INDEX

1. Biasing a general overview

a. Introduction
b. Importance

2. Diodes
a. Forward biasing
b. Reverse biasing

3. V-I characteristic of pn junction diode

4. Zener Diode
5. Photo Diode
6. Light Emitting Diode
7. Bibliography
 Biasing: A General Overview:
Introduction:

In electronics, biasing is the setting of DC (direct current) operating conditions (current and
voltage) of an active device in an amplifier. Many electronic devices, such as diodes, transistors
and vacuum tubes, whose function is processing time-varying (AC) signals, also require a
steady (DC) current or voltage at their terminals to operate correctly. This current or voltage
is called bias. The AC signal applied to them is superposed on this DC bias current or voltage.

The operating point of a device, also known as bias point, quiescent point, or Q-point, is the
DC voltage or current at a specified terminal of an active device (a transistor or vacuum tube)
with no input signal applied. A bias circuit is a portion of the device’s circuit that supplies this
steady current or voltage.
 Importance of Biasing in linear circuit:

Linear circuits involving transistors typically require specific DC voltages and currents for
correct operation, which can be achieved using a biasing circuit. As an example of the need
for careful biasing, consider a transistor amplifier. In linear amplifiers, a small input signal
gives a larger output signal without any change in shape (low distortion): the input signal
causes the output signal to vary up and down about the Q-point in a manner strictly
proportional to the input. However, because the relationship between input and output for a
transistor is not linear across its full operating range, the transistor amplifier only
approximates linear operation. For low distortion, the transistor must be biased so the output
signal swing does not drive the transistor into a region of extremely nonlinear operation. For
a bipolar junction transistor amplifier, this requirement means that the transistor must stay in
the active mode, and avoid cut-off or saturation. The same requirement applies to a MOSFET
amplifier, although the terminology differs a little: the MOSFET must stay in the active mode,
and avoid cut off or ohm operation.
 Diodes:

Perhaps the simplest device that can be created with a semiconductor is a diode. A diode is a
circuit element that allows electric current to flow in only one direction, like a one-way valve
(see Model of Conduction in Metals). A diode is created by joining a p-type semiconductor to
an n-type semiconductor The junction between these materials is called a p-n junction. A
comparison of the energy bands of a silicon-based diode as shown in figure.
The positions of the valence and conduction bands are the same, but the impurity levels are
quite different. When a p-n junction is formed, electrons from the conduction band of the n-
type material diffuse to the p-side, where they combine with holes in the valence band.

This migration of charge leaves positive ionized donor ions on the n-side and negative ionized
acceptor ions on the p-side, producing a narrow double layer of charge at the p-n junction
called the depletion layer. The electric field associated with the depletion layer prevents
further diffusion.
 Forward Biasing:

If the positive of the voltage terminal joined with the P section is called forward bias. In the
forward bias condition the positive voltage is joining with P-type so the positively charged
holes repulse towards the depletion layer and the negatively charged electrons repulse
towards the depletion layer. The bias potential pressures the holes to recombine with the
ions near the depletion layer. The bias potential pressures the electrons to recombine with
the ions near the depletion layer So the width of the depletion layer reduces.
The applied voltage is equal to the potential barrier then the current produces. At this point
the diode current Id=I−IsId=I−Is.
Where II is current due to majority charge carrier in P section and IsIs is saturation current.
Since the potential barrier reduces the electrons attract towards the positive terminal and
suddenly the current increases exponentially.
 Reverse Biasing:

If the positive of the voltage terminal joined with the N section is called reverse bias. In reverse
bias condition, there is an attraction between holes of P-type with negative terminal and the
electrons of N-type with a positive terminal.
So near the depletion layer the immobile ions are uncovered with holes and electrons, this
leads to increases in the depletion layer and increases in potential barrier also. So the majority
charge carrier in P-type cannot overcome the potential barrier and electrons also cannot
overcome the potential barrier.
There is only saturation current that is flowing which is very small order of μA . So the current
Id is flowing into the circuit.
Note:
(1) In forward bias, the increase in bias potential, the width of the depletion region
decrease and the barrier potential also reduces.
(2) In reverse bias, the increase in bias potential, the width of the depletion region
increases and the barrier potential also increases.
(3) ( Wd)rev > (Wd)for

How does current flow in the PN junction diode?

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place when there is an
increase in the voltage. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the junction
takes place along with the increase in the voltage. This results in the concentration gradient between
both sides of the terminals. Due to the concentration gradient formation, charge carriers will flow
from higher-concentration regions to lower-concentration regions. The movement of charge carriers
inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the current flow in the circuit.

P-n junctions are produced by connecting n-type and p-type semiconductor materials. Electrons
diffuse from the n-type side to the p-type side because the n-type has a high electron concentration
and the p-type has a high hole concentration.

A diode (PN junction) permits the current to flow more freely in one direction than the other. When
a voltage is applied to a diode that permits current to flow freely is termed forward biasing, whereas
reverse biasing is when a voltage is applied in the opposite direction to a diode.

An electric current will flow in the forward-bias direction due to the majority of carriers’ migration
over the p-n junction, which is known as forwarding current. When forward biased, the p-n junction
has a low resistance to current flow. When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal
and the n-type to the negative terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. 5. When
the P-N junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied
electric field are in opposite directions.

6. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field.
This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region.

In the reverse bias case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same
direction. When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same direction as the
built-in electric field, creating a more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region
becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

Hence, the current flows in the forward-bias direction as a result of a less resistive and thinner
depletion region.
 V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode:

A graph showing the variation of current flowing through a p-n junction with the voltage
applied across it (both when it is forward and reverse biased) is called the voltage- current or
V-I characteristic of a p-n junction.

1. Forward bias characteristic:- A battery is connected across the p-n junction diode
through a potentiometer (or rheostat) so that the voltage applied to the diode can be
changed. The milliammeter measures the current through the diode and the voltmeter
measures the voltage across the diode. For different values of voltages, the value of
current is noted. A graph is plotted between V and I. This voltage-current graph is
called forward characteristic.
Important features of the graph
(i) The V-I graph is not a straight line i.e., a junction diode does not obey Ohm’s
law.
(ii) Initially, the current increases very slowly almost negligibly, till the voltage
across the diode crosses a certain value, called the threshold-voltage or cut-
in voltage. The value of the cut-in voltage is about 0.2 V for a Ge diode and
0.7 V for a Si diode. Before this characteristic voltage, the depletion layer
plays a dominant role in controlling the motion of charge carriers.
(iii) After the cut-in voltage, the diode current increases rapidly (exponentially),
even for a very small increase in the diode bias voltage. Here the majority
charge carriers feel negligible resistance at the junction i.e., the resistance
across the junction is quite low.

2. Reverse bias characteristic:- Here a micro ammeter is used to measure the small
currents through the reverse biased diode. It is called reverse characteristic of the
junction diode.
Important features of the graph
(i) When the diode is reverse biased, the reverse bias voltage produces a very
small current, about a few microamperes which almost remains constant
with bias. This small current is called reverse saturation current. It is due
to the drift of minority charge carriers (a few holes in n-region and a few
electrons in p-region) across the junction.
(ii) When the reverse voltage across the p-n junction reaches a sufficiently high
value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage
at which breakdown of the junction diode occurs is called Zener
breakdown voltage or peak-inverse voltage of the diode. It ranges from as
low as 1 to 2 V to several hundred volts, depending on the dopant density
and the depletion layer.

It is a unidirectional current characteristic. A junction diode offers a very small resistance

when forward biased and has a very large resistance when reverse biased i.e., the diode can
conduct current well only in one direction. This property is used to convert alternate current
into direct current so, The conversion of alternate current into direct current is called
rectification.
 Zener diode

A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown region
continuously (without getting damaged) is called a Zener diode. Zener diodes with different
breakdown voltages can be obtained by changing the doping concentrations of p-and -sides
which, in turn, change the width of depletion layer and also the barrier field across the
junction. Here the bar of an ordinary diode is changed into ‘Z’ shape.
They are used to generate low-power stabilized supply rails from a higher voltage and to
provide reference voltages for circuits, especially stabilized power supplies. They are also used
to protect circuits from overvoltage, especially electrostatic discharge.
A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if it is reverse-biased above its
reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a
conventional diode will conduct a high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this
current is limited by external circuits, the diode may be permanently damaged due to
overheating. A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially
designed so as to have a reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast
with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown
and allows the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener
breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V exhibits a
voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents. The Zener diode is
therefore well suited for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an
amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.

Modern designs have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with negligible
temperature coefficients. Higher voltage devices have a temperature coefficient that is
approximately proportional to the amount by which the breakdown voltage exceeds 5 V. Thus
a 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode. Under 5.6 V, where the Zener effect
dominates, the IV curve near breakdown is much more rounded, which calls for more care in
choosing its biasing conditions. The IV curve for Zener above 5.6 V (being dominated by
avalanche), is much more precise at breakdown.
 Photodiode

A photodiode is a p-n junction fabricated From a photosensitive semiconductor and provided

with a transparent window so as allow light to fall on its junction.

A resistance R is connected in series with a reverse biased photodiode. The voltage is kept
slightly less than the breakdown voltage. When no light is incident on the junction, a small
reverse saturation current flows through the junction. This reverse current is due to thermally
generated electron- hole pairs and is called dark current.
When the photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy liv greater than the energy
gap of the semiconductor, additional electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption
of photons. This generation of photogenerated charge carriers occurs in or near the depletion
region. Due to the junction field, electrons get collected on n-side and holes on the p-side
setting up an emf. This sends a current through the load. In a reverse biased photodiode, we
can easily observe the change in photocurrent with the change in radiation intensity. Hence a
photodiode can be used to detect optical signals.
When a photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy hv > E , and increasing
intensities 1, 1, 1, etc., the value of reverse saturation current increases with the increase in
intensity of incident light. Hence, a measurement of the change in the reverse saturation
current on illumination can give the values of light intensity.

A photodiode is preferably operated in reverse bias condition Consider an n-type

semiconductor. Its majority carrier (electron) density is much larger than the minority hale
density ie, n >> p. When illuminated with light. Both types of carriers increase equally number.
n’ = n + ∆n ; p' = p + ∆p

Now n>>p and ∆n = ∆p

∆n/n << ∆p/p
That is, the fractional increase in majority carriers is much less than the fractional increase in
minority carriers. Consequently, the fractional change due to the photo-effects on the
minority carrier dominated reverse bias current is more easily measurable than the fractional
change in the majority carrier dominated forward bias current. Hence, photodiodes are
preferable used in the reverse bias condition for measuring light intensity.

Uses of photodiodes A photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in nanoseconds. So it
can be used as a fastest photo-detector. The photodiodes are used for following purposes:
1. In detection of optical signals.
2. In demodulation of optical signals.
3. 3. In light-operated switches.
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards.
5. In electronic counters.
 Light Emitting Diode

It is a heavily-doped forward-biased pn junction which spontaneously converts the biasing

electrical energy into optical energy, like infrared and visible light.
LED is represented by either of the two symbols. The shorter lead responds to n- or cathode
side while the longer lead corresponds to p- or anode side.

A p-n junction made from a translucent semi- conductor like gallium arsenide or indium
phosphide is provided with metallised contacts. When it is forward biased through a series
resistance R, light photons are emitted from the non-metallised surface of the n-region. The
series resistance R limits the current through the LED and hence controls the intensity of light
emitted by it.
When the p-t junction is forward biased, electrons are sent from -region → p-region (where
they are minority carriers) and holes are sent from p-region → -region (where they are
minority carriers). Near the junction, the concentration of minority carriers increases as
compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no bias). On either side near
junction, the excess minority carriers combine with the majority carriers. On recombination,
the energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less
than the band gap are emitted. When the forward bias of the diode is small, the intensity of
emitted light is small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches
a maximum. Further increase in forward current decreases the light intensity. LEDs are biased
such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum.
The general shape of the I-V characteristics of an LED is similar to that of a normal p-n junction
diode. However, the barrier potentials are much higher and slightly different for each colour.
Two important features of LEDs are:
1. The colour of light emitted by an LED depends on its band-gap energy.
2. The intensity of light emitted is determined by the forward current conducted by the
p-junction.

Choice of the semiconductor material used in LED The wavelength of visible light
ranges from 0.4 um to 0.7 µm (energy from 3 eV to 1.8 eV). For a semi- conductor to emit
visible light, the minimum band gap must be 1.8 eV. The compound semiconductor Gallium
Arsenide – Phosphide (GaAs, P) is used for making LEDs of different colours.

GaAso.6 Po.4 (E ≈ 19 eV) is used for red LED.

GaAs (E ≈ 14 eV) is used for infrared LED.

Advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent lamps:

1. Low operational voltage and less power Consumption.
2. Fast action and no warm up time required.
3. The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 A° to 500 A° i.e., the light is nearly
monochromatic.
4. Long life and ruggedness.
5. Fast ON/OFF switching capability.

Uses of LEDs:
1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems.
2. In optical communication.
3. In image scanning circuits for picture phones.
4. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in radio receivers and other electronic equipment.
5. Hand calculators, cash registers, digital clocks, etc. use seven-segment red or green
displays. Each segment is an LED and depending on which segment is energised, the
display lights up the numbers 0 to 9.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Help from Internet

➢ https://www.wikipedia.org
➢ https://www.electronics.tutorials.ws
➢ https://www.sciencedirect.com
➢ https://www.topper.com

Referenced from Books

➢ NCERT Physics
➢ S.L. Arora