Complex numbers -

motivating the study of complex numbers

This leaflet will motivate the study of complex numbers by showing how to find the square roots
of negative numbers such as √ √
−7 or −9

Before we do, let’s have a think about real numbers.

A real number is any number which can be represented by a point on a number line. Such a number
line is shown in Figure 1. Here we have marked on the number line whole numbers between −9 and
+9. Every real number has a place on this line. For example, fractions, such as − 21 and decimal
fractions such as 3.5 are represented by the points shown. Numbers which cannot be represented as
fractions, such as π, also have their place.
− 12
3.5

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
π

Figure 1. Every real number has a place on the number line

Consider what happens when we square any real number, that is, we multiply it by itself.

For example, squaring +3 the result is

32 = (+3) × (+3) = +9
Squaring −3, the result is

(−3)2 = (−3) × (−3) = +9

In both cases the answer is positive.

If we take any real number and square it, the answer we get can never be negative.

It will turn out to be very useful to overcome this limitation: we introduce a new number, which will
have the symbol i. The number i will have the special property that i2 = −1, that is, its square is
negative! The number i cannot be a real number because its square is negative, and we have just
seen that the square of a real number can never
√ be negative. We say that the number i is imaginary.
2
Having defined i as −1 it follows that i= −1.

Key Point

i is an imaginary number such that i2 = −1

√
Equivalently, i = −1

1
We now have a way of writing the square root of any negative number.

Example
√
Suppose we want to write an expression for −9.
Noting that −9 = 9 × −1, we can write
√ √
−9 = 9 × −1
√ √
= 9 × −1
√
= 3 × −1
√
Then, using the fact that −1 = i, we have
√
−9 = 3 i

So we now have a way of formally writing down the square root of a negative number.

Example
√
Another example: suppose we want to find −7. We write
√ √
−7 = 7 × −1
√ √
= 7 × −1

√
Then, using the fact that −1 = i, we have
√ √
−7 = 7i

The whole idea of trying to write down square roots of negative numbers by introducing imaginary
numbers may, at first sight, seem far-fetched and silly. But by doing this we open up a whole new
world of numbers which have very important applications in engineering, physics and mathematics.

We can use the number i just as we would in other calculations:

Examples
Simplify the expressions: a) i3 , b) i4 .
Solution
a) i3 = i2 × i. But i2 = −1 and so i3 = −1× i = −i.
b) i4 =i2 ×i2 = (−1) × (−1) = +1.

In the next unit we will look at how the imaginary number i can appear when we solve quadratic
equations. Later units will explain that a complex number is one which contains the imaginary
number i.

2
Imaginary numbers and quadratic equations
Using the imaginary number i it is possible to solve all quadratic equations.

Example Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve x2 − 2x + 10 = 0.

Solution We use the formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
With a = 1, b = −2 and c = 10 we find p
2± (−2)2 − (4)(1)(10)
x =
2
√
2± 4 − 40
=
2
√
2 ± −36
=
2
2 ± 6i
=
2
= 1 ± 3i

There are two solutions: x = 1 + 3i and x = 1 − 3i.

Example Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve 2x2 + x + 1 = 0.
Solution We use the formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
With a = 2, b = 1 and c = 1 we find p
−1 ± 12 − (4)(2)(1)
x =
2(2)
√
−1 ± −7
=
4
√
−1 ± 7 i
=
4
√
1 7
= − ± i
4 4
√ √
1 7 1 7
There are two solutions: x = − + i and x=− − i
4 4 4 4
We have seen how we can write down the solution of any quadratic equation.
√
A number like x = − 14 + 47 i, √which has a real part, (here the real part is − 14 ), and an imaginary part,
(here the imaginary part is 47 ), is called a complex number. We will describe complex numbers
more formally in the next unit.

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Complex numbers
In this unit we describe formally what is meant by a complex number. First let us revisit the solution
of a quadratic equation.
Example Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve x2 − 10x + 29 = 0.
Solution Using the formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
with a = 1, b = −10 and c = 29, we find
p
10 ±(−10)2 − 4(1)(29)
x=
2
√
10 ± 100 − 116
x=
2
√
10 ± −16
x=
2
Now using i we can find the square root of −16 as 4i, and then write down the two solutions of the
equation.
10 ± 4 i
x= = 5± 2i
2
The solutions are x = 5+2i and x =5-2i.

Real and imaginary parts

We have found that the solutions of the equation x2 − 10x + 29 = 0 are x = 5 ± 2i. The solutions
are known as complex numbers. A complex number such as 5 + 2i is made up of two parts, a real
part 5, and an imaginary part 2. The imaginary part is the multiple of i.

It is common practice to use the letter z to stand for a complex number and write z = a + b i where
a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.

Key Point
If z is a complex number then we write
√
z = a + bi where i = −1

where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.

1
Example
State the real and imaginary parts of 3 + 4i.
Solution
The real part is 3.
The imaginary part is 4.

Example
State the real and imaginary parts of −2 + 5i.
Solution
The real part is −2.
The imaginary part is 5.

Example
State the real and imaginary parts of −3 − 9i.
Solution
The real part is −3.
The imaginary part is −9.

Example
State the real and imaginary parts of 5i.
Solution
In this example, there is no real part. In other words, the real part is 0.
The imaginary part is 5. This number is purely imaginary.

Example
State the real and imaginary parts of 17.
Solution
The real part is 17.
There is no imaginary part. In other words, the imaginary part is 0. We can think of 17 as 17 + 0i.
In fact all real numbers can be thought of as complex numbers which have zero imaginary part.

In the following unit we will look at how complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied and
divided.

2
Adding and subtracting complex numbers

In this unit we are going to look at how we can add and subtract complex numbers.
When you were at school you learnt how to add and subtract the counting numbers, that is the
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. Every time you met new sorts of numbers you learnt the process for
adding and subtracting them. So, for example when you met fractions you learnt that to add two
fractions you need to write them using a common denominator. Similarly there are rules for adding
and subtracting complex numbers.

To add complex numbers we make use of a technique that you will have seen before when do-
ing algebra. This involves collecting together like terms. We will start by adding two algebraic
expressions.
Suppose we want to add
4 + 7t and 2 + 3t
The terms 4 and 2 are simply numbers. The terms 7t and 3t both contain t and are like terms. We
collect the like terms together and simplify. So

4 + 7t + 2 + 3t = 4 + 2 + 7t + 3t
= 6 + 10t

Adding complex numbers works in exactly the same way.

Example
To add 4 + 7i and 2 + 3i:

(4 + 7i) + (2 + 3i) = 4 + 7i + 2 + 3i
= 4 + 2 + 7i + 3i
= 6 + 10i

You will see that all we have done is added together the real parts and added together the imaginary
parts of the two complex numbers to get the answer.

Example
To add 5 + 6i and 7 − 3i:

(5 + 6i) + (7 − 3i) = 5 + 6i + 7 − 3i
= 5 + 7 + 6i − 3i
= 12 + 3i

Again note that all we have done is added together the real parts and added together the imaginary
parts of the two complex numbers to get the answer.

1
Subtraction works in a very similar way:
Example
To subtract 2 + 3i from 4 + 7i:

(4 + 7i) − (2 + 3i) = 4 + 7i − 2 − 3i
= 4 − 2 + 7i − 3i
= 2 + 4i

We have subtracted the real parts, and subtracted the imaginary parts.

Example
To subtract 7 − 3i from 5 + 6i:

(5 + 6i) − (7 − 3i) = 5 + 6i − 7 + 3i
= 5 − 7 + 6i + 3i
= −2 + 9i

We have subtracted the real parts, and subtracted the imaginary parts.

In the next unit we will look at how to multiply two complex numbers together.

2
Multiplying complex numbers
In this unit we are going to look at how we can multiply complex numbers.
To multiply complex numbers, all you need to be able to do is multiply out brackets, collect like
terms, and remember that the imaginary quantity i has the property that i2 = −1.

Example
Suppose we want to find the result of multiplying together (4 + 7i) and (2 + 3i).

(4 + 7i)(2 + 3i) = 8 + 12i + 14i + 21i2

= 8 + 26i − 21 (because i2 = −1)
= −13 + 26i

Example
Suppose we want to find the result of multiplying together (−2 + 5i) and (1 − 3i).

(−2 + 5i)(1 − 3i) = −2 + 6i + 5i − 15i2

= −2 + 11i + 15 (because i2 = −1)
= 13 + 11i

In the next unit we will look at a quantity known as the complex conjugate of a complex number.
The complex conjugate is needed when we want to divide complex numbers.

1
The complex conjugate

In this unit we are going to look at a quantity known as the complex conjugate.
Every complex number has associated with it another complex number known as its complex con-
jugate. You find the complex conjugate simply by changing the sign of the imaginary part of the
complex number.
Example
To find the complex conjugate of 4+7i we change the sign of the imaginary part. Thus the complex
conjugate of 4+7i is 4 − 7i.
Example
To find the complex conjugate of 1 − 3i we change the sign of the imaginary part. Thus the complex
conjugate of 1 − 3i is 1+3i.
Example
To find the complex conjugate of −4 − 3i we change the sign of the imaginary part. Thus the
complex conjugate of −4 − 3i is −4 + 3i.

The complex conjugate has a very special property. Consider what happens when we multiply a
complex number by its complex conjugate.
For example, multiplying (4+7i) by (4 − 7i):

(4 + 7i)(4 − 7i) = 16 − 28i + 28i − 49i2

= 16 + 49
= 65

We find that the answer is a purely real number - it has no imaginary part. This always happens
when a complex number is multiplied by its conjugate - the result is real number.

Example

(1 − 3i)(1 + 3i) = 1 + 3i − 3i − 9i2

= 1+9
= 10

Once again, we have multiplied a complex number by its conjugate and the answer is a real number.
This is a very important property which applies to every complex conjugate pair of numbers. We
will use this property in the next unit when we consider division of complex numbers.

1
Division of complex numbers
In this unit we are going to look at how to divide a complex number by another complex number.
Division of complex numbers relies on two important principles. The first is that multiplying a
complex number by its conjugate produces a purely real number. The second principle is that both
the numerator and denominator of a fraction can be multiplied by the same number, and the value
of the fraction will remain unchanged.
For example, starting with the fraction 21 , we can multiply both top and bottom by 5 to give 5
10
, and
the value of this is the same as 21 . We say that 21 and 10
5
are equivalent fractions.
Example. Suppose we want to divide the complex number (4 + 7i) by (1 − 3i), that is we want to
find
4 + 7i
1 − 3i
We won’t change the value of this fraction if we multiply both numerator and denominator by the
same value. We multiply by the conjugate of the denominator, which is 1 + 3i, and then simplify.

(4 + 7i)(1 + 3i) 4 + 12i + 7i + 21i2

=
(1 − 3i)(1 + 3i) 1 + 3i − 3i − 9i2
−17 + 19i
=
10
17 19
= − + i
10 10
= −1.7 + 1.9i

Example. Suppose we want to divide the complex number (2 − 5i) by (−4 + 3i), that is we want to
find
2 − 5i
−4 + 3i
We multiply by the conjugate of the denominator, which is −4 − 3i, and then simplify.

(2 − 5i)(−4 − 3i) −8 − 6i + 20i + 15i2

=
(−4 + 3i)(−4 − 3i) 16 + 12i − 12i − 9i2
−23 + 14i
=
25
23 14
= − + i
25 25
= −0.92 + 0.56i ( 2dp)

In the next unit we will introduce the Argand Diagram, which is a graphical way of representing
complex numbers.

1
The Argand Diagram
It is very useful to have a graphical or pictorial representation of complex numbers.
For example, the complex number z = 3+4i is represented as a point in the xy plane with coordinates
(3, 4) as shown in Figure 1. That is, the real part, 3, is plotted on the x axis, and the imaginary
part, 4, is plotted on the y axis.

y
5
P(3,4)
4
3

2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 x

Figure 1. Argand diagram which represents the complex number 3+4i by the point P(3,4).
More generally, the complex number z = a + ib is plotted as a point with coordinates (a, b) as shown
in Figure 2.

imaginary axis

P(a,b)
b

0 a real axis

Figure 2. Argand diagram which represents the complex number a + bi by the point P(a, b).
Because the real part of z is plotted on the horizontal axis we often refer to this as the real axis.
The imaginary part of z is plotted on the vertical axis and so we refer to this as the imaginary axis.
Such a diagram is called an Argand diagram. Engineers often refer to this diagram as the complex
plane.

1
Examples
Plot the complex numbers z1 = 2 + 3i, z2 = −3 + 2i, z3 = −3 − 2i, z4 = 2 − 5i, z5 = 6, z6 = i on an
Argand diagram.
Solution
The Argand diagram is shown in Figure 3.

4
3 2+3i

-3+2i 2
1 i

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1

-3-2i -2
-3

-4
2-5i
-5

Figure 3. Argand diagram showing several complex numbers.

Note that purely real numbers lie on the real axis. Purely imaginary numbers lie on the imaginary
axis.

Another observation is that complex conjugate pairs (such as −3 + 2i and −3 − 2i) lie symmetrically
about the x axis.

Finally, because every real number, a say, can be written as a complex number, a + 0i, that is as
a complex number with a zero imaginary part, it follows that all real numbers are also complex
numbers. As such we see that complex numbers form an extension of the sets of numbers with
which we were already familiar.

2
 The Argand diagram
Introduction.
Engineers often find a pictorial representation of complex numbers useful.
Such a representation is known as an Argand diagram. This leaflet explains how to draw an
Argand diagram.

1. The Argand diagram.

The complex number z = a + bj is plotted as a point with coordinates (a, b) as shown. Because
the real part of z is plotted on the horizontal axis we often refer to this as the real axis. The
imaginary part of z is plotted on the vertical axis and so we refer to this as the imaginary
axis. Such a diagram is called an Argand diagram.
imaginary axis

(a, b)
b
z = a + bj

O a
real axis

The complex number z = a + bj is plotted as the point with coordinates (a, b).

Example
Plot the complex numbers 2 + 3j, −3 + 2j, −3 − 2j, 2 − 5j, 6, j on an Argand diagram.

Solution
The figure below shows the Argand diagram. Note that purely real numbers lie on the real axis.
Purely imaginary numbers lie on the imaginary axis. Note that complex conjugate pairs such
as −3 ± 2j lie symmetrically on opposite sides of the real axis.
imaginary axis
-3+2j 2+3j
j 6
0 real axis

-3-2j
-5
2-5j

7.3.1
The polar form of a complex number
In this unit we look at the polar form of a complex number. You will have already seen that a
complex number takes the form z = a + bi. This form is called Cartesian form. When we are given
a complex number in Cartesian form it is straightforward to plot it on an Argand diagram and then
find its modulus and argument.

Instead of starting with the Cartesian form, sometimes the modulus, r say, and argument, θ say, are
given to us. When this happens we are dealing with the polar form. In polar form we write

z = r∠θ

This means that z is the complex number with modulus r and argument θ.

Polar form:
z = r∠θ

Example. Plot the complex number z = 4∠40◦ on an Argand diagram and find its Cartesian form.
Solution. The Argand diagram in Figure 1 shows the complex number with modulus 4 and argument
40◦ .

4
o
40
0 N

Figure 1. The complex number z = 4∠40◦.

We can use trigonometry to find the Cartesian form:

ON
cos 40◦ =
4
so that
ON = 4 cos 40◦ = 3.06
Similarly,
NP
sin 40◦ =
4
NP = 4 sin 40 = 2.57
◦

So the Cartesian form is z = 3.06 + 2.57i.

1
Having looked at a specific case, we will now look at the general case of a complex number z = r∠θ
as shown in Figure 2.

θ
0 N

Figure 2. The complex number z = r∠θ.

To find the Cartesian form we need to find the length ON because this is the real part, and the
length NP because this is the imaginary part.
ON
cos θ = so that ON = r cos θ
r
NP
sin θ = so that NP = r sin θ
r
We can now write down the Cartesian form: z = r cos θ + r sin θ i.

Equivalent forms of the complex number z:

z = r∠θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

Example. Convert the complex number z = 6∠110◦ to Cartesian form.

Solution. The complex number is shown in Figure 3.

6
o
110

Figure 3. The complex number z = 6∠110◦ .

Using the previous result:
z = 6(cos 110◦ + i sin 110◦)
Using a calculator we find
z = −2.05 + 5.64i
Comparing this solution with the diagram in Figure 3 shows that, as expected from the diagram,
the real part is negative.

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 Multiplication and division in
polar form
Introduction
When two complex numbers are given in polar form it is particularly simple to multiply and
divide them. This is an advantage of using the polar form.

1. Multiplication and division of complex numbers in polar form.

if z1 = r1 ∠θ1 and z2 = r2 ∠θ2 then
z1 r1
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ∠(θ1 + θ2 ), = ∠(θ1 − θ2 )
z2 r2

Note that to multiply the two numbers we multiply their moduli and add their arguments.
To divide, we divide their moduli and subtract their arguments.

Example
z1 z2
If z1 = 5∠ (π/6), and z2 = 4∠ (−π/4) find a) z1 z2 , b) , c)
z2 z1

Solution
a) To multiply the two complex numbers we multiply their moduli and add their arguments.
Therefore
π π π
    
z1 z2 = 20∠ + − = 20∠ −
6 4 12
b) To divide the two complex numbers we divide their moduli and subtract their arguments.
z1 5 π π 5 5π
  
= ∠ − − = ∠
z2 4 6 4 4 12
c)
z2 4 π π 4 5π
   
= ∠ − − = ∠ −
z1 5 4 6 5 12
Exercises

1. If z1 = 7∠ π3 and z2 = 6∠ π2 find a) z1 z2 , b) z1
z2
, c) z2
z1
, d) z12 , e) z23 .

Answers
1. a) 42∠ 5π
6
, b) 76 ∠ − π6 , c) 67 ∠ π6 , d) 49∠ 2π
3
, e) 216∠ 3π .

7.6.1