( jωCR3r + jωCR3R4 + R3) = I2R4 ... (6)
OR
From equations (5) and (6), we get,
Derive an expression for balance in an
Anderson’s bridge. Draw the Phasor diagram I1(r1 + R1 + jωL1 – jωCR3r)
under balance conditions.
Ans: = I1

Anderson’s bridge is one of the bridge that are used for

By equating real and imaginary terms we get,
the measurement of self inductance. Basically the Anderson’s
bridge is a modification of Maxwell’s inductance capacitance R2 R3
R1 = – r1 and ... (7)
bridge (it is also used for the measurement of self inductance). R4
The Anderson’s bridge measures the unknown value of self
R3
inductance interms of standard fixed capacitor. The following L1 = C [r(R4 + R2) + R4R2] ... (8)
figure (1) shows the Anderson’s bridge. R4

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4.10 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
From the balance equations (7) and (8) it is clear that r1 and r appear in two different equations. Hence for easy
convergence of balance the values of r1 and r should be varied and adjusted alternately. The phasor diagram of this bridge
is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Phasor Diagram

Salient Features of Anderson’s Bridge
For answer refer Unit-IV, Q1, Topic: Merits.
Q18. Draw the circuit of a Maxwell’s inductance bridge and derive an expression for the unknown inductance.
Draw the phasor diagram at balance.
Ans:
Maxwell’s inductance bridge is used for the measurement of inductance. In this method the unknown inductance to be
measured by comparing it with a variable standard self-inductance. Figure (a) shows the Maxwell’s inductance bridge.

Figure (a): Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

In the circuit, the resistances R3 and R4 are known values of non-inductive resistances. L1 is the inductor whose value is to
be measured and R1 is the resistance of L1. L2 is a standard variable inductor having resistance r2. R2 is variable resistor connected
in series with the standard inductor. To satisfy the conditions for balance and for convenience of balance the bridge should contain
two variable elements. By making each balance equation to contain one variable element, the two balance equations can be made
independent. This condition will be satisfied by the choice of one variable inductance and one variable resistance.
Conditions for balance of Maxwell’s inductance bridge are,
Z1 = R1 + jωL1
Z2 = (R2 + r2) + jωL2
Z3 = R3 ; X3 = 0 and
Z4 = R4, X4 = 0
Substitute these values in equation,
R1R4 – X1X4 = R2R3 – X2X3, we get,
R1R4 – (R2 + r2)R3 = 0
or
R3
R1 = (R + r ) ... (1)
R4 2 2

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.11
Substitute the relevant parameters in equation X1R4 + The balance conditions in this bridge are,
X4R1 = X2R3 + X3R2, that leads to Z1 = R1 + jωL1.
X1R4 = X2R3 Z2 = R2
R3 Z3 = R3
L1 = L 12... (2) R4
R4 2 Z4 = R4 || XC4 =
1 + jωC4 R4
R2 is a decade resistance box. The resistor R3 and R4 can
have their values as from 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000 Ω by the Substitute these values in balance equation.
successive adjustment of L2 and R2. The balance of the bridge Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
can be adjusted. The phasor diagram of Maxwell’s inductance
bridge under balance condition is shown in figure (b).  R4 
⇒ (R1 + jωL1)   = R2 R3
 1 + jωC4 R4 
or
R1R4 + jωL1R4 = R2R3 + jωC4R4R2R3 ... (1)
Equate the real and imaginary terms on either side, we get,
R2 R3
R1 = and ... (2)
R4
L1 = R2R3C4 ... (3)
Figure (b): Phasor Diagram The Q factor of the coil can be expressed as,
Q19. Explain how an unknown inductance is measured ωL1
using Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge. Q = = ωC4R4 ... (4)
R1
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q6(a)
The phasor diagram of this bridge is,
Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge
This bridge measures the unknown inductance by
comparing it with a standard variable capacitance.

Figure (b): Phasor Diagram

Merits
For answer refer, Unit-IV, Q2.
Demerits
1. The main limitation of this bridge is it requires a variable
standard capacitor and it is quite expensive. Fixed
standard capacitor can be used as an alternative but it
requires to vary both R2 and R4 to achieve balance.
2. This bridge is suited only for measurement of medium-Q
coils. According to the balance condition. “The sum of
the phase angles of resistive elements in arm 2 and 3
should be equal to the sum of the phase angles of the
other pair”. Since, in arms 2 and 3 the sum of the phase
Figure (a): Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitance Bridge angles of the resistive elements is 0o, the sum of the
In the above figure L1 is the inductance which is to be angles of arm 1 and 4 must be add to 0o. If the coil high-Q
measured and R1 is the effective resistance of inductor L1. R2, value its phase angle will be nearly (90o) negative. This
R3, R4 are non-inductive resistors of known values and C4 is the indicates that the value of R1 should be very large and
variable standard capacitor. is not practical.

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4.12 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The bridge is not suitable for measuring low-Q coils. Usually, first by adjusting the value of R2 preliminary inductive balance
is achieved. Then by varying R4 resistive balance is achieved. R2 may have to be varied for second inductive balance because the
balance condition depends on the value of R2. This process have to be repeated number of times as the system ‘converges’ slowly
to the balance condition. For medium-Q coils the resistance effect is not produced and the bridge will be balanced after a few
adjustments.
Q20. Quantitatively explain about a bridge which is used for the measurement of the high quality factor
values.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q5(b)
The bridge used for the measurement of the high quality factor values is Hay’s bridge. It is a modified form of Maxwell’s
inductance-capacitance bridge. It measures an inductance by comparing with a standard variable capacitance. The circuit diagram
of the Hay’s bridge is shown in figure (1). It consists of an inductor with an inductance L1 and internal resistance r1 in arm ab
and non-inductive standard resistances R2 and R3 in arms ad and bc respectively and a known variable standard capacitance C4 in
series with known non-inductive variable standard resistance R4 in arm cd.
The bridge can be balanced by adjusting the values of R4 and C4. Figure (2) shows the phasor diagram of the bridge under
balanced conditions, with inductor current I1 as reference phasor.

Figure (1)

Figure (2)
From figure,
Zab = r1 + jωL1
Zbc = R3
1
Zcd = R4 – j
ωC 4
Zad = R2

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.13
Under balanced condition, we have, Substituting equation (5) in equation (3) we have
Zab Zcd = Zbc Zad R2 R3C4
L1 = ... (6)
 1  1
 = R3 R2 1+ 2
⇒ ( r1 + jωL1)  R4 − j
 ωC4  Q
For high Q coils i.e., Q > 10, 1 / Q2 is almost negligible.
r L
⇒ r1 R4 − j 1 + jωR4 L1 − j 2 1 = R2 R3
ωC 4 C4 And hence, equation (6) reduces to

L1  r  L1 = R2 R3 C4 ... (7)
⇒ r1 R4 + + j  ωR4 L1 − 1  = R2 R3
C4  ωC 4  On comparing equation (6) and equation (7) we can say
that, for high Q coils the expression for L1 is free from frequency
Equating real and imaginary terms on both sides, we get,
term. For low Q coils, 1/Q2 cannot be neglected and hence to
L1 find L1, the frequency of source is to be accurately known.
r1 R4 + = R2 R3 ... (1)
C4
Q21. “The Maxwell’s bridge is used for the measure-
And
ment of medium-Q coils only”. Justify this state-
r1 ment with suitable examples.
⇒ ωR4 L1 − = 0
ωC 4
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q6(b) | Model Paper-I, Q5(a))
r
⇒ ω R4 L1 = 1 For answer refer Unit-IV, Q16. Upto Equation (3).
ωC 4
“The Maxwell’s bridge is used for the measurement
⇒ r1 = ω2R4L1C4 ... (2)
of medium-Q coils only” can be illustrated by examining the
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we get, balanced conditions. From the second balance condition it is
L1 clear that the sum of the phase angles of one pair of opposite
(ω2R4L1C4) R4 + = R2 R3 arms should be equal to the sum of the phase angles of other
C4 pair. Since the sum of the phase angles of arm b and c add upto
 1  0° the sum of the phase angles of arm and d should also add
⇒ L1  ω2 R42C4 +  = R2 R3 upto 0°.
 C4 
For a high Q coils the phase angle is positive and is
 1 + ω2 R42C42  around 90°. This requires the phase angle of arm 1 (capacitive
⇒ L1   = R2 R3
 arm) should be negative and is around –90°. For this a very
 C 4  large value of Ra is required which is not possible practically.
Therefore Maxwell’s bridge is not used for the measurement
R2 R3C4
⇒ L1 = ... (3) of high-Q coils.
1 + ω2 R42C42
If the bridge is used for the measurement of low-Q
Substituting equation (3) in equation (2), we get,
coils, then balance convergence problems will occur from
ω2 R2 R3 R4C 42 equation (3) it is observed that the adjustment for inductive
r1 = ... (4) balance with resistive element Rc disturbs the resistive balance
1 + ω2 R42C42
by resistive element Ra.
Now, the quality factor of an inductor, is given by,
Due to this sliding balance occurs. Thus Maxwell’s
ωL1 bridge is not suited for the measurement of high and low-Q
Q = coils. It is only used for the measurement of medium-Q coils.
r1
Substituting equations (3) and (4), in above equation Q22. Derive the expression for unknown resistance
we get, in Kelvin double bridge.
1 April-18, Set-4, Q5(a)
Q=
ωR4C4
OR
1
⇒ ωR4C4 = Derive the expression for unknown resistance in
Q
Kelvin double bridge. Mention the applications
2 1 of a Kelvin bridge.
⇒ ω2 R4 C 42 = ... (5)
Q2 Ans: May-13, Set-3, Q6(a)

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4.14 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Kelvin’s Double Bridge
The balancing condition of a standard Wheatstone bridge is given by,
R1 R3
Rx =
R2
It indicates that the effect of the connecting lead resistance is removed by connecting the galvanometer to an intermediate
position p.
Based on this principle Kelvin’s double bridge (commonly known as Kelvin bridge) is constructed. The circuit arrangement
of Kelvin’s double bridge is shown figure below.

Figure: Basic Kelvin Double Bridge

The above circuit is called Kelvin’s double bridge since it consist another set of ratio arms represented by ‘a’ and ‘b’. The
a and b connects the galvanometer at p between m and n. Therefore the effect of yoke resistance Ry is eliminated. In the above
circuit diagram the resistance ratio of a and b is equal to the resistance ratio of R1 and R2. Hence, galvanometer gives null indication
when the potential at k is equal to the potential at p.

∴ VKl = Vlmp

Where,
R2
VKl = ×V
R1 + R2
 ( a + b) R y 
V = I  R3 + Rx +  ... (1)
 a + b + R y 

R2  ( a + b) R y 
∴ VKl = I  R3 + Rx + 
R1 + R2  a + b + R y 

 b  ( a + b) R y  
Vlmp = I  R3 +   ... (2)
 a + b  a + b + R y  

But,
VKl = Vlmp i.e.,

IR 2  ( a + b) R y   b  ( a + b) R y  
 R3 + Rx +  = I  R3 +  
R1 + R2  a + b + R y   a + b  a + b + R y  


( a + b) R y R1 + R2  b  ( a + b) R y  
R3 + Rx + =  R3 +  
a + b + Ry R2  a + b  a + b + R y  
 

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.15

( a + b) R y  R1 
R3 + Rx + =  + 1
a + b + Ry R
 2 

( a + b) R y R1 R3 bR 1 R y bR y
R3 + Rx + = + R3 + +
a + b + Ry R2 R2 (a + b + R y ) a + b + R y

R1 R3 bR 1 R y bR y ( a + b) R y
Rx = + + −
R2 R2 (a + b + R y ) a + b + R y a + b + R y

R1 R3 bR 1 R y aR y
Rx = + −
R2 R2 (a + b + R y ) a + b + R y

R1 R3 bR y  R1 a 
Rx = +  − 
R2 (a + b + R y )  R2 b 

We know that,
R1 a
=
R2 b

R1 R3
Rx = ... (3)
R2

The equation (3) is the condition for balancing the bridge. It indicates that the effect of lead and contact resistances are
completely eliminated if the resistances of two sets of ratio arms are equal.
Applications of Kelvin Bridge
1. Kelvin bridge is widely used for low resistance measurements (i.e., 0.02 µΩ).
2. It is used in quality control process for manufacturing the units like,
(i) Cables
(ii) Conductors
(iii) Distribution transformer etc.
3. It also determines the impurity in wire and sheet metal industries.
4. It also verifies the rise in temperatures in transformer industries.

Q23. The A.C bridge shown in figure below is balanced. Determine the values of Rx and Lx.

Figure
Ans: May-13, Set-2, Q6(b)

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4.16 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The given bridge circuit is shown below,

Z1 Z2

Z3

Figure
Resistance, Rx = ?
Inductance, Lx = ?
According to the given data of the bridge circuit, the bridge is similar to Owen bridge.
The balanced condition of the bridge is,
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
j
Z1 = R 4 −
ωC 4
Z2 = Rx + jωLx
j
Z3 = −
ωC 3
Z4 = R2
 j  −j
 R4 −  R2 = ( R x + jωLx )
 ωC 4  ωC 3

jR 2 jR x Lx
R2 R4 − =− +
ωC 4 ωC 3 C 3
Comparing real and imaginary terms, we get,
Lx
R2 R4 =
C3
Lx = R2 R4 C3 ... (1)
R2 R
= x
ωC 4 ω C 3
R2 R
= x
C 4 C3
R2 C 3
Rx = ... (2)
C4
Substituting the given values in equation (1) and (2), we get,
Lx = 200 × 1000 × 1 × 10–6

Rx =

Rx = 2 k Ω

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.17
Q24. In the case of Hay’s bridge one arm has resistance of 10 kW. Another arm has a resistance of 6.7 kW.
The third arm 8 kW in series with a capacitor of 0.5 mF. Determine the values of the elements Rx and Lx
in the fourth arm.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q5(b)

According to the given data, the Hay’s bridge is drawn as shown in figure.

8 kW
R1 =
R2 = 10 kW
C1 = 0.5 mF

~ Detector

Lx
R3 = 6.7 kW
Rx

Figure
To determine,
Resistance, Rx = ?
Inductance, Lx = ?
Let frequency, f = 50 Hz
In Hay’s bridge, the unknown resistance, Rx is given by,
ω 2 R1 R 2 R3 C12
Rx =
1 + ω 2 R12 C12

(2 × π × 50) 2 × 8 × 103 × 10 × 103 × 6.7 × 103 × (0.5 × 10 –6) 2

= ω [ w = 2pf ]
1 + (2 × π × 50) 2 × (8 × 103) 2 × (0.5 × 10 –6) 2

98696.044 × 5.36 × 1011 × 2.5 × 10 –13

=
1 + [98696.044 × 64 × 106 × 2.5 × 10 –13]

13225.2699
=
1 + 1.579
13225.2699
=
2.579
= 5128.06 W = 5.128 kW
The unknown inductance, Lx is given by,
R 2 R3 C1
Lx =
1 + ω 2 R12 C12

10 × 103 × 6.7 × 103 × 0.5 × 10 –6

=
1 + (2 × π × 50) 2 × (8 × 103) 2 × (0.5 × 10 –6) 2

33.5
=
2.579
= 12.99 H
Q25. Find the series equivalent inductance and resistance of the network that causes an opposite angle
to null with the bridge arms, R1= 2 kΩ, R2= 10 kΩ, C1 = 1 µF, R3 = 1 kΩ of the figure shown below.
Use w = 4000 rad/s.
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4.18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

4.2 MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE –

SCHERING BRIDGE
Q26. Draw the circuit diagram of Schering’s bridge
and explain the operation of it.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q5(a)

OR
Describe the working of schering bridge. Derive
the equation for capacitance and dissipation
factor.
(Dec.-13, Set-4, Q6(a) | Model Paper-II, Q5(a))

Ans: May-13, Set-4, Q6(a)

OR
Derive the expression for capacitance to be
Given that,
measured using Schering’s bridge.
May-13, Set-1, Q6(a)
OR
Which bridge is used to test small capacitors
at low voltages with very high precision? Why
is this bridge more stable than any other?
How does the bridge balance condition help in
finding the value of the capacitor? Explain.
(Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q6(a) | Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q6(a)
OR
Draw the circuit diagram of a Schering bridge
w = 4000 rad/s and explain its operation and derive the equa
tions for unknown variables.
R1 = 2 kΩ
Nov.-11, Set-1, Q6(b)
R2 = 10 kΩ
OR
C1 = 1 µF
Draw the circuit diagram of schearing bridge
R3 = 1 kΩ and derive conditions of balance.
Find RX = ? Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q6(a)
LX = ? The bridge which is used for the precision measurement
The given bridge is Hay’s bridge. The unknown of capacitors and their insulating properties is known as
resistance RX is given by, schering’s bridge. The circuit of the bridge and its phasor
diagram are illustrated in figure (1).
ω 2 R1 R2 R3C12
RX =
1 + ω 2 R12 C12

RX = 4.92 × 103 Ω
The unknown inductance LX is given by,
R2 R3C1
LX =
1 + ω 2 R12 C12

10
=
65
LX = 153.84 mH (a) Circuit of Schering Bridge

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.19
Thus, the unknown capacitance Ca and its dissipation
factor Da are achieved from the values of elements of bridge
circuit under balance condition. In case of certain fixed
frequencies the dial of Cd can be calibrated directly to give the
dissipation factor.
Schering bridge is used to test small capacitors at low
voltages with very high precision. At normal frequencies the
reactances of Ca and Cb are very high than the resistances of Rc
and Rd. Therefore maximum amount of voltage drops across Ca
and Cb and very small voltage drops across Rc and Rd. Therefore
if the junction of Rc and Rd is connected to ground, then the
detector will be at ground potential. Due to this the presence of
any stray capacitance effects will get reduced and the bridge
becomes more stable.
(b) Phasor Diagram at Balance
Q27. For the bridge shown in figure below f = 1000 Hz,
Figure (1): Circuit of Schering Bridge and its Phasor Diagram assuming null across Vo find Zx.
Assume that,
Ca → Capacitor whose capacitance is to be measured
ra → Series resistor which indicates the loss in Ca
Cb → A standard capacitor.
It can be a low loss high quality mica capacitor in case
of general measurements or an air capacitor in case of insulation
measurements.
Rc → A non inductive resistor
Cd → A variable capacitor
Rd → A variable non inductive resistor connected in
parallel with Cd. Ans: May-13, Set-3, Q6(b)

Under balance condition, ZaZd = ZbZc The given bridge is shown in figure below,
 1   Rd  1
 ra +   =
∴  j ωC a   1 + j ωR C  jωC ⋅Rc or
   d d  b

 1 
 ra +  R = Rc (1 + jωR C ) or
 j ωC a  d jω C d d
  b

jR d jR d Rc Rd C d
raRd – =–j +
ωC a ωC a Cb
By equating real and imaginary terms, we get,
RcCd
ra = and Figure
Cb
Given that,
Rd
Ca = Cb · f = 1000 Hz
Rc
If the selected elements Rd and Cd are variable elements Impedance, Zx = ?
then two independent balance equations will be obtained. The bridge under balanced condition is,
Dissipation factor of the series raca circuit is given by,
Z 1 Z4 = Z 2 Z3
Da = tan δ
R1
= ωCaRa
Z1 =
1 + jωR1C1
 R   Rc C d 
= ω Cb ⋅ d  · C  =
 Rc   b 
Da = ωRdCd Z1 = 150.461 – j1500

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4.20 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

j

Z2 = R2 –
ωC 2
j
= 1.5 × 103 –
2π × 1000 × 0.53 × 10 – 6
= 1500 – j300.292
–j
Z3 =
ωC3
=

= – j600.585

Z 4 = Zx
∴ Z 1 Zx = Z2 Z 3
Z 2 Z3

Zx =
Z1

Zx = 239.883 – j360.351
The negative sign indicates that the impedance Zx contains R–C series circuit.
j
i.e., Zx = R –
ωC
j
= R –
ωC
= 239.883 – j360.351
Comparing real and imaginary terms, we get,

1
= 360.351
ωC
C =

C = 0.442 × 10–6

Q28. A bridge has 2000 ohm in one arm and its opposite arm has a capacitor of value 0.5 mF. The arm to
the right of resistor arm is having 1000 ohm is shunt with a 0.5 mF. The arm opposite to this arm is
connected with the unknown component. Find the value of the component and its dissipation factor.
Ans:
From the above given data the following circuit is formed.

Figure

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.21
In the above figure,
C3 R1
Cx =
R2

R2 C1
Rx =
C3

Dissipation factor,
D = 2 π f Cx Rx
= 2 × 3.142 × 1000 × 2000 × 0.25 × 10–6
= 3.1416
Q29. A sheet of Backelite 4.5 mm thick is tested at 50 Hz between electrodes 0.12 m in diameter. The schering
bridge employs a standard air capacitor C2 of 106 pF capacitance, a non-reactive resistance R4 of 1000 Ω
in parallel with a variable capacitance C4 and variable resistance R3. If balance is obtained with C4 = 0.4 µF
and R3 = 400 Ω. Calculate the capacitance, pF and relative permittivity of the sheet.

Ans:
Given that,

Figure: Low Voltage Schering Bridge

Thickness of backelite sheet = 4.5 mm
f = 50 Hz
C2= 106 pF
R4 = 1000 Ω
C4= 0.4 µF
R3 = 400 Ω

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4.22 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
From the figure,
C 2 R4
C1 = =
R3
C1 = 265 pF
R3C 4
R1 = =
C2
R1 = 1.509 × 106 Ω.
Power factor of the sheet is calculated as,
Power factor,
= 2π f C1 R1
= 2π × 50 × 265 × 10–12 × 1.509 × 106
Power factor = 0.125
As we know that the capacitance is given by,
A
C1 = ∈o∈r
d
From the above equation relative permittivity is given by,
C1d
∈r =
∈o A

= [ Permittivity of free space ∈o= 8.854 × 10–12]

∈r = 11.9
Q30. In the case of a Schering bridge arm AC has R = 4.7 kW. Arm CD has unknown elements. Arm BD has
C = 0.1 mF, arm AB = 4.7 kW is shunt with 1MF. Determine values of components is the arm CD.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-5, Q5(b)

Given that,
Arm AC: Resistance, R2 = 4.7 kW
Arm CD: Unknown elements, CX, RX
Arm BD: Capacitance, C3 = 0.1 mF
Arm AB: Resistance, R1 = 4.7 kW
Shunted capacitance, C1 = 1MF
From the given data, Schering bridge obtained is as shown in figure.

Figure: Schering Bridge

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.23

R1 4.7 × 103
Z1 = =
1 + jω R1 C1 1 + jω × 4.7 × 103 × 1 × 106

Z2 = R2 = 4.7 × 103

1 1
Z3 = =
jω C3 jω × 0.1 × 106
1
Z4 = Rx +
jω Cx
At balance condition, we have,
RS VW RS V
S 4.7×103 WW S 1 WW 1
Z1 Z4 = SS S R + W = Z2 Z3 4.7×103 ×
S1 + jω × 4.7×103 ×1×106 WW S jωCx W
x
jω×0.1×106
T XT X
By equating real and imaginary terms, we get,

R2 C1 4.7 × 10 3 × 1× 10 6
Rx = =
C3 0.1× 10 6
Rx = 47000

Rx = 47 kΩ

C3 R1 0.1× 10 6 × 4.7 × 10 3
Cx = = = 100000 = 0.1 × 106
R2 4.7 × 10 3
Cx = 0.1 MF
\ The unknown components of arm CD are,
Rx = 47 kΩ and Cx = 0.1 MF

4.3 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Q31. Explain the operation of Wheatstone bridge with derivations.

April-18, Set-1, Q4(a)

OR
Express the unknown resistance value interms of the other circuit elements.
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q6(b) | Model Paper-III, Q5(a))

When the bridge is in balance condition the current flows through the galvanometer is zero. Hence the galvanometer does
not show any deflection of the pointer bridge is shown in figure.

Figure: Wheatstone Bridge

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4.24 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four arms. The arms containing R1 and R2 are known as ratio arms and the arm containing
the standard resistor R3 is known as standard. This balancing condition is achieved when the voltage from C to a is same as voltage
from d to a or. When the voltage from c to b is same as voltage from d to b.
∴ When the bridge is balanced
I1R1 = I2R2 ... (1)
When the galvanometer current is zero.
V
I1 = I3 = ... (2)
R1 + R3
V
and I2 = I3 = ... (3)
R2 + R4
Substitute equations (2) and (3) in equation (1)
V V
R1 = R
R1 + R3 R2 + R4 2
R1(R2 + R4) = R2(R1 + R3)

R1R2 + R1R4 = R2R1 + R2R3

R1R4 = R2R3 ... (4)

The equation (4) is the standard balance condition of the Wheatstone bridge. The unknown resistance R4 is determined
(from equation (4)) provided the remaining resistances are known. Hence, the unknown resistance is expressed interms of other
circuit elements as,

R2 R3
R4 = ... (5)
R1

The measurement of unknown resistance does not depends on the calibration of the null indicating device or the characteristics
of the device.

Q32. Explain the use of Thevenin’s theorem in the analysis of Wheatstone bridge.

Ans:
To know whether the galvanometer has enough sensitivity to detect an unbalance state of the bridge, it is required to
calculate the current through the galvanometer. Because different galvanometers use different currents per unit deflection and
different internal resistances. Without this information it is not possible to know which galvanometer acts more sensitive to the
unbalance state of the bridge. The sensitivity is determined by solving the bridge for small unbalance. For this it is required to
convert the Wheatstone bridge into its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

Figure (1): Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.25
The steps followed to convert the Wheatstone bridge When the null detector is connected to C and D terminals
into its Thevenin’s equivalent are as follows, of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, the current flowing through
1. Determine the equivalent voltage appearing at C and D the galvanometer would be given by,
terminals when the galvanometer circuit is open. VTH
Ig =
2. Determine the equivalent resistance by looking back RTH + Rg
into C and D terminals with the battery replaced by its Where,
internal resistance.
Ig – Current through the galvanometer
Rg – Resistance of the galvanometer.
Q33. Derive an expression for the sensitivity of a
Wheatstone bridge with equal arms.
Ans:
The sensitivity indicates to what extent detection of
Figure (2): Thevenin’s Resistance Looking into C and D Terminals unbalanced condition is possible.
From figure (1) the open circuit or Thevenin’s voltage is,
VCD = VAC – VAD
= I1R1 – I2R2
Where, D
V
I1 =
R1 + R3
V
I2 =
R2 + R4
 V   
VCD =   R – V  R
R + R  1 R +R 2
 1 3   2 4 
∴ Voltage of the Thevenin’s generator, Figure: Wheatstone Bridge

VCD = V ... (1) First consider the figure which is balanced i.e.,
R1 R2
From figure (2) it is observed that by making internal =
R3 R4
resistance equal to zero, the points A and B will be short
Assume the resistance of R2 changes ∆R2. This condition
circuited. Now by looking into terminals C and D, Thevenin’s
will unbalance the bridge and a voltage develops across the
resistance is determined, and is given by,
galvanometer.
R1 R3 R R
RTH = + 2 4 ... (2) Vab = I1R1 =
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
Therefore the Thevenin’s equivalent of the bridge reduces And
to Thevenin generator with an e.m.f given by equation (1) and
an internal resistance given by equation (2), and this circuit is V ( R2 + ∆R2 )
Vad = I2(R2 + ∆R2) =
shown below. R2 + ∆R2 + R4
Voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer branch
e = Vad + Vab
 R2 + ∆R2 R1 
e=V  −  ... (1)
 R2 + ∆R2 + R4 R1 + R3 
 R2 + ∆R2 R2 
e=V  − 
 R2 + ∆R2 + R4 R2 + R4 
 R1 R2 
Figure (3): Complete Galvanometer when Galvanometer Connected  = 
between C and D  R1 + R3 R2 + R4 

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4.26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The sensitivity of bridge,
e= ... (2)
θ
SB = = ... (10)
∆R2 / R2
e~ ... (3)
For a bridge with equal arms,

[ ∆R (R 2 2 + R4 ) << ( R2 + R4 ) 2 ] SB =
S iV
4( R2 + Rg )
Voltage sensitivity of galvanometer,
Q34. With neat sketch explain how unknown resistance
θ is measured by means of Wheatstone bridge.
SV =
e Ans:
Wheatstone bridge method is one of the most accurate
θ = SV e = ... (4) and widely used method for measuring medium resistances.
A Wheatstone bridge is a circuit consisting of four arms
The sensitivity of the bridge SB is defined as the deflection
with each arm containing a resistor or impedance a voltage
of galvanometer per unit fractional change in the unknown
source for exciting the bridge, and a detector (galvanometer) to
resistor.
detect the output of the bridge. In Wheatstone bridge method,
θ the unknown resistance can be measured by either balancing
SB = =
∆R2 / R2 the bridge (null-indication method) or keeping the bridge
unbalanced (deflection method).
SV V
= ... (5) Null indication method is a type of comparison
R1 R
+2+ 3 measurement technique and in this method the configuration of
R3 R1
the bridge arms will be as 1st and 2nd arms consisting of known
From equation (5) it is clear that sensitivity of the bridge fixed resistances R1 and R2, the 3rd arm consists of a known
depends on the bridge voltage, parameters of bridge and voltage variable resistance (i.e., standard resistance, R3) and the 4th arm
sensitivity of galvanometer.
of the bridge consists of unknown resistance (i.e., R4) whose
R2 resistance value is to be determined.
When = 1, maximum sensitivity is obtained. For a
R4
bridge with equal ratio arms R1 = R3 = R2 = R4,

SB = ... (6)

Current sensitivity of galvanometer is,

θ
Si =
Ig
VTh
We have, Ig =
RTh + Rg
The bridge with equal arms
RTh = R2 ... (7)
And Figure: Wheatstone Bridge (Null Indication Method)
 R2 + ∆R2 R2  When the unknown resistance Rx is connected in the
VTh = V  − 
 R2 + ∆R2 + R2 R2 + R4  bridge and the bridge is excited by the battery voltage V, current
of different magnitudes i1, i2, i3, i4 flow in the four arms of the
V∆R2 bridge. As a result the bridge becomes unbalanced i.e., a certain
≈ ... (8)
4R2 value of current flows through the galvanometer. Let Ig be the
current that flows through galvanometer.
V∆R2
∴ Ig = Since, this is a comparison (null indication) method
4 R2 ( R2 + Rg ) of measurement, the unknown resistance is determined by
balancing the bridge. The bridge will be balanced when the
θ θ4 R2 ( R2 + Rg ) potential difference across the galvanometer is zero or when
Si = = ... (9)
Ig V∆R2 no correct flows through galvanometer (i.e., Ig = 0).

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.27
Ig will be equal to zero when the potentials at bridge G1: Sensitivity = 0.008 µA/div, Resistance = 50 Ω
terminals B and D are equal. The potentials at B and D will be
equal when the potential difference between bridge terminals G2: Sensitivity = 0.0005 µA/div, Resistance =
A and B is equal to potential different between terminals A and D. 600 Ω

i.e., VAB = VAD Determine which galvanometer is more

sensitive to the unbalance in the bridge.
⇒ i1R1 = i3.R3 ... (1) Ans:
When the bridge is balanced no current flows through The required bridge circuit for the problem is given in
galvanometer (i.e., Ig = 0) and hence i1 = i2 and i3 = i4. figure.

V
⇒ i1 =
R1 + R2

V c
i3 =
R3 + R4
Substituting the values of i1 and i3 in equation (1), we get,

 V   V 
 .R1 =  .R3

 R1 + R2   R3 + R4 
R1 R3
⇒ = S = Standard resistance, Ω
R1 + R2 R3 + R4
R1(R3 + R4) = R3(R1 + R2) R = Unknown resistance, Ω
R1R3 + R1R4 = R1R3 + R2R3 The bridge equation to find unknown resistance is
R1R4 = R2R3 P
R = S.
Hence, the condition for the Wheatstone bridge to be Q
balanced is,
R1 R4 = R2 R3 = 40 × = 333.3 Ω
… (2)
(Product of resistance of one pair of opposite arms) = Internal resistance bridge of 100 kΩ into the terminals
(Product of resistace of another pair of opposite arms) b and d.
⇒ (Arm-1) × (Arm-4) = (Arm-2) × (Arm-3)
R0 =
From the condition of balance i.e., equation (2) the
unknown resistance can be determined as follows.
=
R
R4 = R3 2
R1 = 35.71 + 107.14
From the above equation, it is observed that the unknown R0 = 142.85
resistance Rx (i.e., R4) is proportional to the standard variable
Now equation of deflection for a small change in
R2
resistance R3 as the ratio is constant due to fixed values of resistance.
R1
R1 and R2. SV V S ∆R
θ=
In the above method the bridge is balanced (i.e., current (R + S )2
through galvanometer is made 0 (zero) by varying the resistance Si
value of standard resistor R3). But, SV =
R0 + G
Q35. Wheatstone bridge has ratio arms of 1000 Ω
Where, Si = Current sensitivity of the galvanometer.
and 120 Ω and it is employed to measure a
resistance of 40 Ω connected adjacent to the Si V S ∆R
θ =
120 Ω resistor. The bridge excitation is 5 V D.C. (R0 + G ) (R + S )2
Two galvanometers G1 & G2 are available with
the following specifications : G = Resistance of galvanometer circuit.

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4.28 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Now taking the ratios of deflections for two galvanometers. Comparing equation (1) with equation (2), we get,
θ1 (Si )1 V S ∆R (Si )2 V S ∆R Q
=
Si V S R
= ∆R R ( R + Rg ) ( R + S ) 2
θ
2
(R0 + G1 )(R + S )2 (R0 + G2 )(R + S )2

∴ θ1 (S i )1 (R0 + G2 )
= .
θ 2 (S i )2 (R0 + G1 )

ig =

0.5 × 10–6 =

θ 0.5 × 10–6 =
1 = 61.63
θ2

θ1 = 61.63 θ2 ∆R =

(a) ∆R = 0.00169 Ω
Thus, galvanometer 1 has a sensitivity of 61.63 times the
sensitivity of galvanometer 2. So galvanometer 2 has a higher (b)
sensitivity than galvanometer 1.
Percent of unknown resistor = 0.00338 Ω.
Q36. The standard resistor arm of a Wheatstone bridge
has a range from 0 to 100 ohm with a resolution Q37. An unbalanced Wheatstone bridge has the
of 0.001 ohm. The galvanometer has an internal following resistance with R1 = 1 kW, R2 = 2.5 kW,
resistance of 100 ohm and can be read to 0.5 µA. R3 = 3.5 kW, R4 = 10 kW, with a battery voltage of 6 V
The other two arms have each 1 kΩ. The bridge and a galvanometer resistance of Rg = 300 kW.
is supplied with a 10 V D.C. source. When the Calculate the current through the galvanometer.
unknown resistance is 50 Ω, what is the resolu- Ans: April-18, Set-2, Q4(b)
tion of the bridge in,
Given that,
(a) Ohms and Resistances, R1 = 1 kW
(b) Percent of the unknown. R2 = 2.5 kW
Ans: R3 = 3.5 kW
R4 = 10 kW
The Wheatstone bridge is shown below.
Battery voltage, V = 6 V
Galvanometer resistance, Rg = 300 W
Current through galvanometer, Ig = ?
The Wheatstone bridge according to given data is drawn
as shown in figure (1).
B
kW

R2 = 2.5 kW
Ig
1
=
R
1

A W C
Q 1 10 6 G 0k
= = 30
Si = R =
i g 0.5 × 10 −6 0.5 =
Rg kW
10
3
3.
5 =
Bridge sensitivity kW R4
D
Q
SB = ... (1)
∆R R
SiV S R
SB = ... (2)
( R + Rg ) ( R + S ) 2 V
Figure (1): Bridge Under Unbalance

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.29
Since, given that the bridge is under unbalanced The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in figure (4).
condition. Thus an e.m.f appears across the galvanometer. By
R0
using Thevenin’s method to determine the voltage.
B Ig

kW
R2 = 2.5 kW V0 Rg
1
=
R
1

A V0 C
R
3 = kW
3.
5 10 Figure (4)
kW =
R 4
D From figure (4), we obtained Ig as,

V0
Ig =
R0 + R g
V
Figure (2): Bridge Under Unbalance 0.1584
=
R1 A R3 3.3 × 103 + 300

= 4.4 × 10 –5 A

= 44 × 10 –6 A
R2 C R4
\ Ig = 44 mA
B V0 D \ The required current through galvanometer is 44 mA.
Figure (3): Equivalent Circuit
4.4 WIEN BRIDGE
Now, the Thevenin’s source generator voltage,
R Q38. Draw the circuit of Wien bridge and derive the
SSS R1 R3 VWW
Vo = V S – W expression for bridge balance.
S R1 + R 2 R3 + R 4 WW
T X April/May-17, Set-3, Q5(a)
SSR 1 × 103 3.5 × 103 WVW
= 6 SS – W
S1 × 103 + 2.5 × 103 3.5 × 103 + 10 × 103 WW OR
T X
RS 3 3 V
W Explain how Wien’s bridge can be used for
S 1 × 10 3 . 5 × 10 WW
= 6 SS – experimental determination of frequency. Derive
S 3.5 × 103 13.5 × 103 WW
T X the expression for frequency in terms of bridge
RS 1 3.5 VWW
S parameters.
= 6 SS – W
3.5 13.5 W
T X (Dec.-13, Set-1, Q6(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q5(a))
= 6 × 0.0264
OR
\ Vo = 0.1584 V
Also, the Thevenin’s resistance, ‘R0’ is as, Draw the circuit diagram of a Wien bridge,
explain its working and derive the equation for
R1 R 2 R3 R 4 frequency.
R0 = +
R1 + R 2 R3 + R 4
Nov.-11, Set-3, Q6(a)
3 3 3 3
1 × 10 × 2.5 × 10 3.5 × 10 × 10 × 10 OR
= 3 3
+
1 × 10 + 2.5 × 10 3.5 × 103 + 10 × 103
Draw the circuit diagram of Wien bridge and
2.5 × 106 3.5 × 106 derive conditions of balance.
= +
3.5 × 103 13.5 × 103
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q6(a)
= 3306.87
or Wien’s bridge is used for the measurement of frequencies
in audio range and also used for the measurement of unknown
\ R0 = 3.3 kW capacitance with high accuracy.

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4.30 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
By equating imaginary terms we get,
Rd
− ωRa Cc Rd = 0
ωC a Rc
b

1
− ωRa Cc = 0
ωC a Rc

1
= ωRaCc
ωC a Rc

1
ω2 = ... (2)
C a Ra Cc Rc

Figure: Wien’s Bridge ∴ ω = 2πf

The circuit diagram of Wien’s bridge consists series RC 1
components in one arm and parallel RC components in adjoining f = ... (3)
arm. The other two arms contain single resistive elements. 2π Ra C a Rc Cc
From the bridge circuit we can have, Rb
The equation (1) gives the required resistance ratio
j Rd
Za = Ra –
ωc a while the equation (3) gives the frequency of the voltage applied.
Zb = Rb If the equation (1) is satisfied and the bridge is supplied with
voltage having frequency equal to equation (3), then the bridge
Zc = Rc || Cc or Yc becomes balanced.
1  1 Generally the Wien’s bridge components are selected
= + jωCc  Z c =  such that,
Rc  Yc 

Zd = Rd Ca = Cc = C and
When, the bridge is in balance condition, Ra = Rc = R
ZaZd = ZbZc Rb
1 ∴ = 2 and ... (4)
ZaZd = Zb · Rd
Yc
∴ Zb = ZaZdYc f= ... (5)
 j  1 
⇒ Rb = Rd  Ra − + j ω Cc  The equation (5) is the general frequency equation of
 ωca  Rc  the Wien’s bridge.
  
Ra Rd jR d C R Applications
⇒ Rb = − + jωRa Cc Rd + c d
Rc ωC a Rc Ca 1. This bridge is used for the measurement of frequency in
audio range i.e., from 2k - 20 kΩ. Within this range the
 Ra Rd Cc Rd   Rd 
⇒ Rb =  + –j − ωRa Cc Rd  capacitors are used for frequency control and resistors
 Rc C a   ωC a Rc  are used for range changing.
By equating real terms we get, 2. This bridge can also be used for the measurement of
capacitance provided the operating frequency known.
Ra Rd Cc Rd
Rb = + 3. It is used as a notch filter in harmonic distortion analyzer.
Rc Ca
4. It is used in Audio and Radio Frequency (AF and RF)
 Ra Cc  oscillators as frequency measuring element.
Rb = Rd  + 
 Rc C a  Q39. For the bridge shown in figure below, find
Rb Ra Cc frequency of the source and the resistance Rx
∴ = + ... (1) that will give the null across vo.
Rd Rc C a

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.31

C1 R2 R3 − R2C 2 R4
Rx =
R4 C1
R2 R3 R2 C 2
Rx = − ... (1)
R4 C1

ω2RxR2R4C1C2 – R4 = 0
R4
ω2 =
R x R2 R4 C1C 2
Figure
Ans: May-13, Set-1, Q6(b) 1
(2πf)2 = [ ω = 2πf]
R x R2 C1C 2
The given bridge circuit is shown below.
1
f= ... (2)
2π R x R2 C1C 2
Substituting the given data in equations (1) and (2),
we get,

Rx =

= 500 – 249.216
Figure
Rx = 250.78 Ω
Frequency, f = ?
Resistance, Rx = ? f =

According to the given data of the bridge circuit, the

f = 997.85 Hz
bridge is similar to Wein bridge.
Thus, 4.5 ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS IN USING
At balanced state, BRIDGES
Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 Q40. Explain Wagner ground connection.

−j Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q6(b)

Z1 = R x
ωC1 When a bridge is used for the measurement of high
R2 frequencies, an error is introduced in the measurement of small
Z2 = capacitance and large inductance values because of the existence
1 + j ωR 2 C 2
of stray capacitances between various bridge elements and
Z3 = R3 ground, and also between the bridge arms.
Z4 = R4 A Wagner ground connection is used to eliminate these
stray capacitances.
 j   R2 
 R x −  R4 =   R3
 ωC1   1 + j ω R2 C 2 
The figure below shows a capacitance bridge employing
the Wagner ground connection.
jR 4 R2 R3
R x R4 − =
ωC1 1 + jωR2 C 2
ωR x R4 C1 − jR 4 R2 R3
=
ωC1 1 + j ωR 2 C 2
ωRxR4C1 + jω2RxR2R4C1C2 – jR4 + ωR2C2R4 = ωC1R2R3
Comparing real and imaginary terms, we get,
ωRxR4C1 + ωR2C2R4 = ωC1R2R3
RxR4C1 + R2C2R4 = C1R2R3
RxR4C1 = C1R2R3 – R2C2R4 Figure

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4.32 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
In the above circuit, the stray capacitances C1 and C2 exist between the detector terminals and ground. To eliminate these
stray capacitances, another arm contains a series combination of a resistance Rw and capacitor Cw, and is formed between the
terminals O and P. The junction of Rw and Cw is grounded and this ground connection is known as Wagner ground connection.
In order to make the bridge free from stray capacitance effect during measurement, the bridge is adjusted prior to the
measurement through the following procedure.
The detector is connected to point - K through switch S and a null condition (or minimum sound in head phones) is obtained
by varying resistor R1. The detector is then connected to the Wagner ground point by connecting the switch to point l.
Q41. Explain why wagner ground connection does not effect the balance condition?
Ans:
The Wagner ground connection does not effect the balance conditions as the bridge is isolated from this ground connection
by throwing the switch S to position - K. Once the ground potential is obtained at both point - K and l after the necessary initial
adjustments are made.
When the measurement has to be made, the switch S is thrown to position K and the actual bridge arms are brought into
effect and as there is no flow of current through Rw and Cw the balance condition of the bridge is not effected.
Now resistor Rw is varied for null conditions. When the switch is thrown to position - K again, there will be some imbal-
ance in the bridge. Then, R1 and R3 are adjusted for null condition or (minimum sound).
The above procedure is repeated until a null condition is obtained at both switch positions - K and l. At this adjustment the
points K and l are at the same potential known as ground potential, and eventually the stray capacitances C1 and C2 are effectively
short-circuited and does not show any effect on normal bridge balance.
The addition of Wagner’s ground connection also helps in the elimination of the capacitances from point O and P to ground
as the current through these capacitors flows to the ground i.e., wagner’s ground connection.
The addition of Wagner’s earth connection does not alters the balancing of the bridge because the measurement process
remains unchanged.
Q42. What are the problems associated with grounding? How are they handled?
Ans:
The ground is a return path for current or it can be defined as a D.C connection between an element and the ground.
Grounding is very much important for an electrical and electronic circuits. A proper grounding improves safety, reduces danger-
ous voltage differentials between the circuits. If an electronic system is not provided with good grounding then it is affected by
interference and noise problems. Grounding should be done carefully in order to avoid failure rate and electric shock hazards.
Some of the basic practices to be followed to avoid grounding problems are discussed below.
If many points are used for ground connections, differences in voltages among the points causes troublesome, ‘ground
loops’ which inturn causes errors in the voltage readings.

Figure (1): Generation of Ground Loop

The figure (1) employs two separated chasis grounds. Vgnd is the voltage existing between load ground and signal ground.
Measurement of voltage between the load ground and input signal gives an erroneous voltage VS + Vgnd.
A common sign that a ground exists or missing is the existence of induced power line noise (approximately 50 Hz) in the
circuit. Determining and eliminating troublesome ground loops in large - scale electronic systems is very complex and difficult
task. Therefore in many cases grounding is referred as ‘black magic art’.

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.33
The concept of circuit grounding or single point ground or return results no ground loops. As the name suggests all grounds
of a circuit are returned to a single point as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Single Point Ground

If the circuit has several ground points then connecting all the ground points to a single point is a difficult task. Therefore
to avoid this difficulty a ground bus is used.
Bus bar is made to serve as a substitute for single point ground. A bus bar is nothing but a copper bar or heavy wire of low
resistance that carries maximum sum of the load current back to the supply. Depending on the length of circuitry bus bar length
can be extended for convenient connections at different points as shown in figure (3).

Figure (3): Bus Bar Returns

Q43. List out different sources of errors and explain the precautions and elimination methods in A.C bridges.
April-18, Set-3, Q5(a)

OR

List out the different precautions to be taken when using a bridge with one example.
April/May-17, Set-4, Q1(d)

OR
What are the different sources of errors in A.C bridges? Explain the precautions taken and the techniques
used for elimination of these errors.
(Dec.-13, Set-2, Q6 | Model Paper-III, Q5(b))

OR
Mention the precautions to be used in using bridges.
Ans: May-13, Set-4, Q6(b)

In A.C bridge circuits errors occur due to the effects of stray capacitance, stray conductance, mutual inductance and residues.
Errors due to these effects are greater in case of high voltage and high frequency bridges. Therefore, some precautions should be
taken inorder to reduce the errors. Some of the methods used widely to reduce the errors are as follows.
1. Use High Quality Components in the Bridge
If the bridge contains high quality components, it is possible to have minimum residuals, high accuracy calibration, freedom
from the effects of stray conductance.
2. Stray Conductance Effects
If proper insulation is not used between the various components of the bridge, leakage currents flows from one arm to
another arm thereby causing errors. These errors are greater in high impedance bridges. Hence, to avoid the errors due to stray
capacitance effects, the components of the bridge should be mounted on insulating stands.

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4.34 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
3. Eddy Current Errors
Due to induced eddy currents in the standard components (such as resistors, inductors) the values of the standards changes
which inturn causes errors. Hence, to avoid the errors due to eddy currents, the large conducting masses should not be placed near
the bridge network.
4. Residual Errors
Though resistive components of the bridge circuits are considered as non capacitive and non inductive, they contain small
values of capacitance and inductance. This small values of capacitance and inductance are called as Residues. Therefore it is
necessary to find the residues inorder to compensate or eliminate the errors resulting due to residues.
5. Frequency and Waveform Error
In case of bridge circuits whose balance condition involve frequency, the variation in frequency of supply is very impor-
tant from the point of view of balance and evaluation of the bridge. The waveform of the supply is also given importance since
the bridge will not be balanced both for fundamental and harmonics in the waveform simultaneously. If the bridge employs head
phones as output device, it is not possible to get complete silence but a minimum sound is obtained.
This problem is eliminated by using filters which remove unwanted harmonics from the supply or by using tuned detec-
tors inplace of head phone. Since these respond only to the fundamental for which they are tuned and does not respond to other
harmonics.
4.6 Q-meter
Q44. Explain the principle and working of Q meter.
(April-18, Set-4, Q5(b) | Nov.-11, Set-2, Q6(a) | Model Paper-I, Q5(b))

OR
Explain the principle of a meter with the help of circuit diagram.
(Dec.-13, Set-3, Q6(a) | May-13, Set-3, Q6(a))

OR
Draw the circuit diagram for a Q meter, explain its operation and write the equation for Q factor.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q6(b)

The instrument which measures some of the electrical properties of coils and capacitors is referred as Q-meter. The
working principle of a Q-meter depends on the characteristics of a series resonance circuits. i.e., the voltage drop across the coil
or capacitors is equal to the applied voltage times the Q factor of the circuit. Thus if the circuit subjected to a fixed voltage, the
voltmeter connected across the capacitor is calibrated to indicate the Q value directly. A series resonance circuit and its voltage
and current relationship at resonance conditions are illustrated in figure (1) and (2) respectively.

Figure (1): Series Resonant Circuit of Q-Meter Figure (2): Phasor Diagram
At resonance condition,
XC = XL
EC = IXC = IXL
E = IR
Where,
XC – Capacitance reactance
XL – Inductive reactance
I – Current flowing in the circuit
E – Applied voltage
R – Resistance of coil.

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.35
The Q factor or the magnification of the circuit is defined as,
XL XC EC
Q = = = ... (1)
R R E
From the above equation it is clear that if the voltage E is maintained at a fixed level, the voltmeter across the capacitor
can be calibrated interms of Q directly. The circuit arrangement of basic and practical Q-meter is shown in figure (3).

Figure (3): Basic Q meter

The oscillator is a wide range RF oscillator that supplies the oscillations whose frequency lies between 50 kHz to 50 MHz
and delivers current to Rsh, which is a shunt resistance of low value, and is typically around 0.02Ω. Therefore the Rsh introduces
very negligible (almost no resistance) resistance into the oscillator circuit. Thus it represents a voltage source of magnitude E with
a very low internal resistance. The voltage across Rsh is measured using a thermocouple meter that is marked as ‘multiply Q by’
meter. The voltage drop across the tuning capacitor or resonating capacitor EC is measured by means of an electronic voltmeter.
The scale of this electronic voltmeter is calibrated interms of Q values directly.
To carryout the measurement the unknown components is connected across the test terminals and the circuit is adjusted
to resonance using any one of the two methods given below,
1. By setting the frequency of the oscillator to a certain given value and adjusting the tuning capacitor.
2. By presetting the capacitor to a required value and varying the frequency of oscillator.
The Q value indicated on the output meter should be multiplied by the index setting of the ‘multiply Q by’ meter to get
actual or accurate Q value.
The indicated value of Q on the output meter is known as ‘circuit Q’ since it includes the losses of voltmeter tuning capacitor
and insertion resistor. The effective Q value of the measured coil will be higher than indicated Q or circuit Q. This difference is
small therefore it can be neglected. However this difference is large if the resistance of the coil is small compared to the insertion
resistor value.
The inductance of the coil can be found from the known values of C (resonating capacitance) and f (frequency).
 XL = XC
1
2πf L =
2πf C
1
∴L = 2
Henry
π )f
(2 C

Q45. Describe the method of measuring high impedance using Q-meter.

April-18, Set-2, Q5(b)
OR

Describe the method of measuring high impedance using Q-meter.

April-18, Set-3, Q5(b)

OR
Explain the “parallel-connection” method of using Q-meter and obtain the expressions for resistance,
reactance and Q factor.
April/May-17, Set-2, Q5(b)

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4.36 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
OR
Describe the method used to measure the high impedance components using Q-meter.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q7(a)
Parallel connection method is used for the measurement of high impedance components like high value resistor, small value
capacitors, and certain inductors. The circuits arrangement of measuring high impedance using Q meter in parallel connection
mode is illustrated below,

Figure: Measurement of High Impedance using Q-meter

In this method the unknown impedance is measured interms of its parallel components Xp and Rp. Initially the unknown is
not connected and with the help of suitable work coil the circuit is resonated to establish a reference condition. At this condition
the values of C1 and Q1 are noted.
For this resonance condition
1
ωL = and
ωC1
ωL 1
Q1 = = ... (1)
R ωC1 R
Then the unknown impedance is connected into the circuit and the capacitor is adjusted again to obtain resonance condi-
tion.
At this condition the values of C2 and Q2 are noted.
At this condition we have

XL =

By solving the above equation we get,

1
Xp = ... (2)
ω(C1 − C2 )
If the unknown component is inductive
Xp = ωLp and the unknown impedance is given by,

... (3)
If the unknown component is capacitive,
1
Xp = and the unknown capacitance is given by,
ωC p

... (4)

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.37
In a parallel resonance circuit, at resonance condition the Q46. Describe various methods of connecting
total resistance is equal to the product of Q of the circuit and components to a Q-meter for measurement.
the reactance of the coil.
April-18, Set-1, Q5(b)
∴ RTotal = Q2 XL
OR
(or)
Discuss the various methods of connecting
RTotal = Q2 X C1 components to a Q meter for measurement.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q6(b)
= ... (5)
The Q-meter method of unknown impedance (Zx) mea-
The resistance Rp of the unknown impedance is obtained surement involves the individual measurement of Rx and Lx.
by finding the conductances in the circuit. Assume that This method makes use of an LC tank of Q-meter, [where L is
Gp → Conductance of the unknown impedance a standard coil connected externally]
GL → Conductance of work coil The various methods of measuring the impedance of a
GTotal → Total conductance of the resonant circuit. circuit using Q-meter are,
GTotal = Gp + GL 1. Series substitution method
∴ Gp = GT – GL ... (6) 2. Shunt substitution method.
1 1. Series Substitution Method
GT =
RT
ωC1
∴ GT =
Q2
By substituting these in equation (6) we get,
1 ωC1 R
= − 2
Rp Q2 R + ω2 L2

  Figure (1): Series Substitution Method

ωC1 1  1 
= −   In this method initially the unknown impedance is not
Q2 R  ω2 L2  connected in the circuit and the tuned circuit is varied till a
1 + R 2  resonance condition is reached at oscillator frequency. At this
condition the values of C and Q are taken. Then the impedance
1
= whose value is to be measured (unknown impedance) is con-
Rp nected in the circuit and the capacitance value is adjusted for
resonance condition. At this condition the values of C' and Q'
1 ωC1 ωC1  1 
= −  Q1 =  are taken.
Rp Q2 Q1  ωC1 R 
In first condition we have,
Q1 Q2 1
Rp = ωL = ... (1)
ωC1 (Q1 − Q2 ) ωC
Q1 Q2 In second condition we have,
Rp =
ωC1∆Q ... (7) 1
ωL + Xx = ... (2)
ωC '
The Q of the unknown component is determined by
solving equations (2) and (7), By subtracting equation (2) from equation(1) we get,
Rp 1 1
∴ Qp = Xx = –
Xp ωC ' ωC
(C1 − C2 )Q1 Q2 1
= =
C1 (Q1 − Q2 ) ωC

1 C − C'
=  
ω  C ' 

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4.38 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

R' = R + Rx [R → Auxiliary coil resistance] This method is satisfactory used when the losses in the
unknown impedance are very low to introduce any variation in
Rx = R' – R the value of Q. It can also be employed to determine losses of
ωL ωL the coil.
= –
Q' Q Q47. Explain the sources of errors and their minimiz-
ing methods in a Q-meter.
= ωL Ans: (April-18, Set-2, Q5(a) | Nov.-11, Set-3, Q6(b) |
Model Paper-II, Q5(b))

The unknown impedance value is determined using the The various sources of errors that affect the accuracy in
below given equation. the measurements using Q-meter are as follows,
Zx = Rx + jXx 1. Error Due to Shunt Resistance Rsh
If the value of Xx is positive then it is inductive reactance The shunt resistance R sh introduces an additional
and if the value of Xx is negative then it is capacitive reactance. resistance in the tank circuit there by increases the total
This method is used for small impedance measurements. resistance. Due to this the resulting Q value will be different
from the actual Q value.
2. Shunt Substitution Method

Figure (2): Shunt Substitution Method

This method is used when the impedance is greater than Figure: Effect of Rsh on Q
XL. In this method the impedance to be measured is connected
in parallel with the capacitor and the coil. Let Yx is the shunt ωL
admittance of the impedance to be measured. The Yx contains ∴ Qactual = and
two shunt elements. One is conductance (Gx) and the other is R
susceptance (Bx). In this process of measurement initially the ωL
Qmeasured =
Yx is not connected and the capacitor c is varied for resonance R + Rsh
condition, at the oscillator frequency. Now the values of C and
Q are taken. Then the Yx is connected into the circuit and the R + Rsh
∴ =
capacitor is varied again for resonance at oscillator frequency. R
At this condition the values of C ' and Q' are taken.
R
Hence we have, = 1 + sh
R
Yx = Gx + jBx
 Rsh 
Bx = ωC – ωC' and ∴ Qactual = Qmeasured 1 +
 R 
Gx = To reduce this error i.e., to make the measured Q to be
closer to the actual Q, the shunt resistance Rsh should be made
as small as possible, and it should be in the range of 0.02 to
∴ Yx = + jω(C – C ') 0.04 Ω.
2. Error Due to Distributed Capacitance or Self
Thus, the reactance is measured with high accuracy. Capacitance
However, some error may occur because of the following
Distributed capacitance or self capacitance is the most
reasons,
important source that introduce error in the measurement of
1. Due to additional resistance a flat resonance curve cannot Q. This effects the actual value of Q and the inductance of the
be obtained. Therefore, C ' value cannot be measured coil. The frequency at which the distributed capacitance and
accurately. the inductance of the coil are resonant, the circuit impedance
2. At very high frequencies error may occur due to the stray is purely resistive. This characteristic is used to measure the
inductance associated with variable capacitor. distributed capacitance (Cd).

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.39
Measurement of Distributed Capacitance (Cd)

Figure: Measurement of Distributed Capacitance of an Inductor

The measurement of distributed capacitance is done by making two measurements at two different frequencies. The coil
under measurement is connected directly to the test terminals of the measuring circuit. The tuning capacitor is varied and adjusted
to its maximum value and the circuit is resonated by varying the frequency of the oscillator. The resonance condition is indicated
by full scale deflection (maximum deflection) on the circuit Q meter. At this condition the value of tuning capacitor say C1 and
frequency of oscillator say f1 are taken.
Then the frequency value is increased to two times of its original value i.e., f2 = 2f1 and the circuit is resonated again by
varying the tuning capacitor (C2).
The resonant frequency of an LC circuit is given by,
1
f = ... (1)
2π LC
At initial resonance, the capacitance of the circuit is equal to C1 + Cd..
∴ The resonant frequency will be,
1
f1 = ... (2)
2π L(C1 + Cd )
After the tuning capacitor and oscillator frequency are adjusted, the capacitance of the circuit changes and becomes equal
to C2 + Cd and the resonant frequency will be
1
f2 = ... (3)
2π L(C2 + Cd )

∴ f2 = 2 f1
2 2
=
2π L(C2 + Cd ) 2π L(C1 + Cd )

1 4
=
C2 + Cd C1 + Cd
C1 + Cd = 4 [C2 + Cd]

Thus the distributed capacitance is measured.
Distributed capacitance reduces the effective Q of a coil. Therefore the effective Q becomes less than actual Q by a factor
that depends on the values of tuning capacitor and distributed capacitance.
The actual Q value is given by,

 C + Cd 
Qactual = Qeffective  
 C 
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4.40 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Where,
C – Resonating capacitance
Cd – Distributed capacitance.
3. Error Due to Residual Inductance
The error due to residual inductance of the device is very small and is around 0.015 µH. This effect the measurement of
very small inductors (which are less than 0.5 µH) only.
4. Error Due to Conductance of the Q Voltmeter
At very high frequencies, error is introduced due to shunting effect of conductance of the voltmeter connected across the
tuning capacitor. However, this error is very small and can be neglected.
Q48. Discuss the technique and procedure of measuring low impedance components using a Q-meter in
series connection mode. Derive expressions for all the unknowns (Rs Ls Cs and Qs) that can be measured.
Ans:
Series connection method is used for the measurement of low-impedance components, small coils, small resistance, and
large capacitors. The circuit arrangement of measuring low impedance components using a Q meter in series connection mode is
illustrated below.

Figure: Measurement of Low Impedance using Q-meter

Let the components to be measured is Z and is connected in series with standard work coil across the testing terminals.
The L and R values of work coil are accurately known and this work coil is supplied with the instrument itself. In this method
two measurements are taken.
1. First the unknown is shorted by shorting strap (switch) and the circuit is resonated to establish a new reference condition.
At this condition the values of C1 (tuning capacitor) and indicated Q1 are taken.
For this reference condition

X c1 = XL
1
= ωL and
ωC1
XL
Q1 =
R
ωL 1
∴ Q1 = = ... (1)
R ωC1 R

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.41
2. Secondly the shorting strap is opened and the circuit is resonated again by varying the tuning capacitor. At this condition
the new values of tuning capacitor i.e., C2 and Q value i.e, Q2 are taken. For this condition.

X c2 = XS + XL

XS = X C2 – XL

1
XS = – ωL
ωC 2

1 1
XS = –
ωC 2 ωC1

C1 − C2
∴X s =
ωC1C2 ... (2)

If C2 > C1 then XS is capacitive and if C2 < C1 XS is inductive.

The resistive component of the unknown impedance is obtained interms of XS and indicated Q value.

X1
R1 = and
Q1

X2
R2 =
Q2

RS = R2 – R1

X 2 X1
= −
Q2 Q1

1 1
= −
ωC2Q2 ωC1Q1

... (3)

If the unknown component is purely resistive and C1 = C2 then

Q1 − Q2
RS =
ωC1Q1Q2

... (4)

If the unknown component is small inductor then the inductance is obtained from equation (2) as,

C1 − C2
XS =
ωC1C2

XS = ωLS

... (5)

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4.42 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The Q of the coil is obtained as
XS
QS =
Rs
C1 − C2
ωC1C2
=
C1Q1 − C2Q2
ωC1C2Q1Q2

... (6)

If the unknown component is a large capacitor then, it can be found from equation (2) as

C1 − C2
XS =
ωC1C2
1
XS =
ωC S

C1C2
∴ CS =
C2 − C1 ... (7)

Q49. A coil with a resistance of 5 Ω is connected to the terminals of the basic Q-meter. Resonance occurs at
an oscillator frequency of 4 MHz and resonating capacitance of 80 pF. Calculate the percentage of error
introduced by the insertion resistance, Rsh = 0.01 Ω.

Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q7(b)

Given that,
Resistance of coil, R = 5 Ω
Resonance frequency, fr = 4 MHz
Capacitance at resonance, C = 80 pF
Inserted resistance, Rsh = 0.01 Ω
% error in Q = ?
We know that,
Qe − Qi
% error in Q = × 100
Qe
Where,
Qe = Effective Q of coil

Qi = Indicated Q of coil.

Effective Q of Coil

Qe =

= 99.47

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UNIT-4 A.C Bridges 4.43
Indicated Q of Coil
1
Qi =
ωC ( R + Rsh )
1
=
2πf r C ( R + Rsh )

= 99.27
Qe − Qi
% error in Q = × 100
Qe

= 0.201%
Therefore, the percentage error in Q introduced due to insertion resistance, Rsh of 0.01 Ω is 0.2%.
Q50. Compute the self capacitance of a coil when the following measurements are made at f1 = 2 MHz, the
tuning capacitor is set at 450 pF. When the frequency is increased to 5 MHz, the tuning capacitor is
tuned to 60 pF.
Ans:
Given that,
f1 = 2 MHz
C1 = 450 pF
f2 = 5 MHz
C2 = 60 pF
Cd = ?
From given data it is clear that,
f2 = 2.5 f1
1 2.5
=
2π L(C2 + Cd ) 2π L(C1 + Cd )

2π L(C1 + Cd )
= 2.5
2π L(C2 + Cd )
By squaring on both sides we get,
L(C1 + Cd )
= 6.25
L(C2 + Cd )
C1 + Cd
6.25 =
C2 + Cd

6.25 =

450 + Cd = 375 + 6.25 Cd

Cd =

Cd = 14.28 pF.

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4.44 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q51. A coil with resistance of 0.1 ohm is connected in the ‘direct measurement’ mode. Resonance occurs
when the oscillator frequency is 40 MHz and the value of capacitor is 135 pF. Calculate the percentage
error introduced in the calculated value of Q by the 0.02 ohm insertion resistance.
Ans:
Given that,
Resistance, R = 0.1 Ω
Frequency, f = 40 MHz
Capacitor, C = 135 pF
Inserted resistance = 0.02 Ω

Qe =

= 294.7

Indicated Q of the coil equals,

Qi =

= 245.6

Qe − Qi
% error = × 100%
Qe

= × 100%

= 0.166 × 100%
= 16.6%
Result
Percentage error introduced in the calculated value of Q by the 0.02 ohm insertion resistance is 16.6%.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.1

Marketed by:

UNIT
TRANSDUCERS

5 SIA GROUP

PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. What are the uses of capacitive transducers?
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(e)
1. These are used for the measurement of linear displacements and angular displacements.
2. These are used in conjunction with some mechanical components for the measurement of,
(i) Liquid level
(ii) Density
(iii) Weight
(iv) Volume etc.
3. These can be used to measure pressure and force (for this the applied pressure or force is changed into displacement and
measure).
4. These can be used to measure humidity in gases. Because dielectric constant of gases varies with humidity and causes the
capacitance of the transducer to vary.
5. They can be directly used as pressure transducer in those applications where the dielectric of a medium varies with pressure.
Q2. List the applications of inductive transducers.
Ans: April-18, Set-2, Q1(e)
Applications of Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducer is used as,
1. To measure pressure
2. To measure torque
3. To measure thickness
4. To measure liquid level
5. To measure both linear and angular displacements
6. To measure angular position and also to convert angular position into electrical signal.
Q3. What are the advantages of capacitive transducer?
Ans:
1. Capacitive transducers exhibits good frequency response as high as 50 kHz. Therefore, these can be useful for dynamic
measurement conditions.
2. Very small forces are sufficient for the operation of capacitive transducer. Therefore, these can be employed in small
systems.
3. Since its input impedance is high the loading effects are minimum.
4. These transducers are very sensitive in nature.
5. Since they use small force, the power required for their operation is also low.
6. They give rapid response to change in pressure.
7. They can withstand even by lot of shocks and vibrations.
8. They have resolution in the order of 2.5 × 10–3 mm.

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5.2 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q4. State the main advantages and disadvantages Q7.
Define gauge factor for transducer and explain
of semiconductor strain gauges compared to a its significance.
metallic wire strain gauge. April-18, Set-1, Q1(e)
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(e) OR
Advantages Define gauge factor for a transducer.
For answer refer Unit-V, Q29, Topic: Advantages of Ans:
Semiconductor Strain Gauge. Gauge Factor
Disadvantages
The gauge factor of a transducer can be defined as the
1. These gauges are brittle and hence can not be used for ratio of per unit change in resistance to the per unit change in
measuring large strains. length.
∆R / R
2. Their gauge factor is not stable. It changes with tempera- ∴ Gauge factor Gf =
ture. ∆L / L
Where,
3. These gauges show non-linearity.
∆R/R = Per unit change in resistance
Q5. What are the different types of strain gauges?
∆L/L = Per unit change in length
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(e)
∆L = Change in length
Strain Gauge
Strain gauge is defined as a transducer used to measure ∆R = Change in resistance.
strain and associated stress in experimental stress analysis. When Significance
a metal wire (or conducting wire) is stretched or compressed, 1. By knowing the gauge factor, the strain in the member
its length and diameter changes due to which the resistance can be directly obtained as the change of resistance.
and also the resistivity of the wire will change. This effect is
known as ‘Piezo-resistive’ effect. All the strain gauges operates 2. The value of gauge factor differs from material to
on the principle of ‘Piezo-resistive’ effect. Hence, there are also material but it is considered as it remains constant at the
referred as Piezo-resistive gauges. working range of required strain. However its value is
determined experimentally.
The strain gauges are mainly divided into four types.
They are, Q8. What is an LVDT? Where is it used?
(i) Wire-wound strain gauges Ans:
(ii) Foil type strain gauges LVDT
(iii) Semiconductor strain gauges and LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) is an
(iv) Capacitive strain gauges. inductive transducer. It is used to convert the linear displacement
into its equivalent electrical signal.
The wire-wound strain gauges are divided into two types
namely, Applications of LVDT
(a) Bonded wire strain gauges and Some of the principle applications of LVDT are as follows,
(b) Unbonded wire strain gauges. (i) LVDT is used to measure linear displacements ranging
from a fraction of mm to cm. In this case, the LVDT
Q6. What characteristics determine the size of the
converts the applied displacement into its proportional
strain gauge?
electrical output.
Ans:
(ii) It can be used for measurement of force and vibrations.
The selection of the size of strain gauge for a particular
(iii) LVDT can be used to measure weight and pressure
application is an important factor for faithful measurement.
exerted by liquid in a tank.
1. The first limitation in determining the size of strain
(iv) It can be used to measure and control of thickness of a
gauge, is the available surface of specimen on which
metal steel being rolled.
the gauge is to be mounted.
(v) It can be used to measure tension in a cord.
2. The second factor is the strain gradient at the location,
where strain gauge is to be mounted. The gauge will Q9. What are the materials belonging to natural and
average out the strain beneath its strain sensitive grid. synthetic group of plezo-electric materials?
3. The third factor is the wavelengths of vibratory strains Ans:
to be measured. It must be large compared to the length The materials which exhibit the piezo-electric effect (or
of gauges to reduce the errors in the dynamic response. piezo-electric materials) are categorized into two groups namely.
Generally, largest possible gauge is used because such
gauges will have lower hysterisis, creep, zero shift and 1. Natural group and
larger current carrying capacity. 2. Synthetic group.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.3
The materials belonging to natural group are, value with increase in temperature and vice versa). A moderately
(i) Quartz doped semiconductor exhibits negative temperature coefficient
(negative temperature coefficient of resistance is nothing but
(ii) Rochelle salt
decrease in the resistance value with increase of resistance and
(iii) Ceramics A and B. vice versa) where as a heavily doped semiconductor acquires
When compared to all other materials quartz has highest the properties of metals. In such heavily doped semiconductors,
stability, but provides low output. The material called rochelle as temperature increases there is a decrease in the mobility of
salt provides high output, but its stability is low and is sensitive charge carriers and hence the resistance increases. Such a device
to temperature. can be referred as sensistor.
Therefore, because of its highest stability quartz is widely Since most of the sensistors employs the principle of
used in many applications such as in stabilizing electronic variation of its resistance with temperature, these can be used to
oscillators. measure the temperature. Typically sensistors have temperature
The materials belonging to synthetic group are, coefficient of resistance of + 0.7% per oC over the temperature
(i) Lithium sulphate and range of –60oC to +150oC.
(ii) Ethylene diamine. Q13. Draw the circuit diagram of photo transistor and
explain its output characteristics.
Q10. Write about the merits and demerits of
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(e)
resistance thermometer.
April-18, Set-4, Q1(e) Phototransistor: Photo transistor is an opto electronic device
that produces more output current when exposed to light. It
OR
is represented as a combination of photodiode and transistor.
What are the merits and demerits of resistance
thermometers? The symbol and equivalent circuit diagram of photo
transistor is shown in figure (1).
Ans:
Merits of Resistance Thermometers
1. Good accuracy
2. Construction is simple
3. Can be used in remote areas
4. The response in linear.
Demerits of Resistance Thermometers
1. High cost
2. Requires more maintenance.
Q11. List the applications of thermistors.
Ans:
Figure (1): Symbol of Photo Transistor
1. These can be effectively used for the measurement of
variations in temperature, control of temperature and for Characteristics: The typical photo transistor characteristics
temperature compensation. are as shown in figure (2).
2. These can be used to measure thermal conductivity.
3. These are used in electric circuits to provide time delay.
4. These can be applied to measure vacuum flow, pressure
and level of liquids.
5. These can be used to measure power at high frequen-
cies.
Q12. Write short notes on sensistors.
Ans:
A sensistor is a silicon resistor whose resistance changes
with change in temperature, power and time. A silicon resistor
or a resistor containing silicon semiconductor as its resistance Figure (2): Characteristics
element in order to achieve positive temperature coefficient
of resistance does not considerably varies with temperature is The characteristics curves are drawn between VCE and Ic
used as a temperature sensing element. (positive temperature by keeping intensity of light (H) as constant values there curves
coefficient of resistance is nothing but increase in the resistance are similar to BJT output characteristics.

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5.4 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q14. Explain the different advantages of electrical transducers in detail.

April/May-17, Set-4, Q1(e)

OR
Give the classification of electrical transducers and its advantages.
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(e)

Electrical transducers are classified into two types. They are:

1. Active transducer
2. Passive transducer.
Advantages of Active Transducer
1. These transducers does not require any external excitation to provide output.
2. It generates an equivalent output signal which is directly in response to physical parameter.
3. It has high efficiency
4. The measurements can be obtained anytime regardless to day or season.
Advantages of Passive Transducer
1. It measures energy that is naturally available
2. Available in small size
3. Low electrical power requirements.
Q15. A certain crystal has a coupling coefficient of 0.32. How much electrical energy must be applied to
produce an output of 1 oz.in. of mechanical energy?
Ans:
Given that,
Coupling coefficient, k = 0.32
Output = 1oz.in
Applied electrical energy, E = ?
The output is electrical energy which must be converted into mechanical energy.
1 ounce.inch = 0.0071 Joules
= 7.06 × 10–3 Joules
We have,
Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
E=
k

= 0.02206
= 22.06 × 10–3
E = 22.06 mJ

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.5

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
5.1 TRANSDUCERS – ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS : RESISTANCE, CAPACITANCE,
INDUCTANCE

Q16. Explain primary and secondary transducers.

(Refer Only Topic: Primary and Secondary Transducers)
April/May-17, Set-2, Q1(e)

OR

List out difference between active and passive transducer in detail.

(Refer Only Topic: Active and Passive Transducers)
April/May-17, Set-3, Q1(e)

OR
What is transducer? Write the classification of transducers.
Ans:
Transducer
A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical variable is known as transducer.
Transducers are classified into several types. However, these can be categorized into five types. They are,
1. Classification on the basis of transduction principle used.
2. Active and passive transducers
3. Analog and digital transducers
4. Primary and secondary transducers
5. Transducers and inverse transducers.
1. Classification on the Basis of Transduction Principle Used
This classification is done depending on the transduction principle i.e., how the input variable is being converted into
capacitance, resistance and inductance values. (These are named as capacitive transducer, resistive transducer and inductive
transducer respectively).
Examples of Capacitive Transducer Applications
1. Dielectric gauge. 1. It is used to measure,
(i) Thickness and
(ii) Liquid level.
2. Capacitor Microphone. 2. It is used to measure,
(i) Noise
(ii) Speech and
(iii)Music.
Examples of Resistive Transducer Applications
1. Resistance thermometer. 1. Used in the measurement of,
(i) Temperature and
(ii) Radiant heat.
2. Potentiometer device. 2. (i) Used in displacement measurement and
(ii) Used in pressure measurement.

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5.6 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Examples of Inductive Transducer Applications

1. Reluctance pick up. 1. It is used to measure,
(i) Pressure
(ii) Vibrations
(iii) Position and
(iv) Displacement.
2. Magnetostriction gauge. 2. It is used to measure,
(i) Sound
(ii) Force
(iii) Pressure.
2. Active and Passive Transducers
Active Transducer
The transducers which does not requires any external excitation to provide their output are referred as active transducer.
Examples of Active Transducer Applications
1. Photo voltaic cell. 1. (i) Used in light meters
(ii) Used in solar cells.
2. Thermocouple. 2. Used to measure,
(i) Temperature
(ii) Radiation and
(iii) Heat flow.
Passive Transducer
The transducers which requires an external excitation to provide their output are referred as passive transducer.
Examples of Passive Transducer Applications
1. Capacitive transducers. 1. Used to measure liquid level, noise, thickness etc.
2. Resistive transducers. 2. Used to measure temperature, pressure,
displacement etc.
3. Inductive transducers. 3. Used to measure pressure, vibration, position,
displacement etc.
3. Analog and Digital Transducers
Analog Transducer
The transducers which produces their outputs in analog form or a form which is a continuous function of time are referred
as analog transducer.
Examples of Analog Transducer Applications
1. Strain gauge 1. Used to measure,
(i) Displacement
(ii) Force and
(iii) Torque.
2. Thermistor 2. Used to measure,
(i) Temperature and
(ii) Flow.
Digital Transducer
The transducers which produces their outputs in digital form or a form of pulses are referred as digital transducers.
Examples of Digital Transducer Applications
Turbine meter Used in flow measurement.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.7
4. Primary and Secondary Transducers
Primary Transducer
The transducer which sends the measurement and converts them into another variables (like displacement, strain etc.) and
whose output forms the input of another transducer is called as primary transducer.
Examples of Primary Transducer Applications
1. Bourdon tube 1. Used in pressure
2. Strain gauge 2. Used in measurements.

Secondary Transducer
The transducer which converts the output of first transducer into an some electrical output is called secondary transducer.
Examples of Secondary Transducer Applications
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) Used to measure,
(i) Displacement
(ii) Force
(iii) Pressure and
(iv) Position

5. Transducers and Inverse Transducers

Transducers
A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into electrical variable is known as transducer.
Example of Transducer Applications
Thermocouple Used to measure,
(i) Temperature
(ii) Radiation and
(iii) Heat flow

Inverse Transducers
A measuring device which measures and converts an electrical variable into nonelectrical variable is known as inverse
transducer.
Example of Inverse Transducers Applications
Piezo-electric crystal Used to measure,
(i) Pressure
(ii) Vibration
(iii) Acceleration and
(iv) Sound.

Q17. With proper examples differentiate between active and passive transducers.
Nov.-11, Set-4, Q7(a)

OR
Define active transducer and passive transducer. Give the examples for each.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q6(a)

Passive Transducer
The transducers which requires an external excitation to provide their output are referred as passive transducers. Since,
these transducers uses power from an auxiliary source, these can also be called as ‘externally powered transducers’. Some of the
examples of passive transducers are,
1. Capacitive transducers-These can be used to measure liquid level, noise, thickness etc.
2. Resistive transducers-These can be used to measure temperature, pressure, displacement etc.
3. Inductive transducers-These can be used to measure pressure, vibration, position, displacement etc.

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5.8 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Resistive Transducer The figure shows that, the crystal is placed between two
One of the example of resistive transducer is potentiometer metallic electrodes and the total arrangement is fastened to a
or ‘POT’. A POT excited by a voltage source Ei is illustrated in base, and on the top of the crystal a mass is placed. According
figure below, to the principle called ‘piezo-electric effect’ of a crystal, when
a mechanical force is applied to the crystal it will produce an
e.m.f or voltage across it. When the acceleration to be measured
is applied to the base, the mass produces some force (on crystal)
on account of acceleration.
Therefore, the crystal generates voltage which is
Figure: (Passive) Resistive Transducer proportional to force exerted by mass and hence to the
This potentiometer is used for linear displacement acceleration.
measurement. Q18. Show with an example, how the capacitive
Let, transducer has excellent frequency response.
The total length of POT = L Ans:
The total resistance of POT = RL
An arrangement of capacitive transducer works on the
Input displacement = Xi principle of variation of capacitance, due to variation of distance
Then the resulting voltage at the output is, between the plates and is illustrated in figure (1) below.
Xi
Eo = × Ei
L
E0
∴ Xi = ×L
Ei
Active Transducer
The transducers which does not require any external
excitation to provide their output (or for their operation) are
referred as active transducer. Since, these transducers does not
uses any auxiliary source and generate their own current or
voltage output, these are also known as ‘self generating type
transducers’.
Some of the examples of active transducers are, Figure (1): Capacitive Transducer
1. Photo voltaic cell - This can be used in light meters and
Assume that, the distance between the plates when
solar cells.
stationary is x0. In this case, there is no flow of current and hence
2. Thermocouple - This can be used for measurement of the output voltage is given by,
temperature, radiation and heat flow.
E0 = Eb
3. Piezo-electric crystal - Used for measurement of
acceleration, vibrations etc. If there is any relative displacement (xi) from the position
(x0), some output voltage (E0) is produced.
Piezo-electric Crystal
x
A piezo-electric crystal used in the measurement of If the displacement is small with 1 < 0.1 , the following
analysis can be carried out. d
acceleration is illustrated in figure below,

E0 ( s ) Kτs
Transfer function = =
X i ( s ) 1 + τs
Where,
τ = RC (Time constant)
Eb
K = V/m
x0
∴ Sinusoidal transfer function is,
E0 ( jω)
=
Figure: Piezo-electric Crystal in the Measurement of Acceleration X i ( jω)

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.9
The amplitude ratio, Q19. Explain the working of capacitive transducers.
April-18, Set-2, Q6(b)
M= ... (1)
OR
Describe the operation of capacitive transducers
= using suitable equations.
April-18, Set-4, Q6(a)

= OR
With a neat sketches and suitable equations,
explain the working of a capacitive transducer.
Ans:
Phase shift, φ = rad ... (2)
Capacitive transducer operates on the principle of
Therefore, the frequency response curve of capacitive capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor which is given by,
transducer is shown in figure (2) below.
∈A
C= (or)
d
∈r ∈0 A
C= ... (1)
d
Where,
C = Capacitance of a capacitor (Farads)
Î = Îr Î0= Permittivity of medium (F/m)
∈r = Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
∈0 = Permittivity of free space (8.5 × 10–12 F/m)
d = Distance between two plates (m)
A = Overlapping area of two plates (m2)
The capacitance of a capacitor varies when,
(i) The overlapping area (A) of the plates changes.
Figure (2): Frequency Response Curve
(ii) The distance (d) between the two plates changes.
From equation (1), it can be observed that the capacitive
transducer circuit arrangement shown in figure (1), is not suitable (iii) The dielectric constant ∈r changes.
for static measurements, because when ω = 0, the output is zero. (i) Capacitive Transducer using the Effect of Variation
Also, it is not suitable for low frequency applications, because of Overlapping Area of Plates
it produces inaccurate results (in low frequency applications).
Hence, to obtain high degree of accuracies this arrangement is
best suited for high frequency measurement applications i.e.,
beyond ω1 frequencies.
By examining the amplitude ratio and phase shift (i.e.,
from equations (1) and (2), we can write),
!0
M = Xi (jω) ≈ K and
Figure (1): Capacitive Transducer using the Principle of Change in
f φ = 0 for ωτ >> 1. Capacitance due to Change in Overlapping Area of Plates
In this way, the magnitude ratio and phase shift are From equation (1), it is clear that the capacitance of the
constants and does not depends on frequency. Therefore, at low capacitor is directly proportional to the area of plates. Hence,
frequencies to make ωτ >> 1, the τ value should be made large. the capacitance varies linearly with the variation in the area of
We have, τ = RC, that means for a given capacitive transducer plates. The area linearly varies with the applied displacement.
by increasing the resistance value, R the value of τ is increased. Therefore the capacitive transducer using this principle is used
This value of resistance can be 1 MΩ or more. to measure linear displacements of about 1 mm to 10 mm.

SIA GROUP
5.10 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
From Figure (1), the capacitance of parallel plate At initial condition the capacitance of the transducer is,
capacitor is given by,
C=
∈A
C=
d b
= ∈0 (l1 + ∈r l2 )
t
C =
When the dielectric material moves towards left by
Where, distance x, the capacitance varies from C to ∆C.
l = Length of overlapping area of plates b b
∴ C + ∆C = ∈0 (l1 − x)+ ∈0∈r (l2 + x)
b = Width of overlapping area of plates. t t
(ii) Capacitive Transducer using the Effect of Variation b
= ∈0 [l1 − x + ∈r (l2 + x)]
of Distance between the Plates t
b bx
= ∈0 (l1 + ∈r l2 )+ ∈0 (∈r −1)
t t
=
 b 
 C = E0 (l1 + ∈r l2 ) 
 t 
Figure (2): Capacitive Transducer using the Principle of Change in
Capacitance due to Change in Distance between Plates ∆C =

The capacitor operates on the principle of variation of Therefore, variation in capacitance is given by,
capacitance due to variation in distance between two plates one
∆C =
is fixed and the other is movable. From equation (1), it is clear
that the capacitance of the two plates capacitor is inversely Thus, the variation of capacitance is directly proportional
proportional to the distance between the plates. When the to applied displacement.
movable plate moves towards the fixed plate or moves away Q20. Explain the operation of potentiometric
from the fixed plate with respect to applied displacement, the
transducer.
distance between the plates and hence capacitance changes. In
this case, the response is non-linear. Hence, it is used to measure April-18, Set-1, Q6(a)
only small displacements.
OR
(iii) Capacitive Transducer Using the Effect of Variation
With neat sketch, explain the resistance
of Dielectric Constant
pressure transducers in detail.
Model Paper-II, Q6(b)

OR
Explain the operation of a potentiometric
transducer.
Ans:
Potentiometric Transducer
The potentiometric transducer is basically a resistive
type transducer. Based upon is principle of operation, it is also
known as a resistive displacement transducer.
Figure (3): Capacitive Transducer using the Principle of Change in The potentiometric transducer works on the principle,
Capacitance due to Change in Dielectric Constant that a change in length of the conductor or the resistive element
The capacitive transducer working on the principle of results in a change of resistance.
change in capacitance due to variation of dielectric constant The resistance ‘R’ of a metal conductor having the length
with respect to linear displacement is shown in figure (3). It ‘l’ and area of cross-section ‘A’ is given by,
contains two fixed plates. A dielectric material with relative
ρl
permittivity, ∈r moves between these two plates with respect R= ohm
to applied displacement (x). A

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.11
Where, Inductive transducers are generally based upon the
following principles.
ρ = Resistivity of the metal (ohm-m)
(i) Variation of self inductance of the coil
Thus, as R is directly proportional to ‘l’, increase in
(ii) Variation of mutual inductance and
length of the conductor increases its resistance and vice-versa.
(iii) Production of eddy current.
The basic arrangement of a potentiometric transducer
consists of a resistor element and a movable contact (wiper (i) Principle of Change of Self Inductance
element), in an electrical circuit which is energized by a D.C. The self inductance of a coil having N number of turns
or A.C. supply. The figure below shows an electrical circuit of and reluctance ‘R’ is given by,
a potentiometric transducer. N2
L= ... (1)
R
The reluctance of a magnetic circuit is a function of
length of coil ‘l’ m, area of cross-section, ‘A’ m2 and effective
permeability ‘µ’ H/m and is given by,
l
R= ... (2)
µA
Substitute equation (2) in equation (1), we get,
Figure: Potentiometric Transducer µ. A
Inductance, L = N 2 ... (3)
l
Where, R = Total resistance of the element
From equation (3), we can say that, the change in induc-
Ri = Resistance corresponding to the tance can be caused due to,
displacement (x) of the wiper (a) Change in the number of turns of coil, N.
l = Total length of resistance element (b) Change in length ‘l’ and cross-sectional area ‘A’
of coil.
x = Displacement.
(c) Change in permeability µ.
The body whose displacement has to be measured is
coupled to the wiper mechanically. When there is a change in The quantity to be measured, for example displacement
displacemnt of the body, the movable contact moves our the is measured to cause variation in any one variables mentioned
resistance element and thus, the length of resistive element above and thus change the self inductance. The measure of self
changes which inturn changes its resistance. This change in inductance is a measure of the displacement.
resistance results in an output voltage (V0) which is a measure (ii) Principle of Change of Mutual Inductance
of the mechanical quantity (displacement). Inductive transducer, which is based on the principle of
The output voltage V0 is given as, change of mutual inductance employs multiple coils.
The mutual inductance between two coils having self
Ri x inductances, L1 and L2 is given by,
V0 = E or V0 = E
R l
The potentiometric transducer is mainly employed as M = K L1 L2
a secondary electrical transducer for converting the output Where K is the coupling coefficient.
displacement signals of the primary mechanical transducer (such Thus, the mutual inductance between the coil changes by
as diaphragms, bellows, bourdon tubes and contilever beams) the variation of self inductances or the coefficient of coupling.
into corresponding resistance changes.
(iii) Principle of Production of Eddy Currents
The potentiometric transducer can be employed for the
If a conducting material is placed near a coil carrying
measurement of mechanical quantities such as displacement,
alternating currents, eddy currents are inducted in the conducting
pressure, force and pressure. material. This is the basic principle of operation of these type of
Q21. Enumerate the principles behind an inductive inductive transducer material produces its own magnetic field
transducer. which acts against the main magnetic field created by the coil
resulting in the reduction of net flux linking with coil and so the
Ans: inductance of the coil is reduced. As the distance between the
conducting material and the coil decreases more eddy current
Inductive transducers are those in which the self
are induced and thus higher is the reduction in the inductance of
inductance of a coil or the mutual inductance of a pair of coils
the coil. Thus, inductance of the coil changes with the movement
is changed due to variation in the value of the quantity under
measurement. of the conducting material.

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5.12 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q22. What are the linearity and sensitivity of resistance transducer?
Ans:
The resistance transducers are used for the measurement of displacements. When the displacement to be measured is applied
to the wiper of the potentiometer, the wiper moves on the resistive element thereby causing a change in the resistance. This change
in resistance results an output voltage which gives the measure of the displacement. The output voltage of the transducer changes
linearly with displacement under ideal conditions.
The linearity of the resistive transducer is good, provided the resistance value of the resistive element (potentiometer) is
maintained low in comparison to the resistance value of measuring device. But, due to the low resistance value power dissipation
in the circuit will be high. So, inorder to have lower power dissipation the applied voltage at the input should be low.
However, a low input voltage gives low output voltage. Therefore, the sensitivity becomes low. The sensitivity of the
transducer is high, if the output voltage is high. Thus, to have high sensitivity the transducer requires high input voltage.
In this way, there is a contradiction between linearity and sensitivity of a resistance transducer. Therefore, selection of
resistance value of POT should be done by considering both the sensitivity and linearity. The typical value of sensitivity for a
rotational device is 200 mv/deg and for linear (or translational) device is 200 mv/mm.
Q23. What are the different types of inductance transducers? Explain their basic principle of operation.
Ans:
The list of various types of inductive transducers are,
1. LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
2. RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential Transformer)
3. Synchros
4. Resolvers.
1. LVDT
LVDT is used to convert the linear displacement into electrical signal. LVDT consists of one primary winding to which
an A.C. supply voltage is given and two secondary windings. These two secondary windings are connected in series position, so
that a differential output voltage can be obtained. Between the primary and two secondary windings a core is placed. This core
is free to move axially inside the coil assembly. When the displacement to be measured is applied to the core, it will move up or
down. Depending on the position of the core more or less output will be generated in the two secondary winding. This output
voltage gives the measure of the applied displacement.
2. RVDT
A RVDT is used to convert the angular displacement into electrical signal. The construction and working of RVDT is same
as that of LVDT, except that is employ a cam shaped core. This core rotates between the primary and two secondary windings
with the help of shaft.
3. Synchros
The devices by which the angular position of shaft is converted into electrical signal are known as synchros. The synchros
are electromagnetic transducers. The construction of synchros is same as a three phase alternator. It has a stator and a rotor. The
stator consists of three identical stationary windings which are separated by 120º in space. These stationary windings are connected
in star (Y) configuration. The rotor is dumb-bell shaped rotor to which an A.C. excitation voltage is applied through slip rings. The
rotor acts as primary winding of single phase transformer, where as the stationary windings act as secondary winding of single
phase transformer. There are two basic parts in a synchro system namely synchrotransmitter and synchro receiver.
4. Resolvers
It is an electromagnetic device which consists of two stator windings and two rotor windings. Resolving is nothing, but
converting from one co-ordinate system to another co-ordinate system. The resolvers converts the shafts angular position into
cartesian coordinates i.e., the angular rotor position is converted into those signals which are proportional to the sine and cosine
of the rotor position and this is carried out with respect to the position of the stators.
Q24. Write short notes on resistive transducer.
Ans:
Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by,
ρl
R = ... (1)
A

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.13
Where, R = Resistance in ‘Ω’
ρ = Resistivity of the conductor (Ω - cm)
l = Length of the conductor in cm.
A = Cross-sectional area of the metal conductor in cm2
It is clear from the equation (1) that, the electrical resistance can be varied by varying,
(i) Length
(ii) Cross-sectional area and
(iii) Resistivity or combination of these.
Principle
A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement of an object is the measure of displacement of that object.
Method of changing the resistance and the resulting devices are summarized in the following table.
Method of changing resistance Resulting device Use
1. Length - Resistance can be changed Resistance potentiometers or Used for the measurement
varying the length of the conductor. sliding contact devices of linear and angular.
(linear and rotary). displacements
2. Dimensions - When a metal conductor Electrical resistance strain Used for the measurement
is subjected to mechanical strain, gauges. of mechanical strain.
change in dimensions of the conductor
occurs, that changes the resistance of
the conductor.
3. Resistivity - When a metal conductor Thermistor and RTD. Used for the temperature
is subjected to a change in temperature measurement.
and change in resistivity occurs which
changes resistance of the conductor.

Table: Variable Resistance Transducers and their Principle of Operation

Q25. Explain the resistive position transducer along with circuit diagram.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q6(a)

Resistance position transducer is a three wire device with a position sensor used to measure the physical variable directly.
It is also known as potentiometric position transducer (or) linear potentiometer. The basic resistance position transducer is as
shown in figure.
w

(+) A

R1
Vin
R2
V0

(–)
B
Figure

For remaining answer refer Unit-V, Q19.

SIA GROUP
5.14 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q26. List out different types of strain gauges used 5. Stability and Reliability
transducer and explain any one in detail.
The transducer should have high degree of stability
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q6(b) during its function and also storage life. It should also
have a high degree of reliability.
The following are the various types of strain gauges,
6. Usage and Ruggedness
1. Unbonded strain gauges
2. Bonded strain gauges The ruggedness, size and weight of a transducer should
be chosen depending on the application in which it is
(a) Wire gauge used.
(b) Foil gauge 7. Transient Response and Frequency Response
(c) Semi conductor gauge The transducer should have required time domain
3. Different metal strain gauges specifications such as, settling time, rise time, peak over
shoot and small dynamic error etc.
4. Variable inductance type strain gauge
8. Loading Effects
Unbonded Strain Gauge
A transducers should undergo minimum loading
For answer refer Unit-V, Q35, Topic: Unbonded Metal effect so that if can provide accurate measurement.
Strain Gauge Construction and Working. The parameters of a transducer. That characterize the
Q27. List out the factors should be considered while loading effect are its input and output impedances.It
selecting a transducer. is cons idered in order to get minimum loading effects
(Which can be neglected). For minimum loading effect
(Dec.-13, Set-4, Q7(b) | Model Paper-I, Q6(b)) the transducer should have low output impedance and
OR high input impedance.

What parameters should be considered in 9. Electrical Parameters

selecting a transducer?
The type and length of cable required, signal to noise
Ans: ratio in case the transducer is used with amplifiers
Parameters to be considered in the selection of a and frequency response limitations should also be
transducer for a particular applications are, considered.

1. Operating Principle 10 Ability to be insensitive to unwanted signals (or the

ability to be sensitive to desired signals).
Basically, the transducers are selected based on their
operating principle. Examples of operating principles 11. Environmental compatibility.
used by the transducers are resistive, capacitive,
piezoelectric, inductive, up to electronic principle etc. 12. Static Characteristics

2. Operating Range The selected transducer should have low hysteresis, high
linearity and high resolution.
This factor is considered so that the transducer should
be able to function within the specified range with good Q28. Discuss the translator, rotational and helipot
resolution. Every transducer should be provided with resistive transducer.
some rating within which there will be breakdown in
its function. Ans: Dec.-13, Set-3, Q7(a)

3. Accuracy Translator Resistive Transducer

It is one of the most desired characteristic of any Translational or linear resistive type transducer is the
transducer. If the transducer doesn’t needs frequent basic or linear potentiometer.
calibration, it must have high degree of accuracy and
repeatability. Because errors may occur due to the Measurement of Linear Displacement
sensitivity of the transducer to other stimuli.
Principle
4. Sensitivity
The resistance value of a conductor varies with
It is also a desired characteristic of a transducer. Every respect to its length. If this variation in length is due to some
transducer should be sufficiently sensitive to provide displacement, then the change in resistance gives the value of
some output that can be sufficient and detectable. applied displacement.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.15
Construction and Working Helipot Resistive Transducer

The potentiometer whose resistive element is made in

the form of helix is known as helical potentiometer or simply
helipot.

Helical potentiometers comprise multiturn rotational

resistive elements and can be used for the measurement of
both translational (linear) and rotational displacements. The
schematic arrangement of helical potentiometer is shown in
Figure(1): Linear Potentiometer figure (3).

The potentiometer (POT) consists of a single length

of wire (or a resistive element) along which a sliding contact
known as wiper is provided. The POT is supplied with input
voltage source. When the displacement to be measured is applied
to the wiper, the wiper moves on the resistive element. Due to
this sliding action the length of the wire changes which in turn
changes its resistance and hence, output voltage. Here the output
voltage gives the value of displacement applied at the input.

Rotational Resistive Transducer

Rotational or angular resistive type transducer is the

rotational potentiometer.

Measurement of Angular Displacement

The measurement of angular displacement using

rotational potentiometer is shown in figure (2).

Figure(3): Helical Potentiometer

As the helical potentiometer uses an external voltage

source for its operation, it is considered as a passive transducer.
The wiper of the potentiometer is arranged such that, it moves
along the lead screw when the displacement to be measured is
applied, when the wiper moves along the resistive element
Figure(2): Rotational Potentiometer (in response to the translational displacement), the resistance of
the resistive element changes which inturn changes the output
The rotational potentiometer consist of input voltage voltage. The variation occurred in the output voltage gives the
source and sliding contact. The sliding contact of rotational measure of the translational displacement.
potentiometer is also known as wiper. Usually, the rotational
potentiometers are circular in shape. The potentiometer If an angular displacement is applied, the angular
requires an external voltage source hence it is called as passive movement of the shaft causes the wiper to be displaced by an
transducer. When the displacement to be measured is applied the angle over the resistive element. Therefore, the resistance and
sliding contact moves on the circular shape resistive element. hence the output voltage changes. The change occurred in the
Due to this sliding action the length of the conductor changes output voltage gives the measure of the angular displacement
which in turn changes its resistance and hence, output voltage. of the shaft.
Therefore, the value of output voltage is nothing but the
displacement applied at the input of rotational potentiometer. Usually the number of rotations or turns in a helipot are
A full scale angular displacement of rotational potentiometer 20 to 40. However, its resolution can be increased by using a
is as small as 10°. We can obtain accurate measurements upto gearing mechanism between the shaft whose motion is to be
357° with this type of potentiometer. determined and the wiper of the potentiometer.

SIA GROUP
5.16 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q29. What is the difference between photoemissive, photoconductive and photovoltaic transducers?
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q6(b)

Q30. A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 3 in. is applied to the circuit. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 5 kΩ. The applied voltage Vt is 5 V. When the wiper is 0.9 in. from B, what is the value
of the output voltage?
Ans: Dec.-13, Set-3, Q7(b)

Given that,
Shaft stroke, xt = 3 in.
= 7.62 cm
Total resistance, Rp = 5 kΩ
Supply voltage, Vt = 5 V
Wiper displacement, xi = 0.9 in.
= 2.286 cm
Output voltage, V0 = ?

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.17
According to the given data a displacement transducer
π D2
is shown in figure, A= (Is the area of cross-section)
4

dA = .2D. dD

dA = . dD

dA
=
A

dA
= ... (3)
A
Figure: Displacement Transducer
When a wire is subjected to longitudinal stress, its length
The output voltage of a displacement transducer is
given as, increases (longitudinal strain) and its diameter decreases (lateral
x strain).
V0 = i × Vt
xt Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to
longitudinal strain.
=
v=
V0 = 1.5 V

5.2 STRAIN GAUGES v =

Q31. Derive the expression for gauge factor of a
strain gauge. = ... (4)
April/May-17, Set-2, Q6(a)

OR Substitute equation (4) in equation (3), we get,

Derive the expression for gauge factor for a
∴ =
strain gauge.
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q7(a) | Model Paper-III, Q6(a)) By substituting the above value in equation (2), we get,
Strain gauge consists of a fine metallic wire of 0.025 mm dR
diameter and in appropriate length. The resistance of a single =
R
wire is given by,
ρL
R = ... (1) =
A
Where,
Dividing the above equation by , we get,
ρ = Resistivity of material of conductor
L = Length of wire dρ / ρ
= + 1 + 2v
A = Cross-sectional area of wire. dL / L
When it is strained within the elastic limit, the resistance
of the wire will change due to, The term is called gauge factor (G) of the strain
1. Dimensional changes (L, A) gauges.
2. Change in value of resistivity (this property is called as
piezo-resistive effect). ∴ G = 1 + 2v +
Taking logarithm on both sides of equation (1), we get,
dρ / ρ
log R = log ρ + log L – log A The term represents piezo-resistive effect.
dL / L
Differentiating the above equation, we get,
For all the wires drawn from metals and metallic alloys.
dρ dL dA Poisson’s ratio is taken as 0.3, piezo-resistive effect is almost
= + – ... (2)
ρ L A zero for metals.
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5.18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Therefore, the typical value of gauge factor is, As the resistance of the material is mostly effected by
G = 1 + 2 × 0.3 + 0 its resistivity characteristic, the piezo-resistive effect results in
= 1.6 relatively high gauge factor or high sensitivity. Therefore, the
gauge factor (G) of a semiconductor strain gauge is 50 times
G = 1.6 for metals.
that of the resistance (wire) strain gauge.
Gauge factor is an index of sensitivity of the strain Gauge factor of the order of 100 to 150 are also achieved
gauges. Higher the gauge factor more is the output. by suitable designs. Hence, the change in dimensions due to
G = strain is considered negligible in such cases.
(b) Semiconductor Strain Gauge
∆R
∴ = G. Strain A typical semiconductor strain gauge is formed by the
R semiconductor technology i.e., the semiconducting wafers or
filaments of length varying from 2 mm to 10 mm and thickness
of 0.05 mm are bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for
Q32. (a) When a high value of gauge factor is example teflon). The gold leads are usually employed for
desirable, what type of strain gauge should making electrical contacts. The electrodes are formed by vapour
be used and why? deposition. The assembly is placed in a protective box as shown
(b) Explain its working. in the figure below.
(c) What are its specific advantages?
Ans:
(a) When a high value of gauge factor is required, a
semiconductor strain gauge is preferred.
We know that, the general equation for the gauge factor
(or the sensitivity) of a strain gauge is given as,

G= = 1 + 2v + ... (1)
Figure: Semiconductor Strain Gauge
From the given relation, The strain sensitive elements used by the semiconductor
strain gauge are the semiconductor materials such as silicon and
G= germanium.
Conclusion can be drawn that a relatively high change When the strain is applied to the semiconductor element
in resistance will result in a high value of gauge factor. a large of change in resistance occur which can be measured
with the help of a wheatstone bridge. The strain can be measured
In metallic resistance strain gauges, the change in with high degree of accuracy due to relatively high change in
resistance occurs mainly due to the change in dimensions and resistance.
the change in resistivity is almost negligible.
A temperature compensated semiconductor strain gauge
Hence equation (1) reduces to, can be used to measure small strains of the order of 10–6 i.e.,
G = 1 + 2v micro-strain.
Usually, Poission’s ratio v = 0.3 (for most of the metals This type of gauge will have a gauge factor of 130 ± 10%
working in elastic limit) for a semiconductor material of dimension 1 × 0.5 × 0.005 inch
∴ G≅2 having the resistance of 350 Ω.
The gauge factor can be improved, if the change in (c) Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
resistivity is brought into effect. 1. The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very
Unlike metallic gauges, in semiconductor strain gauges, high, about ± 130.
when strain is applied the change in resistance occurs mainly due 2. They are useful in measurement of very small strains of
to piezo-resistive effect. The change in resistivity due to strain the order of 0.01 micro-strain due to their high gauge
is known as piezo-resistive effect. Hence, for semiconductor factor.
strain gauges, the term comes into effect in gauge factor 3. Semiconductor strain gauge exhibits very low hysteresis
i.e., less than 0.05%.
equation.
4. The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output,
i.e., G = 1 + 2v + but it is as stable as a metallic strain gauge.
5. It possess a high frequency response of 1012 Hz.
= 1 + 2v + πE 6. It has a large fatigue life i.e., 10 × 106 operations can be
Where, performed.
π = Piezo-resistive coefficient 7. They can be manufactured in very small sizes, their
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material. lengths ranging from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.19
Q33. Draw the different forms of metal foil strain gauges and explain their principle of operation.
Ans:
Metal Foil Strain Gauges
In this type of strain gauges a metal foil is used to sense the applied strain. The materials used for its construction are
nickel, nichrome, platinum, isoelastic (nickel + chromium + molybdenum), constantan (nickel + copper). The gauge factor and
characteristics of foil strain gauges are similar to the wire strain gauges.

Figure: Foil Type Strain Gauge

The metal foil gauges can be easily etched on a flexible insulating carrier film. In the construction of etched foil strain gauge
first a layer of strain sensitive material is bonded to a thin sheet of backelite or paper. The part of metal which is to be used as wire
element is covered with some masking material and then to this unit an etching solution is applied. Therefore, the unmasked part
of the metal will be removed thereby leaving the required grid structure. By this method of construction, the etched foil strain
gauges are made in thinner sizes.
Different forms of metal foil strain gauges are shown below,

Figure: Different Forms of Metal Foil Strain Gauges

SIA GROUP
5.20 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
When a force or pressure is applied to the sensing (iii) It has a gauge factor of 2.1.
element of metal foil strain gauge the physical dimensions of (iv) The composition of karma are 74%, Ni/20%,
it will change. Since, the strain gauge element is pasted on its Cr/3%, Al/3%.
surface, the dimensions of the strain gauge changes due to which
the resistance of the gauge changes. The measure of change (c) Isoelastic has the composition of 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 0.5
in resistance will become the measure of applied pressure or Mo, 52% Fe. It has a gauge factors of 3.5.
force (this change in resistance of the gauge can be measured (i) The gauge factors is higher.
by connecting the gauge in any one of the four arms of balanced (ii) It is used for dynamic strain measurements,
wheatstone bridge). appreciably high output (due to high tem-perature
Q34. What are the materials used in making strain coefficient).
gauges? (d) Nichrome V has the composition of 80% Ni and 20%
Ans: of Cr.
Materials Used in the Strain Gauges (i) It’s gauge factor is 2.5.
Material Gauge factor Ultimate strength (ii) It is used for dynamic strain measurements, upto
or temperature of 1200oC.
1. Nichrome 2.5 800 MN/m2 (e) The alloy Number 479 is used in unbonded strain gauge
2. Constantan 2.1 460 MN/m2 transducers, because of its high mechanical strength and
3. Advance 2.1 460 MN/m2 strain sensitivity.
4. Nickel – 12(non-linear) 400 MN/m2 Backing Materials
5. Platinum 4.8 200 MN/m2 The backing material is that portion of the strain gauge of
6. Alloy 479 4.7 2000 MN/m2 which the strain sensitive grid structure is attached. In addition
to primary insulation backing, it also helps retain the geometric
Materials available for use in strain gauges are abundant shape of the grid pattern and provide protection to the gauge.
and the selection of a proper gauge for a specific application is The choice of backing material is to distorted by the ambient
generally based upon the following factors. conditions.
(a) High gauge factor which should strain constant for a The following are the backing materials commonly used.
wide range of temperature and strain.
1. Paper
(b) Resistance changes to be simple, preferably a linear
function of mechanical strain. (i) The adhesive used for this material is nitrocellulose/
acetone duco (dorofix).
(c) Minimum thermoelectric tendency at connections.
(d) Low temperature sensitivity. (ii) The wiring time is about 12 to 40 hours at 80oC
and at a pressure of 7.35 Kpa.
(e) Economical cost.
(iii) It is of solvent setting cement.
Materials Commonly Used for Wire and Foil Gauges
The most commonly used materials for wire and foil (iv) It is mainly used for curved surfaces upto a
strain gauges are, temperature of 60oC.
(a) Ferry and advance (copper-nickel alloys) 2. Epoxy Paper/Phenolic
(b) Karma (i) The adhesive used for this backing material is
(c) Isoelastic cyano acrylate, acrylic cement (Eastman 910).
(d) Nichrome (ii) The causing time is at about (to 5 minute) at some
(e) Alloy Number 479. temperature, 10-17 hours at room temperature or
(a) Ferry and advance are copper and nickel alloys of the 20-10 hour at 150oC, at a pressure of 35-100 Kpa.
construction type advance has the composition (57% Cu, (iii) Pressure setting or chemical action setting cement.
43% Ni) and has a gauge factor 2. (iv) This is ideal for electrical transducers. The useful
(i) It has uniform gauge factors over wide range. range of temperature is 0-150oC.
(ii) It has a low thermal coefficient of resistance. 3. Phenolic (Bakelite)/Fibre Glass
(iii) It should not be used at temperatures above 400oC (i) The adhesive employed us phenolic cement or
because of carbon. epoxy type (Araldite).
(iv) It is easily workable. (ii) The using time is 5 to 8 hours at 180oC, the pressure
(v) It is widely used for static strain measurement. is 350-700 Kpa.
(b) Karma has a higher resistivity. (iii) Chemical action setting cement.
(i) It’s temperature coefficient is low at tem-peratures
(iv) This is good for electrical transducers, requires high
below 150oC.
bonding pressure. The useful range of temperature
(ii) It can be used upto 100oC without corrosion. is 0-200oC.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.21
4. Transfer Gauge (Glass Weave or None)
(i) The adhesive used is silicon varnish.
(ii) The using time is 1 to 2 hours.
(iii) The useful range of temperature is upto 400oC.
(iv) It is mainly used for measuring dynamic strain.
Q35. Explain the principle of operation of strain gauges with the help of neat diagrams.
April-18, Set-3, Q6(a)

OR
List out different types of strain gauges used transducer and explain any one in detail.
April/May-17, Set-4, Q6(b)

OR
Explain briefly the different type wire strain gauges.
(Dec.-13, Set-2, Q7(a) | Model Paper-II, Q6(a))

OR
Classify wire strain gauges and explain the construction and working of each one of them.
May-13, Set-1, Q7(b)

OR
Explain the construction and working of strain gauge.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-4, Q7(b)

The following are the various types of strain gauges,

1. Unbonded strain gauges
2. Bonded strain gauges
(a) Wire gauge
(b) Foil gauge
(c) Semi conductor gauge
3. Different metal strain gauges
4. Variable inductance type strain gauge
Principle
The working principle of strain gauge depends on piezo-resistive effect, i.e., when a stress or force is applied to a metal
conductor it will get compressed, and resistance of the conductor changes due to change in its length and diameter. The ratio of
∆L
change in length to the actual length i.e., will give the strain. The ratio of change in the resistance to the actual resistance
∆R L
i.e., will give the unit change in resistance. From these two the gauge factor (Gf) of a strain gauge can be defined as “per
R ∆R / R
unit change in resistance divided by per unit change in length”, i.e., Gf =
∆L / L
The following are the various types of strain gauges,
1. Bonded strain gauges
2. Unbonded strain gauges
(a) Wire gauge
(b) Foil gauge
(c) Semi conductor gauge
3. Different metal strain gauges
4. Variable inductance type strain gauge

SIA GROUP
5.22 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(i) Bonded Wire Strain Gauge Construction and Specifications
Working Typical size → Typically 3 mm × 3 mm, but some times
Bonded strain gauges are directly placed or bonded on bigger than 2.5 mm×12.5 mm.
the surface of the device or component which is subjected to Resistance → 120 Ω to 1000 Ω
stress or which is under study. These strain gauges are again
Maximum excitation voltage → 5 V to 10 V
divided into three types, namely metal foil strain gauges, fine
wire strain gauges, semiconductor strain gauges. The below Construction material → Nickel-copper, Nickel-
figure shows the measurement of pressure or strain using metal chromium or Nickel-Ferrous alloys.
foil bonded strain gauge. Advantages
1. Accuracy is more.
2. These can be available in different shapes.
3. High sensitivity and high stability.
4. Perfect bonding can be done.
5. Can measure high pressures.
Disadvantage
These are sensitive to changes in temperature.
Applications
1. These can be used along with different transducers for
different applications.
2. Can be used in the applications of stress analysis.
Figure: Metal Foil Strain Gauge (ii) Unbonded Metal Strain Gauge Construction and
Working
A metal foil strain gauge of 0.02 mm is bonded on
the surface of the device under observation. When a force or
pressure is applied to the device, the physical dimensions of
it will change. Since a metal foil strain gauge is pasted on its
surface, the dimensions of metal foil strain gauge changes,
which causes it to change its resistance. The measure of change
in resistance will become the measure of applied pressure or
force.
This change in resistance can be measured by connecting
this gauge in one of the 4 arms of balanced Wheatstone bridge
as shown in the figure below. This connection makes the bridge
to become unbalance, and some output voltage will be generated
which gives the value of resistance. This measured resistance
Figure: Unbonded Strain Gauge
gives the applied force.
The unbounded strain gauge is placed on frames A
and B with the help of insulated pins. These two frames are
movable with respect to each other, and this arrangement can
be connected in one of the arms of Wheatstone’s bridge. When
the pressure or force which is to be measured is applied, the
frame A moves with respect to frame B. This causes change in
the length and cross section of the strain gauge which in turn
causes its resistance to change. Due to this change in resistance,
the bridge will be unbalanced and produces some output voltage,
which indicates the change in resistance, which in turn gives
the value of applied pressure.
Specifications
Typical size → 0.003 mm in diameter. and 25 mm in
length
Resistance → 120 Ω, 350 Ω to 1000 Ω
Maximum excitation voltage → 5 V to 10 V
Construction material → Nichrome, constantan, nickel,
Figure isoelastic

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.23
Advantages
1. It has greater accuracy.
2. This gauge can be used in the range of ± 0.15% strain.
Disadvantage
It requires more space.
Applications
1. Can be applied in the measurement of pressure, acceleration and force.
2. Used in those systems where gauge can be placed at different places and requires measurement of pressures or stress
frequently or more number of times.
Q36. Distinguish between bonded and unbonded strain gauge.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q7(b)

Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
1. When the strain gauge is directly placed or bonded 1. The strain gauges, which are not directly bonded on the
on the surface of the device, which is subjected to surface of the device which is subjected to stress or
stress or which is under study, a bonded resistance which is under study are known as unbonded resistance
wire strain gauge is formed. wire strain gauges.

2. The materials used for the construction of bonded 2. The materials used for the construction of unbonded
strain gauges are nickel-copper, nickel-chromium strain gauges are nichrome, constantan, nickel,
or nickel-ferrorus alloys. isoelastic.

3. They are designed in the size of 3 mm × 3 mm but 3. They are 0.003 mm in diameter and 25 mm in length.
sometimes bigger than 2.5 mm × 12.5 mm.

4. The required range of maximum excitation 4. The required range of maximum excitation voltage
voltage varies from 5 V to 10 V. varies from 5 V to 10 V.

5. The resistance value of the gauge ranges from 5. The resistance values of unbonded gauges are
120 Ω to 1000 Ω. 12 Ω, 350 Ω to 1000 Ω.

6. If the test surface is not cleaned perfectly, 6. There is no problem of fault insulation.
imperfect bonding occurs.

7. It suffers from the problem of slip between the 7. It suffers from low hysteresis and creep.
carrier material and the cement.

8. It is not suitable for the measurement of high 8. It can be used for the measurement of high temperatures
temperatures as the cement contains organic as it is free from bonding material and no organic substances
material, which gets decomposed at high exists.
temperatures.

Q37. What is rosettes? Explain with neat sketches the different forms of it.
Ans:
Many transducer applications and stress analysis techniques use a combination of strain gauge. This combination of two
or more strain gauge elements is known as rosette. With conventional strain gauges, it is not possible to indicate the direction of
the applied stress. Therefore, it is required to develop strain gauge measurement system which can determine strain and stress
without knowing the direction of stress and strain. This problem can be avoided by employing three strain gauges as a unit known
as rosette. The different forms of rosttes are illustrated below.

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5.24 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure (1): 3-element Rosette, 60o Planar (Foil Type) Figure (5): 3-element Rosette, 45o Planar (Foil Type)

Figure (6): 2-element Rosette, 90o Shear Planar Foil

If the measurement system contains 3-gauge rosette,
then it is possible to calculate all the required data, as this
measurement is aim to give stress at a point, ideally the 3 gauges
have to be superimposed on that point. This type of construction
is known as stacked rosette. This construction is feasible, but is
places the top gauge at some distance from the surface of the
Figure (2): 3-element Rosette, 45o Stacked (Wire Type) specimen. This increases its self heating, because it is insulated
from the underlying specimen. This underlying metal specimen
serves like a heat sink. If these limitations are greater then planar
rosettes are used.
Q38. Derive an expression for poisson’s ratio.
Ans:
Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to
axial strain.
(or)
Figure (3): 2-element Rosette, 90 Stacked (Foil Type)
o It can also be stated as the ratio of unit strain in lateral
(transverse) direction to the unit strain in axial direction. It is
denoted by the symbol µ.

µ =

Derivation of Poisson’s Ratio

Consider, a steel bar of length (L), and diameter (D), as
shown in the below figure.

Figure (4): 2-element Rosette, 90o Planar (Foil Type) Figure: Steel Bar Subjected to Tensile Load (T)

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.25
When this steel bar is not subjected to any load, its Ans:
dimensions (L and D) remain the same.
Operation of LVDT
When a tensile load is applied to the bar, the bar exhibits
A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
a change in its dimensions. The tensile load acting on the bar,
consists of one primary winding (P) and two secondary windings
increases the length of the bar in axial direction. Due to the
(S1 & S2) with equal number of turns wound on a cylindrical
increase in length, the diameter of the bar decreases and thus
former. The two secondary windings are connected in series
the cross sectional area of the bar changes i.e., the bar exhibits a
opposition and are placed identically on either side of primary
change in its dimensions in lateral or transverse direction. Thus
winding to which an A.C. excitation voltage is connected. A
due to load, the bar experiences strain in axial direction as well
movable soft iron core is placed within the cylindrical former.
as in lateral direction.
When the displacement to be measured is applied to the arm of
Axial strain, Σa = the core, the LVDT converts this displacement into an electrical
signal. The construction of LVDT is illustrated in figure (1).
∆L
=
L

Lateral strain, Σl =

−∆D
=
D
Note
The negative sign before the lateral strain indicates that
the diameter of the bar is decreased and thus indicates that the
bar is subjected to a tensile load.
−∆D
Σl D Figure (1): Construction of LVDT
∴ Poisson’s ratio, µ = =
Σa ∆L
L

5.3 LVDT

Q39. Describe the construction and working of LVDT.

April-18, Set-1, Q6(b)

OR
Draw the linear variable differential transducer
and explain its operation in detail.
(Refer Only Topic: Operation of LVDT)
April/May-17, Set-3, Q6(b) Figure (2): Circuit Diagram of a LVDT
OR The operating principle of LVDT depends on mutual
Describe the construction and working principle inductance. When the primary winding is supplied with A.C.
of LVDT. supply voltage, it generates alternating magnetic field. Due to
(May-13, Set-1, Q7(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q6(a)) this magnetic field, an alternating voltage will be induced in
OR the two secondary windings. In the figure (2),. eS1 is the output
voltage of secondary winding S1 and eS2 is the output voltage
With a neat diagram explain the operation of a
of secondary winding S2. In order to get single differential
LVDT.
Nov.-11, Set-1, Q7(b)
output voltage, two secondary windings are connected in series
opposition. Thus, the differential output voltage is given by,
OR
With a diagram explain the operating principle eo = eS1 – eS2
of an LVDT. Figure (2) shows that, when the core is placed
Nov.-10, Set-2, Q7(a) symmetrically with respect to two secondary windings an equal
OR amount of voltage will be induced in both windings. Therefore
Explain how the displacement is measured eS1 = eS2 , and the output voltage is ‘0’. Hence, this position is
using LVDT. known as null position.

SIA GROUP
5.26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Now, if the core is moved towards up from null position, The errors involved in the measurements using LVDT
more magnetic field links with secondary winding S1 and small are as follows,
field links with secondary winding S2. Therefore, more voltage 1. The residual voltage which exists at output terminals of
will be induced in S1 and less in S2. i.e., eS1 will be larger than the LVDT due to the magnetic unbalance (or) due to
eS2 . Hence, the differential output voltage is eo = eS1 – eS2 and electrical unbalance.
is inphase with primary voltage.
2. Presence of harmonics in input supply voltage or
But, when the core is moved towards down from null harmonics produced in the output voltage, because of
position more magnetic field links with secondary winding S2 saturation of iron ore.
and small field links with secondary winding S1. Therefore,
more voltage will be induced in S2 and less in S1 i.e., eS2 will 3. Stray magnetic fields which contribute to the residual
be larger than eS1 . Hence, the differential output voltage is voltage may be overcome by use of magnetic shields
eo = eS2 – eS1 and is 1800 out of phase with primary voltage. plotted longitudinally and fitted over the transducer.
Thus, the output voltage eo gives the position of the core 4. The performance of the transducer is affected by the
and hence the displacement applied. vibrations.
Merits 5. Temperature also affects the performance of transducer.
(i) LVDT has good linearity i.e., it produces linear output To overcome the problem, manganin wire may be used in
voltages. place of copper wire since, high resistivity of manganin
wire, sensitivity is reduced.
(ii) It can measure displacements of very high range usually
from 1.25 mm to 250 mm. 6. Phase shifting can be eliminated by using a capacitor
across one of the secondary windings.
(iii) It has high sensitivity.
(iv) Since, it produces high output, it does not require Q41. (a) List the characteristics, which make the
amplification devices. LVDT the most popular transducer.
(v) It is simple and rugged in construction. Therefore, it can (b) Explain its working principle along with
withstand high degree of shocks and vibrations. some applications.
(vi) It has no sliding contacts. Therefore, there is no problem Ans:
of friction. Characteristics
(vii) It has low hysteresis.
(a) The characteristics which make the LVDT the most
(viii) It consumes less power (about < 1 W). popular transducer are as follows,
Demerits
1. It is an electrical transformer containing a separable
(i) It is sensitive to stray magnetic fields. non-contacting type of core.
(ii) The performance of LVDT is affected by variations in 2. Linearity
temperature.
LVDT has good linearity i.e., it produces linear
(iii) It has limited dynamic response.
output voltages for the applied input. Generally,
(iv) To provide high differential output, it requires large it can be used to measure displacements of about
displacements. 1.25 mm to 250 mm. However, it permits the
(v) It provides A.C. output. Therefore, it requires a measurement range down to 0.003 mm with 0.25%
demodulator circuit if the receiving device operates only full scale linearity. A commercial LVDT provides
on D.C. a linearity of 0.05%
Q40. What is differential output of LVDT and explain 3. Sensitivity
the errors involved in the measurement using
An LVDT has high sensitivity of about 40 V/mm.
LVDT.
4. Resolution
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q7(a)
For answer refer Unit-V, Q39, Topic: Operation of LVDT. It has infinite resolution. Mostly the effective
resolution depends on the test equipment rather
then the transducer.
5. Output
It produces high output. Therefore, it doesn’t
require any amplification devices.
6. Power Consumption
It consumes less power of about < 1W.
7. Hysteresis
It exihibits low hysteresis. Therefore, it has very
Figure: Variation of Different Output Voltage with Displacement good repeatability.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.27
8. Sizes provides low output). The material called rochelle
LVDTs are designed with in the ranges of 0.05 salt provides high output, but its stability is low and is
in to 25 in. sensitive to temperature variations.
9. The operating temperature range of LVDT is as Therefore, because of its highest stability quartz is widely
high as 600ºC and as low as –265ºC. used in stabilizing electronic oscillators.
10. Ruggedness 2. The piezo-electric materials and transduces are used
mainly for dynamic measurements and cannot be used
It is simple and rugged in construction. Hence, it
for static pressure of strain measurements.
can withstand high degree of shocks and vibrations.
(b) Working Principle of LVDT 3. There can be used in the process which requires
measurement of high pressure.
For answer refer Unit-V, Q39.
4. Piezo-electric materials can be applied in those systems
5.4 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS which requires measured variable in electrical form.
5. Barium titanate, one of the piezo-electric materials
Q42. Explain piezo-electric effect.
employed in ultrasonic generator. Used in industrial
Ans: April/May-17, Set-3, Q1(f) cleaning equipment, in sonar(sonar is an under water
When some pressure or stress is applied to the surface detection system).
of the piezo-electric crystal, the dimensions of the crystal 6. Piezo-electric materials are used in accelometers.
change and an electric charge voltage will be developed across
certain surfaces of the piezo-electric crystal. Conversely, when 7. Piezo-electric elements can be used in vibration pick-up.
an electric charge voltage or potential is applied to the crystal, Q44. Explain the construction of piezoelectric
the crystal get deformed and hence, the dimensions of it will transducer and derive its transfer function.
change. This effect is referred as piezo-electric effect.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q7(a)
All the piezo-electric transducers works on the principle
Construction of Piezoelectric Transducer
of piezo-electric effect. The piezo-electric materials or the
materials used in the construction of piezo-electric crystal are Piezoelectric transducers are constructed using naturally
quartz, rochelle salt, dipotassium tartrate, lithium sulphate, available crystals such as quartz, ceramics A and B. The
barium titanate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, ammonium piezoelectric transducers can also be constructed using man
dihydrogen phosphate etc. A piezo-electric crystal subjected to made crystals such as ammonium dihydrogen phosphate, lithium
force is illustrated in figure. sulphate, Rochelle salt, dipotassium tartarate.
Applied force (F) The man made crystals are prepared by maintaining
aqueous solutions under carefully controlled conditions. A
Electrode
piezoelectric transducer which can sense and convert the
mechanical motion into its equivalent electrical signal is simply
a charge generator connected across a capacitor as shown in
∆t Eo O/P figure (1).
voltage

t
b

l Electrode

Piezo-electric crystal

Figure : Piezo-electric Crystal

Q43. Where are piezo-electric transducers mainly Figure (1): An Equivalent Circuit of Piezoelectric Transducer
used and why?
In figure (1), RP is the leakage resistance of the crystal.
OR
When a mechanical measurand such as, pressure or force
What are the uses of piezo-electric transducers? or stress is applied to the surface of the piezoelectric crystal,
Ans: the dimensions of the crystal charge and an electric charge
1. The materials used in the construction of piezo-electric voltage will be developed across certain surfaces of the crystal.
crystals or piezo-electric materials are quartz, rochelle In order to apply the input to the crystal and collect the output
salt, dipotassium tartarate, lithium sulphate, barium voltage from the crystal some physical arrangement is made
titanate etc. The desirable features of piezo-electric to the crystal. The piezoelectric crystal along with its external
materials are stability, insensitivity to changes in physical arrangement is referred as piezoelectric transducer. A
humidity, temperature, high output. When compared piezoelectric arrangement used to measure force is shown in
to all other materials quartz has highest stability (but figure (2).

SIA GROUP
5.28 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure (2): Piezoelectric Transducer

Transfer Function of Piezoelectric Transducer
Consider a piezoelectric transducer connected to an amplifier unit and used for the measurement of displacement as shown
in figure (3).

Figure (3)
The charge produced by the crystal when displacement is applied will be,
Q = KQ xi Coulomb
Where,
KQ = Sensitivity (coulombs/meter)
xi = Displacement (meter)
The electrical equivalent circuit of figure (3) is shown in figure (4).

Figure (4)
Where,
RP = Leakage resistance of transducer (ohms)
RA = Resistance of amplifier (ohms)
CP = Capacitance of transducer (Farads)
Ccable = Capacitance of cable (Farads)
CA = Capacitance of amplifier (Farads).
If the charge generator is replaced by a constant current generator, the figure (4) is reduced to figure (5).

Figure (5)

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.29
In figure (5), the capacitance connected in parallel with (i) Stability.
the current generator is expressed as,
(ii) Insensitivity to changes in humidity.
C = CP + Ccable + CA
(iii) Insensitivity to changes in temperature.
The resistance is given by,
(iv) High output.
R A RP
R= (v) Ability to be formed into usable component or
R A + RP
desirable shape.
As the charge generator is converted into current
generator, the current of constant current generator is expressed 2. When compared to all other materials quartz has highest
as, stability, but provides low output. Where as the material
called Rochelle salt provides high output but its stability
iCR = =d is low and is sensitive to humidity and temperature
variations. Therefore, it requires some protection against
iCR = KQ moisture and operating range of temperature is below
450C.
From figure (5), we can write,
3. Since, the barium titanate (one of the piezo-electric
iCR = icable + iR materials) is polycrystalline, it can be formed into
icable = iCR – iR different types of shapes and sizes. Also this materials
has very high dielectric constant.
And the output voltage at load, e0 = ecable
1 4. The synthetic materials possesses very high voltage
e0 = sensitivity.
C
5. The natural crystals,
1
e0 = (i) Can be able to withstand at higher stresses.
C
1 (ii) Provides good frequency response
= [iC − iR ]
c R (iii) Have low leakage and
(iv) Have very high thermal and mechanical stability.
C = iCR – iR
6. The piezo-electric crystals have high input impedance.
e0
C = KQ – Q46. Give the equivalent circuit of a crystal and
R
explain how a crystal is used as a transducer.
C = KQ R – e0/R OR
Draw the equivalent circuit of piezo-electric
RC + e0 = KQ R transducer.
Ans:
 KQ 
τ + e0 = KCR  K =  All the piezo-electric transducers works on the principle
 C 
of piezo-electric effect. The piezo-electric materials or the
By applying Laplace transform we get, materials used in the construction of piezo-electric crystal are
(τS + 1) E0 (S) = KτS Xi (S) quartz, rochelle salt, dipotassium tartarate, lithium sulphate,
barium titanate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate, ammonium
E0 ( S ) KτS
= dihydrogen phosphate etc.
X i (S ) τS + 1
Among all these materials quartz has highest stability
∴ The transfer function of piezoelectric transducer is,
and rochelle salt provides high output. The equivalent circuit
E0 ( S ) KτS of a piezo-electric crystal is shown in figure (1).
= .
X i (S ) τS + 1
Q45. Explain the properties of piezo-electric crystals.
Ans:
F C R V0
1. The materials used in the construction of piezo-electric
crystal or piezo-electric materials are quartz, rochelle Crystal
salt, dipotassium tartarate, lithium sulphate, barium
titanate etc. The most required properties of these
materials are, Figure (1): Equivalent Circuit of Crystal

SIA GROUP
5.30 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Since, the crystal exhibits piezo-electric property, it can The figure given below illustrates all the above modes
be used as transducer. of piezo-electric crystal.

Figure (i): Thickness Shear Mode of Crystal

Figure 2(i)

Figure (ii): Thickness Expansion Mode of Crystal

Figure 2(ii): Equivalent Circuits of Piezo-electric Transducer

Let a piezo-electric crystal is used as a piezo-electric
transducer and the transducer employs a charge generator as
its source an shown in figure 2(i). Face shear mode of crystal

Therefore, the charge developed by the crystal is given by, +Ve

Q = dF
The figure 2(ii), contains voltage source which is
equivalent to the charge generator (figure 2(ii) is equivalent to
figure2(i)).
Therefore, the voltage developed by the voltage source
is given by,
–Ve
Q
V0 = Transverse expansion mode of operation
Cp
Figure (1): Modes of Piezo-electric Crystals

∴ V0 = [ Q = dF] When two crystals are bonded together such that, the
electrical axes of the crystals are perpendicular to each other,
the resulting structure is called as ‘twisters’ or ‘benders’. When
Q47. What are the modes of operation of piezo a twister is subjected to a twisting motion a voltage will be
electric crystals? Explain in detail. generated at the output. Similarly, when a bender is subjected
to a bending motion, voltage will be generated at the output.
Ans: April-18, Set-3, Q6(b)
The curvatures of twister and bender piezo-electric transducers
The piezo-electric crystals can be operated in several when subjected to voltage are shown in figure(2).
modes namely, Apart from these a piezo-electric crystal also be used in
1. Thickness shear another mode of operation to carryout the measurement of force.
In order to measure the force, a thin quartz plate is employed
2. Thickness expansion
in a crystal controlled electronic oscillator. In this method, the
3. Face shear frequency of electrical oscillations is known by the natural
4. Transverse expansion. frequency of mechanical oscillations of the quartz plate.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.31
When load is connected (under load conditions) the
impedance of the load will be
RL
ZL = ... (1)
1 + j ωR L C L
The impedance of the complete (total) circuit is,
Figure (i): Ceramic bender ‘bimorph’ or ‘multimorph’ 1 RL
Zt = +
jω C p 1 + jω R L C L
1 + jωRL (C P + C L )
Zt = ... (2)
( jωC P ) (1 + jωC P RL )
Now, the voltage across the load is given by,
ZL
Figure (ii): Crystal bender ‘bimorph’ EL = × E0
Zt
RL
1 + jωR L C L
= × E0
1 + jωRL (C P + C L )
( jωC P ) (1 + jωC p RL )
Figure (iii): Crystal twister ‘bimorph’
Figure(2): Curvature of Twister and Bender RL ( jωC P ) (1 + jωC p RL )
= × × E0
Q48. Explain the equivalent circuit of piezo-electric 1 + j ωR L C L 1 + jωRL (C P + C L )
crystal under conditions of load.  jωC P RL 
Ans: ∴ EL =   E0 ... (3)
1 + jω(C P + C L ) RL 
Assume that the piezo-electric transducer is loaded by a
capacitor having capacitance CL and a resistor having resistance Now the voltage magnitude across load is given by,
RL. The CL is the combination of capacitance of the cable, load ωC P R L
and stray capacitance. A piezo-electric crystal circuit connected EL = × E0 ... (4)
by a load is shown in figure (1) below. 1 + ω (C P + C L ) 2 RL2
2

Since, E0= , we can write the above equation as,

ωC P R L dF
EL = ×
1 + ω (C P + C L )
2 2
RL2 CP

ωR L
= × dF ... (5)
1 + ω2 (C P + C L ) 2 RL2
Figure (1): Piezo-electric Transducer Connected to Load Under high and medium frequency conditions, we have,
In the above figure RP is the leakages resistance of the ω2 (CP + CL)2 RL2 >> 1
piezo-electric crystal and its value is very large (nearly 0.1 ×
1012Ω). When compared to this RP, the load resistance RL is very E0 C p
∴ EL = ... (6)
small. Therefore, the piezo-electric crystal equivalent circuit (C P + C L )
under load conditions will be shown in figure (2). In this the RP
From the equation (6), it is clear that under high and
is dropped.
medium frequency conditions, the response depends only on CL
(load circuit capacitance) and does not depends on frequency.
Practically, this transducer is coupled to virtual earth point of
an amplifier containing capacitor in its feedback path. This total
arrangement of circuit is called as charge amplifier.
From equation (4), it can be observed that when
ω = 0 (i.e., under steady state conditions) no output will be
available from the transducer. In case of maximum frequency
Figure (2): Piezo-electric Crystal Under Load Conditions conditions, the limit of maximum frequency is expected by
When there is no load the output voltage of the piezo- the mathematical response of the crystal and its associated
electric transducer is E0. mounting.

SIA GROUP
5.32 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q49. What are the crystalline materials used as OR
transducers? What are their merits and Describe the operation of a piezoelectric
demerits? transducer with a neat diagram.
OR Ans:
What are the materials that show piezo-electric For answer refer Unit-V, Q42.
effect.
Let, F be the force applied on the surface of the crystal.
Ans:
Then the magnitude and polarity of the developed surface
When some pressure or stress in applied to the surface of potentials are proportional to the magnitude and direction of F.
the piezo-electric crystal, the dimensions of the crystal change Here, the developed potential’s (charge) polarity depends on
and an electric charge voltage will be developed across certain the direction of F.
surfaces of the piezo-electric crystal. Conversely, when an
The charge developed by the crystal is given by
electric charge voltage or potential is applied to the crystal, the
crystal get deformed and hence the dimensions of it will change. Q = d × F (in columns) ... (1)
This effect is referred as piezo-electric effect. Where,
The crystalline materials that exhibit the piezo-electric F = Force applied (in Newtons)
effect are used as transducers.
d = Charge sensitivity of the crystal (C/N)
Some of the commonly used crystalline materials are
quartz, rochelle salt, lithium sulphate, potassium dihydrogen For a given crystal the charge sensitivity ‘d’ is constant.
phosphate, dipotassium tartarate, ammonium dihydrogen The thickness of the piezo-electric crystal changes due to the
phosphate, ceramics A and B. Among these materials quartz, applied force. Therefore,
rochelle salt, ceramics A and B are natural crystals, where as the F= ∆t Newton ... (2)
remaining are non-made crystals (These are made from aqueous
solutions maintained under some controlled conditions). Where,
Merits A = Area of the piezo-electric crystal in m2.
1. Piezo-electric transducers are very sensitive, giving large E = Young’s modules in N/m2.
signal for small forces. As an example a signal piezo-crystal t = Thickness of the piezo-electric crystal in m.
load cell can produce signals large enough to measure from The young’s modulus E can be defined as the ratio of
0.05 to 20 KG. stress to strain. i.e.,
2. The transducer is small, which is especially useful for
Stress
accelerometer where added mass will mechanically load E =
a mechanism. Strain
3. As piezo-crystals are very stiff, they allow transducer to F 1
= ⋅
be built which have a very high mechanical frequency A ∆t
response. t
4. Piezo-electric transducers are most often used for
accelerometer, pressure cells and force cells. = N/m2 ... (3)
5. They give high output (1 to 30 mV for every 10–6 m)
Demerits The area A = lb
1. High impedance change produced by piezo-electric crystals Where,
require an emitter follow type amplifier which has still l = Length of the crystal in m
higher input impedance. b = Width of the crystal in m
2. It is used for dynamic measurement only. By substituting equation (2) is equation (1), we get,
3. These crystals are water soluble and dissolve in a high
humidity environment. Q = ... (4)
4. Maximum limit of temperature sensitivity is 5000F.
Due to this charge at electrodes an output voltage E0 will
5. Output voltage is affected by temperature variations. be generated which can be given by,
Q50. What is Piezo-electric effect? Explain the Q
operation of Piezo-electric transducer. E0 = ... (5)
Cp
April-18, Set-2, Q6(a)
Where,
OR Cp = Capacitance between two electrodes in Farads
and is given by,
Describe the operation of a piezo-electric
transducer. ∈0 A
Cp = ∈r ... (6)
Nov.-11, Set-3, Q7(a) t

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.33
Now,
5.5 RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS,
Q THERMOCOUPLES, THERMISTORS,
E0 =
Cp SENSISTORS
By substituting equations (1) and (6) in E0, we get, Q51. List various types of temperature transducers
and describe the applications of each.
E0 =
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q7(b)
Various Types of Temperature Transducers
E0 = ... (7) The various types of instruments or sensors used for
temperature measurements are based on the type of method
used for measuring the temperature are as follows,
E0 =
(a) Mechanical instruments (Nonelectrical method)
(b) Electrical instruments (Electrical method)
(c) Optical instruments (Radiation method).
(a) Mechanical Temperature Sensors (Non-electrical
E0 = g t p ... (8) Method)
Where, The mechanical instruments that are effected on by
temperature are used for measuring temperature. These
... (9) instruments utilize substances whose physical/chemical
properties change with time and hence they are based on non-
For a given crystal cut the voltage sensitivity is constant electrical method.
Usually, the mechanical instruments that are used for
and is expressed in units of temperature measurement are designed based on the principle of
change of physical properties of a substance, when the substance
Now, from equation (8),
is subjected to temperature. The following are the mechanical
g = type temperature sensors,
1. Liquid in glass thermometer
E0 1 2. Liquid filled system thermometer
= × ... (10)
t P 3. Vapour pressure thermometer
E0 4. Bimetallic thermometer
But ,
= Electric field strength (V/m)
t 5. Solid rod thermometer.
E In the above first two thermometers, the thermal
Assume, 0 = ∈
t expansion of the liquid with temperature is used to measure
E0 1 the temperature, whereas in vapour pressure thermometer,
∴ g = ×
t P the temperature is measured by measuring the change of
vapour pressure in the bulb, which occurs due to the change
= in temperature. In bimetallic thermometer and solid rod
thermometer, the expansion of the solid substance (i.e., metal
∈ rod or thin metal strips) is proportional to temperature and
g = hence the thermal expansion of solid also gives the measure of
P temperature.
Now, P is the applied pressure or stress to the crystal (b) Electrical Type Temperature Sensors (Electrical
E0 Method)
and ∈= = Electric field intensity in the crystal. Therefore, The electrical type temperature measuring devices
t
g voltage sensitivity of the crystal can be stated as the ratio of are based on the variation of electrical parameters (such as
electric field intensity to applied pressure or stress. resistance, voltage, frequency etc.) with temperature. The
electrical sensors have good sensitivity, high speed of response
From equation (9), the charge sensitivity of the crystal and can measure a broad range of temperature when compared
is given by, to mechanical instruments. The electrical instruments used for
temperature measurement are as follows,
1. Resistance thermometer
The piezo-electric crystal can be operated in different
modes such as thickness shear mode, thickness expansion 2. Semiconductor thermometer
mode, transverse expansion mode, face shear mode etc. The 3. Thermistors
piezo-electric transducer can be used for the measurement of 4. Thermocouples
pressure, force, displacement, acceleration etc. 5. Quartz crystal thermometer.

SIA GROUP
5.34 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The electrical resistance of an element either increases Applications of Solid Rod Thermometer
or decreases when the temperature increases. Thus, the It is used in domestic water heater or oven to operate a
temperature is determined by measuring the corresponding microswitch so as to disconnect the supply of electricity to the
change in resistance of the elements. Resistance, semiconductor heating devices when the temperature reaches the desired set
thermometers and thermistors use this principle. point.
In thermocouples, an e.m.f is generated when a change in Applications of Resistance Thermometer
temperature is detected at the hot junction of thermocouple. In For answer refer Unit-V, Q61, Topic: Applications of
quartz crystal thermometer the change in temperature changes PTC Metallic Resistance Thermometers.
the frequency of oscillation of crystal oscillator.
Applications of Semiconductor Thermometer or Thermistor
(c) Optical Type Temperature Sensors (Radiation
Method) For answer refer Unit-V, Q11.
These instruments are based on the measurement of Applications of Thermocouples
thermal energy of the radiations emitted by the hot body, For answer refer Unit-V, Q55, Topic: Applications.
because at high temperatures a hot body emits radiations. An Applications of Optical Pyrometers
example of optical temperature sensor is radiation pyrometer. Applications
Radiation pyrometer is a device which measures the high
(a) These are applied to measure temperature of furnaces.
temperature without making any contact with the body whose
temperature is to be measured. Because, it provides a measure (b) Applied in the measurement of temperatures of heated
of the temperature by measuring the energy of the radiations materials and also molten metals.
generated by the hot body. Q52. What is temperature coefficient of resistor?
Applications of Liquid in Glass Thermometer Explain in detail.
1. It is used to measure the temperatures below 600°C or Ans:
1100°F. The resistance thermometers (RTD) and thermistors
2. It is widely used to the measurement of temperature in employs the principle of change in electrical resistance with
both laboratories and industries. change in temperature.
3. If the liquid used in mercury then it is used to measure If the temperature changes, the resistance also changes
the temperatures of, due to changes in both length and sensitivity. Therefore materials
used for resistance thermometers have temperature coefficient of
(i) Cooking kettles
resistivity much larger than the coefficient of thermal expansion.
(ii) Pipelines for fluid flow and air ducts Thus, the temperature coefficient of resistance ‘α’ is given by,
(iii) Molten metal baths
(iv) Steam lines
(v) Open tanks containing liquids.
Applications of Liquid Filled System Thermometer Where,
1. It is used to measure temperatures ranging from –87°C ∆T = Change in temperature, oC
to 371°C.
= Fractional change in resistivity
2. It is widely used to measure temperatures of process
industries.
Applications of Vapour Pressure Thermometer = Fractional change in resistance.
It is used to measure temperatures ranging above ambient
to 343°C and below ambient to –184°C. r0 = Resistivity at 0 oC
Applications of Bimetallic Thermometers R0 = Resistance at 0 oC.
1. These are used in control devices in a process. The change in resistance with temperature can be given
2. A spiral shaped strip finds its application in air by the following relationship.
conditioning thermostats.
3. A helical shaped strips are widely used in,
Platinum, nickel, copper and tungsten are the commonly
(i) Oil burners
used resistance materials. These metals provide a definite
(ii) Refineries resistance value at each temperature within its range. Curves
(iii) Hot solder tanks indicate that the resistance of platinum and copper increases
(iv) Tire vulcanizers almost linearly with increasing temperature, while the
characteristics of nickel is nonlinear. Tungsten has relatively
(v) Tempering tanks
high resistivity, but its use is limited for high temperature
(vi) Hot wire heaters etc. applications.

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Figure: Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Figure: Characteristics of Materials In construction of the resistance thermometer the
Gold and Silver are rarely used owing to their extremely temperature sensitive resistance element (platinum or copper
low resistivity. Electrolytic copper which has highly consistent etc.) which is in the form of a wire is wounded around a hollow
insulating cetamic former. A protective cement is applied
temperature coefficient of resistance i.e., higher than platinum.
over this ceramic former. The ohmic contacts are formed by
Due to their low relativity, their application is limited to low welding the ends of the coil to copper leads. In order to measure
range industrial purposes. Phosphor bronze alloys are found the change in resistance of the coil, when it is subjected to
suitable for low temperature measurements. Generally Nickel temperature the thermometer is connected in one of the arms
is chosen for resistance temperature measurements which has of the wheatstone bridge through the copper leads provided.
high temperature coefficient, less expensive than platinum and To provide mechanical strength and rigidity and to
protect the resistance thermometer assembly from contamination
good reliability. According to their intended application the
due to high temperatures, the whole assembly is placed in a
resistance material is selected. protective metal sheath.
Q53. Explain the operation of a platinum resistance The linear resistance temperature relationship over a
thermometer. temperature range around 0°C (i.e., 273 K) is given as,
Rt = R0 (1 + α t)
Ans:
Where, R0 = Resistance at 0oC
Platinum resistance thermometer is basically a metallic- ∆t = Temperature relative to 0oC
resistance thermometer in which the platinum metal is used α = Temperature coefficient of resistance of
as the sensing element, because of its ability to withstand material in (Ω/Ω)/oC or oC–1
high temperatures and at the same time maintaining excellent For a change in temperature form t1 to t2 the following
stability. relationship is used.
Metals such as platinum copper, tungsten and nickel R2 = R1 + R0 α (t2 – t1)
have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance i.e., the Where R1 and R2 are the resistances at temperatures t1
resistance of these metal increases as the temperature increases. and t2 respestively.
Platinum material is preferred over nickel and copper
Metallic resistance thermometers provide long-term because of the following reasons.
stability and high degree of accuracy and are suitable for 1. At high temperatures, the resistivity of the platinum
measuring low temperatures upto 600oC. tends to increase less rapidly when compared to nickel
Generally, the temperature sensitive element of a metallic and copper.
resistance thermometer is in the form of a coil of fine wire. Most 2. It can be used for a wide-range of temperature
of the laboratory and industrial applications use a platinum wire measurements, because of its stable and well defined
as the sensing element of resistance thermometer because of its temperature resistance characteristics.
various advantages. 3. It offers high resistance to chemical attack and
contamination thereby providing long-term stability.
The construction of a platinum resistance thermometer 4. Platinum resistance thermometer can be reproduced
is shown in the figure below. easily with high degree of accuracy.

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5.36 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q54. Explain how a thermocouple is used in a Construction and Working
potentiometer for temperature measurement?
Ans:
Potentiometers are most commonly used in combination
with thermocouple for measurement of temperature.
A simple potentiometer circuit with thermocouple is
shown in figure below.

Figure
Thermocouple hot junction will be exposed to the
process media where the temperature has to be measured. The
thermocouple cold junction will be maintained at a constant
reference temperature.
Since, the two junctions are at different temperatures,
a voltage is setup at the free ends and since the free ends are
connected to a milli voltmeter the e.m.f. setup will establish a
flow of current which can be measured directly by using the
milli voltmeter.
Since, the reference junction is kept at 0ºC, the e.m.f
Figure measured is a function of the temperature of the hot junction.
In this no current is drawn from thermocouple whose The milli voltmeter is calibrated to indicate the readings in terms
e.m.f is being measured. of temperature.
Resistance variation problems can be minimized with The e.m.f. developed in a thermocouple depends upon
potentiometer. the difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold
junction. The temperature of the cold junction is purposefully
Q55. Explain the working of thermocouple and write
kept at 0ºC to avoid errors which may be introduced on account
the advantages and limitations of thermocouple.
of change in room temperature.
Ans: (Dec.-13, Set-1, Q7(a) | Model Paper-IV, Q6(b))
Two dissimilar metals used for thermocouples may be
Thermocouple twisted, screwed, clamped (or) melted together.
Principle and Theory
Thermocouple do not use base conductors except in
When two metals which are made up of two different applications, where atmospheric conditions permits their use.
materials are joined together to form two junctions and one
Usually, protective seating is used to surround the
junction is heated with respect to other junction, an e.m.f will
junction and a portion of the extension leads. The leads and
be developed at the junction which is proportional to the applied
the junction are in turn insulated from the sheath using various
temperature and the junction is known as thermocouple. The
oxides.
different types of metals used to construct thermocouple are,
Thermocouples are usually installed inside the protective
1. Chromel - constantan
wells, so that they can be easily removed (or) replaced without
2. Iron - constantan
interruption to the plant. Protective wells of 12.5 mm to 25 mm
3. Copper - constantan diameter made from stainless steel are usually used.
4. Chromel - alumel Advantages
5. Rhenium - tungsten etc.
1. Can measure fast changes in the temperature.
In a temperature measuring circuit using thermocouple,
2. Produces electrical output
the generated e.m.f can be given as,
3. It is an active transducer i.e., no need of any excitation
E= to operate.
Where, 4. Can be used to measure wide ranges of temperatures
x, y = Constants from 0o to 1400oC.
∆θ = Temperature difference between the hot and 5. The temperature of a particular point can be measured.
cold junctions.
Disadvantages
Generally, the constant x is greater than constant y.
1. Produces low output voltages in terms of mV.
Therefore, the e.m.f will be,
2. Accuracy of measurement is low.
E x
3. The output voltage is effected by stray magnetic field.
or
4. The extension wires should be made of those metals
∆θ ~ E/a which are used in the construction of thermocouple.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.37
Applications In figure (2), temperatures T 1 and T 2 refer to the
1. Used to measure thermal conductivity. junction temperature of the thermocouple, which is used to
measure the unknown temperature of a body incontact with
2. Can be used in the measurement of pressure, level, flow the thermojunction. If current is allowed to flow through the
of liquids and to known the composition of gases. thermojunction, these two temperatures will not be the same
3. Can be applied to measure vacuum. due to the heat (I2R) generated or obsorbed at the junction thus
4. Applied in the measurement of voltage and currents. keeping it hotter or cooler than the surrounding temperature
which is to be measured.
Q56. Explain Seebeck effect and Peltier effect.
Q57. What is thermistor and explain its importance
Ans: along with advantages of it?
Seebeck Effect (Excluding Topic: Demerits)
The phenomenon, which converts the thermal energy April/May-17, Set-3, Q6(a)
or temperature difference between two metals into electrical OR
energy is referred as Seebeck effect. Explain the working principle of thermistors.
As the thermocouple is made of two different metals Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q7(a)
of different thermal coefficients and the two junctions of it are Principle
maintained at two different temperatures (one is at cold junction Thermistors or thermal resistors are made up of sintered
and the other is at hot junction). Seebeck effect is observed. In mixtures of metallic oxide like copper, nickel, cobalt, iron,
other words, Seebeck e.m.f is generated due to the potential manganese and uranium. When there is any variation in the
difference between the two junctions (formed by two different temperature applied to the thermistor, then the resistance of
metals), which are subjected to non-uniform temperatures. The the thermistor varies. This variation in the resistance value of
figure illustrating the Seebeck effect is shown in figure (1). thermistor gives the measure of the change in temperature i.e.,
applied temperature. Most of the thermistors have the property
of negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Therefore,
the resistance of the thermistor increases with decrease in
temperature and decreases with increase in temperature. These
changes in resistance values (w.r.t. Temperature) can be known
with the help of Wheatstone bridge measuring circuit.
Construction and Working
Figure (1): Seebeck Effect The sensing element of the thermistor is enclosed in
In the above figure, two dissimilar metals are joined a metal tube and an insulating material is placed between
together, with one junction at temperature T1 and other junction these two. Two leads are connected to the thermistor sensing
at temperature T2. Therefore an e.m.f will be generated, which is element. The leads, metal tube and sensing element all together
primarily a function of junction temperature. This phenomenon is known as a temperature measuring device, called thermistor.
is called Seebeck effect and is used to measure value of unknown Thermistors are made in different sizes and shapes such as beads,
temperature. discs rods and probes as shown below.
Peltier Effect Various Forms of Thermistors
The phenomenon, in which the amount of heat changes
when one coulomb of electric current crosses the junction
formed by two dissimilar metals is referred as Peltier effect.
If two dissimilar metals are connected to an external
circuit, an electric current flows across the junction of two
conductors due to which heat is absorbed or liberated. The
direction of flow of current across the junction describes whether
the heat is absorbed or liberated. The figure illustrating the
Peltier effect is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Peltier Effect Figure (1): Various Forms of Thermistors

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5.38 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
For the purpose of measurement of temperature the thermistor is connected to one of the four arms of the wheats one bridge. At the
start of measurement process some current whose magnitude is known is made to pass through the sensing element of the thermistor and
its initial resistance value is determined with Wheatstone bridge. Then place the thermistor in the process or media whose temperature is
to be determined. When the temperature of the process increases, the thermistor sensing element will be heated which causes its resistance
to decrease. Similarly, when the temperature of the process decreases, the resistance of the thermistor sensing element increases. This
variation in the resistance of thermistor sensing element is determined by Wheatstone bridge. Here the change of resistance is displayed by
the output device and the displayed signal gives the measure of the temperature of the process when calibrated. The resistance temperature
characteristics of thermistor are illustrated below.

500

Resistance (W)
400

300
200
100

100 200 300 400 500

Temperature (C°)
Figure: Resistance Temperature Characteristics
Merits
1. Exhibits high sensitivity.
2. Provides fact response.
3. Can be used to measure high temperatures.
4. Size is small and cost is low.
5. Lead-wire compensation is not required.
6. High accuracy and can withstand electrical and mechanical stresses.
7. Can be used with simple resistance measuring circuits.
Demerits
1. Exhibits non-linear characteristics.
2. Stability is low
3. Problem of ‘aging effect’ (It is nothing but the increase in the resistance of thermistor when time lapses).
Q58. Explain the properties of thermistors. Draw and explain resistance versus temperature graph. Describe the
different types of thermistors and suggest an application of each one of them.
Ans: May-13, Set-3, Q7(a)

Properties of Thermistors
The essential properties of thermistor are as follows,
1. The resistance of a thermistor is dependent upon the temperature. Its response is very fast due to the change in temperature.
2. Thermistors have high temperature coefficient.
3. Thermistors are of both type PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) thermistors and NTC (Negative Temperature
Coefficient) thermistors.
4. Thermistors exhibit good sensitivity because of the large resistance range (i.e., 10 Ω – 100 MΩ).
5. They have good stability especially between the temperature range 100 – 300°C.
6. They have fast speed of response.
7. They need excitation current for self heating.
Thermistor Graph and Types
For answer refer Unit-V, Q54.
Applications of Rod Type Thermistors
Rod type thermistors have high dissipation constants, large weight and thermal time constants and thus widely used in
surge suppression, time delay and temperature compensation.

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Applications of Probe Type Thermistors
Probe type thermistors are used in the following domains,
(i) Temperature compensation and detection
(ii) Sensor assemblies
(iii) Telecommunications
(iv) Medical equipments
(v) Fiber and photographic processing
(vi) Household appliances etc.
Q59. Compare RTD with thermistor.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q7(a)

RTD Thermistor
1. RTD is made up of metals. 1. Thermistor is made up of semiconductor materials.
2. Metals have Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) 2. Semiconductor materials have Negative Temperature
of resistance. Coefficient (NTC) of resistance.
Hence, the resistance of RTD increases with an Hence, the resistance of a thermistor decreases with
increase in temperature and decreases with a an increase in temperature and increases with a
decrease in temperature. decrease in temperature.
3. The resistance temperature characteristics of RTD’s 3. The resistance temperature characteristics of thermistor
are linear. are highly nonlinear.
4. It is less sensitive to temperature compared to 4. It has large temperature coefficient of resistance i.e.,
thermistor. It is highly sensitive to temperature.
5. But, it has a wide operating temperature range 5. It has low operating temperature range compared to
i.e., – 200 to + 650°C. RTD i.e., –100 to + 300°C.
6. RTD’s are relatively larger in size. 6. Thermistors are small in size.
7. They are costlier. 7. They are available at low costs.
8. They have low self resistance. 8. They have high self resistance. Thus, they require
shielding cables to minimize interference problems.
9. RTD’s provide high degree of accuracy and long 9. Thermistors also provide an accuracy of ± 0.01°C.
term stability.
10. They are used in laboratory and industrial applications. 10. They are widely used for dynamic temperature
measurement.

Q60. Compare thin film RTD and wire-wound RTD.

Ans:
Thin-film RTD Wire-wound RTD
1. Thin film RTD is formed by depositing a thin film 1. Wire-wound RTD is formed by wounding a platinum
of platinum or nickel of 0.1 µm thick on a ceramic coil on a mica or ceramic former.
substrate.
2. These RTD’s are small in size. 2. These RTD’s are larger than thin-film RTD’s
3. These RTD’s have high speed of response. 3. These RTD’s have low speed of response.
4. Thin film RTD’s possess very high accuracy of 4. Wire-wound RTD’s are less accurate than thin film RTD’s.
the order of 0.01°C.
5. They possess high nominal resistance. 5. They have moderate resistance.
6. They are used for measuring surface temperatures 6. They are used for accurate measurement of absolute
of structures. temperature.
7. Thin-film RTD’s are available at low cost. 7. Wire-wound RTD’s are expensive.
8. Due to their small size, they are well suitable for 8. They are used in applications where measurement of
temperature measurement in small areas. They high temperature limits is required.
are widely employed in medical thermometers,
automobiles and aerospace industry.

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5.40 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q61. Briefly explain the different types of resistance Ans:
thermometers. Also give their applications. Principle
Ans: Resistance thermometer is also known as Resistance
Resistance thermometers can be classified into two types Temperature Detector (RTD). The principle of operation of
based upon the variation of resistance of temperature sensitive resistance thermometer is that the resistance of conductor
material with respect to temperature. They are, changes with the change in temperature. The value of change
1. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) metallic in resistance is then calibrated in terms of temperature.
resistance thermometer Resistance Thermometers
2. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) semicon- The resistance of conductor changes when its
ductor resistance thermometer. temperature is changed. The property is used for measurement
1. PTC Metallic Resistance Thermometer of temperature.
The variation of resistance R with temperature T (K) is
This type of thermometer employs metals as temperature
given by the following relation.
sensitive element. Metals have a Positive Temperature Coef-
ficient (PTC) of resistance i.e., the resistance of metals increase R = R0 (1 + α1 T + α2 T 2 + . . . + αn T n)
with increase in temperature and decreases with decrease in Where,
temperature. Metals like platinum, copper and nickel can be R0 = Resistance at temperature T = 0
used as temperature sensitive elements. α1, α2 . . . αn are constants.
Platinum Resistance Thermometer The resistance thermometer uses the change in electrical
For answer refer Unit-V, Q53. resistance of conductor to determine the temperature.
Applications of PTC Metallic Resistance Thermom- RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors)
eters The thermometer mode of metallic wires are called
(i) They are used in processes where continuous resistance thermometers. For many practical purposes and
measurement and control of temperature is required. within limited range of temperature, the resistance temperature
(ii) They are used to measure temperature of remote relationship is linear.
areas. Let, R1 be resistance of conductor at t1oC
(iii) They can be used for measuring differential tem- α be temperature coefficient of resistance and
peratures. R2 is the resistance at t2oC. Then,
(iv) Platinum RTD is used as interpolation standard R2 = R1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)]
from oxygen point (–182.96ºC) to antimony point (630.74ºC).
R2 = R1 [1 + + α ∆t)]
(v) They are used for measuring temperature in in-
However, over wider temperature changes the R-T
dustrial applications like heating ovens, refining,
relationship may not be linear and follows a quadratic
cooling processes, power plants, etc.
relationship.
2. NTC Semiconductor Resistance Thermometers
R2 = R1 [1 + a ∆t + b ∆t2]
(Thermistors)
Where,
A thermistor is a temperature sensitive resistor which is
made up of a sintered mixtures of semiconductor material. A a, b are constants for the material.
semiconductor material has a Negative Temperature Coefficient RTD’s should have the following characteristics.
(NTC) of resistance i.e., its resistance decreases with increase (a) The change in resistance of material per unit change in
in temperature and increases with decrease in temperature. temperature should be as large as possible.
Construction and Working of Thermistor (b) High value of resistivity is desired so that it requires
For answer refer Unit-V, Q57, Topic: Construction and minimum volume for construction of RTD.
Working. (c) The resistance of materials should have a continuous
Applications of Thermistor and stable relationship with temperature.
For answer refer Unit-V, Q11. The commonly used materials for RTDs are nickel,
copper, platinum. The other materials such as gold, silver and
Q62. Explain the construction and working of a tungsten are used for special applications.
resistance thermometer. (i) Gold, silver are rarely used as they have low resis-tivities.
May-13, Set-4, Q7(a)
(ii) Materials for resistance thermometer’s nickel, copper
OR and platinum has the resistance temperature coefficient
Explain the working principle of a resistance values given below.
temperature detector. αNi = 0.0068/oC
OR αCu = 0.0043/oC
What is a RTD and where is it used? αPt = 0.00392/oC.

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.41
(iii) The best known material of all resistance thermometers is pure platinum. The international temperature scale is based on
platinum resistance thermometers. The R-T characteristics of Pt is linear and reproducible over a wide range of temperature
(upto 660oC).
(iv) Nickel is used because of its high sensitivity. Nickel is quite economical but nonlinear and drift with time. They are limited
to a temperature of 300oC.
(v) Copper is useful over the temperature range upto 150oC. It is used occasionally due to its low resistivity forces the element
to be longer than the platinum element. The advantage of copper is, it is linear and cheaper than other metals.
(vi) Phosphor-Bronze is favoured for low temperature thermometry below To k.
(vii) Carbon is used in 3 K to 60 K.
The resistance variation with temperature is shown in figure (1), for various materials.

Figure (1)
(viii) The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD range from 10 Ω for the bird cage model to several thousand ohm
for the film RTD.
(ix) Tungsten is used for extremely high temperature applications and has relatively a high resistivity and is extremely brittle.
Construction and Working
Resistance thermometers are made in the form of glass or metal tube which contains a resistance wire wounded on a
ceramic mandrel inside it and the leads of the resistance wire are kept outside the ceramic mandrel. The change in resistances of
the wire is measured using a circuit known as bridge circuit. The connection diagram of resistance thermometer to bridge circuit
in the process of measurement of temperature is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2): Measurement of Temperature using Resistance Thermometer

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5.42 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Initially assume that the bridge is in the balance condition i.e., the four resistors connected in the four arms of the Wheat-
stone bridge are of equal value and the generated output is zero. Place the resistance thermometer in the process or media whose
temperature is to be determined and connect the two leads of the resistance thermometer in any one of the arms of Wheatstone
bridge (after removing the resistance of that arm). Here, the resistance thermometer acts as that fourth resistance element of the
bridge.
When the temperature of the process changes, the resistance of the resistance wire changes which disturbs the balancing
condition of the bridge. Therefore, some output will be generated which is indicated by the galvanometer G and it will give the
value of temperature when calibrated.
Advantages
1. Good accuracy
2. Construction is simple
3. Can be used in remote areas
4. The response in linear.
Disadvantages
1. High cost.
2. Requires more maintenance.
Applications
1. Used in those processes where continuous measurement and control of temperature is required
2. Used to measure temperature of remote areas.
Q63. Explain cold junction compensation and reference junction compensation of thermocouple with relevant
diagrams.
Ans: May-13, Set-4, Q7(b)
Cold Junction Compensation
Thermocouple is the most widely used electrical method for the measurement of temperature. The total thermo-e.m.f.
generated by a thermocouple is given as,
(
E = C1 (TB − TA ) + C 2 TB2 − TA2 ) ... (1)
Where,
C1 = 62.1 µV / °C
For copper-constantan thermocouple
C2 = 0.045 µV / °C
In the above equation the thermo-e.m.f. depends on the measuring junction temperature as well as cold junction tempera-
ture. Measurement of temperature using thermocouple when cold junction left at an arbitrary temperature is shown in figure (1).
Figure (2) shows the compensation circuit for cold junction temperature.

Figure (1): Cold Junction of Thermocouple Left at an Arbitrary Temperature

Figure (2): Compensation Circuit for Cold Junction Temperature

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.43
In the figure (1) one junction of thermocouple is kept at temperature T, using other junction we can measure temperature
TA. The temperature TA is at steady state (i.e. not likely to change quickly) even though this arrangement generates different
thermo-e.m.fs.. In any type of industry it is very difficult to maintain the reference junction at an ice-point. Therefore, to avoid
this drawback we can use a method called bridge circuit for cold junction compensation which is shown in figure (3).
(i) Wheatstone bridge for cold junction compensation

Figure (3): Wheatstone Bridge for Cold Junction Compensation

The relationship between cold junction temperature and compensating voltage is given as,
E = K1 T
Where,
E = Compensating voltage
T = Cold junction temperature
K1 = Constant.
Wheatstone bridge circuit with RT in one are can be used to obtain the variation in compensating voltage. The relationship
between the resistance-temperature of the resistance thermometer is given as,
RT = R0 (1+C1 T)
Where,
R0 = Resistance of thermometer at 0°C
C1 = Constant.
RT
= (1+C1 T) ... (2)
R0
We know that,
RT
=x
R0
∴ x = (1+C1 T)
⇒ x ≅ 1( C1 = 3.94 ×10–3/°C)
We know that,
 x   1 
=  −  ... (3)
 x + r  1+ r 
For large value of r (i.e. say 100) equation (3) becomes.
1
(x − 1)=
1+ r
1
≅ (x − 1) ( r >> 1)
r

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5.44 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

⇒ =

 R 
 T = 1 + C T 
Eat =  R0 1

 

Eout =

∴ = KT is the required cold junction compensation produced by the Wheatstone bridge circuit.
(ii) When the measurement circuit consist of temperature sensitive compensating resistor then the arrangement is used for
cold junction compensation. The change in ambient temperature effects both the reference junction of a thermocouple
and compensating resistor since a temperature sensitive compensating resistor is placed near to the reference junction. As
the temperature of reference junction increases, the resistance of a temperature sensitive compensating resistor increases,
hence we find some amount of drop in Eout of the thermocouple. Therefore, the increase in resistance value of compensating
resistor results the decrease in e.m.f of thermocouple.
Reference Junction Compensation
The output voltage of the thermocouple is the difference of unknown temperature (hot junction) and the reference junction
kept at 0°C. Accurate temperature reading can be obtained, unless the temperature of the reference junction is known. If the reference
junction is not kept at 0°C, then an error is produced. Then the measurement requires reference junction compensation. Reference
junction compensation employs two methods for compensating the junction temperature. One is that the reference junction should
be maintained at constant temperature and the other is that the temperature value of the reference junction is corrected by adding
the voltage equal to the amount of reference junction voltage. So, that the temperature at reference junction would become 0°C.
But, the latter method is easy to implement. The compensation of the reference junction is shown in the figure.

Figure: Thermocouple Reference Junction Compensation

The temperature of the reference junction is measured by various temperature detectors such as thermistor diode, RTD’s
and IC. The output voltage is then compared with the reference junction temperature. The error developed in the measuring process
is directly shown in the final thermocouple reading.
Q64. A thermistor has a resistance of 3980 W at the ice point (0° C) and 749 W at 50°C. The resistance
temperature relationship is RT = a R0eb/T. Find the values of a and b. Calculate the resistance to be
measured in case the temperature varies from 40° C to 100° C.
Ans: (April-18, Set-4, Q6(b) | April/May-17, Set-2, Q6(b))

Given that,
Resistance at ice point, R0 = 3980 Ω
Resistance at 50°C, RT = 749 W
Relation between resistance and temperature, RT = a R0 eb/T

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UNIT-5 Transducers 5.45
To calculate,
(i) Constants, a and b = ?
(ii) Resistance to be measured if the temperature varies from 40°C to 100°C.
(i) Absolute temperature at ice point = 273o K
∴ 3980 = a × 3980 × e(b/273) ... (1)
Absolute corresponding temperature at 50 C is, o

T = 273 + 50o = 323o K

∴ 794 = a × 3980 e (b/323) ... (2)
Dividing equations (1) and (2), we get,
3980 a × 3980 × e(b/273)
=
794 a × 3980 × e(b/323)
e(b/273)
Þ 5.0126 =
e(b/323)
RS 1 1 VWW
bSS – W
S 273 323 W
Þ 5.0126 = eT X

–4)
Þ 5.0126 = eb (5.67 × 10

Applying logarithm on both sides, we get,

–4)
Þ ln (5.0126) = ln eb(5.67 × 10
Þ 1.61195 = b(5.67 × 10–4) [ ln eb = b]
1.61195
Þ b=
5.67 × 10 –4
= 2842.9

` b = 2843
Substituting the value of ‘b’ in equation (1), we get,
JK 2843 NO
KK OO
3980 = a × 3980 × eL 273 P
JK 2843 NO
KK OO
1=a× eL 273 P
1 = a × 33320.21
1
a=
33320.21
= 3.0012 × 10–5

` a = 30 × 10 –6
(ii) Absolute temperature at 40°C is,
T1 = 40° + 273 = 313K
The resistance at 40°C,
RT = aR0 eb/T1
1
KJK 2843 ONO
K O
= 30 × 10 × 3980 × eL 313 P
–6

= 0.1194 × 8804.93
= 1051.31 W
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Absolute temperature at 100°C is,
T2 = 273 + 100 = 373 K
The resistance at 100°C,
RT = aR0 eb/T2
2
JK 2843 NO
KK OO
= 30 × 10 × 3980 × –6 eL 373 P
= 0.1194 × 2042.61
= 243.89 W
\ The range of resistance to be measured in case the temperature varies from 40°C to 100°C is 243.89 W to 1051.31 W.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.1

Marketed by:

UNIT MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL

6
PARAMETERS
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PART-A
SHORT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS
Q1. What is the principle of piezoelectric transducer? Give its applications.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(f)

Principle
Piezoelectric pressure transducers depends on the principle of ‘piezoelectric effect’ i.e., when some pressure or stress is
applied to the surface of the piezoelectric crystal, an electric charge voltage will be developed by the crystal. The materials used
in the construction of piezoelectric crystals are quartz, Rochelle salt, dipotassium tartrate, lithium sulphate, barium titanate etc.
Applications
(a) These can be used in the process which requires measurement of high pressure.
(b) Can be applied in those systems which requires measured variable in electrical form.
Q2. Give the merits and demerits of photoelectric transducer.
Ans:
Merits
1. This method can be applied for the measurement of static pressure and dynamic pressure.
2. Efficiency is high.
Demerits
1. This method is not suited for high frequency light variations
2. The displacement of diaphragm should be very large, otherwise the detection of output becomes difficult.
3. Long term stability is low.
Q3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Pirani gauges?
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(f)

Advantages
(i) Accuracy is more
(ii) Rugged construction
(iii) Less cost
(iv) Sensitivity is high
(v) The relation between the applied pressure and the corresponding change in resistance is linear.
Disadvantages
(i) Needs thorough checking of pirani gauge
(ii) Should be calibrated frequently for different types of ranges of gases.
(iii) It requires electrical supply to operate.

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Q4. Define the terms absolute humidity, relative humidity and dew point.
Ans:
Absolute Humidity
Absolute humidity is defined as the mass of water vapour present in a unit volume of gas or air. It is expressed as grams
per cubic meter.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of amount of water vapour pressure actually present in a given volume of gas to
the amount of water vapour pressure required to saturate the same volume of gas at the same temperature.
The relative humidity gives the comparison between humidity of air (gas) and humidity of saturated air (gas) under the
conditions of same temperature and pressure.
The relative humidity of saturated air is equal to 100%.
Dew Point
Dew point temperature is defined as the temperature at which the water vapour present in air, begins to change its state
from gaseous to liquid during the process of cooling the air at constant pressure.
Q5. What are the advantages and limitations of D.C Tachometer?
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(f)

Advantages
1. The generated e.m.f (eg) is directly proportional to speed (N) i.e., eg ∝ N.
2. The direction of rotation of armature is known by the polarity of generated voltage.
3. The range of output voltage is about 10 mv/rpm and it can be measured by means of moving coil voltmeter that contains
uniform scale.
4. The presence of series resistor limits the current from generator in case of short circuit on output side.
5. The relationship between input (speed) and output (voltage) is linear.
Disadvantages
1. Brushes on generators leads to maintenance problems.
2. Input resistance must be very high otherwise armature current increases which results in distortion in the field of magnet
and hence results non linearities.
Q6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of thermocouple type conductivity gauges?
Ans:
Advantages
(i) Rugged construction
(ii) Cost is less
(iii) Simple operation
(iv) It is easy to note down the readings directly since the output of thermocouple is directly calibrated in terms of pressure.
(v) The relation between the applied pressure and the corresponding change in temperature is linear.
Disadvantages
(i) Short life of filament.
(ii) It should be calibrated frequently for different types and ranges of gases.
(iii) It requires electrical supply voltage to operate.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.3
Q7. Explain the significance of load cell in force measurement.
Ans: April-18, Set-3, Q1(f)

Load cells are primary devices that enable measurements of both static and dynamic forces. The material used for load cell
should posses linear stress strain relationship upto a fairly large elastic strain limit, low strain hysteresis during loading period. It
is mostly used transducer in many industrial applications with a suitable range for measuring forces from 5 N to 20 KN. The load
cells are also used for measuring forces even at a transient or rapidly changing varieties.
Q8. Write the merits and demerits for the measurement of liquid level using capacitive transducers.
Ans:
Merits
1. This method of level measurement is very sensitive.
2. This method can be used for small systems.
3. No problem of wear-tear since it does not contain any movable parts.
4. It can be used with slurry fluids.
Demerits
1. The performance will be affected by the change in temperature.
2. The connection and mounting of metal tank with the meter should be proper, otherwise some errors may occur.
Q9. List the applications of hydraulic force meter.
April-18, Set-4, Q1(f)

OR
Give the applications of Hydraulic force meter.
Ans:
Applications of Hydraulic Force Meter
1. It is used for measurement of pressure.
2. It is also used in torque measurement systems requiring fast dynamic response.
3. It is applicable for high impact loading applications.
4. It is used for measuring very large forces of the order of Mega Newtons.
Q10. List the merits and demerits of capacitive transducer.
Ans:
Merits
1. It responds quickly to the changes in pressure.
2. It is able to measure both static and dynamic pressure changes.
3. It can withstand at high rate of vibrations and shocks.
4. It exhibits high sensitivity.
5. It exhibits good frequency response.
Demerits
1. If the metallic parts of the capacitive transducer is not insulated properly from each other, the measurement process may
get affected by stray capacitances.
2. Since, capacitive transducers are sensitive to temperature, their capacitance get affected by variations in temperatures.
3. The presence of any extraneous matter such as moisture, dust particles affects the capacitance value of the transducer.
4. Sometimes it exhibits non-linear behaviour on account of edge effects. To avoid this effect, guard signs should be used.

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Q11. Give the merits and demerits of LVDT type of pressure transducer.
Ans:
Merits
1. It produces an electrical response.
2. Sensitivity is very high.
3. Rugged construction.
4. It has low hysteresis.
5. It has very good repeatability.
Demerits
1. It has poor accuracy.
2. The performance of this transducer is greatly affected by the changes in temperature.
Q12. List out the objectives of a data acquisition system.
Ans: Model Paper-IV, Q1(f)

Objectives
A data acquisition system must meet the following objective,
1. The necessary data should be acquired by DAS at proper timing and with appropriate speed.
2. The data acquired should be used efficiently in order to control the plant properly.
3. The data collected must be processed and stored in order to have a record for diagnosis of the plant operation at any time.
4. DAS should be able to determine the performance of each of its unit using on-line, real-time data.
5. The operation of whole plant must be monitored by DAS to maintain online best and safe operations.
6. DAS should possess the flexibility of being expanded for future requirements.
7. It should be able to identify the problems that encounter in the plant and provide effective human communication system.
Q13. How does pirani gauge differ from thermocouple gauge in operating principle.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q1(f)

Pirani gauge and the thermocouple gauge works on the same basic principle of thermal conductivity of gases. The only
difference between pirani guage and thermocouple gauge in operting principle is that in thermocouple gauge, a thermocouple is
used to measure the filament temperature directly where as in pirani gauge, a change in resistance measured by resistance bridge
is used to measure the temperature.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.5

PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

6.1 MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL PARAMETERS

6.1.1 Measurement of Force

Q14. Illustrate the principle of force summing devices using suitable examples and sketches.
Ans:
Force summing devices serve as primary transducers and convert the pressure applied at the input into displacement, which
then can be measured by means of secondary transducer. The list of most widely used force-summing devices are,
1. Diaphragms
2. Bellows
3. Bourdon tubes.
1. Diaphragms
Any thin metal whose ends are fixed between two parallel plates is referred to as diaphragm. It is one of the pressure
measuring elements. The operating principle is that the applied pressure is converted into proportional displacement. The materials
used to make diaphragms are phosphor bronze, nickel, beryllium copper, stainless steel, etc. These can be available in flat or
corrugated shapes.

Flat Diaphragm for Absolute Pressure Measurement

Flat Diaphragm for Differential Pressure Measurement

Corrugated Diaphragm

Corrugated Diaphragm in Capsule Form

Figure (1): Different forms of Diaphragms

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6.6 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
When two corrugated diaphragms are joined together at
their ends a capsule is formed. When compared to flat diaphragms
corrugated diaphragms produce greater displacements. Since
the capsule is a combination of two diaphragms it generates
more displacement which is twice that of the single corrugated
diaphragm. This generated displacement is proportional to the
applied pressure.
2. Bellows Twisted Tube Type Bourdon Tube
Bellows, the pressure measuring elements are formed
by the series combination of capsules. The working principle
of bellows is same as that of diaphragms i.e., the applied
displacement is converted into proportionate mechanical
displacement. The materials used to construct bellows are
beryllium copper, brass, monel, stainless steel and nickel.

C-type Bourdon Tube

x

Bellow for Absolute Bellow for Differential

Pressure Measurement Pressure Measurement
Figure (2): Bellows
Whenever the pressure to be measured is applied the
sealed end of bellow suffers displacement. The generated Helical Type Bourdon Tube
displacement can be known by attaching a pointer scale Figure (3): Different Forms of Bourdon Tube
arrangement to the sealed end or by transmitting the The working principle of bourdon tube is same as that of
displacement to the secondary transducer. diaphragms and bellows i.e., the applied pressure is converted
3. Bourdon Tubes into mechanical displacement.
The bourdon tubes are available in different shapes such The displacement generated by the above force summing
as spiral, helical, twisted and C shaped. However all the tubes devices can be converted into electrical form by transmitting
have non-circular cross-section. Also the materials used and it to LVDT. In this case, LVDT acts as secondary transducer.
working of all these types are same. The materials used in the The output voltage generated by LVDT is proportional to
construction of bourdon tubes are brass, steel and rubber. displacement and hence the applied pressure.
Q15. Explain the significance of load cell in static and
dynamic force measurement.
April-18, Set-1, Q7(a)

OR
Explain how a load cell is employed to measure
static and dynamic forces.
(Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q8(b) | Model Paper-I, Q7(a))

OR
With a neat sketch, briefly explain the principle
of operation and force measurement by
Spiral Type Bourdon Tube cantilever beam type load cell?

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.7
Ans: The strain and stiffness are given by,
Primary devices that enable measurements of both static
and dynamic forces are known as load cells. Strain, ∈=
Load cells use elastic member as primary devices and
strain gauge as secondary devices in the measurement of static Stiffness, k =
and dynamic forces. The load cell which uses a cantilever beam
Where,
(elastic member) as primary transducer and strain gauge as
secondary transducer is shown in figure (1) and (2). P → is the force
A → is the area of cross section
∈ → is the young’s modulus
L → is the member length.
Figure (1): Cantilever Load Cell R1, R2, R3, R4 Strain Gauges 2. Cantilever Type Load Cell (Elastic Element)
In figure (1) R1, R2, R3, R4 are the strain gauges. The This is shown in figure (4).
strain experienced by the strain gauges R2 and R4 is opposite in
nature of strain that is experienced by gauges R1 and R3. The
arrangement of these strain gauges in the arms of a Wheatstone
bridge is shown below.

Figure (4): Cantilever Type Elastic Member

Strain ∈ at the root of the cantilever =

Stiffness =

3. Rind Type Load Cell (Elastic Element)

Figure (2): Arrangement of Gauges in Wheatstone Bridge This is shown in figure (5).
In figure (2) when force is applied to cantilever beam it
will bend, with this the resistance of the gauges will be changed.
Since these are connected in the arms of Wheatstone bridge, the
bridge becomes unbalanced and produces some output which
gives the value of applied input. Here electrical output will be
obtained with the use of Wheatstone bridge.
Elastic force devices are the important devices for
measurement of both static and dynamic forces. When a force
is applied at the input of these devices some displacement is
produced at the output which is proportional to the applied
force. Because the applied force causes the dimensions of the
device to change. This change is sensed by electromechanical
Figure (5): Ring Type Elastic Member
or mechanical devices and produces the output which gives the
quantity of applied force. The elastic members may be in the Due to forces V and H,
form of rings, diaphragms, strips, cylinders etc.
Strain ∈ at θ = 39.6° is given by,
1. Axially Loaded Member
The member is shown in figure (3).
∈39.6° = 2.31
Deflections in the directions of V and H are given by,

δV = 9.42

δH = 1.79
Figure (3): Axially Loaded Elastic Member
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4. Octagonal Ring Type Load Cell (b) Piezoelectric Transducer
This is shown in figure (6). Figure below shows the arrangement of piezoelectric
transducer. The functioning of transducer is as follows. When the
force is applied on the transducer, an electrical charge appears
on the faces of piezo-electrical element. The charge appeared
is directly proportional to the applied force. The charge is also
a function of force direction. Here the measurement of charge
is a direct measure of applied force.

Figure (6): Octagonal Ring Type

In order to prevent rolling of the ring due to force H in
ring type load cell, octagonal type ring is used.
Q16. Explain the measurement of force using the Figure: Piezoelectric Transducer
following transducers,
The Piezoelectric transducer differs from conven-tional
(a) LVDT transducer in two ways. First it is an active transducer, secondly
the distortion after application of force is not more than a few
(b) Piezoelectric transducer.
thousandths a of a millimeter whereas the deflection in any
Ans: convention transducer may be about several tenths of millimeter.
(a) LVDT The piezoelectric transducer has small size, rugged
construction, high stiffness due to which it has very high
resonant frequency, and it is sensitive to temperature variations.
It is capable of measuring compressive forces from few kN to
about 1 MN with accuracy from 0.5 – 1.5%.
Q17. Describe how pendulum scale is used for
measurement of force.
Ans:
Pendulum Scale

Figure: Force Transducer Proving Ring

A proving ring consists of a high grade steel ring with
two loading bosses attached at the ends of one of its diameters
with a displacement sensing device situated at the center of the
ring as shown in the figure.
When the force is applied on the load boss, the ring tends
to distort and this distortion is directly proportional to the applied
force. This distortion is measured by a displacement sensing
device. For low accuracy the distortion is measured by dial
gauge or micrometer, whereas for high accuracy applications,
LVDT is used as displacement sensor. This displacement
measurement is a measure of force applied. Figure: Pendulum Scale

The proving rings may be used for both tensile and Principle
compression force measurements. The range of proving ring It is a deflection type instrument. It converts applied
is 2 kN to 2000 kN with accuracy of 0.2 to 0.5 percent. Proving unknown force into torque which is then balanced by the torque
rings are high precision devices which are extensively used for of a standard mass. In this case the standard mass is fixed and
materials-testing machines. arranged as a pendulum.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.9
Construction the liquid is measured by employing mechanical or electrical
It contains a frame that carry ‘supporting ribbons’ which pressure gauge. When full load is applied the maximum of 0.05
are connected to sectors. The loading tapes are connected to mm deflection occurs. This type of load cell can measure force
sectors and load rods. The load rods are attached to weighing upto 500 tonnes. This type of load cells gives good accuracy and
platform to which an unknown force is applied. An equalizer resolution when the force is about 20 tonnes. For gauge checking
beam is connected between the two sectors to which counter hydraulic load cell uses 200 kPa pressure as the preload.
weights are attached. A rack and pinion mechanism is provided Applications of Hydraulic Force Meter
at the center of the equalizer beam. The pinion carries a pointer
For answer refer, Unit-VI, Q9.
that moves on a scale which is calibrated in terms of force or
weight. Q19. Briefly explain the working principle and
Working measurement of force by any two nonelectric
When the force to be measured is applied to the load techniques?
rod, the loading ribbons are pulled downward due to which the Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q7(b)
sectors rotate, which in turn causes the counter weights to move
outwards. This increases the counter weight effective movement The principles used for the measurement of force by
until the torque produced by the unknown force and movement non-electrical techniques are,
produced by the counter weight balance each other. When these 1. Balance principle
two are balanced an equilibrium condition is obtained. While
2. Force to pressure conversion principle.
the equilibrium state is establishing the equalizer beam moves
down. Due to this the rack also moves down and hence the In balance principle, the force to be measured is balanced
pinion rotates. When the pinion rotates the pointer connected by a known certain quantity and then the value of unknown force
to it moves and indicates a new position on the calibrated scale. is determined from the amount of balancing quantity required
In this way the applied force or weight is measured directly. to balance the force.

Q18. Draw the sketch and explain the working of In force to pressure conversion principle, the unknown
hydraulic load cell. force is converted into pressure. This pressure is measured and
then the value of unknown force is determined from the measure
Nov./Dec.-12, Set-4, Q8(b)
of this pressure.
OR
Based on the above principles, the non-electrical devices
Explain briefly the construction and working of used for measurement of force are as follows,
the hydraulic force meter and also explain its
applications in various measurements. (i) Balance type force measuring device
Ans: (ii) Hydraulic and pneumatic load cells.
Construction and Working of Hydraulic Force Meter (i) Balance Type Force Measuring Device
The principle of operation of hydraulic load cell is when The force measuring device based upon the principle
a force is applied on a liquid medium, the pressure of the liquid of balance is usually a simple lever system as shown in figure
increases. This increase in pressure is a measure of the applied (1) below. This system consists of a rod resting on a pivot at a
force when calibrated. The figure below shows the basic sche- certain point along its length.
matic of hydraulic load cell. It is also known as a hydraulic
plunger.

Figure (1): Balance (Lever System)

The force to be measured is applied on one of the rod,
at a distance ‘L’ from the pivot. This makes the lever system to
Figure: Hydraulic Load Cell
be unbalanced. To balance the system, a mass of known value
Hydraulic oil is filled in a closed chamber whose height is ‘m’ is placed on the other end of the rod, at a distance ‘l’ from
0.75 mm. The force to be measured is applied on the diaphragm. the pivot. At balance, the lever system satisfies the following
The applied force moves the diaphragm downwards and thus condition.
closes the chamber from the top. The pressure of the liquid
increases due to the applied force. This increase in pressure of

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6.10 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Where, Q20. A barium titanate pickup has the dimensions of
5 mm × 5 mm × 1.25 mm. The acting force is 5 N. The
g = Acceleration due to gravity/gravitational constant.
charge sensitivity of the material is 150 pc/N and
The unknown force F can be calculated from the above permittivity is 12.5 × 10–9 F/m. If the modulus of
balance equation. elasticity of material is 12 × 106 N/m2. Calculate
(ii) Hydraulic and Pneumatic Load Cells the strain, charge and capacitance.
Ans: (April-18, Set-3, Q7(a) | April/May-17, Set-2, Q7(a))
The hydraulic and pneumatic load cells are non-electric
type force measuring devices, which provide the measure of Given that,
force in terms of pressure. Length of the crystal, l = 5 mm
In a hydraulic load cell, a chamber is filled with a liquid Breadth of the crystal, b = 5 mm
(usually oil) and the top/mouth of the chamber is filled with a Thickness of the crystal, t = 1.25 mm
diaphragm (i.e., the internal edge of the diaphragm is in contact Force acting on crystal, F = 5 N
with the oil). The force to be measured is applied on top of
Charge sensitivity of crystal, d = 150 p C/N
the diaphragm. Due to the application of force, the diaphragm
gets deflected and downwards, thereby produces pressure on Permittivity, Î = 12.5 × 10–9 F/m
the liquid. The pressure indicator connected to the chamber Young’s modulus, E = 12×106 N/m2
indicates the amount of liquid pressure created by the force. To determine,
Very large forces of the order of mega newtons can be measured
(i) Strain
by a hydraulic cell.
(ii) Charge
(iii) Capacitance.
Area of plates, A = 5×5×10–6 = 25×10–6 m2
F 5
Pressure, P = = = 2 × 105 = 0.2 × 106 N/m2
A 25 × 10 −6

Voltage sensitivity,

150 × 10 −12
= = 0.012
12.5 × 10 −9
Figure (2): Hydraulic Load Cell
= 12×10–3 Vm/N
The pneumatic load cell consists of a diaphragm at one
end of its chamber and a nozzle at the other end as shown in Voltage generated,
the figure below. The chamber is provided with a supply of air,
under pressure. = 12×10–3 ×1.25 ×10–3×0.2×106

When unknown, force is applied on the diaphragm, the

=3V
diaphragm deflects. Due to deflection of the diaphragm, the gap (i) Stress
between the nozzle and the diaphragm changes. As a result the
air pressure in the chamber also changes. As the gap reduces,
the pressure in the chamber increases.
[ Stress = Pressure]
6
0.2 × 10
= = 0.0167
12 × 10 6
(ii)
Charge, Q
Charge, Q = dF
= 150 × 10–12 ×5
= 750 pC
(iii) Capacitance, C
Figure (3): Pneumatic Load Cell
Q
Capacitance, C =
A pressure indicator attached to the chamber indicates E0
the air pressure in the chamber. The unknown force can then
be evaluated from the measure of the air pressure. Forces upto 750× 10−12
= = 250 pF
20 kN can be measured by pneumatic load cell. 3

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.11

6.1.2 Measurement of Pressure

Q21. Explain briefly about various pressure sensing elements.

(Nov.-11, Set-1, Q8(a) | Model Paper-III, Q7(a))
OR
Define pressure. What are different methods of pressure measurement?
Ans:
Pressure
Pressure is a physical parameter and it can be defined as follows. Force per unit area, acting perpendicularly on the surface
of an object is known as pressure.
The different methods or principles of measuring pressure are as follows.
Principle 1
Pressure can be measured by balancing a column of liquid against the pressure which has to be measured. The height of
the column which is balanced becomes a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.
Example: Manometer.
Principle 2
When the pressure is applied on the elastic element, the shape of the elastic element changes which in turn moves the
pointer with respect to scale. The pointer reading becomes a measure of the applied pressure when calibrated.
Example: Bourdon tube.
Principle 3
When electrical current flows through a conducting wire, it gets heated. Depending upon the conductivity of the surrounding
media, the heat is dissipated from the wire. The rate of change in the temperature of the wire becomes a measure of the applied
pressure.
Example: Pirani gauge.
Q22. Explain spiral type bourdon tube.
Ans:
Principle
The working principle of spiral type bourdon tube is that the applied pressure is converted into mechanical deflection or
displacement. The generated displacement will give the value of applied pressure. The material used in the construction of bourdon
tube are brass, steel and rubber.
Construction and Working

Figure
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6.12 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Spiral type bourdon tubes are constructed by winding the long tube into several turns in the form of spiral shape. One end
of the bourdon tube is opened through which the pressure to be measured is applied whereas another end is closed. The sealed
end of the tube is connected to a pointer mechanically.
Whenever the fluid whose pressure is to be known is applied to the open end of the spiral tube, it tends to uncoil. Due to
this a long movement of the tip(end) takes place and this displacement is transmitted to pointer. Therefore the pointer moves on
the calibrated scale, thereby indicating the applied pressure. When compared to C-type bourdon tube spiral type bourdon tube
produces the results with very high accuracy.
Q23. Describe the principle of operation of a pressure transducer employing the resistive transducer principle.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-1, Q8(a)
In the process of pressure measurement using resistive transducers, the resistive transducer acts as secondary transducer,
where as the primary transducer is a flat diaphragm. The strain gauges are attached to the diaphragm to which the pressure to be
measured is applied. When the pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the diaphragm deflects, and actuates the secondary transducer.
The response of the secondary transducer (strain gauges) is a function of the strain (caused due to the diaphragm deflection).

Figure: Pressure Measurement using Resistive Transducer

This strain in turn is proportional to the applied pressure. When two different pressures are applied to the diaphragm (as
shown in figure) the strain is proportional to the differential pressure.
Note
Generally the strain gauges are connected to one of the 4 arms of the Wheatstone bridge. When the strain of the gauges
changes, its resistance also changes. Due to this the bridge becomes unbalanced and produces some electrical output which is a
function of strain, which in turn gives the value of applied pressure.
Q24. Explain the measurement of differential pressure using capacitive transducer.
Ans:
Basic Principle: In this method of pressure measurement the capacitive transducer is used as a secondary transducer with a flat
diaphragm acting as a primary transducer. When the pressure to be measured is applied to the diaphragm, it deflects thereby causing
some displacement. This displacement causes the capacitance of the capacitive transducer to change. This change of capacitance is
a function of displacement of diaphragm, which in turn is a function of applied pressure. The arrangement of differential pressure
measurement using capacitive transducer is shown below.

Figure

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.13
In the shown arrangement 0.025 mm depth spherical depressions ground into the glass discs. When these depressions
are covered with gold coating two fixed or stationary plates of capacitor are formed. A diaphragm (a thin stainless steel) is held
between the discs forms the moveable plate of the capacitor. This capacitor forms one of the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge
circuit. P1 and P2 are the two pressures applied on two sides of the diaphragm.
When both the pressures are of equal value i.e., P1 = P2, the diaphragm will be in neutral state causing the bridge to become
balanced. In this case the bridge generates no output or zero output.
Now assume that the pressure P1 is greater than P2 i.e., P1 > P2, the diaphragm moves down wards. This displacement
is proportional to the differential pressure P. (P = P1 – P2). Since the diaphragm acts as one of the plates of the capacitor, its
capacitance changes due to which the bridge becomes unbalanced and produces some output voltage. This output voltage becomes
the measure of the differential pressure. Here the output voltage is linearly proportional to the displacement of diaphragm and
hence the differential pressure. For an opposite differential pressure the output voltage indicates 180° phase shift.
Q25. Explain the working principle of a capacitive pressure transducer.
(Nov.-11, Set-2, Q8(a) | Nov.-11, Set-4, Q8(a))
OR
With a neat sketch, explain the operation of a capacitive pressure transducer.
(Nov.-10, Set-3, Q8(a) | Model Paper-II, Q7(a))
OR
Describe the principle of operation of a pressure transducer employing the capacitive transducer
principle.
Nov.-10, Set-4, Q8(a)
OR
Describe the principle of the operation of capacitive transducer type pressure transducer.
Ans:
Capacitive Pressure Transducers
Capacitive pressure transducer operates on the principle of capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor which is given by,

∈A ∈r ∈0 A
C= (or) C =
d d
Where,
C → Capacitance of a capacitor
∈ = ∈r∈0 → Permittivity of medium
∈r → Relative permittivity (dielectric constant)
∈0 → Permittivity of free space
d → Distance between two plates
A → Overlapping area of two plates.
Thus, the capacitance of a capacitor changes with,
(a) The change in overlapping area (A) of plates.
(b) The change in distance (d) between the two plates.
(c) The change in dielectric (∈r) constant.
The capacitive pressure transducer utilizes the principle of change in distance between two plates. The arrangement of
capacitive pressure transducer is shown in the following figure.

Figure: Capacitive Pressure Transducer

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6.14 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Capacitive pressure transducer comprises,
(i) Diaphragm which acts as pressure sensing element (or primary transducer).
(ii) Capacitive element which acts as secondary transducer.
(iii) Wheatstone bridge circuit.
The capacitive element has one fixed plate whereas the diaphragms acts as the movable plate of the capacitor. Whenever
the pressure to be measured is applied to the diaphragm, it gets deflected. Therefore, the distance between the diaphragm and fixed
plate of capacitor decreases. According to the operating principle of capacitor, when the distance between its two plates decreases,
its capacitance increases. The change or increase in capacitance is measured by connecting the two plates (capacitive element) in
one of the four arms of the bridge circuit. Similarly, when the pressure decreases, the diaphragm contracts and the distance between
it and the fixed plate of capacitor increases. As the distance between the plates increases, the capacitance decreases. Due to the
change in capacitance, the bridge indicates deflection. The deflection of the bridge gives the measure of change in capacitance
which in turn indicates the displacement of the diaphragm and hence the pressure applied.
Merits and Demerits
For answer refer Unit-VI, Q10.
Q26. Describe the principle of operation of a pressure transducer employing the inductive transducer principle.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q8(a)
Inductive Transducer
In this method of pressure measurement the inductive transducer is used as a secondary transducer and a diaphragm is
used as a primary transducer. The schematic arrangement of this is illustrated in figure. It employs two coils namely upper coil
and lower coil, an A.C. bridge. The upper and lower coils having equal number of turns connected to two separate arms of the
bridge and the remaining arms of the bridge contains resistive elements.

Figure: Pressure Measurement using Diaphragm and Inductive Transducer

As shown in the figure, initially the primary transducer (diaphragm) is placed in symmetrical w.r.t. both the coils. When
the upper pressure Pu is same as the lower pressure Pl. i.e., Pu = Pl then the reluctances of the magnetic flux path of upper coil and
lower coil becomes equal. Thus the inductance of both coils becomes equal.
Let,
n2
The self inductance at initial condition =
R0
Where,
R0 → Reluctance of magnetic flux path at initial condition.
n → Number of turns.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.15
In this condition the A.C. bridge becomes balanced and Q27. Explain how an LVDT can be used to measure
produces null output. i.e., the output eo will be zero. the pressure.
Now assume that there is an increase in the lower pres- Ans: (April-18, Set-2, Q7(b) | Nov.-11, Set-2, Q8(b))
sure (i.e., Pl is greater than Pu), therefore the differential pressure
is P = Pl – Pu. This differential pressure causes the diaphragm Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT Type of
to move or deflect upwards through some distance ‘d’. If the Pressure Transducer)
movements of the diaphragm is small then the reluctance path Principle and Design
of magnetic flux of upper coil will be,
An LVDT consists of one primary winding to which an
Ru = R0 + k (D – d) ... (1) AC supply voltage is given and two secondary windings.
And The two secondary windings are connected in series of
The reluctance path of magnetic flux of lower coil will opposite connection so that a differential output voltage can be
be, obtained. Between the primary and two secondary windings a
Rl = R0 + k (D + d) ... (2) core is placed. Depending on the position of the core, more or
less output will be generated in the two secondary windings.
∴ The upper coil inductance is given by,
Now connect a pressure sensing element such as bellow,
bourdon tube, etc., to the core of LVDT such that the output
n2 displacement resulting from these transducer by the applied
lu =
Ru pressure will be transmitted to the core of LVDT as shown in
figure.
n2
⇒ lu = [ From equation (1)]
R0 + k ( D − d )
and the lower coil inductance is given by,

n2
ll =
Rl
n2
⇒ ll = [ From equation (2)]
R0 + k ( D + d )
The balance condition of the bridge will be disturbed
and some output voltage will be produced whose approximate
value can be given by,
1 ll 
Eo =  −  × Ei
2 lu + ll  Figure: Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 n2  Working
  When the core is placed symmetrically with respect to
 1 R0 + k ( D + d )  × Ei
Eo = − two secondary windings an equal amount of voltage will be
2 n2 n2 
 +  induced in both windings. Therefore the net output voltage is
 R0 + k ( D − d ) R0 + k ( D + d )  ‘0’ and this position is known as null position.
When the pressure to be measured is applied to
∴ Eo = the bellow, the bellow defects (expands upwards) and this
movement is given to the rod of the core of LVDT. With this
Where, k, Ei, R0, D are constants. the core will be lifted up and more voltage will be induced in
upper part of the secondary winding which is represented as
Therefore the output voltage is directly proportional to
es1 , and a positive voltage is generated at the output ( E0 =
the d (displacement of the diaphragm) which in turn is propor- es1 – es2 ). In other words when the core moved upwards from
tional to the differential pressure P = (Pl – Pu). Thus the final
the null position a positive amount of voltage is generated at
output voltage directly gives the value of differential pressure
the output. This positive output will indicate applied pressure.
P when calibrated.
Therefore it is clear that for small deflections of dia- Now the pressure is decreased the bellow contracts
phragm, the relation between output voltage Eo and differential (comes downwards) and the core comes down from the null
pressure is linear. In this method it is also possible to know position causing more voltage to induce in secondary winding 2,
which pressure is greater w.r.t. other i.e., Pl > Pu or Pu > Pl by which is denoted by es2 , and the net output voltage is negative
observing the phase of the output Eo w.r.t. input Ei. which indicates the decrease in pressure.

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6.16 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
In this way the LVDT type pressure transducer operates Merits
and produces a net output voltage which is proportional to the
(a) Provides electrical output.
applied pressure.
(b) This transducer does not require any external power
Application
supply [Since it is known as active transducer].
It can be used in the process which requires the
(c) It can be used for dynamic pressure measurement.
measurement of pressure and displacements.
Q28. Differentiate photo-electric and piezo-electric (d) Rugged construction.
transducers. (e) Size is small.
April-18, Set-4, Q7(a) Demerits
OR (a) It cannot be used for static pressure measurements.
Explain how pressure is measured using, (b) The response will get affected by the variations in
(i) Piezoelectric transducer temperature.

(ii) Photoelectric transducer. (c) In some cases it requires signal conditioning circuitry
which is complex.
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q7(b)
(d) Cost is high.
(i) Piezoelectric Transducer
(ii) Photoelectric Transducer
Principle
Principle
For answer refer Unit-VI, Q1.
Measurement of pressure using photo electric transducer
A piezoelectric pressure transducer is formed by depends upon the properties (or characteristics) of photo tube
connecting a diaphragm to the piezoelectric crystals and this or photo emissive cell. The photo tube contains two metal rods
assembly is shown below. namely, anode and cathode.
The amount of current passing through the tube depends
on the voltage signal applied between anode and cathode, the
intensity and colour of the light falling on its cathode. One of
the important characteristics of photo tube is that for voltages
beyond 20 V, the output current depends only on the amount
of light falling and does not depend on the applied voltage.
This flow of current through the photo tube forms the output
of photoelectric pressure transducer.
Construction and Working

Figure (1): Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

Working
The pressure which is to be measured is applied to
corrugated metal diaphragm. The diaphragm deflects depending
on the applied pressure, and this deflection signal is transmitted
to the crystal through the mechanical link. In other words, the
pressure is applied to the crystal through the diaphragm and the Figure (2): Photoelectric Pressure Transducer
link. When the crystal senses the pressure it will generate some
voltage corresponding to the applied pressure, and is measured Photo electric pressure transducer consists a force sum-
in the output voltage measuring device which is calibrated in ming member or diaphragm, photo tube, light source and a small
terms of applied pressure. window.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.17
The window is placed between the light source and photo tube. The aperture of this window is controlled by the dia-
phragm. The pressure which is to be measured is applied to the corrugated metal diaphragm. The diaphragm deflects or expands
depending on the applied pressure. Due to this displacement of the diaphragm the position of the diaphragm changes which in
turn changes the amount of light falling on the photo tube. This variation in the intensity of light changes. The properties of photo
tube (photoemissive cell). The rate of change of intensity of light is approximately linear with the movement of the diaphragm
(displacement). The light source can be an A.C. modulated light or a stable light source.
Q29. Explain how an electrical transducer can be used to find the unknown pressure of a liquid.
Ans:
Electrical transducers are used as secondary transducers for measuring pressure. In many industrial applications, pres-
sure needs to be detected and converted into a suitable physical form which can be measured by an electrical transducer. This
function is carried out by mechanical devices like elastic elements. The elastic elements such as diaphragms, bellows, bourdon
tubes etc., are used as primary transducers to detect the pressure. These elements convert the pressure or force applied to them
into displacement. The displacement can be measured with the help of electrical transducers like LVDT, strain gauge (resistive
transducer), inductive or capacitive transducer etc. The output of these devices gives the measure of displacement, which inturn
gives the value of pressure.
The following combinations of primary and secondary transducers can be used for the measurement of unknown pressure
of liquid,
1. Bourdon tube - LVDT.
2. Diaphragm-strain gauge.
Electro-mechanical Pressure Transducer using Bourdon Tube and LVDT Combination
In this type of transducer, the liquid whose pressure is to be measured flows into the bourdon tube through the open end
of the tube. Any change in liquid pressure causes the displacement of closed end of the bourdon tube. Inorder to measure this
displacement, the closed end of the bourdon tube is attached to the core of the LVDT. Hence, due to the pressure of the liquid,
the bourdon tubes end gets displaced and in turn moves the core of LVDT through its coils. With respect to the position of the
core, the LVDT produces an output voltage. This voltage is a measure of the displacement of the elastic element which in turn is
a measure of the pressure.
The above transducer can be used for measuring only static pressures since a bourdon tube cannot respond to rapid changes
in pressure.
A bourdon tube has relatively large mass and so it cannot respond to rapid changes in pressure. Thus the above transducer
is limited to measurement of only static pressures.

Figure
Q30. Write about calibration of pressure measuring instrument.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q7(b)

Calibration of Pressure Measuring Instrument

Static calibration of pressure transducers is carried by dead weight tester. It is the basic standard pressure calibration device.
The dead weight tester can be operated by hydraulic means or pneumatic means. The schematic of dead weight tester is shown
in the figure below.

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6.18 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure: Dead Weight Tester for Pressure Calibration

The dead weight tester consists of a chamber filled with fluid. Two accurately machined cylinders of known cross section
area are attached to the chamber. An accurately machined cylinder is closely fitted into one of the cylinders. This piston has a
platform on its top so that the piston can be loaded with weights. A screwed plunger is incorporated into the chamber from one
of its sides as shown in the figure above.
Procedure of Calibration
The pressure transducer to be calibrated is connected to the other cylinder of dead weight tester and the piston is loaded
with standard weights of high accuracy. Then, due to the gravitational force acting on these standard weights, a force is exerted
on the known area. i.e., an equivalent force of piston-weight combination acts on the fluid and develops a pressure on the fluid
in the chamber.
Now, pressure is applied on the fluid from the other end by operating the plunger inwards until the combination of piston
and standard weights float freely. At this condition the force of the piston-weight combination is equal to the force of the fluid
pressure.
i.e.,
F = PA ... (1)
Where,
F = Equivalent force of the piston-weight combination
= Mg (M = Total mass, g = Gravitational constant)
P = Fluid pressure
A = Equivalent area of piston-cylinder combination
F
⇒ P=
A
Mg
⇒ P= ... (2)
A
At equilibrium condition, the pressure developed on the fluid in the chamber is transmitted to the pressure gauge under
calibration. The reading then indicated by the pressure gauge is equal to the value of P calculated from equation (2) above.
(i) The static calibration of low pressure transducers is carried out by standard mercury or water manometers because
these manometers provide accurate measurements of low pressure.
(ii) Pressure transducers can also be calibrated using secondary standards of pressure such as helical type bourdon gauges
made up of quartz and force balance type pressure transducer.
Q31. With neat sketches explain the operation of reluctance pressure transducers.
Ans:
A variable reluctance pressure transducer comprises ‘E’ shaped core with two coils wounded on it (as shown in figure), a
movable magnetic vane placed above the core with some air gap and a helical bourdon tube whose movable end is attached to
the magnetic vane where as the fixed end is subjected to the pressure to be measured.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.19

Figure: Ionization Gauge

Principle and Working
When the supply is given, the cathode will get heated and
starts emitting electrons. These emitted electrons pass towards
the anode through another terminal called grid. The flow of
electrons in the grid causes current to develop in it, which is
Figure: Reluctance Pressure Transducer known as grid current IG. As the gas is present in the vacuum
When the pressure to be measured is applied to the tube, the electrons while moving towards the anode and grid
bourdon tube, the tube expands due to which a proportionate collide with the molecules of gas i.e., ionize the molecules
displacement is produced at its movable end. As the movable end present in the gas. Since the anode is connected to negative
is connected to the magnetic vane, the displacement generated terminal of the battery all the positive charge particles are
by the bourdon tube is transmitted to magnetic vane. Therefore, collected due to which an anode or plate current (IP) is generated.
the vane moves towards the core due to which the air gap
Therefore the pressure of the gas present in the vacuum
between the vane and core decreases, so that the magnetic flux
tube is proportional to the ratio of anode current or plate current
path changes which in turn changes the magnetic reluctance.
to grid current.
Due to the motion of the vane towards the core, the
inductances of the two coils changes. Now the ratio of two IP
∴ P∝
L IG
inductances i.e., 1 is related to the variation in the reluctance
L2  IP 
1
which in turn gives the measure of displacement of the bourdon P =  
K I 
tube and hence the applied pressure.  G 
Where,
Q32. What are the main characteristics of a high
vacuum gauge? How are they used for measure- K is the gauge sensitivity (Constant).
ment? Application
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q8(a)
These are used in the processes which require the mea-
The main characteristics of high vacuum gauges are as surement of ultra high vacuum pressures and low vacuum.
follows,
Merit
1. It can measure the accuracy of audible and visual alarms.
2. It can measure the pressure either in solid or liquid state. These can be used to measure pressure of 1 micron and
even below i.e., very low pressure ranges.
3. Some high vacuum gauges consist of cordless alterna-
tives for durability. Demerit
4. It also consists of the features like signal outputs and It creates problem of burning or damaging of hot fila-
communication protocols. ments.
5. The errors possible to occur in high vacuum gauges can Q33. Show the measurement of liquid level using
be prevented by temperature measure outputs. capacitive transducers.
The ionization gauges are used to measure very high
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-3, Q8(b) | Model Paper-IV, Q7(a))
vacuum pressures (10–5 to 10–12 micron) and also low vacuum
pressures (Less than 1 micron). Capacitance Type Level Gauge
Ionization Gauge Principle
Design
Capacitance method of liquid level measurement or ca-
The ionization gauge contains a vacuum tube which has pacitance type liquid level indictor operates on the principle of
three terminals namely anode, cathode and grid. This vacuum parallel plate capacitor, which can be stated as the capacitance
tube is generally known as triode. The circuit of measurement of the parallel plate capacitor varies or changes if the area or
of vacuum using ionization gauge is shown below, dielectric constant of it changes.
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6.20 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Construction and Working

Figure: Capacitance Type Liquid Level Indicator

The capacitance probe or element is placed inside the tank (generally near to its wall) whose level of liquid is to be mea-
sured. The liquid (whose level is to be measured) placed inside the tank can be of two types one is conductive type and the other
is non-conductive type. If the liquid is conductive in nature then the capacitance probe acts as one plate of the capacitor whereas
the liquid acts as another plate of the capacitor. The dielectric material between these two plates is nothing but the insulation
provided for the capacitance probe. In this case the capacitance varies as the height of the liquid changes i.e., the principle of
change in area of plates is used. Therefore when the height of the liquid increases the area between the plates decreases and output
capacitance increases. Similarly when the height decreases the capacitance also decreases.
In case the liquid whose level is to be measured is nonconductive in nature then the probe acts as one plate of the capacitor
whereas the wall of the metal tank acts as another plate of the capacitor. In this case the dielectric material is liquid. Here the
capacitance, varies is the dielectric material change (i.e., the principle of change in dielectric constant is used).
As shown in figure, the capacitance meter is connected to the capacitance probe and to the wall of the tank. The capacitance
meter is calibrated interns of liquid level. If the level of the liquid inside the tank is low (or decreased) the capacitance of the
capacitor decreases. The decreased capacitance value is displayed on the capacitance meter.
Similarly, the capacitance increase with increase of liquid level and is indicated by the meter which in turn indicates the
level of the liquid inside the tank.
Merits
1. This method of level measurement is very sensitive.
2. This method can be used for small systems.
3. No problem of wear-tear since it does not contain any movable parts.
4. It can be used with slurry fluids.
Demerits
1. The performance will be affected by the change in temperature.
2. The connection and mounting of metal tank with the meter should be proper, otherwise some errors may occur.
Q34. Explain the working principle of an accelerometer.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-4, Q7(b)

Accelerometer is a transducer which directly measures the acceleration of a moving body. It is also used to measure the
displacement and velocity by integrating the output of the accelerometer.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.21
Generally, accelerometers are classified into two types.
They are,
1. Seismic-mass displacement transducer (or) seismic accelerometer
2. Piezo-electric type accelerometer.
Principle
The principle of accelerometer is based upon the Newton’s second law. It states that the force acting on the mass is equal
to the inertia force on the mass. The sum of forces is given as,
F = Mx + Bx + Kx
Where,
M = seismic mass
B = damping coefficient
K = spring constant
x = relative motion of the mass according to frame.
The basic schematic diagram of a accelorometer is as shown in figure (1).

Figure (1)
Seismic accelerometer is also known as seismic transducer. The seismic mass is connected between spring and damper,
which are arranged in a housing frame as shown in figure (1). The seismic mass is connected to relative displacement transducer.
To measure the characteristics of work piece, the housing frame is connected to the source of vibrations. When this system is
subjected to an acceleration, a relative displacement between mass and frame is obtained.
The two different modes of seismic accelerometer are,
1. Displacement mode
2. Acceleration mode.
The selection of mode depends on the spring, damper and mass combinations. Seismic transducer is used in displacement
mode when the mass is very large and spring is soft. It is used in acceleration mode measurement when the mass of the system
is small and spring is stiff. The basic mechanical system for seismic transducer is shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)

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6.22 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
∴ The input is x1 = xm cos ωt
The equation for motion is written as,
Mx"2 + B1x'2 + k1x2 = B1x'1 + k1x1 ... (1)
x1 = xm cos ωt ... (2)
x'1 = – xm ω sin ωt ... (3)
Substituting x1 and x’1 values in equation (1) we get,
Mx"2 + B1x'2 + k1x2 = B1 [– xm ω sin ωt ] + k1 [xm cos ωt ]
Mx"2+ B1x'2 + k1x2 = xm [k1 cos ωt – B1ω sin ωt ]

 B1   k1    k1  B  
x"2 +   x'2 +   x2 = xm    cos ωt −  1 ω sin ωt  ... (4)
M  M   M  M  

The relative displacement x0 = (x2 – x1)

E xp [−( B / 2M )t ] [C cos ωd t + B1 sin ωd t ] Mxm ω2 cos(ωt + θ)

∴ (x2 – x1) = + 2
T ransient term [(k1 − Mω2 ) 2 + B1 ω2 ]1/ 2

1/ 2
 k  B 2 
Where, ωd =  1 −  1   rad/sec
 M  2 M  

 B1ω 
Phase angle θ = tan–1   rad
2 
 k1 − Mω 
Since, the transient term involves exponential function, the steady state will be established only after the transient is died.
∴ The steady state term is,

Mxm ω2 cos(ωt + θ)
(x2 – x1) =
[(k 1 − Mω2 ) 2 + B12 ω2 ] 1/ 2

The amplitude of the steady state term is written as,

M xm ω2
(x2 – x1)m =
[(k 1 − Mω2 ) 2 + B12 ω2 ]
1/ 2

xm ω2
(x2 – x1)m = 1/ 2 ... (5)
 k  2
 B1  2 
2
2
  1
 − ω  +   ω 
 M   M  

Natural frequency, ωn= k1 / M rad/sec

B1
z=
2 k1M
∴ The equation (5) can be written as,

(x2 – x1)m = =

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.23
Where,
ω
u = = Normalized frequency phase angle,
ωn

θ = tan–1

The dynamic response of a seismic accelerometer is shown in figure (3). When the frequencies of seismic vibration
transducer is higher than its natural frequency then this device is used for the measurement of displacement amplitude.
z

z
z

Figure (3)

6.1.3 Measurement of Velocity

Q35. Name the transducers which are used for the measurement of linear velocity.
Dec.-13, Set-4, Q8(a)

OR
Describe the various methods of measuring the translational or linear velocity.
Ans:
Most of the velocity transducers work on the principle of electromagnetic induction to measure the velocity. Based upon
this principle, the velocity transducers for measuring the linear velocity can be classified as follows,
1. Electromagnetic velocity transducer
2. Seismic type velocity transducer.
1. Electromagnetic Velocity Transducer
The electromagnetic transducers can be classified into the following, based upon the way of applying the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
(a) Moving coil type/Electrodynamic transducer
(b) Moving magnet type
(c) Proximity type velocity transducer.
Electromagnetic transducer works on the principle that a voltage is produced in the coil due to change of flux linkages
resulting from change in reluctance. As the rate of change of flux is directly proportional to the rate of change of reluctance, the
voltage generated is directly proportional to the rate of change of reluctance i.e., as

∝ ⇒ eo ∝

Where, φ = Flux
R = Reluctance
eo = Output voltage
As reluctance is a function of length of air-gap, the voltage eo is directly proportional to the rate of change of air gap
(i.e., velocity).

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6.24 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
(a) Electrodynamic “Moving Coil Type” Velocity
Transducer
In this type of transducer, the magnet is fixed and the coil
moves in the magnetic field, thereby resulting in the generation
of voltage in the coil according to electromagnetic induction
principle.
The electrodynamic transducer consists of a fixed
Figure: Proximity Type Electromagnetic Transducer
permanent magnet having an annular space between the poles.
The coil is wound on a hollow cylinder. The hollow cylinder 2. Seismic Type Velocity Transducer
made up of a nonmagnetic material, is attached to the object
whose velocity is to be measured. When the object moves the A seismic device (mass-spring system) can be used to
coil cylinder moves in the annular space of the fixed magnet measure the velocity. The electromagnetic induction principle
and a voltage is generated in the coil due to the change of flux. in (a seismic device) can be brought into effect through either a
Therefore, the voltage generated is proportional to the velocity movable magnet and a stationary coil or vice-versa. A schematic
of the object. of the seismic velocity transducer is shown in the figure below.

Figure: Electrodynamic Velocity Transducer

(b) Moving Magnet Type Velocity Transducer
This type of transducer makes use of a permanent
magnet in the form of a rod. This rod is coupled to the object
whose velocity is to be measured. The coil is so arranged that it
surrounds the magnet during its motion. When the object moves,
the motion of the rod causes a change in flux due to change in air
gap and a voltage is induced in the coil. This voltage is directly
proportional to the velocity of the moving object.
The direction of motion of the object can also be
Figure: Seismic Velocity Transducer
determined from the polarity of the output voltage.
In this transducer, the permanent magnet which forms
the seismic of the system is supported to the base with the help
of springs. The coil is fixed to the casing in such a way that the
coil comes in contact with the magnetic lines of flux during the
motion of the magnet. The seismic assembly is then attached to
the object which is vibrating. If the object vibrates at a frequency
lower than the natural frequency of the seismic transducer, the
Figure: Moving Magnet Type Velocity Transducer
magnet remains stationary. At frequencies above the natural
(c) Proximity Type Velocity Transducer frequency of the system the magnet (seismic mass) undergoes a
This method is a non-contact type method of measuring displacement equal to the displacement of the object. A voltage
velocity. So it is required that the object whose velocity is to is induced in the coil due to the relative motion of the magnet
measured is made up of a ferromagnetic material. with respect to the coil.
The figure below shows the schematic of a proximity The velocity of the object can be determined from the
type velocity transducer. output voltage (eo) as eo is directly proportional to the rate of
The coil is wound directly on a permanent magnet. The change of motion of the magnet relative to the motion of base
ferromagnetic object whose velocity is to be measured is placed or coil.
near to the poles of the permanent magnet. Due to the motion of Q36. Show and explain the capacitive transducer
the object with respect to the magnet there is a change in flux arrangement to measure angular velocity and
φ linking the coil and a voltage is generated in the coil. This what are its limitations.
voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux
dφ  Ans:

 i . e .,  and thus the gap between the face of the magnet
 dx  The arrangement of capacitive transducer in the
and the ferromagnetic body. arrangement of angular velocity is shown in figure.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.25

Figure: Capacitive Tachometer Arrangement

The main components of a capacitive tachometer arrangement are given as follows,

1. Fixed capacitor plates

2. A vane attached to one of the two ends of a shaft

3. A pulse shaper and amplifier circuit

4. An electronic counter or frequency meter.

The vane is placed between the two fixed plates of capacitor and the free end of the shaft is connected to the source whose
angular velocity is to be determined. Therefore the shaft rotates along with the source which in turn rotates the vane between the
plates. Due to this the capacitance of the capacitor changes. For every rotation of the vane a change in capacitance takes place
and for every changed capacitance value, a voltage pulse is induced. The number of times the capacitance value changes per unit
time gives the angular velocity of the rotating shaft.

The induced pulses are applied to pulse shaper and amplifier circuit which shapes the pulses into accurate pulses and then
amplifies the pulses. These shaped and amplified pulses are then applied to electronic counter which counts the number of pulses.
The counted number of pulses directly gives the value of angular velocity.

Limitations

1. Capacitive transducers are highly sensitive to temperature. Therefore any variation in temperature affects the performance
of the instrument.

2. High output impedance of capacitive transducers lead to loading effects.

3. The presence of duct particles, moisture, etc., changes the capacitance of the capacitor. Due to this error occurs in the
output.
Q37. What are the main elements of velocity transducer?

Ans: April-18, Set-2, Q1(f)

The main elements of a velocity transducer are coil and a permanent magnet. In such type of transducers velocity is
measured based upon electromagnetic induction principle.

These two elements can be arranged in two different configurations (i.e., electrodynamic and electromagnetic) to measure
the velocity.

In electrodynamic velocity transducer, moving coil scheme is employed. In this configuration the coil and the magnet are
arranged in a housing such that the magnet is attached to the base of the housing and the coil is attached to the other side (top) of
the housing with the help of a spring so that the coil is suspended in the magnetic field as shown in the figure below. The body
whose velocity is to measured is connected to the base of the housing.

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6.26 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Due to the displacement of the body, the housing also gets displaced which in turn caused a displacement of the coil in the
magnetic field. This movement of the coil causes a change in the flux linkages between the magnet and the coil, and thus according
to the electromagnetic induction principle an electrical voltage gets induced in the coil. This induced voltage is proportional to
the relative velocity of the spring and is given by the equation.
e = BL Vr ×10–8
Where,
e – Induced voltage
B – Flux density
L – Length of coil
Vr = = relative velocity of coil with respect to magnet (cm/s)

Figure
Q38. With a neat diagram explain potentiometric type accelerometer.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q8(b)

Figure: Potentiometric Accelerometer

A potentiometric accelerometer employs a seismic mass, spring arrangement dashpot, and a resistive element. The seismic
mass (potentiometer) is connected between spring and dashpot. The wiper of the potentiometer is connected to the mass. In the
presence of vibration or acceleration, vibrational displacement of seismic mass takes place with respect to the housing of the device.
The displacement of mass is transferred to the potentiometers through the wiper. Therefore, the resistance of the potentiometer
changes. This change in resistance gives the value of displacement and hence the acceleration.
Advantages
1. Construction and operation are very simple.
2. Low cost.
Disadvantages
1. Resolution is low.
2. It is not suitable for high frequency vibrations.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.27
Q39. With the help of a neat sketch explain the principle and working of electromagnetic flow meter. What
are the advantages and limitations of this method?
Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q7(a)

Principle: The measurement of flow rate using an electromagnetic flow meter depends on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. When a pipe or tube carrying electrically conducting fluid is placed in a transverse magnetic field, an e.m.f will be induced
across the electrodes connected to it. This induced voltage gives the measure of the velocity of the fluid or flow rate of the fluid.
Construction

Figure: Flow Measurement Using Electromagnetic Flow Meter

An electromagnetic flow meter consists of a non-magnetic and non-conducting pipe to carry the flow whose velocity or
flow rate is to be determined. To the opposite sides of this pipe a pair of insulated electrodes which are in contact with the fluid
flow inside the pipe are connected. Now this pipe is placed between the two poles of an electromagnet or permanent magnet that
produces magnetic field.
Working: When the conducting fluid whose flow rate is to be measured is made to flow through the pipe, it cuts the magnetic
field causing some e.m.f to be induced across the electrodes. This induced voltage is given by,
e = Blv
Where,
B = Flux density
l = Conductor length (this is equal to diameter of the pipe)
v = Velocity of the fluid (conductor)
From the above equation it is clear that the voltage induced across the electrodes is directly proportional to the diameter
of pipe, average velocity of fluid and hence gives the volume flow rate of the fluid.
Advantages
1. This method does not cause any obstruction to the flow of fluid, hence pressure will not drop.
2. It can be used with pipes of any size.
3. Accuracy is good.
4. The relation between output voltage and flow rate is linear.
5. Effectively measures the flow rates of slurries, conducting fluids, sludge etc.
6. The output is independent of variations in temperature, viscosity, density etc.
Limitations
1. Highly expensive.
2. The presence of gas and air bubbles in the fluid leads to errors.
3. The fluid under measurement must be conductive in nature.
Q40. What are the two types of anemometer available for liquid flow measurement? Explain the principle and
operation of hotwire anemometer.
Ans: April/May-17, Set-2, Q7(b)

The two types of anemometer available for liquid flow measurement are,
1. Laser doppler anemometer
2. Hot wire anemometer.

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6.28 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Hot-wire Anemometer

Principle

When a fluid (gas or liquid) flows over an electrically heated surface or heated wire, the heat transfer takes place from the
surface or wire to the fluid. Hence the temperature of the heated wire decreases and causes variations in its resistance. The change
that occurred in the resistance of the wire is related to the flow rate.

Description: A hot wire anemometer is formed by placing a conducting wire in a ceramic body. The leads of the wire are connected
to one of the four arms of the bridge circuit so that the change in resistance of the hot wire can be measured.

Figure (1): Hot-wire Anemometer

Flow measurement using hot wire anemometer is done in two methods. They are,

(i) Constant current method

(ii) Constant temperature method.

(i) Constant Current Method: The circuit arrangement for flow measurement using hot wire anemometer in constant current
method is illustrated in figure (2).

Figure (2): Constant Current Method of Measurement of Flow

The hot wire anemometer is placed inside the pipe to measure the flow rate of the gas flowing through it. The leads of the
anemometer are connected to one of the arms of Wheatstone bridge and a constant magnitude of current is made to flow through
the anemometer. Therefore, the voltage across the bridge will not change but remain at a constant value. When the gas flows
through the pipe it absorbs heat from the sensing element or the heat is transferred from the anemometer to the gas. Due to this
the temperature of the hot wire anemometer decreases which in turn changes its resistance. This change in resistance causes the
bridge to become unbalanced and the galvanometer deflects indicating the value of flow rate of the gas.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.29
(ii) Constant Temperature Method: The circuit arrangement for flow measurement using hot wire anemometer in constant
temperature method is illustrated in figure (3).

Figure (3): Constant Temperature Method of Measurement of Flow

The hot wire anemometer is placed inside the pipe to measure the flow rate of the gas flowing through it. The leads of the
anemometer wire are connected to one of the arms of Wheatstone bridge and some amount of current is made to flow through
the anemometer. Now the flow of gas through the pipe absorbs heat from the sensing element or the heat is transferred from the
anemometer to the gas. Due to this the temperature of the hot wire anemometer decreases which inturn changes its resistance.
Since it is a constant temperature method, the temperature and hence the resistance of the hot wire anemometer are required
to be maintained at a constant value. For this purpose the value of current flowing through the sensing wire is increased in order
to get back to its initial temperature and hence resistance state. Here the amount of current needed to maintain the temperature
and hence resistance of the sensing wire at initial values gives the flow rate of the gas.

6.1.4 Measurement of Humidity and Moisture

Q41. Explain any one of the method for the measurement of humidity. April/May-17, Set-2, Q1(f)

OR
Explain how a sling psychrometer is used to determine the dry and wet bulb temperatures.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q8(a)

Figure: Sling Psychrometer

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6.30 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Sling psychrometer measures both dry and wet bulb
temperatures. These measured temperatures give the measure
of humidity present in air.
This instrument uses two thermometers, one is dry bulb
thermometer and the other is wet bulb thermometer. The dry
bulb thermometer is so called because the sensing bulb of it is
in direct contact with air and measures the temperature which
is known as dry bulb temperature. The wet bulb thermometer is
so called because the sensing bulb of it is covered with woven
cotton wick or moistened with pure water and this covering is
brought in contact with air. The temperature measured by this
thermometer is known as wet bulb temperature. These two
thermometers are held in a frame which is covered by glass
casing. To this glass casing a swivel handle is attached. This
is to ensure that the air present at the sensing bulb of wet bulb
Figure: Hair Hygrometer
thermometer is in immediate contact with wet cotton wick.
In this arrangement an animal hair is used as humidity
The process of measurement of dry bulb and wet bulb
sensor. The hair is separated from one another and arranged
temperatures needs the psychrometer frame-glass covering
parallely. This hair arrangement is attached to an arm which
thermometer arrangement to be rotated at 5 m/s to 10 m/s in
is pivoted at one end where as the other end is attached to a
order to obtain necessary air motion.
mechanical link. The link carries a pointer which moves over
As the psychrometer is rotated, air moves with some a scale calibrated interms of humidity.
velocity around the wet cotton wick. Therefore accurate
measurement of wet bulb temperature is achieved. When the When the hygrometer is placed in the atmosphere in
psychrometer rotates the thermometer whose sensing bulb which the humidity of air is to be known, the hair arrangement
is in direct contact with air measures and indicates dry bulb absorbs the humidity from its surrounding air. Due to this the
temperature and the thermometer whose sensing bulb covered length of hair increases or decreases (in a linear direction). This
with wet cotton wick contact with the air i.e., the air moves on increase or decrease of hair arrangement is transmitted to the
the wet wick. Therefore the moisture content exist in the wet arm and link and hence to the pointer. Therefore the pointer
wick starts to evaporate there by producing a cooling effect at moves on the calibrated scale there by indicating the humidity
the bulb. Now the temperature measured and indicated by this content present in the atmosphere.
thermometer is wet bulb temperature. This wet bulb temperature If the hygrometer employs membrane as a humidity
is always less than dry bulb temperature. sensing element then it is known as membrane hygrometer.
The psychrometer frame-glass covering thermometer 2. Electrical Humidity Sensing Absorption Hygrometer
should be rotated between the specified period of time. If it is
The operating principle of this hygrometer depends
rotated for longer period of time, the wet wick will dry very
on the variation of resistance with variation in humidity. The
fast, therefore wet bulb temperature will not be at its minimum
schematic arrangement of electrical humidity sensing absorption
value. If it is rotated for short period of time, proper wet bulb
hygrometer is shown in figure.
temperature cannot be measured.
Q42. Classify absorption hygrometers and explain
them in detail.
Ans:
Absorption hygrometers are classified into two types.
They are,
1. Mechanical humidity sensing absorption
hygrometer.
2. Electrical humidity sensing absorption hygrometer.
1. Mechanical Humidity Sensing Absorption
Hygrometer
The operating principle involves the change of linear
dimensions of some hydroscopic materials like wood, paper,
human hair, animal membrane, etc., when they absorb moisture
from atmosphere. This variation in linear dimensions is used to
measure the humidity present in the atmosphere.
The schematic arrangement of hair hygrometer is shown
below. Figure: Electrical Humidity Sensing Absorption Hygrometer

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.31
The two electrodes are coated with hygroscopic salt. It is a lithium chloride conductor and acts as humidity sensing element.
The leads of two electrodes are connected in one of the four arms of a balanced wheat stone bridge circuit.
The two electrodes are placed in the atmosphere whose humidity is to be measured. When the humidity of atmosphere
changes, the lithium chloride absorbs or loses moisture. Therefore the resistance of the lithium chloride conductor changes. When
the humidity in the atmosphere increases, the resistance decreases and vice versa. Due to this the balance condition of Wheatstone
bridge will get disturbed (since the leads of the lithium chloride coated electrode is connected in one of the 4 arms of the bridge)
and the bridge produces some output voltage which gives the measure of relative humidity present in the atmosphere.
Q43. Explain the concept of data acquisition systems in detail.
April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(f)

OR
Describe the working of dew point meter.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-12, Set-1, Q8(b)

The schematic arrangement of a dew point meter is shown below.

Figure: Dew Point Meter

In the above arrangement the thermocouple is attached to a mirror (a shiny surface). A light source is placed such that
the rays coming from light source constantly focussed on to the mirror. A photocell is used to receive and detect the light rays
reflected from the mirror. A nozzle (used to provide a jet of air on the mirror) is placed infront of the mirror, the cooling medium
is kept at a constant temperature and is used to cool the mirror.
Initially the light rays from the source are made to focus on the mirror and the reflected rays from the mirror are detected
by photocell. Now, the air jet from the nozzle is supplied to the mirror. Therefore, the moisture content present in the air will
start to condense on the surface of the mirror thereby appearing as a dew or small drops on the mirror. Due to the formation of
dew comparatively less amount of light will be reflected by the mirror and falls on the photocell. Now, the photocell detects the
amount of light reflected by the mirror.
The change in the amount of reflected light for the first time gives the indication of formation of dew.
At the instance of formation of dew for the first time the temperature measured by the thermocouple is the dew point
temperature. In this way the dew meter determines the instance at which dew forms for the first time and hence the dew point
temperature.

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6.32 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Q44. Define humidity and give a classification. the surroundings. Determination of these electrical parameters
Explain the procedure for the measurement of give the measure of moisture content in certain materials such
as pulp, paper, grain, flour, wood, tobacco, coffee, salt, soap,
humidity.
some food products and organic samples. In this method to
Ans: April/May-17, Set-3, Q7(a) measure the capacitance or conductance a pair of electrodes
Humidity is defined as the amount of water vapour should be placed in physical contact with the sample whose
present in the atmosphere. It is mainly classified into three moisture content is being measured.
types. They are, Depending on the type of material whose moisture is
to be measured different structures of electrodes are used. To
1. Absolute humidity
measure moisture present in granular material a cup shaped
2. Specific humidity electrode arrangement (as illustrated in figure) is used. In this
technique the granular material is poured into the cup to which
3. Relative humidity
electrode leads are connected. A piston provided by spring
1. Absolute Humidity arrangement is used to close the cup in order to maintain
maximum pressure in the material, and actual moisture is
For answer refer Unit-VI, Q4, Topic: Absolute Humidity.
measured by weighting it after it becomes completely dried.
2. Specific Humidity For each material and its electrode arrangement, resistance -
moisture content characteristics are established provided the
Specific humidity is defined as the ratio of mass of water
device is calibrated properly.
vapour to the mass of dry air in a unit volume of air water vapour
mixture. It is also known as humidity ratio.
3. Relative Humidity
For answer refer Unit-VI, Q4, Topic: Relative Humidity.
Procedure for the Measurement of Humidity
The various types of instruments used for the
measurement of humidity are as follows,
(i) Sling psychrometer
(ii) Hair hygrometer
(iii) Absorption hygrometer
(a) Mechanical humidity sensing absorption
hygrometer.
(b) Electrical humidity sensing absorption hygrometer.
(iv) Dew point hygrometer
(v) Spectroscopic hygrometer Figure: Moisture Measurement Cell for Granular Materials
(vi) Gravimetric hygrometer
6.1.5 Measurement of Speed
Sling Psychrometer
For answer refer Unit-VI, Q41. Q46. What are the various methods for measuring the
angular speed? Explain briefly any one method
Q45. Define moisture and explain a method to with suitable diagrams.
measure it.
Ans: (Nov./Dec.-12, Set-2, Q8(a) | Model Paper-III, Q7(b))
April/May-17, Set-4, Q7(a) Angular speed can be measured using either a mechanical
OR or electrical type of tachometer.
As electrical tachometers possess all the advantages of
Explain how moisture content in granular electrical transducers they are widely used when compared to
materials is measured. mechanical tachometers.
Ans: Electrical Tachometers
Some of the electrical parameters such as capacitance, They are broadly classified as follows,
resistance, conductivity varies with provided the instrument is (a) Electromagnetic tachometer generators
properly calibrated. This principle of measurement is widely (b) Digital tachometers
used in industries to measure moisture and moisture present in (c) Stroboscope.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.33
Electromagnetic Tachometer Generators
They are three types of electromagnetic Tachometer Generators,
1. D.C tachometer generator
2. A.C tachometer generator
3. Drag cup rotor A.C tachogenerator.
1. D.C Tachometer Generator
It consists of a permanent magnet and a small armature. The armature is placed between the poles of the magnet. The
object whose angular speed/velocity is to be measured is coupled to the armature.
So, when the object rotates the armature also revolves in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. As the armature made
up of a conducting material its rotation results in the generation of emf. The current flowing in the armature is collected through
commutator and brushes and thus voltage is generated which can be measured using a moving coil voltmeter. In case of a short
circuit, the current from the generator is limited by a series resistance.
The voltage generated is proportional to the speed of the object and the direction of rotation is determined from the polarity
of the output voltage.
The figure below shows a DC tachogenerator.

Figure: D.C Tachometer Generator

2. A.C Tachometer Generator
The problems associated with commutator (as in DC tachometers) are not present in AC tachometers because in AC
tachometers the coil is wound on the stator and the magnet is allowed to rotate. The rotating magnet can be either an electromagnet
or permanent magnet.
The machine whose angular speed is to be measured is connected to the rotating magnet. When the magnet rotates the flux
lines are cut by the stationary coil and thus according to the electromagnetic induction law an emf is induced in the stator coil.
The amplitude or frequency of the induced voltage gives the measure of speed as both the parameters are proportional to speed
of rotation.
The circuit shown below is used when it is required to measure speed in terms of amplitude of induced voltage. The voltage
generated by AC tachometer generator is rectified and smoothened before it is measured by moving coil voltmeter.

Figure: AC Tachometer Generator

3. Drag Cup Rotor AC Tachogenerator
In this type of A.C tachogenerator, the rotor is in the form of a cup. The cup is made of a high conductive material such as
aluminium and it has very low inertia (i.e., the cup is thin). The stator of the generator consists of two field windings wound on
it. These two field windings are mounted on stator so that they are at right angles to each other. These windings are said to be in
space quadrature with each other and are referred as quadrature winding and reference winding.

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6.34 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The reference winding is supplied with an A.C voltage and the output voltage is taken from the quadrature winding. The
cup is known as drag cup as it is connected to the object whose speed is to be measured.

Figure: Drag Cup Rotor A.C Tachometer Generator

A reference voltage vr cos ωct is applied to the reference coil. If the resistance and reactance of the coil are negligible then
a reference flux φr sinωc t is produced which lags the reference voltage by 90o.
When the drag cup rotates in the air gap of this field an emf is induced in the cup and a current flows through it. Due to this
induced emf a quadrature flux φq is produced which in turn leads to a transformer action and an emf eq is induced in the quadrature
coil.
Thus, the voltage output vt(t) at the terminals of quadrature coil is proportional to the speed of rotation, and is a function
of speed.
Q47. How angular speed shall be measured using the digital method?
April-18, Set-1, Q7(b)

OR
Explain the digital method of measuring angular speed.
Ans:
Digital methods are used to measure higher angular speeds as it is not possible to measure angular speeds above 10,000
rpm with electromechanical methods.
The use of digital methods also eliminates the loading of the shaft whose speed is to be measured as in this method there
is no physical contact between the measuring device and the shaft.
The digital pickups employ digital frequency meters for the measurement purpose and they can be classified into 2 types.
They are,
1. Photoelectric type
2. Inductive type.
1. Photoelectric Tachometer
The measuring assembly of photo electric method consists of an opaque disc having a number of equidistant holes on its
periphery, a light source and a light sensor. The light sensor can be a photosensitive device or a phototube.
The disc is mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured. The light source is placed at one side of the disc and the
light sensor is placed in the same line with the source at other side of the disc. They are placed in such a way that the light passes
through the holes of the disc when it rotates.
During the rotation of the disc (due to the rotation of the shaft), the light does not reach the sensor when the opaque portion
of the disc is between the light source and sensor and thus there is no output. But there is a pulse output from the sensor when a
hole comes between the two and light falls on the sensor.
The number of holes on the disc and its speed of rotation determine the frequency of the pulses produced. The pulse rate
wholly becomes a function of speed as the number of holes is fixed.
The speed of rotation can be determined by measuring the pulse rates through a digital frequency counter calibrated in
terms of speed (in rpm).

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.35
Advantages
(i) Analog to digital conversion is not required as the output of the tachometer is in digital form.
(ii) Constant amplitude of the pulses requires a simple electronic circuit.
Disadvantages
(i) Frequent replacement of the light source due to its limited lifetime i.e., 50,000 hours.
(ii) If the gating period of the digital meters (i.e., period in which the input pulses occur for frequency measurement) is too
small, errors are produced.

Figure: Photoelectric Tachometer

2. Inductive Type Digital Pickup - Toothed Rotor Variable Reluctance Tachometer

The inductive type digital pickup employs a toothed rotor which is mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be determined
and a magnetic pickup.

The magnetic pickup which has a coil wound on a small permanent magnet, is placed near the toothed rotor, so that an air
gap is formed between the two with a certain amount of reluctance.

The reluctance of this air gap changes when the toothed rotor rotates and thus an emf is induced in the coil of the pickup.
Due to the teeth of the rotor a pulsed output is obtained. As the number of teeth are fixed the frequency of the pulses depend only
on the speed of rotation and thus the speed of rotation can be determined by measuring the frequency of the pulses through an
electronic counter. The output pulses can be in the form of any wave shape.

Figure: Toothed Rotor Tachometer Generator

Let, T – Rotor teeth
P – The number of pulses per second and
N – The speed of rotation in rpm
Then the number of pulses per revolution = Number of teeth = T
P
∴ Speed, N = = r.p.s
T

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6.36 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Q48. What are the different methods of measurement Construction and Working Principle of Photoelectric
of speed? Explain the construction and working Tachometer
principle of any one of them.
For answer refer Unit-VI, Q47, Topic: Photoelectric
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-2, Q8(b) Tachometer.
Speed (velocity) can be of two types. They are, Q49. Explain the stroboscopic method of measuring
1. Linear or translational speed the angular speed.
2. Angular or rotational speed.
April-18, Set-4, Q7(b)
1. Linear or Translational Speed Measurement Methods
The linear velocity speed measuring transducers are OR
classified as,
Explain in detail about the stroboscope for the
(i) Electromagnetic velocity transducer measurement of speed.
(ii) Seismic type velocity transducer.
April/May-17, Set-3, Q7(b)
Electromagnetic Velocity Transducer
The electromagnetic transducers are classified into OR
different types, based on the way of applying the
principle of electromagnetic induction. They are, How is the angular speed measured using
stroboscope?
(a) Moving coil type or electrodynamic transducer
(b) Moving magnet type Ans:
(c) Proximity type velocity transducer. The periodic or rotary motions can be measured by using
2. Angular or Rotational Speed Measurement Methods a device known as stroboscope. A stroboscope is a device that
Angular speed can be measured using the following consists of a source of variable frequency flashing brilliant
techniques, light called Strobotron. The flashing frequency of Strobotron
is controlled by a variable frequency oscillator.
(i) Electrical tachometers
(ii) Mechanical tachometers. The principle involved in measurement of speed through
stroboscope is to make the moving objects visible only at
(i) Electrical Tachometers
specific intervals of time by adjusting the flashing frequency.
Electrical tachometers are broadly classified as,
(a) Electromagnetic Tachometer Generators The figure below shows a stroboscope measuring the
speed of shaft.
They are again subdivided into the following types,
v D.C tachometer generator
v A.C tachometer generator.
v Drag cup rotor A.C tachogenerator.
(b) Digital Tachometers
The digital (pick-ups) tachometers employ digital
frequency meters for the measurement purpose and
they can be classified into two types. They are,
v Photoelectric tachometer
v Inductive type digital pick-up toothed rotor
variable reluctance tachometer. Figure: Shaft Speed Measurement Using Stroboscope
(c) Stroboscope
The speed of the shaft using a stroboscope is measured
(ii) Mechanical Tachometers in the following manner.
Mechanical tachometers are again classified into, An identification mark is made directly on the shaft
v Tachoscope or on a disc mounted on the shaft. The flashing light from the
stroboscope is made to fall on the mark and the frequency of
v Hand speed indicator
flashing is adjusted so that the mark appears to be stationary.
v Revolution counter and timer Under such condition the speed of rotation is equal to the
v Slipping clutch tachometer flashing frequency.
v Vibrating reed tachometer The speed can be read directly from the scale of the
v Centrifugal force tachometer. stroboscope which is calibrated in terms of speed.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.37
As the electron static force of attraction is low, the above
6.1.6 Measurement of Proximity and proximity detector doesn’t constitute any load on the object.
Displacement
Proximity Meter
Q50. What is proximity? Explain the operation of
proximity transducer. A proximity meter of different electrode arrange-ment
is shown in figure (2).
Ans: April-18, Set-2, Q7(a)

Proximity Measurement
In some applications, it is desired to measure the
proximity or closeness of an object. For this, the moving
object whose proximity is to be determined is provided with a
plane conducting surface. The plane of this moving object is
considered as the moving plate of a transducer and proximity
of the object with respect to this fixed plate of transducer is
determined. Electrical techniques are utilized to develop output
voltages proportional to separation (closeness) or proximity
between the plates. Figure (2): Proximity Meter

A circuit stating the above principle is shown in figure Two electrodes A and B are closed to each other with an
(1). earthed screen is placed between them.
An earthed object with plane surface is kept close or in
proximity with the two plates. The fringe capacitance between
them varies with the distance of the object from them.
Thus, the capacitance between the plates A and B is
measured which in turn gives the indication of the proximity
or distance x of the object.
This value of capacitance C is very small but small
variations can be measured with suitable circuitry.
Q51. What is the arrangement to measure dis-
placement using Hall effect transducer?
Ans:
It works on the principle that whenever a thin plate of
Figure (1): Proximity Transducer conducting material carries current in presence of transverse
magnetic field, an E.M.F is produced at the opposite edges of
Here, the moving object or plate is earthed and the fixed the thin plate conductor which is given by,
plate is designed to have much smaller area than the movable
surface and a guard ring is also provided. VH = KH
The output signal e0 from a high gain operational Where,
amplifier proportional to proximity x0 is given by,
KH = Hall effect coefficient.
cf
e0 = − e1 I = Current passing through conductor, Amp
cx
B = Magnetic flux density, Wb/m2
cf  A
= − . x0. e1  c x = ε  t = Thickness of conductor, m.
εA  x 0
The above voltage is proportional to the current and field
Where, strength.
A = Area between the two plates Semiconductors can be used as the conductive plate.
x0 = Separation or proximity of moving object The above explained Hall effect element can be used
ε = Permitivity of the medium for measurement of displacement or proximity of a structural
element.
cf x 0
e0 = – . Vm sin ωt In this change in dimensions of a magnetic structure
εA
causes a change in magnetic flux density. Such an arrangement
e1 = Vm sin ωt = Sinusoidal applied voltage. is shown in the figure.

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6.38 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

Figure: Hall Effect Transducer

It shows a ferromagnetic structure having a permanent magnet. The Hall effect element is placed inside the gap close to
permanent magnet.
Now as the position of a ferromagnetic plate close to permanent magnet is changed, the field strength of the gap in which
Hall effect element is present changes.
So the output voltage produced at the Hall effect transducer is proportional to magnetic field strength in the gap or
proportional to displacement of ferromagnetic plate with the structure. Small measurement of about 0.020 mm can be measured
by this Hall effect transducer.
Q52. Show the differential arrangement of capacitors to measure displacement.
Ans:
The differential arrangement of capacitors used for the measurement of displacement is shown below.

Figure: Differential Arrangement of Capacitors

In the above arrangement ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two fixed plates of the capacitor. Between these two fixed plates a movable plate is
placed. These three plate arrangement acts as two capacitors. Among these three plates the displacement which is to be measured
is applied to the movable plate and differential output resulting from the two capacitors is considered.
Assume that no displacement is applied to movable plate and is at the center of the two fixed plates.
In this condition the capacitances of the two capacitors are equal i.e., Ca = Cb.
Where,

∈A
Ca = and is the capacitance of capacitor ‘a’
d
∈A
Cb= and is the capacitance of capacitor ‘b’
d
An alternating supply (V) is given to the two plates (a and b) and the resulting differential voltage across the two capacitors
is determined. If the movable plate is at the centre then,
Ca = Cb and
V
Va = Vb =
2

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.39
Voltage across Ca is given by, ∆V = Va – Vb

V1 = d−x d+x
= V × –V×
2d 2d
V x
∴ V1 = ... (1) ∴ ∆V = V ... (6)
2 d
Voltage across Cb is given by, From equations (3) and (6) it is observed that the output
VCa voltage of differential capacitor changes linearly with applied
V2 =
(Ca +Cb ) displacement. Thus the linear variation in the output voltage
gives the measure of applied displacement.
V
∴ V2 = ... (2) Q53. E x p l a i n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f a n g u l a r
2
From equations (1) and (2) it is clear that the differential displacement using,
voltage when the movable plate is at center is given by, (i) Capacitive transducer
∆V = V1 – V2
(ii) RVDT
V V
∆V = – (iii) Synchros.
2 2
∴ ∆V = 0 ... (3) Ans:

Now assume that some displacement is applied to the (i) Capacitive Transducer
movable plate. Therefore the plate moved to a distance say A capacitive transducer working on the principle of
x. When this plate moved from center the capacitances of change in capacitance due to change in area of plates can
capacitor Ca and Cb will be different from each other. Due to be used for angular displacement measurement. One such
this a differential output voltage is generated. type of transducer employed in the measurement of angular
∈A displacement is shown below.
∴Ca =
d−x
∈A
Cb = and
d+x
CbV
Va =
C a + Cb
∈A
=
d+x ×V
∈A ∈A Figure: Capacitive Transducer using Change in Area of Plates
+
d−x d+x The above shown capacitive transducer contains two
plates of these two plates one is movable and the other is fixed.
d−x When the angular displacement to be measured is applied to the
∴ Va = V × ... (4)
2d movable plate the area between the two plates changes which
in turn changes the capacitance of the capacitive transducer.
CaV
Vb = The capacitance will be maximum when, θ = 180° i.e.,
C a + Cb
two plates overlap each other completely.
∈A
∈A π∈r2
= d−x ×V ∴ Maximum capacitance, Cmax = =
∈A ∈A d 2d
+
d − x (d + x) The value of capacitance at angle θ is given by,

d+x ∈ θr 2
∴ Vb = V × ... (5) C=
2d 2d
Where,
From equations (3) and (4) the differential output voltage
is given by, θ = Angular displacement (in radians)

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6.40 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
Now,
∂C
Sensitivity, S =
∂θ
∈r2
∴ S=
2d
Therefore, sensitivity is directly proportional to area. ( A = πr 2 and ∈ , d are constants).

(ii) RVDT
An RVDT is used to convert the angular displacement into electrical signal. The construction and working of RVDT is
same as that of LVDT except that it employs a cam shaped core as shown below.

Figure: Circuit Diagram of an RVDT

The cam shaped core rotates between primary and two secondary windings when connected to shaft whose angular
displacement has to be measured. At the null position equal amount of voltages will be induced in both secondary windings.
Therefore es1 = es2, and the net output voltage is zero. When angular displacement is applied, a differential voltage will be generated
at the output. This differential output voltage increases with increase of angular displacement. Thus the relation between angular
displacement and output will be linear. When the shaft rotates in clockwise direction, the output voltage increases in one phase,
and if the shaft rotates in anti-clockwise direction. The output voltage increases with an opposite phase. Therefore the amount of
applied angular displacement is known by the magnitude of the output voltage where as the direction is known by the phase of
the output voltage.

(iii) Synchros

The devices by which the angular position of shaft is converted into electrical signal are known as synchros. The synchros
are electromagnetic sensors or transducers. The construction of synchro is same as a three phase alternator. It has a stator and a
rotor, the stator consists of 3 identical stationary windings which are separated by 120° in space. These stationary windings are
connected in star (Y) configuration. The rotor is dumb-bell shaped rotor to which an A.C. excitation voltage is applied through slip
rings. The rotor acts as primary winding of single phase transformer whereas the stationary windings acts as secondary winding
of single phase transformer. A basic synchro system consists of 2 basic parts. They are,
1. Synchro transmitter
2. Synchro receiver.

Figure (a): Construction of Synchro Transmitter

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.41

Figure (b): Synchro Transmitter Figure (c): Stator Terminal Voltages with respect to θ2

Assume that the rotor is excited with an A.C. voltage

νr = 2 Vr sin ωct.
Where,

ωc → Carrier frequency (rad/s)

Vr → Rotor voltage r.m.s value (V)

This voltage causes the magnetic current to develop in the rotor winding and an alternating flux (which is sinusoidal in
nature) is generated. Due to this, voltages will be induced in the three stator windings. The induced voltage in each stator winding
is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the rotor and the axes of the stator winding. The three stator windings may have
three different values of induced voltages because these are produced due to the transformer action.

In figure (b), S1, S2 and S3 are stator windings and their respective induced voltages are ν S1n , ν S 2 n , ν S 3n , with respect to
natural position n. For the position of rotor as shown in figure (b), the angle between rotor axis and the stator winding S2 is θR.
With this angle the voltages induced in the three windings are,

S1n ν = KVr sin ωct cos (θR + 120°) ... (1)

S 2 n
ν = KVr sin ωct cos θR ... (2)

S 3n
ν = KVr sin ωct cos (θR + 240°) ... (3)

The terminal voltages of three stator windings are,

νS1S2 = νS1n – νS2n

= 3 KVr sin (θR + 240°)sin ωct ... (4)

νS2S3 = νS2n – νS3n

= 3 KVr sin (θR + 120°)sin ωct ... (5)

νS3S1 = νS3n – νS1n

= 3 KVr sin θR sin ωct. ... (6)

Where,

K is constant. It is the ratio of rotor turns to the stator turns.

From equation (2) it is clear that when the angle θR = 0 then maximum voltage will be induced in the stator winding S2.

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6.42 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]

6.2 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS

Q54. What is Data Acquisition System? What are its applications?

Ans: April/May-17, Set-1, Q1(f)

Data Acquisition System

Data acquisition system is a group of various devices that are combined in an orderly fashion to perform necessary operations
on relevant data.
Usually a data acquisition system is an assembly of the following sensors/transducers, signal conditions, data conversion,
data handling, data processing units, multiplexing circuits and data transmission, data storage and data display systems.
Data acquisition systems are used to measure and record analog signals that originate either from the transducers or from
the direct measurement of electrical parameters.
Objectives
For answer refer Uniti-VI, Q12.
Applications
Data acquisition systems find applications in many industrial and scientific areas such as,
(i) Aerospace
(ii) Telemetry and
(iii) Biomedical fields.
Q55. What is data acquisition system? Explain the working of a multichannel analog multiplexed DAS.
Ans: Nov.-10, Set-4, Q8(b)

Data Acquisition System

For answer refer Unit-VI, Q54, Topic: Data Acquisition System.
Multichannel Analog Multiplexed DAS

Figure: Multichannel Analog Multiplexed DAS

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.43
Multichannel analog multiplexed DAS comprises the number of analog channels or analog signals to be transmitted,
scaling amplification and signal conditioning circuits, a multiplexer and an analog to digital conversion arrangement (i.e., A/D
converter set-up). Each analog signal is connected to the multiplexer circuit through the respective scaling amplification and signal
conditioning circuit. The multiplexer selects and allows one channel at a time to reach the A/D converter set-up, whose function
is to convert the analog signal into digital. Thus, the selected input analog signal is converted into digital signal.
As soon as the conversion process of analog to digital is over, the A/D converter sends a status signal to the sample and
hold circuit. Therefore, the sample and hold circuit comes back to its sample mode and takes the analog signal of the next channel
through the multiplexer. After acquiring the next signal, the sample and hold circuit goes to hold mode and the conversion of
analog to digital will get started. While the A/D conversion is going on the multiplexer selects the next signal and gets ready to
supply it to the sample and hold circuit.
Q56. Draw the block diagram of a standard DAS and explain function of each block
(April-18, Set-3, Q7(b) | Model Paper-IV, Q7(b))

OR

Explain with the help of block diagram of general data acquisition system.
Ans: (Dec.-13, Set-3, Q8(a) | Nov.-11, Set-3, Q8(b))

The block diagram of a general Data Acquisition System (DAS) is shown in the figure below. It consists of the following
elements,
1. Transducer
2. Signal conditioner
3. Multiplexer
4. Analog to Digital (A/D) converter
5. Recorders and display devices.

Figure: Generalized Data Acquisition System

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6.44 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
1. Transducer
A transducer is used to convert the physical parameters coming from the field into electrical signals or it is used to measure
directly the electrical quantities such as resistance, voltage, frequency, etc.
2. Signal Conditioner
Usually the output signals of the transducer will be of very low level (weak) signals which cannot be used for further
processing. In order to make the signals strong enough to drive the other elements signal conditioners such as amplifiers, modifiers,
filters etc., are used.
3. Multiplexer
The function of the multiplexer is to accept multiple analog inputs (after signal conditioning) and provide a single output
sequentially according to the requirements.
4. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter
The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter is generally used to convert the analog data into digital form. The digital data is
used for the purpose of easy processing, transmission, digital display and storage.
Processing involves various operations on data such as comparison, mathematical manipulations, data is collected, converted
into useful form and utilized for various purposes like for control operation and display etc.
The transmission of data in digital form is possible over short distances as well as long distances of and has advantages
over transmission in analog form. The data can be stored permanently or temporarily and can be displayed on a CRT or digital
panel.
5. Recorders and Display Devices
In display devices the data is displayed in a suitable form in order to monitor the input signals. Examples of display devices
are oscilloscopes, numerical displays, panel meters, etc.
In order to have either a temporary or permanent record of the useful data recorders are used.
The analog data can be recorded either graphically or on a magnetic tape. Optical recorders, ultraviolet recorders, styles-
and-ink recorders are some of its examples.
The digital data can be recorded through digital recorders. The digital data is first converted into a suitable form for recording
by means of a coupling unit and then recorded on either a magnetic tape, punched cards or an perforated paper tape.
With a magnetic tape recording, the data can be reproduced later for having a reference and to perform detailed analysis
of the input signal.
Q57. What are the important factors that decide the configuration and sub system of a DAS?
(Nov.-11, Set-1, Q8(b) | Nov.-10, Set-3, Q8(b))

OR

What are the various configurations used in a DAS?

Ans: Nov.-11, Set-4, Q8(b)

The different configurations of data acquisition system are,

1. Single channel configuration
2. Multichannel configuration.
1. Single Channel Configuration
The single channel configuration performs the following operations,
(i) Direct conversion operation
(ii) Pre-amplification and direct conversion
(iii) Sample and hold and conversion
(iv) Pre-amplification, signal conditioning and any of the above three operations.

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UNIT-6 Measurement of Physical Parameters 6.45
2. Multichannel Configuration
The multichannel configuration performs the following operations,
(i) Multiplexing low level data
(ii) Multiplexing the outputs of single channel converters
(iii) Multiplexing the inputs of sample and hold circuits
(iv) Multiplexing the outputs of sample and hold circuits.
The factors depending on which the configuration and sub-system of data acquisition system is decided are,
(i) Accuracy
(ii) Resolution
(iii) Type of signal (i.e., analog or digital signal)
(iv) Single channel or multichannel
(v) Number of channels to be monitored
(vi) Rate of sampling per channel
(vii) Requirements of signal conditioning of each channel
(viii) Cost.
Q58. Briefly explain the logarithm compression. And list out various advantages of DAS.
Ans:
Logarithm Compression
Logarithm compression is a phenomenon, in which a fractional change in the input is measured as a percentage of the
input magnitude instead of a percentage of maximum scale range. A logarithmic measurement circuit performs this function of
logarithm compression.
Let a voltage in the range of 100 µV to 100 mV is applied to the input, then the output may correspond to 0 V for the input
of 100 µV and 3 V for the input of 100 mV provided the logarithmic conversion gain is 1 V/decade. Now, assume that the input
voltage increases by 1 V i.e., varies from 100 mV to 101 mV, then the output of the logarithmic amplifier will be given by,

∆V =

= log(1.01) × 1 V
∴ ∆V = 4.3 mV

If the analog output of log amplifier is converted into digital by means of a 12-bit BCD converter, the resolution of the

converter becomes equal to = 3 mV for a maximum scale of 3 V. The converter with this resolution allows to monitor

and record the variations as low as 1 µV for 100 µV input or 10 µV for 1 mV input. In the absence of log amplifier, the resolution

would be = 100 µV.

Thus 100 to 1 improvement is possible by logarithmic compression.

The block diagram, describing the operation of logarithmic compression of input is shown in following figure.

Figure: Logarithmic Compression of Input

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6.46 ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION [JNTU-KAKINADA]
The log amplifier increases the resolution at low range of inputs but the effective resolution at high inputs (i.e., at 99.9 mV) will
be low. In case of high inputs, 1 LSB change in the output of A/DC converter takes place provided the input decreases to
92.2 mV. Thus, the logarithmic compression (with ADC) affects the resolution on a ‘percentage of reading’ against a ‘percentage
of full scale’.
Advantages of DAS
1. DAS can provide more number of readings frequently.
2. It can retrieve the data measured by the instruments located at remote areas.
3. DAS along with telemetry transmits the data (at every instant of time), over long distances.
4. It is highly flexible in selecting the required data.
5. It is capable of measuring vibrations, pulsations and also rapid fluctuations.
6. It exhibits high sensitivity and provides the output with good accuracy.
7. It can immediately recognize the errors if any.
8. It can store the measured data in a format that is suitable for direct computer analysis.
9. It provides the facility of reading the measuring instruments and analyzing the data with low personnel expenses.

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