Quality Control &

Assurance (M 1581)
Quality management
tools
Dr. Abdelrahman Elgendy
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Benha University

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 Data Collection
◼ To control or improve a process, we need
information, or data.
◼ Data can be collected in several ways.
◼ Manual Data Recording: Workers or inspectors manually log
data, such as defects or measurements, using check sheets or
inspection reports.
◼ Automated Data Collection: Machines and sensors collect
real-time data on production parameters (e.g., temperature,
pressure, speed) or product dimensions (e.g., weight, size).
◼ Surveys and Questionnaires: Used to collect feedback from
employees about process issues or potential causes of defects 2
 Sampling Techniques
◼ Since it’s often impractical to inspect every item produced, sampling helps
collect data from a representative subset of items or processes.
◼ Common Sampling Techniques:
• Random Sampling:
• Randomly selects items or data points from the production batch.
• Ensures that each item has an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias.
• Best for general quality monitoring.
• Systematic Sampling:
• Selects items at regular intervals (e.g., every 3rd product).
• Useful for detecting patterns in production, but can miss isolated defects if
they occur between intervals.

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 Sampling Techniques
• Stratified Sampling:
• Divides the population into subgroups
(strata), such as shifts or machine outputs,
and samples from each group.
• Ensures representation across different
segments of production.
• Cluster Sampling:
• Samples from naturally occurring clusters
(e.g., one production line) rather than
individual items.
• Convenient and cost-effective but may not
be as representative.

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 Problem Solving
◼ Problem: any deviation between what should be and what
is actually that is important enough to need correcting
◼ Problem solving process
◼ Redefining and analyzing the problem
◼ Generating ideas
◼ Evaluating and selecting ideas
◼ Implementing ideas
◼ Assessment of outcomes and feedback analysis

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 Statistical process control tools
1. Control charts – which variations to control and how?
2. Check sheets/tally charts – how often is it done?
3. Histograms – what does the variation look like?
4. Pareto analysis – which are the big problems?
5. Cause and effect analysis and brainstorming – what
causes the problems?
6. Process flowcharting – what is done?
7. Scatter diagrams – what are the relationships between
factors?
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 Run Charts
◼ Line graphs in which data are represented over time
◼ Can determine any cyclic events or trends and visualize the
behavior of a process or an attribute of a process

◼ Example:
◼ Stock market changes
◼ Productivity of a worker over time
◼ You can add the mean level of the
measurements to the chart
(Centerline)

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 Run Chart Example
◼ An organization monitors how long it takes their product to
arrive to their customers using a run chart
◼ It doesn't take the same amount of time each day of the week
Why use run charts?

• Understand process variation

• Analyze data for patterns (cycles,
trends, shifts, etc.)
• Monitor process performance
• Communicate process
performance

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 Instructions for creating a chart
◼ Step 1 : Gathering Data; Take measurements for analysis. Measurements
must be taken over a period of time.
◼ For best results, at least 25 or more samples must be taken in order to get an

accurate run chart.

◼ Step 2 : Organizing Data; Data must be divided into two sets of values x
and y. The values for x represent time and the values for y
◼ Step 3 : Charting Data; Plot the y values versus the x values by hand or
by computer, using an appropriate scale
◼ Step 4 : Interpreting Data; interpret the data and draw any conclusions
that will be beneficial to the process or operation. Some possible outcomes are:
◼ Trends in the chart

◼ Cyclical patterns in the data

◼ Observations from each time interval are consistent

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 Control Charts
◼ Statistical tools, showing whether a process is in control or not
◼ Can be considered advanced forms of the run charts

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 Check Sheets
◼ Efficient data collection tool
◼ Creates easy-to-understand data summaries
◼ Makes patterns in the data become obvious quickly
◼ Several forms exist based on the application
◼ Basic check sheets
◼ The to-do list
◼ Bathroom cleaning in restaurants
◼ Room service sheets

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◼ Check Sheet for paint
nonconformities
Check Sheets

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 Histogram
◼ A histogram is a graphical
representation of the
frequency distribution of
numerical data.
◼ It organizes data into bins or
intervals, allowing for a visual
interpretation of how data
points are distributed across a
continuous range.

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 Histogram
◼ Bar charts to shows the frequency LSL USL
of the occurrence of events of
measurements
◼ Easily displays large amounts of
data
◼ Shows centering, variation, and
illustrates the underlying
distribution of the data
◼ Helps to answer the question: "Is
the process capable of meeting
requirements?
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Some types of Histograms

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 Histogram (purpose)
◼ In monitoring a process (production process)
◼ We tell if the process is capable of meeting design
specifications
◼ We can assess the level of variation in the process
◼ The closer the columns of the histogram to the center of the
chart, the more on target the process
◼ The wider the spread of the columns LSL from the center,
the greater the variation of the process from the target

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 Histogram (Constructing a histogram )
◼ Collect the data (recommended to collect 50
observations at least)
◼ Group the data into cells (bins, classes)
◼ Cells must cover the range of the data values
◼ Cells must be of equal width
◼ Number of cells is a decision to make; suggested values:
◼ 5 to 9 cells for 100 data points or less
◼ 9 to15 cells for 100 to 500 data points
◼ 15 to 20 cells for 500 or more data points

◼ Arrange the cells in an ascending order

◼ Graph the cells against the number of data points in each17
 Histogram
◼ Example; Distribution of students grades in DOE

➢ Sample size = No of students = 78

➢ Data range = maximum grade - minimum grade = 60
➢ Let bin width be 5
➢ Number of Bins/cells = data range / bin width =12
➢ Bins { [0 :12], [12 : 24], etc.}
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 Histogram
Bin Frequency
0 5
5 0
10 4
15 0
20 0
25 0
30 2
35 5
40 16
45 22
50 11
55 10
60 2

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 Histogram
◼ Reading a histogram
◼ The histogram is skewed left, results tend towards
higher score
◼ About 15% of students above 50
◼ The largest number of students are between 35 and
50
◼ Only about 1% of students did not pass the DoE
course

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 Histogram
◼ For production
processes, look for
the shape of the
histogram at first then
study the relative
sizes of the groups
◼ The shape: centering
◼ Centering indicates
how close to target the
process is
◼ It implies the levels of
scrap and rework
Process ton low 21
 Histogram
◼ The shape: spread
◼ Spread indicates the level of variation
◼ Spread Implies the process capability

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Pareto Chart
◼ Pareto Concept: Vital few and useful many (80/20 rule)
Example:
◼ Few problems are responsible for most of the expenses
◼ Few customers account for the majority of sales
◼ Few products, process, or workers account for the majority of
quality errors
◼ Few products result in most of the profits
◼ Pareto diagram displays the relative importance of
problems, causes, types of defects, etc.
◼ Used to identify most important direction for intervention

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Pareto Chart
◼ Pareto Diagram is a histogram of the data ordered from the
largest frequency to the smallest frequency
◼ They are actually histograms aided by the 80/20 rule
adapted by Joseph Juran
◼ The 80/20 rule states that approximately 80% of the
problems are created by approximately 20% of the causes

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 Pareto Chart
◼ Construction steps:
◼ Define the categories to classify the data
◼ Classify the data into the categories as number of occurrences
◼ Decide the vertical axis: frequency, money, or others
◼ Calculate the relative frequency (or value) of each category
◼ Rank-order the categories of data from largest to smallest
◼ Put the results on the diagram and identify the vital few

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 Pareto Chart
◼ Construct a Pareto diagram for replacement parts for an electric stove. Data for a
six-month period are: oven door, 193; timer, 53; front burners, 460; rear burners,
290; burner control, 135; drawer rollers, 46; other, 84; and oven regulators, 265.

About 60% of problems come from

the burners
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 Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa)
Diagram
◼ Also called fish-bone diagram
◼ The fishbone chart organizes and displays the relationships between
different causes for the effect that is being examined.

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 Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa)
Diagram
◼ Improving problem-solving by maintaining a clear focus on the
issue.
◼ Identifying potential root causes for a specific issue and
revealing bottlenecks, understanding why a process may not
function correctly.
◼ Analysing complex problems with multiple contributing factors.
◼ Gaining different perspectives to understand the problem
thoroughly.
◼ Streamlining the thinking process, especially when traditional
problem-solving methods are time-consuming.
◼ Acting as a great motivator to tackle intricate problems and
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uncovering creative solutions.
 Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa)
Diagram
◼ Constructing the diagram
◼ First, clearly identify and define the problem or effect for which the causes
must be identified.
◼ Place the problem or effect at the right or the head of the diagram (may
use Pareto chart)
◼ Identify all the broad areas of the problem
◼ Write in detailed all the possible causes in each of the broad areas
◼ Each cause identified should be looked upon for further more specific
causes
◼ View the diagram and evaluate the main causes
◼ Backbone -draw straight line *Ribs -categories *Medium size
bones -secondary causes *Small bones root causes
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 Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa)
Diagram
◼ Constructing the fish-bone diagram is a teamwork job to create
as many as reasonable ideas (brainstorming style)
◼ No criticism for any idea
◼ Diagram should be posted in key locations to be visible to all
employees
◼ Revised versions are made as the situation changes
◼ It is a tool for discovering all the possible causes for a
particular effect
◼ The major purpose of this diagram is to act as a first step in
problem solving by creating a list of possible causes
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 Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa)
Diagram
◼ Benefits of using the fish-bone diagram
◼ Breaks problems down into bite-size pieces to find root cause
◼ Fosters team work
◼ Common understanding of factors causing the problem
◼ Road map to verify the understanding of the process
◼ When a production team is about to launch a new product, the
factors that will affect the final product must be recognized.
◼ The fishbone diagram can depict problems before they have a
chance to begin

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Cause-and-Effect (Ishikawa)
Diagram
◼ Why diameter of a shaft is inaccurate

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 Flow Charts
◼ Also known as process mapping
◼ Visual illustration of the sequence of operations required to
complete a task
◼ To document, communicate, and understand the process
◼ Shows unexpected complexity, problem areas, redundancy,
unnecessary loops, and where simplification may be possible
◼ Compares and contrasts actual versus ideal flow of a process
◼ Allows a team to reach agreement on process steps and identify
activities that may impact performance
◼ Serves as a training tool
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Parallel distributed genetic
algorithm flowchart

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 Scatter Diagram
◼ Scatter Diagrams are used to study
and identify the possible relationship
between two different sets of
variables
◼ Helps identify and test probable
causes
◼ By knowing which elements of your
process are related and how they are
related, you will know what to
control or what to vary to affect a
quality characteristic.
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Scatter Diagram

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