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Deerwood CHM1025C Lab Manual SPRING2021

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61 views71 pages

Deerwood CHM1025C Lab Manual SPRING2021

Uploaded by

Stefany Dessire Suarez Contreras

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

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Deerwood CHM1025C Lab Manual Table of Contents

General information
page information
5 Lab Safety
7 Lab Notebook
8 Lab Equipment
9 Lab Reports

Experiments
page Experiment
11 Laboratory Measurements Practice
15 Laboratory Measurements Lab
23 Density Lab
33 Graphing Lab
39 Chromatography Lab
43 Naming Lab
45 Double Replacement Reaction Lab
53 Stoichiometry Lab
57 Gas Laws Lab
63 Models Lab
67 Titration of the acid content in fruit juice Lab
71 pH Determination Lab

3
Safety
The safety rules listed below are very important. By following these rules you help protect
yourself and those around you from potential harm. Your own common sense is also important in lab
safety. If you have any questions or concerns regarding anything that may cause injury to you or
others, bring up your concerns to the attention of your instructor immediately.

Safety Rules
1. Wear safety glasses at all times.
2. Know the location of the safety equipment
3. Never work alone in the laboratory. (In fact do not work in the laboratory at times other than
your authorized lab period.)
4. Do not attempt unauthorized experiments.
5. Wear clothing that will provide the maximum possible protection. No open toed shoes or
sandals. You will also not be allowed to wear shorts or short skirts.
6. Place items such as books sweaters etc. out of harms way. Aisles should not be blocked.
7. Never eat, drink, smoke or chew in the laboratory. Wash hands thoroughly upon completion of
the experiment.
8. Dispose of waste properly.
9. Keep laboratory clean at all times
10. Use the fume hood when toxic vapors may be released.
11. Use good judgment and care when working in the laboratory.
a) Add concentrated acid to water.
b) Be careful when inserting glass tubing into rubber stoppers.
c) Waft fumes gently toward your face.
d) Never pipet by mouth.
e) Never point a heated test tube toward you or your neighbor. The contents may erupt and
cause serious burns.
f) Do not heat glassware that is cracked or is severely etched.
g) Do not leave flames unattended.
h) Wash chemicals off your skin immediately. If you feel a burning sensation, immediately
flush the area with cold water to remove any chemicals.
12. Avoid touching hot objects.
13. Read labels on reagent bottles carefully to make sure they contain the appropriate chemical at
the right concentration.
a) MSD sheets are available if you have any safety concerns about the chemicals
b) Take what you need from the stock bottles. Do not return unused chemicals to the stock
bottles because of the risk of contamination. Discard the excess in the appropriate waste
containers.
14. Wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.
15. Report all accidents (Spills that leave your work area or any physical injury) to your instructor.

4
Material Safety Data and Globally Harmonized System Safety Sheets
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and globally harmonized system safety data sheets (GHS
SDS) are basic documents that communicate the hazards of chemicals to workers. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that these sheets be accessible to employees. The
information described on MSD and SD sheets can help answer the following questions:
• Is the material toxic?
• Do I need to wear protective clothing?
• Is the material flammable?
• What should I do if it gets on my skin?
• How should the material be stored?

MSD sheets are created by the manufacturer and then are sent to the user. Unfortunately, not
all MSD sheets are of the same quality. The amount of information may depend on the manufacturer
or on the amount known about that material. Some MSD sheets may also be out of date and not
contain the latest information about the substance, for example the latest information about the
carcinogenic properties of the substance.
There are two large yellow notebooks in the stockroom area that are labeled MSD sheets.
These are available if you are interested in the properties of a chemical. Please get your instructor to
help you with this information.

National Fire Protection Agency Codes

On many bottles or packages of chemicals you may see a diamond shaped symbol (often
colored with blue red yellow and whit sections) with numbers at each corner. An example is shown
below. This system provides information on four areas; health, flammability, reactivity and other
hazards from short term exposure to this compound. Each compound is assigned a number between
zero and four in each of three areas, health (in blue), flammability ( in red) and reactivity with 0
representing the least hazardous and 4 representing the most hazardous. A 4 for the health rating
indicates that very short exposure could cause death or serious injury. A 0 for the health rating
indicates that the material provides no health hazards beyond that of normal combustible material.
Special warnings like a W indicates that the compound reacts with water and so should be kept
away from water. The code OX indicates that the compound is a strong oxidizer and must be kept
away from combustible materials. The NFPA codes are not as comprehensive as the MSD sheets but
they can alert you to potential hazards.

5
The Laboratory Notebook

Scientists keep detailed laboratory notebooks that serve as permanent records of their work. One
of the goals of this course is to train students how to correctly record measurements and observations in a
laboratory notebook. Students are required to purchase a Lab Notebook (NCR paper) from the bookstore.
All writing in the notebook should be in non-erasing black ballpoint pen.

Set up the notebook in the following manner:

• You will write on the facing pages making a single carbon copy. You will use the periodic table
provided with the notebook to prevent multiple copies on several pages.
• The inside cover of your notebook has a place for a table of contents. New entries into the lab
notebook should be annotated in the Table of Contents each week.
• Attach the Lab Equipment sheet to the notebook. I chose the back page.

The lab notebook should contain all of the student’s calculations, observations and measurements.
The notebook is a record of what occurred in lab so every measurement and observation and mistake
should be recorded. Even your reasoning should be recorded. Example: We started over because we
dropped the reaction flask. Each entry should be labeled in a meaningful manner that indicates the
part of the experiment that corresponds to the entry. The student will then refer to the notebook when
preparing the Lab Report. Because a lab notebook is a working document, it will most likely contain
errors. Errors should have a single line drawn through them. There should be no erasures or white out
used in the lab notebook.

Sign, date, and obtain your instructor's initials in the notebook prior to leaving lab.

Before Each Lab:

Write the title of the experiment and the lab date at the top of a new page.
Record the following under that heading:
• The purpose of the experiment.
• Questions you have about the lab that you need answered before starting the lab.
• Answers to Pre Lab exercises found in the lab itself.
• Prepare your notebook to take data. This may involve creating a data table for recording data or may
just involve writing labels with an outline of the procedure.
Data Table Style
Temp in °C
Temperature initial
Temp. after heating 15 min

Non-Table Style
Record the initial temperature: ________________
Heat 15 min, record temp. : __________________

6
Common Lab Equipment

burner scoopula wire gauze

graduated cylinder beaker

watch glass test tube holder

Crucible tongs and evaporating dish

ring stand with utility clamp, ring and

clay triangle

7
Lab Reports

Lab reports are due at the start of the next lab period. In most cases, an “Instant Lab Report” has
been provided for the student to fill out and turn in. (Note that the Instant Lab Report is not used to
record the initial observations and measurements. These are always recorded in the Lab Notebook.)
When no Instant Lab Report has been provided, the student will do a formal lab report.

Lab reports are written in the third person. You would write, “The metal sample was weighed.” and not
“I weighed the metal sample.”

The format:
Purpose: The purpose of the lab. The purpose could be “To synthesize aspirin from salicylic acid”
or “To determine the density of an unknown solid.” The purpose is not phrased as a question but the
questions we are asking for in the sample purposes are “Can we make aspirin from salicylic acid and
in what yield?” and “What is the density of the object?” Some labs have more than one purpose
such as “to determine the density of an unknown and from that determine the composition.”

Procedure & apparatus: A description of the procedure. Because you are typically following our
procedure you can write, "As given in the lab handout." You should include any modifications to
the procedure such as “As given in the lab handout except in step 6 where we had to use a 100 mL
graduated cylinder because our object would not fit into the 25 mL graduated cylinder.” For some
labs, you may be required to draw the apparatus.

Data. Organize your data in this section. A table is usually the best method for including this
information.

Calculations: This is where you show how you did your calculations. If you did many density
calculations you only have to show one sample calculation. You will have to show an example for each
type of equation. (Density, percent error,...) Show all your work.
m 64.67 g
Example: d = = = 8.92 g/ml
V 7.25 ml
Discussion. A section that describes your results and how good you think your results are. (For
example: Although the density of my metal is close to the literature value for gold my results varied
widely and the sample did not look like gold.) You may want to begin this section with the statement;
€
" My data is good (or bad) because…"

Example: The density of the solid is 8.80 g/cm3 and is reddish colored. The solid has been identified
as copper, which has a known density of 8.96 g/cm3. My results are good because my %error was
only 1.35%.

Error Analysis: Every lab has problems associated with them that potentially affect the outcome of the
experiment. We refer to these problems as sources of error. They are parts of the procedure where there
was one or more of the following; a decrease in accuracy, a decrease in precision, a decrease in yield or a
decrease in purity. In measurement labs we tend to see the first two types of error, in synthesis labs we
tend to see the later two.
Many of the labs will require you to determine your 2 most significant sources of error. Using
complete sentences, write down what the error was, and how it affected your result. As you are doing
8
the lab, it is a good idea to write down errors that you observe as it will make it easier to write your
report.

Here are some sample errors and their effects:

• Accuracy in a density lab: When measuring the liquid we noticed that there were air bubbles in the
cylinder. This increased the volume measurement and decreased the density
measurement.
• Precision in a chromatography lab: The samples spotted in a large spot and
so after development, it was difficult to determine the exact distance the spot
traveled. This could raise or lower the measurement and the Rfs.
• Yield in the synthesis of aspirin: When transferring the product from
flask A to flask B, not all the product was able to be transferred. This lowered the yield.
• Purity in the synthesis of aspirin: When drying the product, a bug flew into the flask. This decreased
the purity but increased the yield.

They are not personal confessions. No procedure is free of errors so this section does not necessarily
represent something you did wrong, although it might. For example, if you dropped a flask and spilled
70 % of the reaction that would certainly be an error. Again you are not here to confess. The problem in
this case would be, “the flask was dropped,” not “I am a big klutz.”

While anybody can make an incorrect measurement reading, they are usually not one of the 2 most
significant errors and should not be included in your report. “Human error” is a category of errors and
is not an error in itself.

Modification: An error often has a good modification that can fix the problem. For example, a
modification that fixes the error might be, “Drying the cylinder in a drying oven before use would give a
more accurate volume measurement.”

Conclusion: The conclusion is the answer to the problem posed in the purpose. If the purpose is
"To determine the density of water.", then the conclusion could be, "From my experiment, the
density of water is .949 g/mL."

Answers to the post laboratory questions: Answers to the post laboratory questions. For any
calculation, show your work.

A note on cheating and plagiarism: While you often work in pairs in the laboratory, you
must write your lab reports individually. Do not plagiarize, especially on the post lab
questions.

9
Practice Laboratory Measurements

Are some measuring devices more accurate than others?

If three people measure the same thing will the measurements be the same?
If three people measure the same thing will all three measurements have the same number of significant
figures?

In this class we will all read measurements to the same precision!

Steps to producing reproducible measurements:

Every measurement must include the value that is certain, an estimate of the closeness that the
measurement is to the certain value, an indicator of the uncertainty of the measurement, and the unit of
the measurement. We will use the symbols, N, m, M, u and U in our discussion.

n: The measured value is at least this numbered mark (N) on the scale. (This value is certain)
m * M: The number of marks (m) past N multiplied by the value of each mark, M. (This value is also
certain.)
u * U: The number of uncertain steps (u) past the last certain mark multiplied by the value of the
uncertainty (U). (This value is uncertain.)

A measurement -- sums these parts: n + (m * M) + (u * U)

-- includes the uncertainty : ± U
-- includes the unit of measurement (mL, g, cm...)

Example 1: ( a measurement of length in cm)

1. The measured value is at least which numbered mark (n) on the scale?
Example: The measured value is greater than 3 cm. n = 3 cm

2. Determine the value of each division or mark of the scale (M):

Choose a range (two adjacent numbers) and subtract the values.
Example: Range = 4 cm - 3 cm = 1 cm
Determine the number of divisions in the range by counting the spaces between the two numbers.
Example: Divisions = 10 spaces between 3 and 4 cm
Divide the range by the number of divisions - this is the value of each division or mark.
Example: Value of mark = Range/Divisions = 1/10 = 0.1 cm
The value of the mark or division is certain (known with confidence).

Example: Each of the small markings between 3 and 4 represent 0.1 cm.
M = 0.1 cm
3. Determine the number of marks past n. This value is m.
Count the number of lines over from the highest numbered mark that is less than the
measurement.
Example: The measurement is 1 line beyond the 3 cm mark. m = 1
10
4. Record the certain part of the measurement: n + (m * M)
Example: 3 cm + 1 * 0.1 cm = 3.1 cm
The actual measurement is at least 3.1 cm.
But each measurement must also include an estimate of how close the actual
measurement is to the certain part of the measurement. In fact, we can see that the line
we are measuring goes past 3.1 cm. We will estimate to the nearest 10% of each line.
This is done as follows:
5. Determine the uncertainty (U) of the scale:

Divide the mark value (M) by 10 to represent 10 imaginary divisions in the space between the
lines.
Example: U = M/10 = 1 cm / 10 = 0 .01 cm
This tells you how many decimal places to record this measurement.
Example: A measurement using this scale will have two decimal places.

6. The measurement lies how many uncertain steps (u) beyond the last mark (n + m * M).
Remember that each space between marks has ten imaginary lines or steps. You have to
estimate which of these imaginary lines the measurement indicator is on. If the indicator is
pointing right at a line, then the uncertain steps (u) is 0. If it is half way between two lines, then
u = 5. If it is slightly less than half way, you might use a 3 or 4 and if it is slightly more than
halfway, you might use a 6 or 7. If it is just below the higher line, then u = 8 or 9. If it is just
above the lower line, then u = 1 or 2. While the measurement is uncertain, you want the most
precise possible estimate so that your measurements will be reproducible. This takes practice!
Note that the final digit in your measurement (the estimate) must be a multiple of the uncertainty
and have the same number of decimal places as the uncertainty. (If the uncertainty had been 0.2,
the estimate would have to be evenly divisible by 2.)
Example: The indicator is just about in between so u = 5.

7. Determine the uncertain part of the measurement: u * U

This part of the measurement is uncertain since two individuals may estimate u differently.
Example: u * U ± U = 5 * 0.01 = 0.05

8. Determine the measurement by adding the certain (n + m * M) and uncertain (u * U)

components together.
Example: n + (m * M) + (u * U) = 3 + 1*0.1 + 5*0.01 = 3.15 cm
The actual measurement should be within ± U (± 0.01 in this example), so this is how we record
the measurements.
9. Record the measurement, the uncertainty and the unit. Examp1e: 3.15 ± 0.01 cm

measurement: ___________________________________

5. ° centigrade scale

n m M u U ______

measurement: ___________________________________

13
Laboratory Measurements Lab

In this lab we will be measuring 9 mL of water in 4 devices; a beaker, a 10 mL graduated cylinder, a 25

mL graduated cylinder, and a 100 mL graduated cylinder. I expect that the 10 mL graduated cylinder is
the best tool for measuring 9 mL so it will serve to determine the “correct” value.

Pre-lab:
Prepare your notebook to take data by copying the appropriate portions of the tables for parts 1-5 (on the
instant lab report) into your laboratory notebook. Next to tables 2-5 make a column for each: n,
m, M, u, U in your lab notebook (this is for data collection during the lab). You will use
these values to calculate the data that you will put into each table. Remember that some calculations are
done at home. Only measurements are recorded here.

Example table (you need to copy tables 1-5 from the instant lab report, but only add the columns to
tables 2-5)
100 mL grad. cyl. Measured Volume Deviation (d) n m M u U
Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3
Average

Procedure:
Part I: the markings of the 4 devices will be examined. Look at the marking on the indicated piece of
equipment and fill out table.

Part II: 9 mL of water will be measured as carefully as possible in a 100 mL graduated cylinder,
using an eyedropper if necessary.
1) Measure out exactly 9 mL as carefully as possible into the 100 mL graduated cylinder.
2) Pour the water that is in the 100 mL graduated cylinder into the “judge” 10 mL graduated
cylinder
3) Measure the volume by writing down the n, m, M, u and U values of the water in the 10 mL
graduated cylinder.
4) Use the n+mM+uU equation to calculate the measured valuethat is recorded in chart II.
5) Repeat steps 1-4 for trial 2 and 3.

Part III: 9 mL of water will be measured as carefully as possible in a 25 mL graduated cylinder,

using an eyedropper if necessary.
1) Measure out exactly 9 mL as carefully as possible into the 25 mL graduated cylinder.
2) Pour the water that is in the 25 mL graduated cylinder into the “judge” 10 mL graduated
cylinder
3) Measure the volume by writing down the n, m, M, u and U values of the water in the 10 mL
graduated cylinder.
4) Use the n+mM+uU equation to calculate the measured value that is recorded in chart III.
5) Repeat steps 1-4 for trial 2 and 3.
14
Part IV: 9 mL of water will be measured as carefully as possible in a 10 mL graduated cylinder, using
an eyedropper if necessary. You do need two 10 mL graduated cylinders for this part.
1) Measure out exactly 9 mL as carefully as possible into a 10 mL graduated cylinder.
2) Pour the water that is in the 10 mL graduated cylinder into the “judge” 10 mL graduated
cylinder
3) Measure the volume by writing down the n, m, M, u and U values of the water in the “judge”
10 mL
graduated cylinder.
4) Use the n+mM+uU equation to calculate the measured value that is recorded in chart IV.
5) Repeat steps 1-4 for trial 2 and 3.

Part V: 9 mL of water will be measured as carefully as possible in a 50 mL beaker, using an

eyedropper if necessary.
1) Measure out exactly 9 mL as carefully as possible into the 50 mL beaker.
2) Pour the water that is in the 50 mL beaker cylinder into the “judge” 10 mL graduated
cylinder
3) Measure the volume by writing down the n, m, M, u and U values of the water in the 10 mL
graduated cylinder.
4) Use the n+mM+uU equation to calculate the measured value that is recorded in chart V.
5) Repeat steps 1-4 for trial 2 and 3.

Calculations:
1. Calculate the average measured volume ( x ) for each piece of equipment.

x=
å x where x is the value of a trial, and n is the number of trials being averaged.
n

2. Calculate the deviation (d) for each trial. d = ( x - x) = (measuredvalue - average)

3. Calculate the average of the deviation values. d =

∑ d = sum of deviations
n number of trials
4. Calculate the Relative Error, a measure of random error than is present in the chosen piece of
equipment. It tells us how much error is likely to be found with a particular piece of equipment. If the
relative error is high, the equipment is ill-suited for the application. In this experiment, the correct
value is 9 mL. €
" U %
%RE = $ ' ×100
# correct value &

5. Calculate the % relative average deviation (RAD), a measure of precision. If the measurements
deviate from the average greatly, then the numbers were not very reproducible, hence not precise. A
€ precision.
high % deviation indicates poor

d average measured deviation

%RAD = ×100 = x100
x average measured value

€
15
6. Calculate the % error, a measure of accuracy. If your average is close to the correct number, it is
accurate. A high % error indicates poor accuracy:
#_ & # average measured value − Correct value &
% x − Correct Value (
%E = x100 = % (
% Correct Value ( $ Correct value '
$ '

16
17
Name:__________________________
Measurements Lab Instant Lab Report
Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to introduce several common pieces of glassware and to
illustrate why one piece of glassware may be preferred for a particular measurement.
Apparatus:
1 each: 100 mL graduated cylinder, 25 mL graduated cylinder, 50 mL beaker
2 each: 10 mL graduated cylinder
Procedure: As indicated in lab manual.
Part I data:

glassware Value of smallest marking precision

(M) (U or marked tolerance)
100 mL graduate
25 mL graduate
10 mL graduate
50 mL beaker

Part II data:
100 mL grad. cyl. Measured Volume Deviation (d)
Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3
Average

Part III data:

25 mL grad. cyl. Measured Volume Deviation (d)
Trial 1
Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

18
Part IV data:
10 mL grad. Cyl. Measured Volume deviation(d)

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

Part V
data: 50 mL beaker Measured Volume Deviation (d)

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

Summary Table of Equipment Performance

Calculation 100 mL graduate 25 mL graduate 10 mL graduate 50 mL beaker
% RE
%RAD
%E

Error and Discussion

Two sources of error and their effects on the calculated measurement were:

1. ____________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________

Modifications: Ways that I would avoid this error is the future are...
1._____________________________________________________

2._____________________________________________________

Conclusion: The piece of glassware best suited for measuring 9 mL is a ____________

19
Post Lab Questions:
For each, reference the necessary calculations and explain your answer.

1. Which glassware was most accurate? ________________________________________________

2. Which glassware was most precise? ________________________________________________

3. Notice that all your measurements had three significant figures because you measured to the
hundredths place. How many significant figures in the following numbers?
a. 1200
___________
-3
b. 5.330 x 10
___________
c. 0.047200
___________
Appendix 1: Calculations. Show one of each calculation:

Show your calculation of average

Show your calculation of deviation

Show your calculation of average deviation

Show your calculation for the %RE for the 100mL graduated cylinder.

Show your calculation for the %RAD for the 100mL graduated cylinder.

Show your calculation for the %E

20
21
Density Lab

Purpose: To measure the density of an object using measurement, displacement, and calculation.
Part I:
Equipment needed:
• Triple beam balance or digital scale
• Ruler
• One metal cylinder, record appearance and label
• 100 mL graduated cylinder
Chemicals needed:
• Deionized water
Part II:
Equipment needed:
• Triple beam balance or digital scale
• 10 mL graduated cylinder
Chemicals needed:
• unknown solution
Pre-lab:
1.) Record the purpose of the lab in your own words.
2.) Prepare your notebook to collect data by copying the density pre-lab charts on the next page.

Background: How often do you hear the term “massive”? Have you stopped to think about what it
means? Is it big? Is it heavy? Not necessarily either, as will be shown in the discussion below. Because
size and mass frequently are proportional to each other, this term is misused in conversation. Mass
relates to the number of particles present. An object that is massive, then, has many particles. Because
the force of gravity attracts these particles to the earth, these objects are said to have weight, defined as:
Fw=mg where m=mass and g = gravity.

The more particles, the more mass, and the heavier the object appears to be. Thus the units that we use
to express mass are the same as for weight. Many scientists label the units as “gf” or “gm” meaning
“gram force” or “gram mass” to make their observations clear. Since weight depends on gravity, its
value will change depending on the distance of the object from the center of the earth. Mass does not
change, making it a unit of value in scientific relationships. Hence, an object may be “weightless” in
space, but will never be “massless.” In this course, we will always measure mass.
The equipment used to measure mass is a balance. As the name
suggests, a balance relates one mass to a known mass. When the
object to be massed balances the known mass, its mass is known.
Since the known and unknown masses are both subject to the same
gravitational attraction, gravitational effects are negated.

Weight is measured using a scale. In a scale, the mass is pulled by

gravity and presses down on a spring which compresses. Different weights will compress the spring by
different distances and this spring height change is measured. Since gravity causes the compression,
changes in gravity would lead to differing weight readings.

Volume is a measurement of space occupied by matter. Liquid volumes can be measured directly using
such objects as a graduated cylinder or a cup measure as in cooking. Volume can also be calculated for

22
regular shaped objects (cylinders, spheres, etc...) using dimensions measured in distance. For irregular
shapes, however, direct measurement or measurement by displacement is used. If volume is calculated,
it is helpful to remember that one cubic centimeter (cc) is the same as one milliliter (mL).
4
Vsphere = πr 3 Vcylinder = πr 2 h Vcube = S 3
V rectangularsolid = LxWxH 3

In displacement, a cylinder is partially filled with

€ water or a non-reacting
€ fluid. The volume of the fluid
€
is measured. The object to be measured is dropped into the fluid. Because it occupies volume, the
volume inside the cylinder has increased. The new volume is measured. The volume of the object is
then calculated as total volume minus the initial volume. Many cooks measure shortening for baking in
this way. The volume of a sample varies with temperature, so the measuring equipment is usually
marked to indicate the temperature at which it was calibrated.

Now that we know what mass and volume mean, we are left with a small conflict- Does a massive
object really take up a large volume? Not necessarily- Hollywood spends a great deal of time painting
Styrofoam to look like walls and boulders for films. It is obvious that we do not lack real boulders, but
that the Styrofoam boulders are lightweight and easy to move. Thus, a real boulder and a Styrofoam
boulder occupy the same volume but vary widely in their mass. Density relates the mass and volume of
a substance, a property that could be used to differentiate the Styrofoam from rock.
m
d=
V
Since volume varies with temperature, density will too. Since it is a ratio, however, density is an
intensive property- that is to say that no matter what the sample size of matter, the density will be the
same for the same substance provided the temperature is the same. You can pour out different volumes
of solution, and each volume will have a different mass under the conditions, but the density will be the
same. Thus, density can be used to identify a substance. In this way, a geologist can easily distinguish
the expensive jade from common serpentine.

23
Density Lab Pre-lab Charts
Purpose: Put the purpose of this lab into your own words

Note: You will get n, m,M,u and U during the lab and record each value in the “raw data” section of the
charts. To get the values that will be used in the instant lab report, plug the n, m,M, u and U into the
given equation.

*** Note: if using the digital scale, you do not need to have n, m, M, u or U values for any of the masses
(leave them blank in your chart and put value from the scale in the calculated section. ***

Part A Data

Raw Data: Note: Calculated= n + (mM) + (uU)

LETTER n m M u U Calculated
A (mass
metal
cylinder)
B (length
metal
cylinder)
C (diameter
of metal
cylinder)
D (Volume
before adding
metal
cylinder)
E (Volume
after adding
metal
cylcinder)

Part B Data:

Raw Data: Note: Calculated= n + (mM) + (uU)

LETTER n m M u U Calculated
F (mass of graduated cylinder)
G (mass of graduated cylinder +
~2mL solution)
H (volume of solution)
I (mass of graduated cylinder +~4mL
solution)
J (volume of solution)
K (mass of graduated cylinder
+~6mL solution)
L(volume of solution)

24
Procedure Part I: Determining the Density of a Metal Cylinder:

For each part of the lab, you are collecting the raw data. Once you verify the U and M for each piece of
equipment, the raw data is entered into the n+ (mM) + (uU). The calculated value then goes into the
corresponding letter of the pre-lab chart you copied in your notebook.

1) Obtain a metal cylinder unknown. Record its number/letter and appearance in your lab notebook.
2) Mass the cylinder
3) Measure the length (put n,m,u values in letter B row in the raw data section of the pre-lab chart)
3) Measure the diameter of the cylinder (put n,m,u values in letter C row in the raw data section of pre-
lab chart)
3) Half fill a 100 mL graduated cylinder with water and record the volume (this is the volume before).
(n,m,u for the volume goes in letter D row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)
4) Carefully slide the cylinder down the wall of the graduate to avoid splashing.
5) Record the new volume (this is the volume after). (put n,m,u values in letter E row in the raw data
section of pre-lab chart)

Procedure Part II: Determining the Density of a Solution:

1) Obtain a solution unknown.
2) Place a 10 mL graduated cylinder on the balance and mass it. (F row in the raw data section of pre-
lab chart)
3) Pour about 2mL of the solution into the cylinder.
4) Record the new mass. (G row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)
5) Record the volume of the solution. (H row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)
5) Add ~2 more mL of solution to the graduated cylinder.
6) Record the new mass (I row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)
7) Record the new volume. (J row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)
8) Add ~2 more mL more of the solution.
9) Record the new mass. (K row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)
10) Record new volume. (L row in the raw data section of pre-lab chart)

Calculations Part I:
1. Calculate the volume of the cylinder (in mL) from the dimensions.
2 # diameter & 2
V cylinder = πr l = π %$ 2 (' length
2. Calculate the volume of the cylinder from displacement data. Vdisplaced =Vafter-Vbefore
€ of dimensions by using the mass and the volume from dimensions (part I data).
3. Calculate the density
m
ddim =
Vdim

4. Calculate the density of displacement by using the mass and the volume from displacement.
m
ddis =
Vdis

25
5. Calculate the average of the densities (displacement and dimensions).

6. Determine the % Error. The correct value can be determined from the table 1 (below). Determine

(x - Correct value) (average density - Correct value)

%E = * 100 = * 100%
correct value correct value

which element you have from the density and the appearance.

€ Table 1: Physical properties of selected elements

element density (g/cm3) appearance
aluminum 2.70 silvery white, metallic
antimony 6.68 silvery white, metallic
cadmium 8.64 silvery white, metallic
carbon (graphite) 2.25 black, dull
chromium 7.2 steel gray, hard
cobalt 8.9 silvery gray, metallic
copper 8.92 reddish, metallic
iron 7.86 silver, metallic
lead 11.3 silvery-bluish white, soft,
metallic
manganese 7.2 gray pink, metallic
nickel 8.9 silver, metallic
silicon 2.32 steel gray, crystalline
silver 10.5 silver, metallic
tin (gray) 5.75 gray
tin (white) 7.28 white metallic
zinc 7.14 bluish white, metallic
brass 8.42 Shiny yellowish tint

Calculations Part II:

7. Determine the mass of the solution for each trial

Mass of solution = (Mass of graduated cylinder with solution – Mass of empty cylinder)

8. Determine the density of the unknown solution for each trial:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

9. Calculate the average of the densities. (Sum up all the densities from the three trials and then divide
by three).

Post Lab Questions:

Answer the post lab questions on the instant lab report. Copy all of your calculated values from your lab
notebook and put them onto the appropriate space on the instant lab report.

26
27
Density Lab- Instant Lab Report

Name ___ Partner(s) _

Purpose: The purpose of this lab is to determine the density of a metal cylinder and a solution, using
different methods to determine volume. The calculated density was then used to identify the metal in
the cylinder.

Procedure: The procedure was followed as described in the FSCJ lab manual.

Data:
A. Cylinder Number/letter (if there was one)____________
Appearance of Cylinder ______________________

Mass (g) length (cm) diameter (cm) Volume Before Volume After
(mL) (mL)
A B C D E

Volume from Volume from density from density from average density
Dimensions Displacement dimensions displacement
(mL) (mL)

B. Unknown solution letter (if there was one)_____________

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

mass before adding solution F

Same as Trial 1

mass after adding solution G I K

Solution mass
Solution volume (mL) H J L

Density of unknown solution

Average density of unknown: ______________

Sample Calculations: Show on an attached sheet.

1) Volume from displacement
2) Volume from dimensions
3) Density from displacement
4) Density from dimensions
5) Average density
6) % Error of Metal Density

28
Discussion: My metal (part A) results were (good/bad)

because_____________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

Error Analysis: Two sources of error and their effect on the calculated density were:

1.Error:___________________________________________________________________________

Effect:______________________________________________________________________________

2.Error:_____________________________________________________________________________

Effect:______________________________________________________________________________

Modification: To avoid some of these errors in the future, the following modification(s) should be
made:
1.__________________________________________________________________________________

2.__________________________________________________________________________________

Conclusions: The average density of the metal in part A was __________. The metal was identified to
be ___________. The average data had a percent error of __________%. The solution in part B had an
average density of ____________________.

Post Lab Questions (questions 1-5):

1. Examine the number of significant figures in the densities of your metal cylinder. Which method,
displacement or dimensions, provided the most precise answer? Explain.

2. Using the average density of the metal cylinder and its appearance, identify the metal of the cylinder.
Justify your answer, referencing pertinent observations and calculations.

29
3. Now that you have identified the metal, which method, displacement or dimensional, provided the
most accurate answer? Explain, showing appropriate calculation/reasoning.

For the next two questions, use the following information:

• 453.6 g = 1 pound (lb)

• The density of mercury is 13.69 g/mL
• The density of alcohol is 0.780 g/mL

4. What is the volume, in mL, of 0.860 lbs of alcohol?

5. How many pounds of mercury are in 500. mL of mercury?

30
31
Graphing
Purpose: To graph density lab data and to determine if density is an intensive or extensive property

Prelab Questions:
1. Define intensive property.

2. What is the mass in kilograms of 200.0 mL of mercury? Mercury has a density of 13.6g/mL.

3. What is the mass in kilograms of 400.0 mL of mercury?

4. What happens to the mass when you double the volume?

5. Copy the tables from this lab into your lab notebook.

Experiment: You want to determine if density is an intensive or extensive property. You know that an
intensive property does not depend on the amount of a substance present, but an extensive property does
depend on the amount of the substance. You will collect a set of data (mass and volume) of an unknown
4566
solution. Since 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = , graphing mass vs. volume should (if density is an intensive property)
789:4;

give a straight line whose slope is equal to the density.

Fill in the data from the density lab part B:

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Solution mass
Solution volume (mL)
Density of solution
1. Graph these data points by hand in your lab notebook. This is graph 1.
a. Graphing by hand:
i. Use Graph Paper. (Graph paper has gridlines. Your student lab notebook will work.)
ii. Draw the x axis.
iii. Use the x-axis for the independent variable (the variable that the experimenter
controlled; also known as the manipulated variable).
iv. Decide on the limits of the axis (maximum and minimum values). The axis does not
have to start at zero unless you have data in this region. You may round down from
your minimum, but must round up for your maximum. Round to a “nice” number.

32
v. Select divisions on the axes which are easy to read. Hence one square may equal 1, 2,
5, 10, or 10, 20, 50, 100, but never 3.75 or some other “odd” number.
vi. For greatest accuracy, select scales so that the graph nearly fills the page. (At least
2/3 of the page.)
vii. Label the axis with numbers at appropriate intervals.
viii. Label the axis with the variable name and the units. For example: “Pressure (torr)”
b. Draw the y-axis.

i. Use the y-axis for the dependent variable (the variable that the experimenter
observed, whose values depended on the independent variable; also known as the
responding variable).
ii. Decide on the limits of the axis (maximum and minimum values). The axis does not
have to start at zero unless you have data in this region. You may round down from
your minimum, but must round up for your maximum. Round to a “nice” number.
iii. Select divisions on the axes which are easy to read. Hence one square may equal 1, 2,
5, 10, or 10, 20, 50,100, but never 3.75 or some other “odd” number.
iv. For greatest accuracy, select scales so that the graph nearly fills the page. (At least
2/3 of the page.)
v. Label the axis with numbers at appropriate intervals.
vi. Label the axis with the variable name and the units.
c. Mark the data points with a small dot. (Pencil may be used before being inked for
permanency.) Draw a small circle around the point or darken to make more visible.
d. Title the graph in a descriptive manner. For example: “Steve’s Pressure vs. Volume”
e. Using a ruler, draw a straight line that is as close to the data points as possible. The line
does not have to start at the origin. A straight line follows the equation y=mx+b
f. Find two points on the line (not specific data points) that exactly cross an intersection point
on the graph paper grid. Write down their x, y coordinates. Ideally, these are very far apart
on the line.
g. The slope is (y2-y1)/(x2-x1) and is m in our equation. The intercept, b, is value of y where it
crosses the y axis.
h. Write down the equation on the graph, substituting variable names (or symbols) for the math
symbols, x and y. For example, in a graph of mass versus volume, the equation might read:
Mass = 2.5 Volume +.002

33
2. Graphing on the computer (3 point data set is graph # 2):
i. Take your data and put it in volume in the first column, mass in
the second.

ii. Highlight and select the two sets of data.

iii. Up at the top go to insert, chart.
iv. Select scatter plot (x,y scatter or it may be named

marked scatter).
v. A graph should appear.
vi. Locate the “quick charts” buttons on the top of the screen.
Pick the best-fit option for the type of graph you want to
create. I like option 1 since it places the axis and title. Some

will include the trendline automatically.

vii. If the quick chart option you picked does not include the
trendline (the y=mx+b equation), you must add it. To do
this, right click on one of the data points, click on “add
trendline”
viii. Go to options and check box “display equation on chart” and then click ok.

ix. Label the axes and give your graph a title. Label the axes and give your graph a title.
To format the scale of the graph, right click on one of the axis numbers and click
“format axis”. You can then change the scales to best match the graph.

34
3. Click a new tab at the bottom and repeat with class data set (graph #3).
Number Volume (mL) Mass (g) Number Volume (mL) Mass (g)
1 11
2 12
3 13
4 14
5 15
6 16
7 17
8 18
9 19
10 20

4. Let professor know when you are done.

5. Do the post-lab questions and the concluding questions. This is due 1 week from today. Attach the
yellow copy of the hand-graph with the lab report.
Note:
* Use your average density value for question 5 on the post-lab.

**The actual density for this unknown solution is _________ g/mL. Use this value for
question 6 on the post-lab.

35
Graphing Lab Report Name:___________________

Post Lab Questions (Answer in complete sentences and show all work .)
1. Why did we name volume the independent variable and plot it along the x axis?

2. What is the definition of a dependent variable and explain how mass meets this definition in this
experiment.

3. What do scientists call the ratio of mass to volume?

Dy Dmass
4. Slope is = . What are the units for the slope of your line?
Dx Dvolume

5. Compare the slopes from graphs 1, 2 & 3 with your average density. In your opinion, is the
difference in each case: zero, very small, fairly big, completely off? Copy the table below into
your lab report to summarize your opinion.
Average density:_______________ Difference (zero, very small, fairly
big, completely off)
Solution:_______________
Slope from graph 1 vs. average density

Slope from graph 2 vs. average density

Slope from graph 3 vs. average density

Do your results support or contradict the idea that the slopes of these graphs is a measurement of
density?

6. At 25°C, the unknown solution has a density of:

Unknown Density
A (ethanol) 0.8041 g/mL
B (acetone) 0.9849 g/mL
C (D-glucose) 1.2235 g/mL
a. What is the % error of the density from the slope of just your data What is the % error of
the density from the slope of just your data (part2)?
" Your Value − Correct Value %
%Error = $ ' x100
# Correct Value &

b. What is the % error of the density from the slope of just the class data (part3)?

36
7. Identify any data points (x, y) in the Part 3 data that are clearly not consistent with the other data
points. What can we conclude about these data points?

8. This question involves the Insulin Secretion Rate versus Time graph, given below:

a. Estimate the first phase peak insulin secretion rate for healthy individuals. ________

b. Estimate the first phase peak insulin secretion rate for Type 2 diabetes patients after
administration of the BYETTA Bolus.

___________
c. Estimate the length of time needed for the first phase peak insulin secretion rate for Type 2
diabetes patients after administration of the BYETTA Bolus.

___________
d. What does the word bolus mean in the usage above?

_______________________________________________________________________

37
Chromatography
Purpose: Separation of mixtures using paper chromatography.

Background: Most coloring agents that you use are mixtures of dyes. To identify and separate them,
we will use the technique of chromatography. After separation, the paper chromatogram could be cut
into pieces, and the piece containing only one dye can be placed in a solvent that will remove them from
the paper entirely. Once the solvent is removed by evaporation, the pure dye is left! In this experiment,
we chose to leave the dye in the paper, but to use the retardation factors to identify the substances.

Pre-lab: Neatly, copy the following tables into your notebook(on table per page of your notebook).

Equipment needed: Chemicals needed:

• Ruler approximately 5 mL of acetic acid
• Pencil approximately 5 mL of ethanol
• 2, 10x20 cm sheet of filter paper
• 2, 250 mL beakers

Procedure: 1) Draw a pencil line 1 cm from the bottom

with a pencil as shown.

2) Draw a dot using each of the 5 markers. Allow to dry.

3) Carefully staple the paper in a cylindrical shape and place the paper in the glass so that
it does not touch the sides. Put paper in the 250 mL beaker and carefully add ~5 mL
(or to just below the dots) of vinegar in the center of the paper. Note: do not get
any vinegar on the paper.

4) Allow to “develop” until solvent front is within 1 cm of the top of the paper.
Remove the paper and gently detach the ends. Lay the paper flat on dry
paper towel and mark the edges of color that you see and the height that
the solvent reached.

5) Repeat steps 1-4 with ethanol instead of vinegar.

Solvent Effects on Retardation factor:

You may see that some substances move more than others. The difference is determined by how well
they dissolve in the mobile phase (the solution used to “develop” the chromatogram), relative to the
stationary phase (the paper). The retardation factor is a measure of how attracted the dyes are to the
cellulose of the filter paper.

The retardation factor is calculated as follows:

distance travelled by the dye
Rf =
distance travelled by the solvent front

By comparing retardation factors, we can identify substances. Only substances with very similar
physical properties will have very similar retardation factors.
€ 38
39
Name:___________________________
Paper Chromatography Instant Lab Report:

Purpose: To separate a dye mixture using the process of paper chromatography

Procedure: As Specified in “Separation of Mixtures using Paper Chromatography” by Mullins

Data: Chromatograms attached to paper at end of report.

Part I. Vinegar Data

Original color of Dye component Distance traveled Distance traveled Rf
marker or food by dye by the solvent
coloring

Part II. Ethanol Data

Original color of Dye component Distance traveled Distance traveled Rf
marker or food by dye by the solvent
coloring

40
Sample Calculations:
Show one example calculation of how you determined the retardation factor.

Sources of Error. Suggest 2 ways that you may have erred in collecting your data:

1.___________________________________________________________________________________

2.___________________________________________________________________________________

Modifications: Ways that I would avoid these errors in the future are:

1.__________________________________________________________________________________

2.__________________________________________________________________________________

Post Lab Questions:

1. Compare the retardation factors of all of the substances. Are any of the same dye components used?
Explain why or why or why not?

2. Consider the retardation factors for all the dye components- which ones are more attracted to the cellulose
of the paper- those with long retardation factors or those with short retardation factors? Explain your answers.

3. Which dye components are more attracted to ethanol than vinegar? How do you know?

4. Where is chromatography (the process of removing a substance through selective dissolution) used in your
home? Suggest two (be specific):

1.___________________________________________________

2._______________________________________________

Conclusion: The dyes each traveled according to their solubility in the solvents. The dye component that

moved the most in vinegar was _________________ . The dye component that moved the most in Ethanol

was ________. In general the dyes moved more in the solvent _____________________________.
41
Naming Lab
Rules for naming simple ionic compounds.
1. Name the metal by its elemental name.
2. Name the nonmetal by its elemental name and an -ide ending.
3. Metals that can have different oxidation states (charges) use roman numerals in their
names to indicate their specific positive charge.
Example Fe2+ is Iron(II)
4. Name polyatomic ions by their names.
Rules for naming aqueous acids:
1. If the anion name ends in ---ide, the acid is named as a “hydro”-----“ic” acid
2. If the anion name ends in ---ite, the acid is named as a -----“ous” acid
3. If the anion name ends in ---ate, the acid is named as an ----“ic” acid
Rules for naming binary covalent compounds:
1. Name the first nonmetal by its elemental name.
2. Name the second nonmetal by its elemental name and an -ide ending.
3. Use the prefixes mono, di, tri, tetra, penta or hexa to indicate the number of atoms of
that element in the molecule.
4. If mono is the prefix on the first atom, it is understood and not written.
Some polyatomics:
Formula Name Formula Name
1+ 2-
NH4 Ammonium SO4 Sulfate
C2H3O21- Acetate SO32- Sulfite
CO32- Carbonate HSO41- Bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate
HCO31- Bicarbonate or hydrogen HSO31- Bisulfite or hydrogen sulfite
carbonate
CN1- Cyanide PO43- Phosphate
OH1- Hydroxide PO33- Phosphite
NO31- Nitrate HPO42- Biphosphate or hydrogen
phosphate
NO21- Nitrite HPO32- Biphosphite or hydrogen
phosphite
ClO31- Chlorate H2PO41- Dihydrogen phosphate
ClO21- Chlorite H2PO31- Dihydrogen phosphite
CrO42- Chromate Cr2O72- Dichromate
Pre Lab: Put the following columns at the top of one page in your notebook.
Cation (metal and charge) Anion (metal and charge) Compound Compound
Formula Name

Procedure: You will get a deck of cards that contains the following cards:
1. Metals (positive charge - cations)
2. Nonmetals (negative charge- anions)
Use the cations and anions to make a compound. Write this compound down in the lab
notebook. Once one person goes, it is then the partner’s turn. Continue until each person has
10 unique compounds written in the lab notebook.

42
Naming Lab Report Name________________
In lieu of a lab report, please turn in the answers to the following 10 questions.

1. What is the name of the compound with the chemical formula Li2CO3? _______________

2. What is the name of the compound with the chemical formula CaS? _______________

3. What is the name of the compound with the chemical formula Fe2O3? _______________

4. What is the name of the compound with the chemical formula Mn(OH)2? _______________

5. What is the name of the compound with the chemical formula SO3? _______________

6. What is the chemical formula for ammonium acetate? _______________

7. What is the chemical formula for aluminum sulfate? _______________

8. What is the chemical formula for lead(II) oxide? _______________

9. What is the chemical formula for copper(II) phosphate? _______________

10. What is the chemical formula for carbon tetrabromide? _______________

43
Double Replacement Reactions.

Purpose: To observe double replacement reactions, and from these observations, determine the
products and driving forces for each.

Equipment needed:
• 10, test-tubes and rack
Chemicals needed:
• See 10 stations for chemicals

Prelab: Prepare your lab notebook by copying the instant lab report. Be sure to leaving enough
space for the molecular, total ionic and net ionic equations and any observations.

Background: A typical double replacement reaction can occur when two ionic compounds are
mixed together. In water these ionic compounds split apart into their respective anions and cations.
The cations now have an opportunity to swap anions. A reaction occurs if, by swapping anions, a
product is formed that cannot split apart into anions and cations. Look at the following example:
the reaction of silver nitrate and potassium chloride. The silver, nitrate, potassium and chloride ions
all begin in solution. When a silver ion combines with a chloride ion, it leaves the solution and
becomes a solid. This drives the reaction to completion!!!

AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) à AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)

The reaction must be driven by one of three driving forces: Formation of a solid, formation of a gas
or formation of a weakly-ionizing compound such as water. Let’s look to see what happens when
the driving forces are not there.

NaNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) à NaCl(aq) + KNO3(aq)

Nothing happens!! Without a driving force there is no change in the solution so we say no reaction
has taken place. Note that even though we can write an equation for the reaction, no reaction takes
place without a driving force!!

44
How can we tell if an ionic compound will be soluble in water? There are a series of guidelines in
your book. On the next page I provide you with another presentation of these same rules:

Solubility Rules
Compounds that are generally soluble in water:
1. alkali metals and ammonium (NH4+)
2. acetate ion (CH3CO2-)
3. nitrate ion (NO3-1)
4. ions of the halogens [exceptions: insoluble with Ag, Hg and Pb]
5. sulfate ion (SO4-2) [exception: insoluble with Sr, barium, lead]
Compounds that are generally insoluble in water:
6. carbonate ion (CO3-2) [exceptions: soluble with those from rule 1]
7. chromate ion (CrO4-2) [exceptions: soluble with those from rule 1]
8. phosphate ion (PO4-3) [exceptions: soluble with those from rule 1]
9. sulfide ion [exceptions: soluble with those from rule 1 and with calcium, Sr and Ba]
10. hydroxide ion (OH-) [exceptions: soluble with those from rule 1 and with Ca, Sr and Ba]
Indicators that a reaction occurred
In this lab you will be looking for indicators that a reaction has occurred. These could include:
1. Formation of a precipitate (solid):
A solid will come out of the solution or the solution will become cloudy.
2. Release of a gas:
How do you know if a gas will form? If H2CO3 is formed it will form a gas by
decomposing to H2O and CO2. You will see that in this lab. Other compounds that
release water or a gas are NH4OH and H2SO3.
3. Formation of heat:
When a strong acid and a strong base react, in an aqueous solution, they undergo a
neutralization reaction to produce a salt and water. This is an example of a double
displacement reaction where the driving force is the formation of the covalent
compound water. Often, the only way to tell if one of these reactions has occurred is
by looking for the formation of heat or by using an acid/base indicator to tell if the
base has neutralized the acid. If you do not see a reaction occur, you may wish to ask
your instructor for an appropriate indicator. How can you tell what the color of the
indicator will be in an acidic solution and a basic solution? Answer: Test the
solutions individually. (Bromothymol blue is an indicator that is blue when there an excess
of OH- present. The disappearance of the yellow color indicates that OH- has reacted.)
Types of Chemical Equations
• Molecular equation: A molecular equation gives the chemical formulas for the reactants and
products. It also includes the physical states (solid, liquid, aqueous or gas). It should always
be balanced.
o Example:
Li2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) à 2 LiOH (aq) + CaCO3 (s)
• Total ionic equation: The total ionic equation gives all the ions present in solution. Any ionic
compound that is in an aqueous solution will break into their ions. All pure solids or liquids
remain together and do not break into ions.
o Example:
2 Li+(aq) + CO3-2 (aq) + Ca+2 (aq) + 2 OH- (aq) à 2 Li+(aq) + 2 OH- (aq) + CaCO3 (s)
• Net ionic equation: The net ionic equation doesn’t include the spectator ions. A spectator ion
is necessary for the reaction to occur, but isn’t involved in the overall reaction. If something
45
is aqueous on the reactants side and remains aqueous on the product side, then it is a
spectator ion and is eliminated for the net ionic equation.
o Example:
Ca+2 (aq) + CO3-2 (aq) à CaCO3 (s)

Procedure:

There are ten stations. Please use the standard procedure at each station.
I. Reacting CuSO4 solution with NaOH solution.
II. Reacting Na2CO3 solution with HCl solution.
III. Reacting KCl solution with Na2CO3 solution.
IV. Reacting Na2SO4 solution with BaCl2 solution.
V. Reacting NaOH solution with HCl solution. (Use phenolphthalein indicator)
VI. Reacting Na2CO3 solution with CaCl2 solution.
VII. Reacting Ni(NO3)2 solution with NaOH solution.
VIII. Reacting Na2SO4 solution with Cu(N03)2 solution.
IX. Reacting KOH solution with MgCl2 solution.
X. Reacting NaHCO3 solution with HNO3 solution.

Standard procedure
1. Transfer 10-15 drops of one solution into test tube. Record in your notebook a
description of the appearance of the first solution.
2. Record in your notebook your description of the second solution.
3. Add 10-15 drops of the second solution to the test tube. Record in your notebook
your description of the appearance of the reaction mixture.
4. Dispose of waste appropriately.
5. Do the post-lab.
a. Write in your notebook a complete, molecular equation, including states.
b. Write in your notebook the driving force and make sure that the equation is
balanced.
c. If you have covered total ionic equations and net ionic equations in class, write
these in your notebook as well.

50
51
Stoichiometry

Part I: Percent Yield

Purpose: To make NaCl from NaHCO3 and HCl and to determine the percent yield of the reaction

NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) ® NaCl(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

Prelab (Part I):

1. Copy tables from the instant lab report into the lab notebook. Do this for both part I and part II.
2. Determine the molar mass of NaHCO3.

3. What are the systematic names of the 2 reactants?

4. Convert 3.00 g NaHCO3 to moles.

5. Do the prelab for part II (below)

Part II: Dehydration of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate

Purpose: To determine the number of waters of crystallization in copper(II) sulfate

Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4·5H2O) contains a definite proportion of water by weight. The
water may be expelled by heating.

CuSO4·5H2O(s) + heat ® CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)

Prelab (Part II):

1. Prepare lab notebook to receive data.
2. Determine the molar mass of CuSO4·5H2O. (Note: take the mass of Cu +S+ 4O + 10H+ 5O)

3. Convert 3.00 g CuSO4·5H2O to moles.

4. Calculate the theoretical % water of crystallization in CuSO4·5H2O.

mass 5H 2O
x100
mass CuSO4 ⋅ 5H 2O

52
Part I Procedure
1. Weigh 250 mL beaker.
2. Weigh 3.00g NaHCO3 into beaker.
3. In the fume hood, add concentrated HCl drop wise until fizzing stops.
4. Dry the contents of the beaker by placing the beaker on a hotplate (also in the hood). The hotplate
should not be set above ¾ the max heat. (While this is drying continue on to Part II of the lab.)
5. Once beaker is cooled, weigh beaker to determine actual yield of NaCl (s).
6. Calculate theoretical yield for NaCl. Hint: Use the following equation and the mass of NaHCO3 that
was weighed at the start of the experiment.
NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) ® NaCl(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

7. Determine percent yield.

Actual Yield
% Yield = ────────── x 100
Theoretical Yield

Part II Procedure
1. Weigh a clean crucible.
2. Weigh 3.00g CuSO4·5H2O into the crucible, record the exact mass of the hydrate.
3. Using a hot plate (at your table), heat the hydrate until the CuSO4 is a very light blue.
4. Allow crucible and contents to cool.
5. Determine mass of anhydrous CuSO4 remaining. Convert this mass to moles.
6. Calculate mass of water released in the heating process. Convert this mass to moles.
7. Determine the experimental ratio of H2O to CuSO4. mole H 2O
mole CuSO4
8. Determine the % error
(The Accepted value is 5, and the experimental value is from number 7.).

Your Value − Accepted Value €

x100
Accepted Value

9. Calculate the observed % water of crystallization.

€ 10. Discard anhydrous CuSO4 in the waste container.

53
Stoichiometry Lab Report

Part I-Purpose: To make NaCl from NaHCO3 and HCl and to determine the percent yield of the reaction

Mass of empty beaker

Experimental mass of NaHCO3

Moles of NaHCO3

Mass of beaker after heated

Experimental mass of NaCl

Moles of NaCl

Theoretical yield of NaCl

Percent yield of NaCl

Show calculations for:

• Theoretical yield of NaCl:

• Percent yield of NaCl:

Two source of error and its effect on percent yield and/or purity of NaCl:

1) _______________________________________________________________

2) _______________________________________________________________

Modifications:

1) _______________________________________________________________

2) _______________________________________________________________

Conclusion: The yield of sodium chloride was _____________grams giving a % yield of ________.

Postlab (Part 1)
Calculate the mass of NaCl produced by the reaction of 7.53 g Na2CO3 with concentrated HCl according
to the reaction:
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ® 2NaCl(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

54
Part II: Dehydration of copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate
Mass of empty crucible

Experimental mass of hydrate (CuSO4·5H2O)

Mass of beaker after crucible after heating

Mass of CuSO4 (experimental)

Moles of CuSO4

Mass H2O (experimental)

Moles H2O

Experimental mole Ratio (H2O to CuSO4)

Calculation of % error of mole ratio:

% error of Mole Ratio:

Calculation of experimental % H2O:

Experimental % H2O:

Calculation of theoretical % H2O in CuSO4·5H2O:

Theoretical % H2O in CuSO4·5H2O:

Two source of error and its effect on percent yield and/or purity of NaCl:
1_______________________________________________________________

2)_______________________________________________________________

Modifications:
1)_______________________________________________________________

2)_______________________________________________________________

Conclusion: The number of waters of hydration in crystalline 1 mole of copper(II) sulfate was shown
to be ___________, which is {close to/ far away from} the accepted value of 5 moles.

Postlab (Part II)

Calculate the mass of water that should be produced when 12.5g CuSO4·5H2O is heated.

55
Gas Laws Lab

Purpose: To explore the gas laws.

Equipment needed:
• See each individual experiment

Background: When molecules or atoms are in the gas phase, they tend to behave in a manner which is
consistent with the Kinetic Molecular Theory. Such gases are termed Ideal Gases, and follow the
mathematical relationship:
PV=nRT
where P= pressure (atm), V= volume (L), n= number of moles of gas,
T= temperature (K) and R= Ideal Gas Constant, 0.08206 L atm mol-1K-1

Since R is a constant, this equation can be rewritten as:

PV
=R
nT
for any gas which behaves ideally, for any combination of pressure, volume and number of moles of gas.
Thus, the ideal gas law can be rewritten to compare two different sets of conditions, a form called the
Combined Gas Law.
€
P 1V 1 = P 2 V 2
n1T 1 n2 T 2
With the combined gas law, we can predict the effects of changing conditions on the properties of a gas.

Pre-Laboratory Exercise: €

Prepare the lab notebook to collect data.

You will transfer the answers to this document after the lab.
In complete sentences in your lab notebook answer the following questions:

1. What is the effect of an increase in temperature on molecular velocity?

2. How does this change affect the force of the gas molecule’s collisions with the walls of the container?

3. What is the resultant change in pressure in a closed system that cannot expand?

4. What is the resultant volume change in a system that can expand and contract, but whose pressure is
constant if you increase the temperature of the system?

56
Experiment 1: The relationship of volume and pressure (Demonstration)

This experiment will allow us to examine how changes in volume affect the pressure of a gas in a container.

1) Circle the correct response:

a) To increase the volume of a gas in a container we must [increase; decrease] the surface area of
the container.
b) There are [the same; fewer] number of molecules in the container when the volume of the
container is changed.
c) Pressure in force/area. As the volume of the gas increases then the area [increases; decreases]
and so the pressure of the gas [increases; decreases].

2) Write down the pressure in atmospheres and the volume in liters. Calculate volume-1 for each data point
and record your values in the table below:
Pressure (atm) Volume (L) 1/volume (L-1)

3) Make a graph of pressure versus 1/V. Put pressure on the y-axis and 1/V on the x axis. Label your axis
and title your graph and determine the trendline. The data should be a straight line.

• A straight line can be described by the equation y = mx + b where m is the slope and b is the intercept.
In this case the slope, m, is equal to “nRT” and the intercept b will be approximately zero. Determine
the slope either by hand or by computer. See the graphing lab for more details.

Slope from equation of line from graph = __________________

• 4) Use Slope = nRT, where “slope” is the slope from the equation of the line on your graph,
R = 0.08206 L atm/mole K, T = room temperature (25°C) to calculate the number of moles (n) in the
container.

57
Experiment 2

Equipment needed:
1 empty aluminum soda can
1 ice bath (plastic) filled with ice water
1 hot plate
1 pair crucible tongs
1 Thermometer
Generic
Place the aluminum can on the hot plate. Pour Cola
a few mL of water into the can, and heat until
the water boils (evidenced by a large quantity
of steam evolving from the can). Lift the can
off the plate using the crucible tongs and drop
it upside down into the beaker of ice water.
Record your observations below.

In this experiment, volume is held constant because the walls of the container are rigid. The number of
moles is held constant because the hole in the can is sealed when it is turned upside down and immersed
in the water/ice bath.

Temperature of the water in the ice bath__________

Observations:

1. Calculations:
a. T1 (in K) =

b. T2 (in K) =

c. P1 (in atm) =

d. P2 calculated=

e. Calculation for P2

2. What caused the change in the can's appearance? Explain your observations.

58
Experiment 3

Equipment needed:
1 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask
1 balloon
1 ice bath
1 hot plate
1 Thermometer

Place about 50 mL of water into the

Erlenmeyer flask. Place the flask on the hot
plate and bring it to a boil. Remove the flask
from the hot plate and place the balloon over
the top of the flask. Quickly plunge the flask
into the ice bath.

Temperature of the ice bath_________

Observations:

Questions:
3. Calculation
T1 (in K) =

T2 (in K) =

V1 (in mL) =

V2 calculated=

Calculation for V2

4. What caused the change in the appearance of the balloon? Explain your observations.

59
Post Lab Questions
1. In two flasks of equal volume, sample A contains CO2 at 0°C and 3.00 atm and sample B contains H2 at 0°C
and 2.00 atm. Which gas, if either, has more molecules?

2. A sample of gas was moved at constant temperature from a 650.0 mL vessel at 896 torr to a 2.00 L vessel.
What is its new pressure?

3. A 3.61 L sample of H2 at 350.°C and 14.45 psi is compressed to 1950 mL at 5.40 atm. What is its new
Centigrade temperature? (14.70 psi = 1 atm)

4. Calculate the final volume after 1.45 L of gas at 1.29 atm and 75°C is changed at constant pressure to
-62°C.

5. Calculate the °C temperature at which 1.02 mol of oxygen occupies 2500. mL at 1460 torr.

6. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide gas present in 445 mL at 225 °C and 1.783 atm.

7. If 7.46 g of a gas occupies 2.89 L at 841 mm Hg and 27.63°C, what is the molar mass of the gas?
Remember: Molar mass is defined as the number of grams in 1 mole of compound and will have the units
g/mol.

60
61
Models Lab

Background: Today you will be examining covalently bonded structures called molecules. On
paper these molecules look very different from their true three dimensional structures. In this lab
we will practice drawing two-dimensional Lewis structures on paper and then look at these
structures transformed into three dimensions using the model sets provided in the laboratory.
You will then draw the molecules using three dimensional drawing techniques. The models sets
contain balls with holes that represent atoms and sticks that connect them that represent bonds.
Please bring your textbook to the laboratory.

Steps to make Lewis Structures:

1) Determine total number of valence electrons available
2) Arrange atoms (generally least electronegative atom is the central atom).
• Remember that hydrogen and the halogens only have one bond, so they will be on the
outer side.
3) Bond atoms together by drawing a line between them.
• Each bond takes 2 electrons
4) Subtract out bonded electrons from total valence electrons.
5) Use electrons that are left to fill octets, fill outside atoms first and then center atom.
6) Look to make sure every atom has octet. If all are satisfied you are done. If any atoms are
not satisfied, make double and triple bonds to satisfy all atoms.

OCTET RULE
Atoms in a compound lose, gain or share electrons in order to achieve a stable noble gas
configuration.

PreLab Questions :
1) a) How many valence electrons does carbon have?____
b) How many more does it need to satisfy the octet rule?____
c) How many single bonds are associated with carbon____
d) How many holes will the balls representing carbon have?____
2) a) How many valence electrons does oxygen have?_____
b) How many more does it need to satisfy the octet rule?____
c) How many single bonds are associated with oxygen?____
d) How many holes will the balls representing oxygen have?____
3) a) How many valence electrons does hydrogen have?____
b) How many more does it need to satisfy the octet rule?_____
c) How many single bonds are associated with hydrogen?____
d) How many holes will the balls representing hydrogen have?____
4) Draw the Lewis structures in your lab notebook for CO2, C2H6 , CH2O, CH4.

62
Use of the Model Sets
1) Each element can be represented by a color. Please use the following scheme.
carbon: black, 4 holes oxygen: red, 2 holes
nitrogen: blue, 4 holes hydrogen: white, 1 hole

2) One shared pair of electrons is a single bond and is represented by a short stick.
Two shared pairs of electrons is a double bond and is represented by two flexible sticks connecting
the two atoms.
Three shared pairs of electrons is a triple bond and is represented by three flexible sticks connecting
the two atoms.

Part 1: Exploring the model sets.

Make models of each of the structures from the pre-lab (CO2, CH2O, CH4, C2H6) and draw pictures
of these (VSEPR diagram) along with the Lewis structure. Name the electron pair geometry. This
geometry identifies the arrangement of the electrons around the central atom, and includes both lone
pairs and bond pairs. Then name the molecular geometry of each of these molecules. The molecular
geometry identifies the arrangement of the bonds and will be different from the electron pair geometry if
the central atom has lone pairs. Note the bond angles around the central atom.

Arrange your data in a table: Make sure to give yourself enough room to do 4 Lewis structures
within this table.

Lewis structure VSEPR drawing Electron pair Molecular Bond angles

geometry geometry around central
around central around central atom(s)
atom(s) atom(s)

Draw the VSEPR picture and identify the electron pair geometry, the molecular geometry and the bond
angles.

Part II. Cool polyatomic ions. Give yourself enough room to do 2 Lewis structures in this table.

Polyatomic ions are groups of covalently bound groups of atoms with an overall charge. Draw the
Lewis structures for the ions CO32- and NO2-. Make models of each.

Lewis structure VSEPR drawing Electron pair Molecular Bond angles

geometry geometry around central
around central around central atom(s)
atom(s) atom(s)

Draw the VSEPR picture and identify the electron pair geometry, the molecular geometry and the bond
angles.

63
Part III Neutral compounds with formal charges. Give yourself enough room in the table to do 2
Lewis structures.

Draw the Lewis structures for the compounds O3 and SO2. These are not polyatomic ions. Make
models of each.

Lewis structure VSEPR drawing Electron pair Molecular Bond angles

geometry geometry around central
around central around central atom(s)
atom(s) atom(s)

Draw the VSEPR picture and identify the electron pair geometry, the molecular geometry and the bond
angles.

Part IV Multiple Central atoms.

Acetate is CH3CO2-. It is written this way to indicate that the three hydrogens are attached to one
carbon and the two oxygens are attached to the other. The two carbons are attached to each other.
There are two central atoms and they do not have the same geometry.

Lewis structure VSEPR drawing Electron pair Molecular Bond angles

geometry geometry around central
around central around central atom(s)
atom(s) atom(s)
C1 C1 C1
C2 C2 C2

Draw the VSEPR picture and identify the electron pair geometry, the molecular geometry and the bond
angles.

Part V. Post-Lab Questions.

For the following 5 molecules or polyatomic ions, complete the following table
a) C2H2 b) HNNH(one hydrogen on each nitrogen) c) ClO3- d) NO3- e) PCl3

Lewis structure VSEPR drawing Electron pair Molecular Bond angles

geometry geometry around central
around central around central atom(s)
atom(s) atom(s)

64
Number Electron Pair Bonding Lone Molecular geometry
of Geometry Areas Pairs
groups
(atoms
or lone
pairs)
2 Linear 2 0 Linear
H Be H

3 Trigonal planar 3 0 Trigonal planar

B
F F
2 1 Bent

S
O Cl

4 Tetrahedral 4 0 Tetrahedral
H

C
H
H
H
3 1 Trigonal pyramidal

N
H
H
H
2 2 Bent

O
H
H

65
Titration of the Acid Content in Fruit Juices
Purpose: To determine the acid content of various fruit juices by titration with a standard NaOH
solution.

The sour taste of many fruit juices is due to the presence of organic acids and other compounds. Citric
acid, C3H5O(COOH)3, is one of several acids present. Citric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide, a base,
as shown below:

Equation 1 C3H5O(COOH)3 (aq) + 3 NaOH (aq) ® C3H5O(COO)3Na3 (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

Citric acid sodium hydroxide sodium citrate

This describes a “neutralization reaction” in which an acid and a base react to form a salt and water.
Although various acids are found in different amounts in different juices, for the purposes of this
experiment, we will assume that the acid content is exclusively citric acid.

We can determine the amount of acid in a given volume of fruit juice by titrating it with a standard
NaOH solution. A standard solution is one of known concentration, expressed in terms of molarity:

Equation 2 Molarity, M = number of moles of solute or M = mol

Volume of solution, L L

We measure the volume of NaOH solution required for the neutralization reaction by a technique called
“titration”. The standard NaOH will be added to the acid-containing unknown using a calibrated glass
tube called a buret. Before beginning the titration, an indicator is added to the unknown solution. An
indicator is a substance that changes color at the point where the titration is complete, or the “endpoint”
of the titration. In this experiment, you will use phenolphthalein as an indicator when you titrate the
fruit juice sample with sodium hydroxide solution. Phenolphthalein is a complex organic molecule;
colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic.

Assume that we want to determine the acidity of an orange juice sample, 10 milliliters. We find that
39.62 mL of 0.106 M NaOH is needed to reach the endpoint. The following is a step-by-step procedure
for the calculation of acidity.

Calculations:
Volume NaOH × Molarity × Mole Ratio × Molar Mass Citric Acid ÷ mL of juice

" 0.11mole NaOH %" 1 mole citric acid %" 192.12g %" %
Liters of NaOH$ '$ '$ '$ ' = _____g/mL
€ # Liter NaOH &# 3 mole NaOH &#1 mole citric acid &# mL juice &
NaOH used (molarity of NaOH) (Mole:Mole ratio)(molar mass citric acid)( mL of juice used)

Note: the molarity of NaOH used may be different, look at the bottle of NaOH used during the lab.
€
Note that we assume the only acid present in fruit juice is citric acid. This is not strictly correct as the
organic acid mixture is complex. It would require much more detailed analysis to determine which acids
are present, and the proportions of each. In this experiment, you will determine the acid content of a
variety of juice samples by titrating with a standard NaOH solution. You should then be able to
compare the acidities of the samples in lab by comparing your results with your classmates.

66
Procedure

Alert: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is toxic and corrosive. Wear approved eye protection while
doing this experiment. Do not ingest any solutions in the laboratory, and prevent contact with
your skin, eyes and clothing. Notify your instructor immediately of any spills or accidents in the
laboratory.
1. Obtain approximately 75 mL of fruit juice in a clean, dry 150-mL beaker. Record the type of fruit
juice and any other identifying codes of the juice sample in your lab notebook. If the juice has a
large amount of pulp floating in it, filter the juice into another clean, dry 150-mL beaker before
continuing the experiment. Your instructor will provide directions and glassware for this filtration
step.

2. Label four 125-mL Erlenmeyer flasks as 1, 2, 3 and 4 (if needed). You should have one flask for
each person in your lab group.

3. Transfer 20.0 mL of your juice sample into each of the Erlenmeyer flasks, and add three drops of
bromothymol blue indicator to each. Swirl gently to mix the contents of the flasks.

4. Obtain a clean, dry 50-mL buret and support stand. Rinse the buret with several volumes of
deionized water. Make sure that the stopcock opens and closes freely. Your instructor will
demonstrate and describe the correct set up for the buret and support stand.

5. Obtain 75 mL of standard NaOH solution in a clean, dry 125-Erlenmeyer flask. Record the exact
molarity of the NaOH in your lab notebook.

6. Rinse the buret with 5 mL of your NaOH solution. Hold the buret horizontally and carefully rotate it
so that the NaOH solution contacts the entire inner surface. Be sure the stopcock is closed! Drain
the solution into a labeled waste container (400-mL beaker), and re-close the stopcock. Leave this
waste container in place below the stopcock for now.

7. Place a short stem glass funnel in the open end of the buret and carefully fill it with standard NaOH
solution. Pour to just above the “0-mL” mark. Rinse the glass funnel with deionized water before
returning it to the bench.

8. Eliminate any air bubbles by carefully rotating the buret. Slowly drain the buret so the NaOH
solution is in line with the 0-mL calibration mark.

9. You are now ready to titrate the first sample flask. Remove the waste beaker and set it aside on the
bench. Position flask “1” under the buret tip, then lower the buret if necessary so that it extends
safely into the mouth of the flask.

10. Using one hand to open the stopcock, gently swirl the flask with the other. Be sure to keep the
mouth of the flask underneath the buret tip. Do not try to make this a “two person” operation. It
will be very difficult to coordinate your efforts. Add NaOH in 1- or 2-mL volumes, continuing to
swirl the flask. As you proceed with the titration, you will notice the green coloration where the
NaOH is added to the fruit juice sample. Stop titrating when the pale green color persists after you
have thoroughly swirled the contents of the flask. (Note: a sheet of plain white paper will help you

67
to visualize the green color change. The color of the juice may or may not interfere with this
observation.)

11. Record the volume of NaOH used to the nearest 0.01 mL. This should be recorded in your lab
notebook. Refill the buret with standard NaOH solution, as you did in steps 7 and 8 above.

12. Your lab partner should now titrate the sample in flask “2”, and record the volume of NaOH used to
the nearest 0.01 mL. Once everyone in your group has completed a successful titration, discard all
solutions in the appropriate waste containers, as indicated by your lab instructor. Rinse all glassware
with tap water then rinse with deionized water before returning the apparatus to your lab drawer or
the front cart.

68
Name_______________________
Calculations- Show work
1. Calculate the mass of citric acid in 1 mL of juice (g/mL) in flask 1.

2. Calculate the mass of citric acid in 1 mL of juice (g/mL) in flask 2.

3. Calculate the mass of citric acid in 1 mL of juice (g/mL) in flask 3.

4. Calculate the mass of citric acid in 1 mL of juice (g/mL) in flask 4 (if needed).

5. Report the average mass of citric acid in 1 mL of juice for your data. Show your calculation.

Post-lab questions
1. Explain briefly why you should not consume any fruit juice solutions in the laboratory.

2. Why do we need to use a “standardized” or “standard” NaOH solution for this experiment?

3. Why should excess pulp be filtered or otherwise removed from the fruit juice samples prior to
titration?

4. A student in another laboratory section determined that 20.0 mL of apple juice required 12.84 mL of
0.0958 M NaOH solution to reach the phenolphthalein endpoint. Calculate the mass (g) of citric acid
present per mL of apple juice. Note: final answer should be g/mL.

5. Suppose that you wanted to determine the citric acid content of tomato juice. What procedural
changes, if any, would be needed?

69
pH Determinations Lab

Pre Lab: Prepare your notebook to record the data, by copying all of the tables (1-4) into it. Later you will
copy the results onto this “Instant Lab Report”, answer the questions and turn the report in for your grade.

Part I. Colorimetric determination of pH

If desired you can bring a liquid food item and a liquid cleaning supply item for the class to determine their
pH values. Approximately 10 mL are needed of each item.

Determine the pH of each solution using broad range indicator paper. Place a single drop of the chemical
on the paper and compare the color of the paper with the color chart. The reading should be done within 2
minutes of applying the drop because some chemicals will destroy the dyes that create the different colors.
Table 1:
FOODS CLEANING SUPPLIES
NAME pH NAME pH

1. ____________________________ _____________________________
2. ____________________________ _____________________________
3. ____________________________ _____________________________
4. ____________________________ _____________________________
5. ____________________________ _____________________________
6. ____________________________ _____________________________
7. ____________________________ _____________________________
8. ____________________________ _____________________________
9. ____________________________ _____________________________
10. ____________________________ _____________________________
What general observation can you make about the pH of food items?

What general observations can you make about the pH of cleaning supplies?

Compare your values with other students’ values for the same food items. Are they the same? What
problems are associated with colorimetric methods for pH determination?

70
Part II. pH Determinations using a pH Meter
Table 2: Record the pH of 25 mL of each of the following solutions:
___________0.10M HCl ___________0.010M HCl
___________0.10M NH3 ___________0.10M NH4Cl
___________0.10M NaOH ___________0.010M NaOH
___________0.10M NaHCO3 ___________0.10M Na2CO3
___________0.10M CH3CO2H ___________0.10M NaCH3CO2
Use your calculators and the measured pH of the solutions to determine the hydronium ion concentration.
Use the pH you've measured to determine the relationship to the concentration of free hydronium ion in the
solution.

pH = -log [H+]
-pH = log [H+]
10 = [H ] so if the pH is 5, the [H+] = 10-5 or .00001M
-pH +

Table 3: Record the free hydronium ion concentration of the solutions using scientific notation:
___________0.10M HCl ___________0.010M HCl
___________0.10M NH3 ___________0.10M NH4Cl
___________0.10M NaOH ___________0.010M NaOH
___________0.10M NaHCO3 ___________0.10M Na2CO3
___________0.10M CH3CO2H ___________0.10M NaCH3CO2
Answer the following:
Notice that the concentration of hydronium ion in the hydrochloric acid solution is approximately the same
as the concentration of the HCl. On the other hand, this is not true for the acetic acid. Suggest an
explanation. Hint: think about the strengths of these two acids.

Part III Buffered Solutions versus Unbuffered Solutions

To 25 mL of 0.10M CH3CO2H/0.10M NaCH3CO2 add the indicated number of drops of 0.01M NaOH,
measuring the pH after each addition of base. Repeat the process with 25 mL of 0.00010M HCl/0.1M
NaCl.
Table 4:
A) 0.10M CH3CO2H/0.10M NaCH3CO2 B) 0.00010M HCl/0.1M NaCl
pH solution + total drops of NaOH pH solution + total drops of NaOH
___________ 0 ________________ 0
___________ 2 ________________ 2
___________ 4 ________________ 4
___________ 6 ________________ 6
___________ 8 ________________ 8
___________ 10 ________________ 10
___________ 20 ________________ 20
What does a buffered solution have to contain? Which of the above was the buffered solution?
71
Part IV Questions
1. Sodium bicarbonate is amphiprotic, meaning it can be both an acid or a base.
a. Write an equation that shows how it can behave as an acid in water.

b. Write an equation that shows how it can behave as a base in water.

c. What was the pH of the sodium bicarbonate solution? Is it acidic or basic? Which of the two
equations (a or b) best explain the behavior of sodium bicarbonate in water? Explain
briefly.

d. What was the pH of sodium carbonate solution? Is it acid or basic? Write an equation to
explain its pH.

e. Water is hydrolyzed to form two ions, H3O+ and OH-. Which of these ions are produced by
carbonate, and by bicarbonate? Hint: React carbonate and bicarbonate with water, what is produced?

f. Which ion, carbonate or bicarbonate, ionizes water to a greater extent? Explain briefly.

2. a. What is the pH of the ammonia solution? Write an equation that explains its pH.

b. What is the pH of the ammonium chloride solution? Write an equation that explains its pH.

c. Could you make a buffer by combining these two compounds? Why or why not?

72
3. a. What is the pH of the acetic acid solution? Write an equation that explains this pH.

b. What is the pH of the sodium acetate solution? Write an equation that explains this pH.

c. Why is the pH of the acetic acid/sodium acetate mixture higher than the acetic acid but less
than the sodium acetate? Note: you can explain this using LeChâtelier’s Principle and the
acetic acid equilibrium.

e. Why did the addition of sodium hydroxide to the acetic acid/sodium acetate mixture result
in a very slow change in pH, but the addition of sodium hydroxide to the hydrochloric
acid/sodium chloride mixture caused a very rapid change in pH?

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Deerwood CHM1025C Lab Manual SPRING2021

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Deerwood CHM1025C Lab Manual SPRING2021

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Deerwood CHM1025C Lab Manual Table of Contents

National Fire Protection Agency Codes

Set up the notebook in the following manner:

Before Each Lab:

burner scoopula wire gauze

graduated cylinder beaker

watch glass test tube holder

Crucible tongs and evaporating dish

ring stand with utility clamp, ring and

Here are some sample errors and their effects:

Are some measuring devices more accurate than others?

In this class we will all read measurements to the same precision!

Steps to producing reproducible measurements:

A measurement -- sums these parts: n + (m * M) + (u * U)

Example 1: ( a measurement of length in cm)

2. Determine the value of each division or mark of the scale (M):

7. Determine the uncertain part of the measurement: u * U

8. Determine the measurement by adding the certain (n + m * M) and uncertain (u * U)

n ______ m ________ M ________ u __________ U __________

Answer: as long as your value overlaps, you are doing well:

n ______ m ________ M ________ u __________ U __________

n ______ m ________ M ________ u __________ U __________

n ______ m ________ M ________ u __________ U __________

In this lab we will be measuring 9 mL of water in 4 devices; a beaker, a 10 mL graduated cylinder, a 25

Part III: 9 mL of water will be measured as carefully as possible in a 25 mL graduated cylinder,

Part V: 9 mL of water will be measured as carefully as possible in a 50 mL beaker, using an

2. Calculate the deviation (d) for each trial. d = ( x - x) = (measuredvalue - average)

3. Calculate the average of the deviation values. d =

d average measured deviation

glassware Value of smallest marking precision

Part III data:

Summary Table of Equipment Performance

Error and Discussion

Conclusion: The piece of glassware best suited for measuring 9 mL is a ____________

1. Which glassware was most accurate? ________________________________________________

2. Which glassware was most precise? ________________________________________________

Show your calculation of average

Show your calculation of deviation

Show your calculation of average deviation

Show your calculation for the %E

Weight is measured using a scale. In a scale, the mass is pulled by

In displacement, a cylinder is partially filled with

Raw Data: Note: Calculated= n + (m*M) + (u*U)

Raw Data: Note: Calculated= n + (m*M) + (u*U)

Procedure Part II: Determining the Density of a Solution:

(x - Correct value) (average density - Correct value)

€ Table 1: Physical properties of selected elements

Calculations Part II:

7. Determine the mass of the solution for each trial

8. Determine the density of the unknown solution for each trial:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

Post Lab Questions:

Name _________________________ Partner(s) _______________________

B. Unknown solution letter (if there was one)_____________

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3

mass before adding solution F

mass after adding solution G I K

Density of unknown solution

Average density of unknown: ______________

Sample Calculations: Show on an attached sheet.

Post Lab Questions (questions 1-5):

For the next two questions, use the following information:

• 453.6 g = 1 pound (lb)

4. What is the volume, in mL, of 0.860 lbs of alcohol?

5. How many pounds of mercury are in 500. mL of mercury?

3. What is the mass in kilograms of 400.0 mL of mercury?

4. What happens to the mass when you double the volume?

give a straight line whose slope is equal to the density.

Fill in the data from the density lab part B:

ii. Highlight and select the two sets of data.

will include the trendline automatically.

4. Let professor know when you are done.

3. What do scientists call the ratio of mass to volume?

Slope from graph 2 vs. average density

Slope from graph 3 vs. average density

6. At 25°C, the unknown solution has a density of:

n m M u U ______

n m M u U ______

n m M u U ______

n m M u U ______

Raw Data: Note: Calculated= n + (mM) + (uU)

Raw Data: Note: Calculated= n + (mM) + (uU)

Name ___ Partner(s) _