THE LIVING CELL

Cells are the structural and functional units of all

living organisms. The major parts of a cell are the
nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Types of Cell
The electron microscope allowed classification of
cells into two major groups, prokaryotes and
eukaryotes, based on the presence and absence of
the true nucleus. Eukaryotes have true nucleus
while prokaryotes lack a definite nucleus.
 Eukaryotes
• Eukaryotes have nucleus which is covered by
nuclear membrane. (Greek: Eue = true, karyon =
• nucleus). Animals, plants and fungi belong to the
eukaryotes. Structure of a typical eukaryotic cell is
shown in Figure 1.1.
• Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotes.
• Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have a variety of
other membrane-bound organelles (subcellular
elements) in their cytoplasm, including:
mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum
and golgi complexes.
 Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotes have no typical nucleus and
subcellular components. (Greek: Pro = before).
Bacteria and blue green algae belong to the
prokaryotes.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF A CELL AND ITS

SUBCELLULAR COMPONENTS
A cell has three major components:
1. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)
2. Cytoplasm with its organelles
3. Nucleus.
 Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
• The cell is enveloped by a thin membrane called
cell membrane or plasma membrane.
• Cell membranes mainly consist of lipids, proteins
and smaller proportion of carbohydrates that are
linked to lipids and proteins.
• The basic organization of biologic membranes is
illustrated in Figure 1.2.
• The cell membrane is an organized structure
consisting of a lipid bilayer primarily of
phospholipids and penetrated protein molecules
forming a mosaic-like pattern (Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.1: A diagrammatic representation of a typical eukaryotic cell
Figure 1.2: The basic organization of biological membrane
Figure 1.3: The fluid mosaic model of cell membrane
Table 1.1: Biochemical functions of subcellular organelles of the eukaryotic cell
 Membrane Lipids
• The major classes of membrane lipids are:
phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol. They
all are amphipathic molecules, i.e. they have both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends.

• Membrane lipids spontaneously form bilayer in

aqueous medium, burrying their hydrophobic
tails and leaving their hydrophilic ends exposed
to the water (Figure 1.2).
 Membrane Proteins
• Proteins of the membrane are classified into two
major categories: integral proteins or intrinsic
proteins or transmembrane proteins and
peripheral or extrinsic proteins.

• Integral proteins are either partially or totally

immersed in the lipid bilayer. Many integral
membrane proteins span the lipid bilayer from
one side to the other and are called
transmembrane protein whereas others are
partly embedded in either the outer or inner
leaflet of the lipid bilayer (Figure 1.2).
Transmembrane proteins act as enzymes and
transport carriers for ions as well as water soluble
substances, such as glucose.

Peripheral proteins are attached to the surface of

the lipid bilayer by electrostatic and hydrogen
bonds. They bound loosely to the polar head
groups of the membrane phospholipid bilayer
(Figure 1.2).

Peripheral proteins function almost entirely as

enzymes and receptors.
 Membrane Carbohydrates
• Membrane carbohydrate is not free. It occurs in
combination with proteins or lipids in the form of
glycoproteins or glycolipids. Most of the integral
proteins are glycoproteins and about one-tenth of
the membrane lipid molecules are glycolipids. The
carbohydrate portion of these molecules
protrudes to the outside of the cell, dangling
outward from the cell surface (Figure 1.2).

• Many of the carbohydrates act as receptor for

hormones. Some carbohydrate moieties function
in antibody processing.
 Functions of Cell Membrane
1. Protective function: The cell membrane protects
the cytoplasm and the organelles of the
cytoplasm.
2. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell. As a
semi permeable membrane: The cell membrane
permits only some substances to pass in either
direction, and it forms a barrier for other
substances.
3. As a semi permeable membrane: The cell
membrane permits only some substances to pass
in either direction, and it forms a barrier for other
substances.
 The Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane

• In 1972, Singer and Nicolson postulated a theory

of membrane structure called the fluid mosaic
model, which is now widely accepted.

• A mosaic is a structure made up of many different

parts. Likewise, the plasma membrane is
composed of different kinds of macromolecules
like phospholipid, integral proteins, peripheral
proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids and
cholesterol.
• The bilayer is fluid because the hydrophobic tails of
phospholipids consist of an appropriate mixture of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids that is fluid at
normal temperature of the cell.

• Proteins are interspersed in the lipid bilayer, of the

plasma membrane, producing a mosaic effect (Figure
1.3).

• The peripheral proteins literally float on the surface of

‘sea’ of the phospholipid molecules, whereas the integral
proteins are like icebergs, almost completely submerged
in the hydrophobic region.
• There are no covalent bonds between lipid
molecules of the bilayer or between the protein
components and the lipids.

• Thus, there is a mosaic pattern of membrane proteins in

the fluid lipid bilayer.

• Fluid mosaic model allows the membrane

proteins to move around laterally in two
dimensions and that they are free to diffuse from
place to place within the plane of the bilayer.
Whereas they cannot tumble from one side of the
lipid bilayer to the other..
▪ The Singer-Nicolson model can explain many of
the physical, chemical and biological properties of
membranes and has been widely accepted as the
most probable molecular arrangement of lipids
and proteins of membranes.
 Cytoplasm and its Organelles
Cytoplasm is the internal volume bounded by the
plasma membrane.

The clear fluid portion of the cytoplasm in which

the particles are suspended is called cytosol.

Six important organelles that are suspended in

the cytoplasm are: Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes,
Mitochondria, Nucleus.
 Nucleus

• The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and

those without true nucleus are known as
prokaryotes.

• Most of the cells have only one nucleus but cells

of skeletal muscles have many nuclei. The
matured red blood cell contains no nucleus.
Structure of Nucleus

• The nucleus is spherical in shape and situated

near the center of the cell. The nucleus is
surrounded by the nuclear envelope.

• The space enclosed by the nuclear envelope is

called nucleoplasm, within this the nucleolus is
present.
• Nucleolus is an organized structure of DNA, RNA
and protein that is involved in the synthesis of
rRNA. The remaining nuclear DNA is dispersed
throughout the nucleoplasm in the form of
chromatin fibers. At mitosis, chromatin is
condensed into discrete structures called
chromosomes.
 Functions of Nucleus

The major functional role of the nucleus is that of:

• Replication: Synthesis of new DNA.

• Transcription: The synthesis of the three major

types of RNA: Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Messenger
RNA (mRNA) and Transfer RNA (tRNA).
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