MATERIALS ENGINEERING

MT30001
3‐0‐0
Offered by:
Dept. of Metallurgical & Materials Engg.

Instructors:
Prof. Somjeet Biswas
Instructorʼs contact information

Prof. Somjeet Biswas

Email: somjeetbiswas@metal.iitkgp.ac.in

Office: MT311,
2nd floor, Dept. of Metallurgical & Materials Engg.
IIT Kharagpur

2
Crystal Definition

Crystal – A solid composed of atoms arranged in a pattern periodic in three dimensions

Lattice – An array of points in space arranged such that each point has identical surroundings
Primitive Unit Cell – A parallelepiped containing just one lattice point
Unit Cell – Lattice Parameters
The smallest group of atom that indicates the
crystal symmetry i.e., crystal lattice suitably

a, b & c – Vectors defining the unit cell

(crystallographic axes)

a, b & c are the lengths of these vectors

and ,  &  are the angles between
them. Together these form the set of
lattice constants or parameters.
c

Crystal plane: A set of lattice points 

that lie in one plane.

b
a b
Crystal direction: A set of lattice 
points that lie along a line. a

Crystal axes: The reference vectors

that define the unit cell.
 A lattice can be generated by three non‐coplanar
unit vectors, a, b, and c, and a set of integers x,y,
and z, such that each lattice point can be
identified by a vector 𝑅 as:
𝑅 𝑥𝑎 𝑦𝑏 𝑧𝑐

Lattice is an infinite set of points generated

by a set of discrete translation operations.
c
b
a

A crystal is made up of one or more atoms that are repeated in each lattice point.
• In Metals – lattice points are occupied by single atoms
• In complex structures – identical groups of atoms are present in every lattice point – MOTIF or BASIS of
Atoms
 c
OA1, 1 & 1/2
[uvw] direction
uvw = [221]
<uvw> set of crystallographically
A equivalent directions
O c b
2 a
a b
[001] [112] [111]
[101] [1213]

c
[021]

a3 [1100]
[ 010]
a2

[110] a1
[1120]
[100]
Indices in hexagonal crystals
a3

[-1½, 1½, 0, 0]

a2

a1

Rule u v t w =indices = integers

t = -(u+v)
Hence u v t w: –1 1 0 0
Lattice Planes
(hkl) Miller
indices of a
plane
c/z
{hkl} set of
symmetrically
equivalent
planes
b/y
a/x

(010) (110)

(111) (112) (1210) (1011) (1100)

Interplanar or d‐Spacing
2 dimensional examples
a
b

(11) (10)

d010 d020
(21) (15)
dhkl = a(h2 + +
k2 l2)-1/2
(for cubics)
 = 2dhklsin Lines of lowest indices have the greatest
spacing and density of lattice points

dhkl = V[h2b2c2sin2 + k2a2c2sin2 + l2a2b2sin2

+ 2hlab2c(coscos – cos)
+ 2hkabc2(coscos – cos)
+ 2kla2bc(coscos – cos)]-1/2

V = abc[1 - cos2 - cos2 - cos2 2coscoscos]1/2

Seven Crystal Systems

Rotation Axes
Mirror Center of
Crystal Systems (32) Lattice Parameter Relationships
Planes Inversion
2 3 4 6

Triclinic (2) - - - - - yes abc   

Monoclinic (3) 1 - - - 1 yes abc  

Orthorhombic (3) 3 - - - 3 yes abc 

Trigonal* (5)
3 1 - - 3 yes a=b=c  𝟗𝟎°
(Rhombohedral)

Tetragonal (7) 4 - 1 - 5 yes a=bc 

Hexagonal (7) 6 - - 1 7 yes a=bc 

Cubic (5) 6 4 3 - 9 yes a=b=c  

 Unit Cell – Symmetry
Point Group Symmetry: The set of rotations (a point group) which when applied
to the crystal lattice rotate the lattice into an orientation indistinguishable from the
original orientation.

Cubic Symmetry: 3 four-fold axes, 6 two-

fold axes, 4 three-fold axes (+ the identity). Hexagonal Symmetry: 1 six-fold
3x3 + 6x1 + 4x2 + 1 = 24 symmetry elements axis + 6 two-fold axes (+ the
identity). 1x5 + 6x1 + 1 = 12
𝟑 𝟗𝟎° ‐ 4 fold 𝟔 𝟏𝟖𝟎° ‐ 2 fold Mirror symmetry elements
symmetries symmetries symmetries
[0001]
[001] [011]

[011] [101] [110]

[0 1 1] [10 1 ] [ 1 10]
[010]

[111]
[100]
[ 1 100] [11 2 0]
𝟒 𝟏𝟐𝟎° ‐ 3 fold [111] [1 1 1]
[10 1 0] [1 2 10]
[0 1 10] [ 2 110]
symmetries [ 1 11] [11 1 ]

Translational
symmetries There could be additional lattice points at body centre or surface centre.
 Seven Crystal Systems
• There are only 7 possible crystal systems that atoms/motifs can be kept together to produce an infinite
3‐D space lattice in such a way that each lattice point has an identical environment to that around every
other lattice point.
• There are 14 Bravais lattices that fills the 3D space. These are the possible combination of the 7 crystal
system with the various lattice centerings.
• There are 11 Laue classes or Laue groups containing inversion center i.e., centrosymmetric.

Laue Group Symmetry elements

Primitive
Triclinic 𝟏 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 c
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 b
a
𝟐 2
Monoclinic
𝒎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝛼 𝛾 90° 𝛽
Orthorombhic Laue Group Symmetry elements

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 90°
4
Gallium

Tetragonal 𝟒 𝟒 4, 8
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝒎 𝒎𝒎
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 90°
Tin, Indium

Rhombohedral 3, 6
(Trigonal) 𝟑 𝟑𝒎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 90°
Mercury, Antimony,
Bismuth
 Hexagonal Laue Group Symmetry elements
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝟔 𝟔
6, 12
𝛼 𝛽 90°, 𝛾 120° 𝒎 𝒎𝒎𝒎
Magnesium, Titanium,
Zinc

Cubic (isometric)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 90°

𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝟑𝒎 12, 24
Majority of Metals are either cubic
or hexagonal crystal structure

All combinations of rotations, mirror When these point groups are combined
planes, and inversion centres with the translation symmetries
collectively make up 32 point groups  230 possible space groups are
or crystal classes obtained
 Symmetry Elements
Each crystal system possesses a
• Translational Symmetry (Space Groups)
number of point symmetry
r = ua + vb + wc elements characteristic of the
system. (“7 crystal systems”)
•Rotational Symmetry (Point Group)
monad, diad, triad, tetrad, hexad
2, , 2 / , / , /
3 2 3 Atomic groups at the lattice
points (called the motif) reduce
• Reflection Symmetry (Point Group) that symmetry or introduce new
• mirror plane symmetry.
The total number of possible
• Center of Inversion (Point Group) combinations is 32, called the 32
• mirror plane with a rotation point groups.

010
100
001
Crystallographic Point Groups
Triclinic Monoclinic (2 vertical) Tetragonal Trigonal Hexagonal Cubic

C1 (1) C2 (2) C4 (4) C3 (3) C 6 (6) T (23)

C1h (m) S4 (4) C3h (6)

S 2 (1) C2h (2/m) C4h (4/m) S 6 (3) C 6h (6/m) Th (m3)

Monoclinic (m vertical) Orthorhombic

D 4 (422) D3 (32) D6 (622) O (432)

C2 (2) D2 (222)

C1h (m) C2v (mm2) C4v (4mm) C 3v (3m) C 6v (6mm)

D 2d (42m) D 3h (6m2) Td (43m)

C 2h (2/m) D 2h (mmm) D 4h (4/mmm) D 3d (3m) D 6h (6/mmm) O h (m3m)

Left figure: molecular arrangement Right figure: symmetry elements

 Crystallographic Space Group
Point Groups Symmetry operations which leave the crystal in a position indistinguishable
from the position prior to the operation. Such operations (e.g. rotations,
reflections and inversions) have the property that at least one point of the
object was not moved by the operation.

Translations A crystal may be regarded as an infinite lattice; a combination of atoms that

are repeated over and over throughout three-dimensional space. Lattice
translations satisfy the definition of symmetry operations, since the crystal is
indistinguishable after such translations.

Screw Axes The operation that characterizes a screw axis, denoted by n, is a rotation of
2/n radians followed by a translation of /n in the direction of the axis.

Glide Planes The combination of the motions of reflections and translation gives a glide
plane. The operation consists of reflection in a plane followed by translation.
For example, if the glide is parallel to the a axis, then the symbol for the glide
plane is a and the operation is reflection in the plane and translation by a/2.
Materials

• Single crystals

• Polycrystals

• Anisotropy

• Noncrystalline
A texture‐less sheet A fully textured sheet
ISOTROPIC ANISOTROPIC

111

Pole
Figure

The cube texture : (001) ΙΙ ND (Sheet Normal Direction)

[100] ΙΙ RD (Sheet Rolling Direction)
The real situation

Cube Goss

Many grains have common orientation, but they are spatially apart.
Texture evolution depends on processing conditions
 SOLIDIFICATION (Crystallization)  from a non‐crystalline/liquid state
 PHASE TRANSFORMATION  from the different phase
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION  by glide or slip and twinning
 RECRYSTALLIZATION  from a same phase

Plastic deformation  Slip/Twinning activities

 Dynamic recrystallization

BCC  {110}, {112}, {123} <111>

FCC  {111} <110>
HCP  {0002} <11𝟐0>
Are all intrinsic materials property anisotropic?

Texture Influences the following properties

• Modulus of elasticity
• Yield strength
• Tensile ductility and strength
• Formability
• Fatigue strength
• Fracture toughness
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Electric and Magnetic properties
• Thermal expansion (in non-cubic materials)
modulus of elasticity (Young’s) (E)  single‐crystalline iron 
function of crystal direction.
The values strongly differ from the well‐known young’s modulus of
210 GPa (dotted line), which is only obtained in isotropic  texture‐
free material.

[100]
Deep-drawing of polycrystalline sheet
Flange

Cup wall

Punch region
Bents and
straightens
simultaneously
Deep Drawing, yield surface and anisotropy
Plane strain tension in
Uniaxial
transverse direction (90°)
tension in
transverse
Equi biaxial
direction (90°)
tension
Shear in 45°

Uniaxial Plane strain tension

compression in in rolling direction (0°)
transverse
direction (90°) O
Uniaxial tension in rolling
direction (0°)
Shear in 45°
Uniaxial compression
in rolling direction (0°)
 Normal anisotropy = Ratio of
width strain to thickness strain
ln 𝑤 ⁄𝑤
𝑅
ln 𝑡 ⁄𝑡
𝛼 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

Average normal anisotropy i.e., Lankford parameter =

𝑅 𝑅
Planer anisotropy Δ𝑅 𝑅
2
 Stages in the deep drawing of a beverage can

Typical appearance of a deep‐drawn cup with ears under 0°

and 90° to the rolling direction (marked) from a heavily
ND
textured aluminium sheet (AA 1200‐O, i.e., commercial purity
aluminum, cold rolled, and soft annealed)
RD
TD
Electrical steels  Fe-3%Si is used as a core for power transformers.

 The desired texture for this

application is {110}<001>.
 Alignment of easy direction of
magnetisation [001] along the
rolling direction results in a very
high permeability - reduces the
magnitude of field necessary to
operate the transformer
 This direction also corresponds
to the minimum power loss
during alternating magnetisation

Variation of magnetic power loss

with angle around the sheet for
Goss textured silicon iron