ELEMENTARY

Harold R.Jacobs
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 ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA
An' the formoola
algebra -invented by a
fella name
 ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA
Harold R.Jacobs

DB
W. H. FREEMAN AND COMPANY
New York
The cover illustration is a periodic drawing by Maurits
Escher. Reproduced with the permission of the Escher Foun-
dation, Haags Gemeentemuseum, The Hague.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Jacobs, Harold R
Elementary algebra.
Includes index.
1. Algebra. I. Title.
QA152.2J33 512.9'042 78-10744
ISBN 0-7167-1047-1

Copyright © 1979 by W. H. Freeman and Company

No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical,

photographic, or electronic process, or in the form of
a phonographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval
system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or
private use, without the written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America

9987654321
 Contents

A Letter to the Student x

Introduction: A Number Trick 1

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS 5
1. Addition 6
2. Subtraction 12
3. Multiplication 17
4. Division 23
5. Raising to a Power 28
6. Zero and One 33
7. Several Operations 39
8. Parentheses 46
9. The Distributive Rule 53
Summary and Review 59

2
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS 65 &Lk^fr<3Z$>
1. An Introduction to Functions 66
2. The Coordinate Graph 73
3. More on Functions 78
4. Direct Variation 84
5. Linear Functions 90
6. Inverse Variation 96
Summary and Review 103
THE INTEGERS 109
1. The Integers 110
2. More on the Coordinate Graph 115
3. Addition 121
4. Subtraction 125
5. Multiplication 130
6. Division 135
7. Several Operations 139
Summary and Review 144

4
THE RATIONAL
- ^Tt^^V
NUMBERS 149
1. The Rational Numbers 150
2. Absolute Value and Addition 155
3. More on Operations with Rational Numbers 161
4. Approximations 165
5. More on Graphing Functions 170
Summary and Review 176

&&&#»
EQUATIONS
5 Equations
IN ONE VARIABLE «*•*181'
182 3o
Inverse Operations 186
Equivalent Equations 193
Equivalent Expressions 200
More on Solving Equations 206
Length and Area 213
Distance, Rate, and Time 220
Rate Problems 225
Summary and Review 231

'I*
EQUATIONS K/w-«U
IN TWO VARIABLES 239
240
1. Equations in Two Variables
2. Formulas 245
3. Graphing Linear Equations
4. Intercepts 258
5. Slope 265
6. The Slope-Intercept Form ;
Summary and Review 277
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS 283 (WtfL^*?~^27 rUv.a.""^
1. Simultaneous Equations 284
2. Solving by Subtraction 291
3. More on Solving by Addition and Subtraction 297
4. Graphing Simultaneous Equations 304
5. Inconsistent and Equivalent Equations 31 1
6. Solving by Substitution 319
7. Mixture Problems 328
Summary and Review 333

EXPONENTS 339
1. Large Numbers 340
2. A Fundamental Property of Exponents 345
3. Two More Properties of Exponents 352
4. Zero and Negative Exponents 359
5. Small Numbers 366
6. Powers of Products and Quotients 371
7. Exponential Functions 376
Summary and Review 382

MIDTERM REVIEW 387

9
POLYNOMIALS
1. Monomials 393#P<?k^J^i|
394 iVW.V"^
2. Polynomials 400
3. Adding and Subtracting Polynomials 406
4. Multiplying Polynomials 412
5. More on Multiplying Polynomials 418
6. Squaring Binomials 422
7. Dividing Polynomials 430
Summary and Review 437

10
FACTORING p€c.443rt-<*
1. Prime and Composite Numbers 444
2. Monomials and Their Factors 450
3. Polynomials and Their Factors 455
4. Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials 461
5. Factoring the Difference of Two Squares 470
 6. Factoring Trinomial Squares -T6
7. More on Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials
8. Summarv
Factoring and
Higher-Degree
Review Polynomials
492 48"

Nov [fc-2t> FRACTIONS 497

1. Fractions 498
2. Algebraic Fractions 506
3. Adding and Subtracting Fractions 513
4. Wore on Addition and Subtraction 520
5. Multiplying Fractions 526
6. More on Multiplication 532
7. Di\ iding Fractions 538
8. Complex Fractions 544
Summarv and Review 550

12 t&^^r^i
SQUARE ROOTS 557
1. Squares and Square Roots 558
2. Square Roots of Products 564
3. Square Roots of Quotients 570
4. Adding and Subtracting Square Roots 577
5. Multiplying Square Roots 582
6. Dividing Square Roots 58"
7. Radical Equations 593
Summarv and Review 599

^2^7 13
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 605
1. Poixnomial Equations 606
2. PoKnomial Functions 611
3. Solving Polynomial Equations bv Graphing 616
4. Solving Quadratic Equations b\ Factoring 621
5. Solving Quadratic Equations by Taking Square
Roots 626
6. Completing the Square 632
7. The Quadratic Formula 639
8. The Discriminant 645
9. Solving Higher-Degree Equations 653
Summan. and Review 659
 14
THE REAL NUMBERS 665
1. Rational Numbers 666
2. Irrational Numbers 674
3. More Irrational Numbers 680
4. Pi 687
5. The Real Numbers 693
Summary and Review 698

15 Ajov ?o - P<*
FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS 705
1. Ratio and Proportion 706
2. Equations Containing Fractions 713
3. More on Fractional Equations 718
4. Solving Formulas 724
5. More on Solving Formulas 730
Summary and Review 737
16
J
INEQUALITIES 743
1. Inequalities 744
2. Solving Linear Inequalities 751
3. More on Solving Inequalities 757
4. Absolute Value and Inequalities 763
Summary and Review 770

17 Pec-7-H
NUMBER SEQUENCES 775
1. Number Sequences 776
2. Arithmetic Sequences 783
3. Geometric Sequences 792
4. Infinite Geometric Sequences 802
Summary and Review 810

FINAL REVIEW 817

Answers to the Set II Exercises 823
Index 873
A Letter to the Student

The English philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon once wrote: "Mathematics
is the gate and key of the sciences. . . . Neglect of mathematics works injury to
all knowledge, since he who is ignorant of it cannot know the other sciences or
the things of this world."
In turn, algebra is the gate and key of mathematics. For this reason, colleges
and universities require mastery of algebra in preparation for studying not only
the sciences, but also such subjects as engineering, medicine, architecture,
philosophy, psychology, and law.
Although many problems that can be solved by algebra can also be worked
out by common sense, their translation into algebraic form generally makes
them easier to deal with. Because of this, algebra has become the language of
science. The goal of this course is to learn how to use this language.
Success in algebra depends on a combination of talent and effort. A few
people are so gifted in mathematics that they can succeed with very little effort.
For most people, however, diligent practice is ±e key to success. Like develop-
ing ability in a sport, becoming good at algebra takes practice. It is my hope that
this book will help you both to enjoy the subject and to be successful in your
studies.

Harold R. Jacobs
 ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA
 INTRODUCTION
A Number Trick

Think of a number from one to ten. Add seven to it. Multiply the result by two.
Subtract four. Divide by two. Subtract the number that you first thought of. Is
your answer five?
Number tricks such as this have long been popular. That the final result can
be known by someone who doesn't know which number was originally chosen is
surprising.
How does the trick work? If we make a table (like the one at the top of the
next page) showing what happens when it is done with each number from one to
ten, some patterns appear.
Would these patterns continue if the table were extended to include other
numbers? If we began by thinking of eleven, would the answer at the end still be
five? What if we began with one hundred? Would we get five at the end if we
began with zero? Do you think it is correct to assume that the trick will work for
any number you might think of?
Even though you may feel that the answer to every one of these questions is
yes, how the trick works is still not clear. Merely doing arithmetic with a series
 of different numbers cannot reveal the secret of why they all lead to the same
result.

The number thought of: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Add seven: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Multiply by two: 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Subtract four: 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Divide by two: 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Subtract the number first
thought of: 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

There is a simple way, however, to discover the secret. Instead of writing

down a specific number at the start, we will use a symbol to represent whatever
number might be chosen. We will begin with a box.

Throughout the trick this box will represent the number originally chosen.
The next step in the trick is to add seven. We will represent numbers we know
with sets of circles, and so seven will look like this:

o o o o o o o
To show the result of adding seven to the number, we draw seven circles beside
the box.

□ o o o o o o o

If we illustrate the entire trick in this way, it looks like this:

The number thought of:
Add seven:

Multiply by two: □ ooooooo

□ ooooooo
Subtract four: □ o o o o o
(~J o o o o o
Divide by two:
Subtract the number first
thought of:

A NUMBER TRICK
 The pictures make it easy to see why, no matter what number we start with,
the answer at the end of the trick is always five. The box representing the
original number disappears in the last step, leaving five circles.
Doing arithmetic with symbols rather than specific numbers is the basis of
algebra. The explanation with the boxes and circles of what is happening
throughout the number trick is an example of this. One of our goals in learning
algebra will be to learn how to set up and solve problems using symbols such as
these.

Exercises

I. Here are directions for another number trick 2. The pictures below illustrate the steps of
and part of a table to show what happens another number trick. Tell what is happening
when the trick is done with each number in each step in words.
from one to five. Step I.
Think of a number: 1 2 3 4 ill
5 Step 2.
Double it: 2 4 111 1111 Step 3.
Add six: 8 1111
Step 4.
Divide by two: 4
■1! 111 111
|||
ill
Subtract the number that
111 1111 ill Step 5.
you first thought of: 3
■II Step 6.
a) Copy and complete the table. 3. In the next number trick, we will study the
b) Does your table prove that the trick will effect of changing some of the directions.
work for any number?
Think of a number.
c) Show how the trick works by illustrating Step 1.
Add four.
the steps with boxes and circles. The first Step 2.
two steps are shown below. Step 3. Multiply by two.
Step 4. Subtract four.
Think of a number: Divide by two.
Step 5.
Double it: Step 6. Subtract the number that
you first thought of.
d) Do your drawings prove that the trick will
work for any number? a) What is the result at the end of this trick?

Introduction: A NUMBER TRICK

 b) Suppose that the second step were changed d) Suppose instead that the third step were
as shown below. changed as shown below.

Step 1. Think of a number.

Step 1. Think of a number.
Step 2. Add four.
Step 2.
Step 3. Multiply by two.
Subtract four. Step 3.
Step 4. Subtract four.
Step 4.
Step 5. Divide by two. Divide by two.
Subtract the number that Step 5.
Step 6. Subtract the number that
Step 6.
you first thought of.
you first thought of.
The trick will still work, even though the
result at the end is changed. How is it What effect does this have on the trick?
changed?
4. Here is the beginning of a number trick. Can
c) Suppose instead that the fourth step were you make up more steps so that it will give
changed as shown below. the same answer for any number a person
Step 1. Think of a number. might choose?
Step 2. Add four.
Think of a number.
Step 3. Multiply by two.
Step 4. Triple it.
Add twelve.
Step 5. Divide by two.
Step 6. Subtract the number that
you first thought of.

\X'hat effect does this have on the trick?

Introduction: A NUMBER TRICK

 Chapter 1
FUNDAMENTAL
OPERATIONS
"'Can you do Addition?" the White Queen asked.
•'What's one and one and one and one and
one and one and one and one and one and one?"
"I don't know," said Alice. "I lost count."

lewis CARROLL, Through The Looking Glass

LESSON 1
Addition

Soon after a child is able to count, he learns how to add. The two operations are
closely connected, as anyone who has ever added by counting on his fingers
knows. Consider the problem of adding the numbers represented by these two
sets of circles:

At first a child finds the answer by counting all of the circles. Then he learns the
fact that 5 + 2 = 7.
Another way to picture addition is by lengths along a line. This figure also
illustrates the fact that 5 + 2 = 7.
5 cm 2 cm

The result of adding two or more numbers, called their sum, does not depend
on either the order of the numbers or the order in which they are added. To find
 o o
o o o
o o o o

the number of circles in the pattern above, for example, we could add the
numbers of circles in the four rows from top to bottom:

1+2+3+4
or from bottom to top:
4+3+2+1

Either way, we get the same number: 10.

In algebra, it is often necessary to indicate the sum of two or more numbers
without actually being able to add them. For example, in illustrating the number
trick that appears in the introduction to this book, we used a box to represent the
original number and a set of circles to represent the number seven:

□ ooooooo
Original number Seven

To represent their sum, we drew the seven circles beside the box:

□ ooooooo
The sum of the original
number and seven

Instead of bothering to draw pictures like this, it is easier to represent the

original number with a letter, such as x, and simply write

x + 1

The expression x + 7 means "the sum of x and 7." If we replace x with 1,

x + 7 = 1 + 7 = 8. If we replace x with 2, x + 7 = 2 + 7 = 9, and so forth.
Because x can be replaced by various numbers, it is called a variable.
If we know both numbers being added, such as 4 and 5, we can write their
sum as a number, 9. If we know only one number or neither one, the best that we
can do is to write an expression such as x + 2 or x + y. The length of the line

Lesson 1: Addition
 segment below, for example, is the sum of the lengths of the three marked
segments.
3cm xcm 1 cm

To indicate this sum, we can write 3 + x + 1 or, more briefly, x + 4. Without

knowing the length labeled x, we cannot simplify this answer any further.

Exercises

teacher: Haven't you finished adding up those

numbers yet?
student: Oh, yes. I've added them up ten times
already.
teacher: Excellent! I like a student who is
thorough.
student: Thank you. Here are the ten answers.*
Set I
Find each of the following sums.
1. 1000 + 700 + 70 + 6 6. 1111 + 222 + 33 + 4
2. 999 + 99 + 9 7. 1 + 1. 2 + 1.23 + 1.234
3. 1 + 0.9 + 0.08 + 0.004 8. 1.111 + 2.22 + 3.3 + 4
4. 20 + 0.2 + 0.002 9. 0.7 + 0.70 + 0.700 + 0.7000
5. 1 + 12 + 123 + 1234 10. 0.5 + 0.55 + 0.555

Set II
11. Write a number or expression for each of the following.

a) The sum of 10 and 7. f) Four added to z.

b) The sum of x and 7. g) The sum of 2, 5, and 1.
c) The sum of 10 and y. h) The sum of x, 5, and 1.
d) The sum of x and y. i) The sum of 2, y, and 1.
e) Four added to 8. j) The sum of x, y, and 1.

* Alan Wayne, in Mathematical Circles Revisited bv Howard W. Eves. © Copyright Prindle,

Weber & Schmidt, Inc. 1971.

8 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

12. In the figures below, the box represents any
number and the sets of circles represent
specific numbers.

OOO
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 o
□ ooooo
Figure 1 Figure 2
14. The figure below can be used to show that
3 + 7 and 7 + 3 are the same number,
a) What addition problem is illustrated by
depending on whether the figure is read
Figure 1?
from left to right or from right to left.
b) What is the answer to the problem?
c) Write an algebraic expression to represent
the addition problem illustrated by ooo ooooooo
Figure 2.
Draw boxes and circles to show that
d) What is the answer to the problem if the
box represents 2? a) x + 6 and 6 + x mean the same thing.
e) What is the answer to the problem if the b) thing.
2 + x + 5 and x + 7 mean the same
box represents 4?
c) x + 4 + x and 4 + x + x mean the
13. What is the length marked with a question same thing.
mark in each of these figures?
15. The expression x + y + 2 represents the
-5^\
sum of x, y, and 2. If x is 1, it can be
written as 1 + y + 2 or y + 3. How can
x + y + 2 be written if
a) x is 8?
b) x is 9?
H X-
c) y is 3?
e)
d) yx is
is 0?
6 and y is 2?
16. Mr. Benny is 39 years old.
a) How old will he be in 5 years?
|h x 4— Y~ b) How old will he be in x years?
h— — ?— c) How old will he be 6 years after that?
Mrs. Benny is x years old.
d) How old will she be in 5 years?
e) How old will she be in y years?
f ) How old will she be z years after that?

Lesson 1: Addition
 Set III
17. Write a number or expression for each of 20. The figure below can be used to show that
the following. 4 + 5 and 5 + 4 are the same number,
a) The sum of 3 and 1 1. depending on whether the figure is read
b) The sum of 3 and x. from left to right or from right to left.
c) The sum of y and 11.
d) The sum of y and x.
e) Seven increased by 2.
f ) Seven increased by x. Draw boxes and circles to show that
g) The sum of 9, 1, and 4. a) 2 + x and x + 2 mean the same thing.
h) The sum of x, 1, and 4. b) thing.
8 + x + 1 and x + 9 mean the same
i) The sum of 9, y, and 4.
j) The sum of x, y, and 4. c) xthing.
+ x + 3 and x + 3 + x mean the same
18. In the figures below, the box represents any
number and the sets of circles represent 21. The expression x + 1 + y represents the
specific numbers. sum of x, 1, and y. If x is 4, it can be
written as 4 + 1 + y or 5 + y. How can
x + 1 + y be written if
Figure 1 a) x is 2?
b) x is 0?
Q oooooo
Figure 2 c) y is 6?
e)
d) yx is
is 9?
3 and y is 7?
a) What addition problem is illustrated by 22. Each week, Dashing Dan jogs one mile
Figure 1? farther than he did the week before.
b) What is the answer to the problem?
a) If he jogs 18 miles this week, how far
c) Write an algebraic expression to represent will he jog next week?
the addition problem illustrated by
b) If he jogs x miles this week, how far will
Figure 2.
d) What is the answer to the problem if the he jog next week?
c) If he jogged y miles three weeks ago,
box represents 1? how far will he jog this week?
e) What is the answer to the problem if the
d) If he jogged y miles z weeks ago, how
box represents 5? far will he jog this week?
19. The perimeter of a figure is the sum of the
lengths of its sides. What is the perimeter of
each of these figures?

10 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Set IV A Number Puzzle
Numbers have been written in four spaces in this tic-tac-toe design. If
we add across the rows and down the columns, we get the sums shown
in the second figure. If we now add across the bottom row and down
the last column, the answers are the same number:

6 + 10 = 16 and 4 + 12 = 16

Is this just a coincidence or would it happen if we started with any set

of four numbers?
Draw a tic-tac-toe design and, in the same spaces as those in the
4? +
example above, write four numbers of your own choosing. Add the rows 5—7 -+12
and columns and see what happens. Can you explain why?
10

Lesson 1: Addition
 SEPTEMBER 1752
s M T W T F S
1 X X X X
X X X X X X X
16
LESSON 2
13 14 15
23
Subtraction 17
18 19 20 21 22
14 25 26 27 28 29
30

The month of September 1752 was one of the strangest months in history. The
day following September 1 was September 13!
This was done to bring the calendar back into line with the seasons. The
calendar established by Julius Caesar in 45 B.C. had as its basis a standard year of
365 days with even- fourth year, "leap year," having 366. This resulted in the
average length of a year being 365.25 days, whereas the earth in fact travels once
around the sun in about 365.24 days. For a short period, this error didn't amount
to much, but after many centuries it became so great that it had to be corrected.
The number of days left in the month of September 1752 can be found by
subtraction: 30 — 11 = 19. Subtraction is the opposite of addition because we
are "taking away" rather than "adding to." The two operations are closely
related, however, because to even7 subtraction problem there corresponds an
addition problem: 30 — 11 = 19 because 19 + 11 = 30.
To represent a subtraction problem such as 7 — 2 by means of circles, we
might draw seven circles from which two have been "taken away" by being
crossed out.

o o o o o o o
Subtraction can also be pictured by lengths along a line. The figure below is
another way of showing that 7 — 2 = 5.

Although addition and subtraction are closely related, there is an important

difference between the two operations. The sum of two numbers does not
depend on the order of the numbers. The length marked with a question mark in
the figure at the left below can be written either as 4 + 1 or 1 + 4.

The result of subtracting one number from another, called their difference,
does depend on the order of the numbers. The length marked with a question
mark in the figure at the right is 4 — 1, not 1 — 4. When we refer to the
difference between two numbers, we mean the number that results from sub-
tracting the second number from the first.

Exercises

Set I
Find each of the following differences.
- 18.12
1.812
1. 22222 - 2000 5. 4.321 - 0.1
9. 1812 -
2. 666 - 77 6. 3.1416 - 3.1416 10. 181.2 -
3. 1000 - 123 7. 1 - 0.9
4. 4.321 - 1 8. 1 - 0.99

Lesson 2: Subtraction
 Set II
11. Write a number or expression for each of
the following. e) 1 5 — x if x is 3.
a) The difference between 10 and 7. f) 15 — x if x is 4.
b) Six decreased by x. g) 15 — x if x is 10.
c) Six taken away from x. h) What happens to the value of 15 — x as
d) Three less than 1 1 . x gets larger?
e) One less than x. 14. Find the value of each of the following for
f) The difference between x and y. the numbers given.
g) The result of subtracting x from 4.
The sum of x and y — 3
h) Four subtracted from x. a) if x is 7 and y is 4.
12. What is the length marked with a question b) if x is 2 and y is 11. /^
mark in each of these figures? The difference between x + y and h

c) if x is 7 and y is 4. ^
d) if x is 2 and j' is 11.
e) Can you explain why the answers to parts
c and d are the same as those to parts a
and b?

15. The sum of the numbers on any two

opposite faces of a die is 7. Suppose that a
die is thrown.
a) If the number showing on the top of it is
3, what is the number on the bottom?
b) If the number showing on the top of it is
x, what is the number on the bottom?
Suppose that two dice are thrown.
c) If the sum of the two numbers showing
on top is 8, what is the sum of the two
numbers on the bottom?
K2»r— ?-K3H d) If the sum of the two numbers showing
on top is y, what is the sum of the two
numbers on the bottom?

16. Babar weighs 7,000 pounds.

a) If he loses x pounds, how much will he
weigh?
13. Find the value of each of the following
expressions for the numbers given.- b) If he gains y pounds, how much will he
weigh?
a) X - 4 if x is 6.
b) x - 4 if x is 7. 17. The amount of profit that Shirley Feeney
c) x - 4 if x is 14. makes selling sandwiches depends on how
d) What happens to the value of x — 4 as .v much they cost her and how much she sells
gets larger? them for.

14 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 a) If peanut butter sandwiches cost her 2 1 c) If egg sandwiches cost her x cents each
cents each and she sells them for 45 and she wants to make a profit of 30
cents, how much profit does she make on cents, how much should she sell
each one? them for?
b) If jelly sandwiches cost her x cents each d) If she sells ham sandwiches for 95 cents
and she sells them for y cents, how much each and makes a profit of y cents on
profit does she make on each one? each one, how much do they cost her?

Set III
18. Write a number or expression for each of 20. Find the value of each of the following
the following. expressions for the numbers given.
a) The difference between 9 and 3. a) x - 2 if x is 9.
b) Five taken away from x. b) x - 2 if x is 10.
c) Five decreased by x. c) x - 2 if x is 20.
d) Eight less than 20. d) What happens to the value of x — 2 as x
e) Two less than x.
gets larger?
f ) The difference between y and x. e) 8 — x if x is 1.
g) The result of subtracting x from 7. f) 8 - x if x is 2.
h) Seven subtracted from x.
g) 8 - x if x is 8.
19. The perimeter of a figure is the sum of the h) What happens to the value of 8 — x as x
lengths of its sides. gets larger?
21. Find the value of each of the following for
the numbers given.
The sum of x and 7 — y
a) if x is 5 and y is 1.
b) if x is 13 and y is 6.
The difference between x + 7 and y
a) How long is the side marked x in this c) if x is 5 and y is 1.
triangle if the triangle's perimeter is 12? d) if x is 13 and y is 6.
e) Can you explain why the answers to parts
b) How long is it if the triangle's perimeter
is y? c and d are the same as those to parts a
Use the perimeters given below each of the e) 3 and b?
following figures to tell the length of the
side marked x.

12
Perimeter is 15 Perimeter is 20 Perimeter is y Perimeter is z

Lesson 2: Subtraction 15
 22. A log is cut into two pieces. b) If she makes a deposit of y dollars, how
a) If the log was 12 feet long and one piece much money will she have in her
is x feet long, how long is the other account?
c) If her account increases to z dollars, how
b) piece?
If the two pieces are x feet and y feet much money has she added to it?
long, how long was the log?
24. The Swinging Singles Tennis Club has 100
c) If the log was x feet long and one piece members.
is y feet long, how long is the other
a) If x of them are men, how many are
piece? women?
23. Laverne DeFazio has 2 dollars in her b) If y people join the club, how many
checking account. members will it have?
a) If she writes a check for x dollars, how c) If y people join the club and z people
much money will remain in her account? resign, how many members will it have?

Set IV
"Forty-eight, forty-nine, fifty, seventy-five, nine, ten, twenty."
This seems like a strange way to count and yet clerks in stores do it all the time.
What is going on? Can you tell what problem is being solved? Is the problem being
solved by addition or subtraction?

16 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 LESSON 3
Multiplication

"Six times six is 54! Don't they teach you anything

at that school?"

Learning the multiplication table is not an easy task. When you first learned how
to multiply, you did it by adding. For example, the problem 3x5 can be
illustrated by three sets of circles with five circles in each set.

ooooo ooooo ooooo

The circles can also be arranged in three rows to form a rectangle.

ooooo
ooooo
ooooo

Both patterns show that 3x5 = 5 + 5 + 5=15. In learning the multiplica-

tion table, you memorized the answers to problems such as this so that pictures
and adding became unnecessary.
The result of multiplying two or more numbers is called their (jproductT^ 7
Another way to picture a product is by means of area. The rectangle at the right,
for example, is divided into 4 rows of squares with 7 squares in each row: it
contains
4x7
squares in all. The area of the rectangle, 28, is the product of its dimensions, 4
and 7.
 Something that helps in learning the multiplication table is the fact that if

4 x 7 = 28
then it is also true that
7 x 4 = 28

The product of two or more numbers, like t

their ordeT75rthe orderm which 1

EacTTof thFnumber mcks""~tKairwe considered in the introductory lesson

included a step consisting of multiplication. For example, if we are told to think
of a number and multiply it by four, the result might be illustrated by a set of
four boxes:

DDDD
If we use a letter, such as .v, to represent the number thought of, we might write:
4 XX

Because the symbol for multiplication used in arithmetic looks so much like the
letter .v, however, it is not ordinarily used in algebra. Instead, we simply write 4.v
with the understanding that this means "4 times .v." We can't indicate the
product of two numbers such as 3 and 5 this way because 35 means "thirty-
five," not "three times five." To indicate that the 3 and 5 are two separate
numbers, we can either enclose them in parentheses, (3)(5), or insert a raised dot
between them, 3-5.
In this lesson we have observed that the product of two numbers, such as 4.v,
can be interpreted either as repeated addition,

X + X + X + X

or as the area of a rectangle whose dimensions are 4 and x.

In the next lesson, we will see how these ideas can be applied to division.

18 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Exercises

Set I
Find each of the following products.

1. 100-360 5. (1.5)(8.23) 9. (7)(11X1.3)

2. (5X142857) 6. (8.23)(1.5) 10. 2-2-2-2-5-5-5-5
3. 271-287 7. (0.7X1. 1X1-3)
4. (0.05X20)
8. (7)(1.1X1.3) '

Set II
1 1 . Draw figures as indicated. 1 3. The multiplication problem 4 • 3 and the
a) A figure with circles to show that 4 • 3 addition problem 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 are
and 3 • 4 are the same number. equivalent. Write a multiplication problem
b) A figure with boxes to illustrate 5x if equivalent to each of the following addition
each box represents x.
c) A rectangle divided into squares to problems.
illustrate 2 • 7. a) 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
b) 6 + 6
12. Write a number or expression for each of c) X + X + X +x +x
the following.
a) The product of 5 and 6.
d) 7 + 7 + ■ ■ ■ + 7
1 1 of them
b) The sum of 5 and 6.
c) The product of 5 and x. e) 7 + 7 + • • • + 7
d) The sum of 5 and x. x of them
e) The product of x and y.
f ) The sum of x and y. f ) y + y + • • ■ + j'
g) The product of x and x.
h) Eight multiplied by x. Write an addition problem equivalent to
i) Eight subtracted from x. each of the following multiplication
j) The sum of 2, 7, and x.
k) The product of 2, 7, and x. problems.
1) The sum of 10, y, and 3.
m) The product of 10, y, and 3.
n) The sum of 4, x, and y. g) 3-17
h) 4x
o) The product of 4, x, and y.
i) y-2
i) yz Lesson 3: Multiplication 19
14. The area of a rectangle is the product of its length and width.
What is the area of each of these rectangles?

15. Although their name suggests that they have d) How many minutes are there in x days?
100 legs, some centipedes have only 28 legs e) How many minutes are there in x weeks?
whereas others have as many as 354. f) How many years are there in x centuries?
a) How many legs do 5 centipedes have g) How many months are there in x
altogether if each one has 28 legs? centuries?
b) How many legs do x centipedes have
altogether if each one has 354 legs? 17. Miss Haversham's Hupmobile gets about 11
miles per gallon.
16. Because there are 60 minutes in an hour, a) Approximately how many miles should
there are 60x minutes in x hours. she be able to travel on a full tank of 15
a) How many days are there in x weeks?
b) How many hours are there in x days? b) gallons?
Approximately how many miles can she
c) How many minutes are there in one day? travel on x gallons of gas?

Set III
18. Draw figures as indicated. h) Five multiplied by x.
a) A figure with circles to show that 2 • 6 i) Five subtracted from x.
and 6 • 2 are the same number. j) The sum of 4, 6, and x.
b) A figure with boxes to illustrate 3x if k) The product of 4, 6, and x.
each box represents x. 1) The sum of 5, y, and 12.
c) A rectangle divided into squares to m) The product of 5, y, and 12.
illustrate 4-5. n) The sum of x, y, and 2.
o) The product of x, y, and 2.
19. Write a number or expression for each of
the following.
a) The product of 7 and 3. 20. The multiplication problem 5 • 8 and the
addition problem 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 are
b) The sum of 7 and 3.
equivalent. Write a multiplication problem
c) The product of 7 and x.
equivalent to each of the following addition
d) The sum of 7 and x.
e) The product of y and x. problems.
f) The sum of y and x. a) 10 + 10 + 10
g) The product of y and y. b) 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3- 3+3+3+3+3

Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 c) X + X + X 22. At Mr. Kitzel's Bakery, one donut costs
d) 4 + 4 + • • ■ + 4 9 cents and there is no discount for
15 of them buying donuts in quantity.

e) 4 + 4 + • • • + 4 a) How much would a dozen donuts cost?

.v of them b) How much would x donuts cost?

f) .V + .V + ■ ■ ■ + -V c) How much would y dozen donuts cost?

v of them 23. The trees in an orchard are arranged in rows

with an equal number of trees in each row.
Write an addition problem equivalent to
each of the following multiplication a) If there are x rows and each row contains
problems. 20 trees, how many trees are there in all?
b) If there are x rows and each row contains
g) 2 • 19
h) 5.v -v trees, how many trees are there in all?
i) v • 3 24. Because there are 100 centimeters in one
)) x>x meter, there are lOO.v centimeters in x
21. The volume of a rectangular box is the meters.
product of its length, width, and height. The
a) How many millimeters are there in one
volume of the box shown here, for example,
meter?
is 5 • 3 • 2 = 30 because it contains 30 cubes.
b) How many millimeters are there in x
meters?
y y y
'////- /~s\
s\ \ c) How many meters are there in three
1 kilometers?
f^:
w\
^
d) How many meters are there in y
kilometers?
e) How many centimeters are there in one
kilometer?
What is the volume of each of these boxes? f) How many centimeters are there iny
kilometers?
g) How many millimeters are there in y
kilometers?

Lesson 3: Multiplication 21
 Set IV
An old-fashioned method for multiplying two numbers is illustrated ,
in the drawings
shown here. 3/
4 -^
3 5 3 5
7/ 2/

2 /

7 6-

The numbers to be multiplied, 35 and 47, are written above and to the right of

/ 5
the figure as shown in the first drawing. Each digit of one number is multiplied by
each digit of the other, 3 • 4 = 12, 5 • 4 = 20, 3 • 7 = 21, 5 • 7 = 35, and the

4^
answers written in the boxes as shown in the second drawing. The digits in each
slanting column are added and their sums written below and to the left as shown in
0
the third drawing. The answer is found by reading these digits in order from/ the
upper left: 35 • 47 = 1645.
Try this method on the following problems. Does it give the correct answer in
each case?

1. 52-76
2. 83 • 29

22 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 LESSON 4
-2
Division Problem: —2
Calculation:
12
If two people share a dozen clams so that each one gets the same number, how -2
many will each one get? This is such an easy division problem that we know the -2 2
answer immediately. One way to illustrate it is shown below. 10

oooooooooooo 8

-2 4
Twelve circles have been separated into groups of two ("one clam for you and 6
one for me, one for you and one for me," and so forth); the answer, six, can be
found by counting the number of groups. -2 4 5
The method that some mechanical calculators use to divide is illustrated at
the right. The calculator subtracts 2 from 12, 2 from the result, 2 from that result, 2
and so on until it arrives at 0. The number of times 2 has been subtracted is the - 2 time
answer.
0
Although this may seem like a peculiar way to divide, it is related to the way
that we have been picturing multiplication as repeated addition. The calculator
is doing division by repeated subtraction. Answer: —2 :
Division can also be interpreted in terms of multiplication. The answer to the
problem of dividing 12 by 2 is the number that must be multiplied by 2 to give
12. This interpretation can also be pictured by means of the relationship of the 1
area of a rectangle to its dimensions, as the figure at the right illustrates.
The result of dividing one number by another is called their quotient. By the 1
 quotient of the numbers x and jv, we mean the result of dividing x by y and write
it as — . The quotient of two numbers, like their difference, depends on the order
y
3
of the numbers. The quotient of 3 and 6, —6 , for example, is not the same

number as the quotient of 6 and 3, — . When we refer to the quotient of two

numbers, we mean the number that results from dividing the first number by the
second.
Although quotients are found by division, they can be checked by multiplica-
80
tion. To check that — = 16, for example, we multiply 5 by 16 to see if the

result is 80. In general, the quotient — is the number that must be multiplied by
y
'■¥
y to give x.
*■¥
Exercises D- Z5

Set 1
Find each of the following quotients.
. " 500
10 . 4
6
3 ' 740437
2 J0_500 2.5
4 nun

Set II
9. Write a number or expression for each of 6.i«i) The quotient of x and y.
the following. j) The product of x and y.
a) The quotient of 12 and 3.
b) The difference between 12 and 3. 10. The figure below illustrates two division
c) Seven divided by x. problems: — - = 3 and — = 2.
d) Seven divided into x.
e) The quotient of x and 2. o o
f ) The product of x and 2. O O
g) The result of dividing 10 by x. o o
h) The result of subtracting x from 10.

24 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 k)

What division problems are illustrated by the following figures?

o o o o
oooooooooooo o o o o
ooooooooo
o o o o ooooooooo
o o o o

11. A common way in which to check a division if x is 60.

: 2, 30
is to multiply the answer by the dividing
number to see if the result is equal to the
12 1) What happens to the value of -^ as x
number divided. For example, if -
gets larger?
then 6 • 2 = 12. Write the multiplication
■»-*
problem that "checks" each of these division
1 3. A band of pirates has 300 bottles of beer,
which the pirates plan to share equally.
problems.
a) If there are 15 pirates in the band, how

•)f=3 •f many bottles will each one get?30

b) If there are x pirates in the band, how
many bottles will each one get?

*§-« 14. Mr. Vanderbilt bought some gold at $170

c)A = o per ounce.much did he pay if he bought x
6 a) How
f)3
<>lf=> h>f= ounces?
b) How many ounces did he get if he paid

12. Find the value of each of the following

c) How many ounces would he get for x
expressions for the numbers given. dollars?
a) 9x if x is 5.
b) 9x if x is 7. 15. The common flea is capable of covering 12
$102,000?'
inches in one jump.
c) 9x if x is 12.
d) What happens to the value of 9x as x a) How far can a flea travel if it makes x
gets larger? jumps?
b) How many jumps would a flea have to
e) 4 ^ * is 4- g) ^ if x is 100. make in order to cover 600 inches?
c) How many jumps would it have to make
in order to cover x inches?

16. Miss Haversham drove her Hupmobile 159

miles.
larger? a) If it used 15 gallons of gas, how many
miles per gallon did she get?
b) If it used x gallons of gas, how many
i) — if x is 2. j) — if x is 5.
miles per gallon did she get?

Lesson 4: Division
 b)

Set III
17. Write a number or expression for each of 19. Find the missing dimension for each of
the following. these rectangles. (The numbers inside
represent their areas.)
a) The quotient of 8 and 2.
b) The difference between 8 and 2. X
c) Five divided into x.
d) Five divided by x. 63 8x
X 15
e) The quotient of 3 and x.
f) The product of 3 and x.
g) The result of dividing * by 12.
h) The result of subtracting 12 from x.
i) The quotient of y and x.
j) The product of y and x.
18. Find the value of each of the following
expressions for the numbers given.
20. Most people learn how to doy longx division
a) Ix if x is 3. without knowing why it works. The method
b) Ix if x is 6. by which it is done is based on repeated
c) Ix if x is 11. subtraction. For example, compare the two
d) What happens to the value of Ix as x methods below:
gets larger?
division -150
subtraction
-150 -30
-30

180
15JT80 30 fifteens
r if xis 51. 30
more fifteens
h) What happens to the value of ^- as x gets 0 0 fifteens subtracted
larger?
a) Write this long division problem as i
i) i§.
x tf x is 9 repeated subtraction problem.
-8_40
j) —X if x is 10. 46
-126
k) ^- if x is 45. 21)966
126

1) What happens to the value of —x as :

gets larger? 0

26 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 b) Divide 875 by 7 using both long division b) If each face of a cube has a surface area
and repeated subtraction. of x square inches, what is its total
surface area?
21. Suppose that a dogcart were to travel at a
c) If the total surface area of a cube is 96
steady rate for 2,000 meters.
square inches, what is the surface area of
a) How long would it take if the dogcart one face?
traveled 100 meters each minute?
d) If the total surface area of a cube is y
b) How long would it take if the dogcart
traveled x meters each minute? square inches, what is the surface area of
one face?
22. The members of the River City School band
24. On Monday, Mr. Kitzel made 10 dozen
are marching in a rectangular array of rows
donuts.
and columns.
a) If it cost him SI 0.80, what was his cost
a) If there are x rows and y columns, how
many people are in the band? per dozen donuts?
b) If it cost him S 10.80, what was his cost
b) If there are 80 people in the band and x
rows, how many columns are there?
c) per
If itdonut?
cost him .v dollars, what was his cost
c) If there are x people in the band and 8
columns, how many rows are there? per dozen donuts?
d) If it cost him x dollars, what was his cost
23. A cube has six faces.
a) If each face of a cube has a surface area per donut?
of 25 square inches, what is its total
surface area?

Set IV The Pilgrims and the Loaves of Bread

Two pilgrims stopped by the side of the road to five, in the same numbers as their original loaves
eat. One had seven loaves of bread and the other of bread. The other pilgrim, however, thought
had five loaves. A third traveler arrived before that the coins should be split six and six,
they had begun their meal and asked them to because the bread had been shared equally.
share their food with him. They agreed and the They could not agree, and so they asked a
three shared the bread equally. local wise man what to do. The wise man
After they had finished, the third traveler got decided that the pilgrim who originally had
up, thanked the two pilgrims for the bread, and seven loaves of bread should receive nine silver
left twelve silver pieces in payment for his meal. pieces and the one who originally had five loaves
The pilgrim who originally had seven loaves of should receive only three.*
bread thought that he should receive seven of Can you explain why this is fair?
the coins and his fellow pilgrim should receive

* Puzzles of this son date from Roman times. An example similar to the one given here
can be found in Mathematical Recreation;, second edition, by Maurice Kraitchik (Dover.
1953).

Lesson 4: Division
 LESSON 5
Raising to a Power

It is an amusing Speculation to look back, and compute what Numbers of Men and
Women among the Ancients, clubb'd their Endeavours to the Production of a Single
Modern.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, Poor Richard's Almanack, 1751

If you traced your family tree through ten generations, how many ancestors
would there be in the tenth generation back? Because you are descended from
two parents, each of whom had two parents, each of whom had two parents, and
so on, the numbers in each generation back are:

2 parents,
2 •2 grandparents,
2-2-2 great grandparents,
2-2-2-2 great great grandparents,
2 •2 •2 •2 •2 great great great grandparents,
and so on.

It can be seen from this pattern that a person has2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2

ancestors in the tenth generation preceding his or her own.
A simpler way to write this number is 210. The 10, called an exponent,
indicates that 10 twos are to be multiplied:

210 = 2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2-2= 1,024

In the tenth generation back, you may have more than a thousand ancestors!
The solution of this problem requires repeated multiplication by the same
number. Such an operation is called raising to a power. The number of grand-
parents that a person has is 22, or "2 raised to the second power." The number
of a person's great grandparents is 23, or "2 raised to the third power." In each
of these cases, we can represent the number by a geometric pattern of circles.
Because 22 can be pictured as a square, it is also referred to as "2 squared."
Because 23 can be pictured as a cube, it is also referred to as "2 cubed."

Space as we know it is limited to three dimensions, and so powers higher than

the third do not have special names.
It is important to understand the difference in meaning between multiplication
and raising to a power and in the symbols used to represent each of these
operations. The following examples should make this difference clear.
3 • 4 means "3 times 4" or 4 + 4 + 4
43 means "4 to the third power" or 4-4-4
3x means "3 times x" or x + x + x
x3 means "x to the third power" or x • x • x
nx means "n times x" or the sum of n x's
xn means "x to the nth power" or the product of n x's

Exercises

Set I
Find each of the following powers.
5. V 9. (0.4)
1. 52
2. 25 10. (0.4)e
3. 103 6. I7
7. (1.3)2
4. 107 8. (3.1)2

Lesson 5: Raising to a Power

Set II c)

11. The expression x2 can be named in more

than one way.
a) Write two different names for it.
b) What is the 2 bcalled?
)
12. What numbers or expressions do these
figures represent? Express each as a power. Write a multiplication problem equivalent to
each of the following.

O 0 o
O 0 o
t e)
X
g) x*
h) 85 i) 3'
j) y>

o o o
\ 15. The figure below contains 74 dots.
^x^

x
\
y
y

13. Write each of the following in symbols.

a) Seven squared. a) How many dots is that?
b) Two raised to the sixth power. b) Because the dots are arranged in a square
c) The number x cubed. pattern, their number can also be written
d) The eighth power of x. as a certain number squared. What is it?
e) Three raised to the .vth power.
16. The number 243 can be written as a power
f) The yxh power of x.
of 3. To find out what power it is, we can
14. The raising-to-a-power problem 35 and make a list of powers of 3 until we come
the multiplication problem 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 are to 243:
= 243
equivalent. Write a power problem
equivalent to each of the following. 32 = 9, 33 = 27, 34 = 81,
a) 7 •7 •7 •7 Express each of the following numbers as a
b) 4.4.4.4.4.4.4
power of the number given.
c) x 'x •x •x 'x •x
a) 729 as a power of 3.
d) 2 •2 • • •• •2
b) 64 as a power of 2.
c) 64 as a power of 4.

Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 d) 64 as a power of 8. Use a similar method to find each of the
following.
e) 10,000 as a power of 10.
f) 1,000,000,000 as a power of 10. a) 29 if 28 = 256.
g) It is impossible to express 5 as a power b) ll4 if ll3 = 1,331.
of 1. Explain why. c) 37 if 35 = 243.
d) 58 if 55 = 3,125.
17. If we know that 45 is 1,024, we can find 46
by observing that e) What would you have to multiply x6 by
in order to get x7?
46 = 4-4-4-4-4-4 so 46 = 4 • 1,024 = 4,096 f) What would you have to multiply x10 by
in order to get x12?

Set III
18. The expression x3 can be named in more
than one way.
a) Write two different names for it.
b) What is the 3 called?
19. What numbers or expressions do these figures represent?
Express each as a power.

O o O o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
o o o o o o
-y— ■
equivalent to each of the following.
20. Write each of the following in symbols.
a) Two cubed. a) 6-6-6-6-6
b) yyyyyyy
C) 11 • 11 • 11
b) Five raised to the tenth power.
c) The number x squared.
d) The fourth power of x. d) 3 • 3 3
10 of them
e) Nine raised to the yth power.
f) The xth power of y. e) 3 • 3 • • • ■ • 3

21. The raising-to-a-power problem x4 and

the multiplication problem x • x • x • x are
equivalent. Write a power problem v of them

Lesson 5: Raising to a Power 31

 Write a multiplication problem equivalent to 23. This table shows the values of the second
each of the following, through sixth powers of 6.
62 = 36
63 = 216
64 = 1,296
g)x5I4
)')i)h)**5* 65 = 7,776
66 = 46,656
22. The number 625 can be written as a power
of 5. To find out what power it is, we can
make a list of powers of 5 until we come to 6100 might
a) Can be? what one of the digits of
you guess
625:
125,
b) Make a table showing the values of the
: 25, 53 second through sixth powers of 5.
5100 might
c) Can be? what any of the digits of
you guess
Express each of the following numbers as a
power of the number given. This table shows the values of the second
a) 343 as a power of 7.
through sixth powers of 9.
b) 6,561 as a power of 81.
92 = 81
c) 6,561 as a power of 9.
93 = 729
d) 6,561 as a power of 3.
94 = 6,561
e) 1,000 as a power of 10.
95 = 59,049
f) 10,000,000 as a power of 10. 96 = 531,441
g) It is impossible to express 10 as a power
of 1. Explain why.
d) 9100
Can might be? what any of the digits of
you guess

Set IV
After fooling around all summer, Obtuse Ollie so on, doubling the amount of time each
didn't want to work very hard in the first few succeeding week.
weeks of school. He decided to study algebra If he sticks to this plan and the semester
one minute the first week, two minutes the contains twenty weeks, how many minutes will
second week, four minutes the third week, and Ollie study algebra in the last week?

32 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 Zero is the first of ten symbols — the
digits — with which we are able to represent
any of an infinitude of numbers. Zero is also
the first of the numbers which we must
represent. Yet zero, first of the digits, was
the last to be invented; and zero, first of the
numbers, was the last to be discovered.
Constance reid, From Zero to Infinity

LESSON 6
A visual paradox: Hozv many objects
is the hand holding?
Zero and One

Although the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy used the symbol o, an abbrevia-

tion of a word meaning "nothing," as a digit in his work, it was not until many
centuries later that the idea of zero as a number was accepted. Because numbers
originated with counting and it doesn't seem natural to count with zero, it was
not considered to be a number. The counting numbers, also called the
natural numbers, begin wTith one. Although zero is never used in counting, it
is sometimes used to answer the same question that the counting numbers
answer, the question of how many.
The behavior of the number zero in calculations differs from that of all other
numbers in several basic ways. It is the only number that can be added to or
subtracted from another number without changing that number.

► For every number x, x + 0 = x (also, 0 + x = x) and x

It is the only number that, regardless of what number it is multiplied by,

0 :
always gives the same result: zero.

► For every number x, x • 0 = 0.

Lesson 6: Zero and One
 If x is a counting number, such as 5, it is easy to see why: 5 • 0 =
0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 0. Assuming that the product of two numbers does not
depend on the order in which they are multiplied, it is also true that

Ox = 0

Strange as it may seem, it is easy to divide zero by another number, yet

dividing a number by zero makes no sense at all! Remember that the quotient of
two numbers x and v, — , is the number that must be multiplied by v to give x.

For example, — = 3 because 3-2 = 6. Now dividing zero by another number

is okav: —x = 0, because, as we have observed above, .v • 0 = 0.

On the other hand, dividing a number by zero leads to trouble. If we tried
dividing 3 by 0, for example, the number — would be the number that must be
multiplied by 0 to give 3. But there is no such number; every number multiplied
by 0 gives zero as the result.
Dividing zero by itself leads to trouble of a different sort. Suppose that — is

equal to some number x: if —0 = x, then it must be true that .v • 0 = 0. But this is

true for every number x. Hence — = 0, — = 1. — = 2, and so forth. Because —

0 0 0' 0
can mean anything, it is meaningless.
The number one plays the same role in multiplication and division that the
number zero plays in addition and subtraction: it does not change the number
that it is multiplying or dividing.

34 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Exercises

Beginning with this lesson, the exercises in Set I will review ideas from earlier lessons.

Set I
1. Show how the following number trick works d) The quotient of 3 and x.
by drawing boxes and circles to illustrate the e) The third power of x.
steps. f ) The xth power of 3.
a) Think of a number.
3. Write another expression equivalent to each
b) Add four. of the following.
c) Multiply by three.
d) Subtract nine. a) a + a
e) Divide by three.
f ) Subtract the number that you first b) 5b
thought of. c) c-c-c
The result is one. e) e + e + • • • + e

2. Write a number for each of the following:

a) The product of 3 and .v.
b) The sum of 3 and x. d) d*
c) The difference between 3 and x.

Set II
4. What do you know about the following? 6. The following questions are about powers of
a) The sum of any number and zero. one.
b) The difference between any number and a) What is the value of l2? Why?
zero.
b) What is the value of l7?
c) The product of any number and zero. c) What is the value of F, in which x is a
d) The product of any number and one. counting number larger than one?
e) The quotient of zero and any number.
7. The following remark appeared in a French
f) The quotient of any number and zero.
arithmetic book published in 1485:
g) The quotient of any number and one.
5. Sometimes it is easier to multiply than to "The digits are no more than ten different
figures, of which nine have value and the
add. Figure out each of the following:
tenth is worth nothing in itself but gives a
a) 0+1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9
b)0-l-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9 higher value to the others."
c) 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 a) What digit "is worth nothing in itself"?
+ 1+ 1 b) Give an example of how it "gives a
d) 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 • 1 higher value" to another digit.

Lesson 6: Zei
 8. If possible, simplify each of the following.
a) l.v
b) Ox
c) x + 0
d) x + 1
e) x - 0

10. When an even number is divided by two, the

remainder is zero. For example,

h,

. Each of the following expressions contains 2jl2

two unknown numbers, x and y. Simplify
each expression as much as you can. You a) What is the remainder when an odd
may assume that neither x nor y is zero. number is divided by two?
a) lx + ly b) What is the remainder when zero is
b) l.v - Oy divided by two?
c) Ox + ly c) Is zero even or odd}
d) O.v + Oy
. x y

Set III
11. If possible, tell what number should replace 12. One way to picture the product 3 • 5 is
in each of the following equations to shown below.
make it true.
o o o o o
o o o o o
b) x - o o o o o

c) f e=) x
a) How could this figure be changed to
(Assume that x is not zero.)
d)f= picture the product 2-5?
0 b) How could it be changed to picture the

c) product
Could it 1-5?
be changed to picture the
x-
f)
product 0-5?
g) * - 0
"
h) x •
36 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
13. The following questions are about powers of 16. The following questions are about the
zero. counting numbers.
a) What is the value of 02? Why? a) If x represents a counting number, what
b) What is the value of 05? is the next larger counting number?
c) What is the value of 0r, in which x is a b) If x represents a counting number larger
counting number larger than one? than one, what is the next smaller
counting number?
14. Each of the following expressions contains
c) What is the smallest counting number?
two unknown numbers, x and y. Simplify
each expression as much as you can. You
17. Obtuse Ollie says that, if you divide a
may assume that neither x nor y is zero.
number by zero, the answer is zero.
a) lx + Oy
b) \y - lx a) Explain why — is not equal to 0.
c) e1 v - Ox
) - Oy
d) O.v

hi
_o _ o.
0 ■„
Acute Alice says that, if you divide zero by
x y a number, the answer is zero.

°+f
1 _ x0
y_
d) Does it make sense to say that — is equal

y i toO?
18. Some automatic calculators do division by
repeated subtraction, subtracting the dividing
15. In the ninth century, an Arab mathematician
number over and over until the result is
wrote:
zero.

"When nothing remains in subtraction, a) If you tried to divide 12 by 0 on such a

put down a small circle so that the place be calculator, would it eventually arrive at
not empty, but the circle must occupy it, so zero? Explain.
that the number of places will not be b) What do you suppose would happen if
diminished when the place is empty and the you tried dividing 0 by 0 on such a
calculator?
-J
second be mistaken for the first."
a) Use the problem below to show what he
meant.

45

b) What does the zero in the answer to this

problem mean?

Lesson f>: Zero and One

 Set IV
We have been using numbers larger than 1 as What do you think x should mean? Rather
exponents to indicate repeated multiplication. than just making a guess, make a conclusion
from the information in the table below.
x means x • x,
x means x • x • x, x .V4 .V3 X2 X1 X°
x means
and so
x • x • x • xs
forth.
4 256 -» 64 -» 16 -»• 4 -» ?
3 81 _> 27 -> 9 -> 3 -> ?
What would 1 or 0 mean if we used them as 2 16^8->4^2^?
exponents? It seems rather obvious from the 1 1 -> 1 -> 1 -» 1 -» ?
pattern above that
0 o ^O^O^O^?

38 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 LESSON 7
Several
"It's mighty good eating ^-v ^/^ <
Operations for the pennies it costs."
, by koren; £ 1973

What do you think is the correct value for the following expression?
2 x 12 + 3 x 10

It all depends on what you are trying to find. For example, suppose that Mrs.
Xaugatuck wants to buy 2 pounds of porcupine at 12 cents a pound and 3
pounds of iguana at 10 cents a pound. How much will the order cost?
To answer this question, we have to find

2 x 12 + 3 x 10

It is obvious from the situation that both multiplications should be done before
the addition:
2x12 + 3x10 =
24 +30 =
54
The order will cost 54 cents.
 Now consider this problem. Mrs. Xaugatuck wants to buy 2 dozen duck eggs
and 3 buffalo sausages. If they cost 10 cents each, how much will she have to
spend?
The answer to this question is also

2 x 12 + 3 x 10

In this case, however, the operations are done in a different order. Multiplying
12 by 2. adding 3. and multiplying the result by 10,. we get

2 x 12 + 3 x 10 =
24 + 3 x 10 =
21 x 10 =
270

She will have to spend S2.70.

The fact that the answer to a problem that requires several operations can
depend on the order in which they are done has led mathematicians to make
rules for dealing with such problems. The rules are:

First, figure out the powers if there are any.

Then do the multiplications and divisions in order from left to right.
Finally, do the additions and subtractions in order from left to right.

According to these rules, the answer to the problem written as

2 x 12 + 3 x 10

is 54. If we want to change the order of operations, as in the second problem, we

use parentheses. It would be written as

(2 x 12 + 3) x 10

We will learn in the next lesson how to use parentheses to change the order of
operations.
Examples of how the rules for order of operations are used are given on the
next page.

Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

EXAMPLE 1
Find the value of 52 - 2 • 32 + 4.
SOLUTION
Figuring out the powers first, we get

(Notice that the 3 is squared before it is multiplied by 2 in the next step.) Doing the
multiplication next, we get
25 - is +4

Finally, doing the addition and subtraction in order from left to right, we get
7 +4 =
ll

EXAMPLE 2
Find the value of 3 • 43 + 7 • 5 - 1 12.
SOLUTION

3-43 + 7-5 - ll2 :

3-64 + 7-5 - 121 :
192 + 35 - 121 :
227 - 121 :
106

EXAMPLE 3

Find the value of -^ - -g- - ||.

4 12 23
SOLUTION
28 __6j__ 32
4 12 23
28 __36 _ 32
4 7 - 123 - 48 ':
4 - 4 :
0

Lesson 7: Several Operations 41

 Exercises

Set I
1 . If possible, express each of the following 3. Mr. Webster is trying to improve his
vocabulary.
numbers as a power of the number given.
a) 125 as a power of 5. a) If he learns x new words each day, how
b) 10 as a power of 0. many words will he learn in a week?
c) 64 as a power of 2. b) If he learns x new words each day, how
long will it take him to learn 1,000 new
2. A parking meter will take nickels or dimes. words?
a) If it contains x coins and someone puts in
a dime, how manv coins does it contain c) If he knows 15,000 words now and learns
in all? 10 new words each day, how many words
will he know in x days?
b) If it contains 1 7 coins of which x are
nickels, how many dimes does it contain?
c) If it contains x nickels and 24 dimes and
someone puts in 2 more nickels, how
many coins does it contain in all?

Set II
4. The figure shown here illustrates the expression 23 + 22.

Which figure below illustrates each of the expressions in parts a through g?

(The crossed-out circles indicate subtraction.)

O o oo oo o o
oO Oo Off
oaotfjf
ff ff
oo oo o o oo

Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 3

O O O O O O

O OO O O
O O
O O
OOOO OOOO O O O
OOOO OOOO O O O Off ff
OOOO OOOO O O O Offff
O O O Offff
OOOO OOOO

Figure 4 Figure 5
Figure 6
42 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
 a)
b)
c)42 + 42 7. The value of the expression x2 + 3x - 2
d) depends on the number with which we
43 + 32
e4-3
) + 3-2 replace x. For example, if x is 5,
f62
) - 3 •2
6-2 - 3-2 x2 + 3x - 2 =
2 + 3- - 2 =
2-42
25 + 15 -2 =
g) 4-22 40 - 2 =
a) the value of each of the following
5. Find 38
b)
expressions.
c) 2-5 + 4-10 Find the value of x2 + 3x — 2 if
d) 2 + 5-4 + 10
e) a) x is 1.
f)3-24 b) x is 4.
3 + 24 c) x is 10.
52-42
d) x is 20.
h) 52.42
8. Find the value of each of the following
g) i6-7
) - 12 +
expressions for the numbers given.
6 • 7 + 33 - 12
)')

6-7 - 33 + 12 a) 2x + 7 if x is 6.
k) 6- 7 + 12 - b) 15 - 3x if x is 2.
c) 1 + 4x2 if x is 5.
42 , 82 d) x3 - x2 if x is 10.
33
T +T e) x4 + x if x is 3.
f) 5x2 - x + 6 if x is 4.
33
9. At Frankenfurter's Delicatessen, salami costs
m,
m)' 824 , 42 80 cents a pound and liverwurst costs 95
8
cents a pound.
n) 11-2-3 + 7-2 a) How much would an order of 7 pounds
0) 11 -23 + 72 of salami and 3 pounds of liverwurst
cost?
p) 1 1 • 23 - 72
q) 1 1 • 72 - 23 b) How much would an order of x pounds
of salami and y pounds of liverwurst
6. Write an expression for each of the
cost?
following.
a) The sum of the squares of x and y.
b) Ten decreased by the product of x and 5.
c) The quotient of x and 5, decreased by 10.
d) The product of 8 and the cube of x.
e) The difference between the fourth power
of y and y.
f) Two more than the quotient of 12 and x.
g) The sum of x and the product of x
and y.

Lesson 7: Several Operations 43

 Set III
o o o o o
10. The figure at the right illustrates the
expression 52 - 2 • 3. Which figure below o O O O O
illustrates each of the expressions in parts a o O & iS 0.
through g?

O O O O
O O
o O O O
o o o O
o o o o

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

O O O O O O O s s A
O O O o o o o
O O O o o o o
o o o o

Figure 4 Figure 5
Figure 6
a) 3-2 + 4-2 e) 4 • 2 - 3 • 2
b) 23 + 23 + 23 + 23

c) 32 + 42 f) 23-4
d) 42 - 32
g) 32 • 4
11. Find the value of each of the following
o) 3-3 -4-3-2-5
expressions.
a) 20-6 + 3 p) 3 • 34 - 3 • 25
q) 34 • 3 - 25 • 3
b) 20-6-3 12. Write an expression for each of the
c) 20-6-3 following.
d) 5-9-4-7 a) One more than the product of x and 7.
e) 5 + 9-4-7 and y.difference between the cubes of x
b) The
f ) 2 + 43
c) Three
times y.times x, decreased by three
2-43
g) 24
h) -3
i) 26 + 3 •8 - 52 d) Twelve increased by the quotient of x
j) 26 - 52 + 3 •8 and 6.
m
k) )26 - 3 •8 + 52
e) The product of 5 and the square of x.
1) 26n + 52 - 3 •8 f ) The sum of x and the fifth power of y.
)
2 3 g) andy.
The quotient of 1 and the product of x

44 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

13. The value of the expression a:3 — 2x + 4 Acute Alice put a square snapshot of her
depends on the number with which we aunt Edna in a square frame.
replace x. For example, if .v is 3,

x3 - 2.v + 4 =
» _ 2 •3 + 4 =
27 - 2 •3 + 4 =
27 - 6 + 4 =
21 + 4 =
25

Find the value of .v3 — 2x + 4 if

a) .v is 0.
b) -v is 2.
c) x is 5.
d) x is 7.
14. Find the value of each of the following Find the area of the frame (the green region
expressions for the numbers given. in the figure above) if
a) 5.v + 4 if x is 8. a) each side of the snapshot is 7 centimeters
b) 17 - 2.x- if x is 3. long and the outer sides of the frame are
c) 1 + 3.v2 if x is 4. each 10 centimeters long.
d) .v2 + x3 if x is 10. b) each side of the snapshot is x centimeters
e) -y4 - x if x is 5. long and the outer sides of the frame are
f) 6.v2 + x - 2 if .v is 1. each v centimeters long.

Set IV
Because very few people enjoy doing arithmetic, a calculator will give the wrong answer.
pocket calculators have become very popular. 1. What is the correct answer to the problem?
Although they are easy to use, getting the
2. What answer do you think the calculator
correct answer to a problem that requires more
than one operation is not as simple as it might might give instead?
seem. 3. Why would it give that answer?
4. What would you do if you wanted to use
Consider the problem
such a calculator to get the correct answer to
the problem?
12-5 - - + 7-2

for example. If you push the keys for these

numbers and operations in the order shown here

Q000B0000000B
Lesson 7: Several Operations 45
 J/w<vf|>.

LESSON 8
Parentheses

Parentheses are among the most frequently used symbols in algebra. One way in
which parentheses are used is to change the usual order of operations. For
example, suppose that the sum of 3 and 5 is to be subtracted from 10. Because
3 + 5 = 8 and 10 — 8 = 2, the answer to this problem is 2. If we tried writing
the problem as
3 + 5

however, we would get the wrong answer because, according to our rules of
10 - are done from left to right:
operation, additions and subtractions
10 - 3 + 5 =

In order to show thai we want to add 3 and 5 before subtracting the result from
10, we write
10 - (3 + 5)
 The parentheses indicate that the operation inside them is to be done first:

10 - (3 + 5) =

2
10 -
► In an expression containing parentheses, the parentheses indicate that the
operations enclosed within them are to be done before anything else.

Division is usually indicated in algebra by a fraction bar. To show, for

example, that the sum of 9 and 3 is to be divided by the difference of 5 and 1,
we write

9 + 3
5 - 1

The fraction bar here means not only to divide, but also to add and subtract
before dividing.

9 + 3 = 12 _ 3
5-1 4

Because the usual procedure is to divide (and multiply) before adding and
subtracting, the fraction bar acts here as a parentheses symbol.
Here are more examples of how the value of an expression containing
parentheses is found.

EXAMPLE 1

Find the value of (7 + 4)(7 - 4).

(7 + 4)(7 - 4) =
33

Lesson 8: Parentheses
 EXAMPLE 2 EXAMPLE 3 10
Find the value of 4 + (11 - 2)2. Find the value of

SOLUTION

4 + (11 -2)2 = 10 6-5

4 + 92 + 10
4 + si = 6 - 5
85 6 —
1
+
13
+ 3
10

Exercises 5+

Set I JO
1 . If possible, find the value of each of the 3. This animal, a native of Madagascar called
following. ; 100 the tenrec, is capable of giving birth only
ten weeks after it itself is born.
° e)JL

•0
c)
J) 100
b) 1 • 100 fv 100
b)
2. Find the missing dimension for each of
these rectangles. (Some of your answers will
be in terms of the letters.)

7
a) How many generations of descendants of
35 6x one of these animals could be born in 50
weeks?
b) How many generations of descendants
could be born in x weeks if x is a
multiple of 10?
x
20

48 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Set II
. Tell whether or not the expressions in each
of the following pairs are equal.
a) (11 +5) + 2 and 11 +(5 + 2) h)
e) 12-6-3 and 12 • (6 • 3)
and 11 -(5-2) f) 12 + 6-3 m)and 12 + (6-3)
b) (11 -5) -2
and 11 +(5-2)
c) (11 +5) -2 g) 12 + 6-3 and (12 + 6) • 3
and 11 -(5 + 2) and
d) (11 - 5) + 2
3
. Find the value of each of these expressions.
15 3-4 -2 30 + 6
a) 7-32 -3)-(4-2) 10 + 2
b) (7-3)2 o) 52 - 5 • 22
c) 4 + 2-3 + 5 (3-4-2) J2.. A
3.(4-2)
d) (4 + 2) • 3 + 5 P) (52-5)-22
15 - 6
e) 4 + 2 • (3 + 5) (15 q) (52-5-2)2
15 -
f) (4 + 2) -(3 + 5) 30-6
10 ' 2
10-2
6. The figure shown here illustrates the
expression (2 + 3)2.
O o o o o
o o o o o
'
10
oo o o o
o o o o o
o o o o o

Which figure below illustrates each of the

expressions in parts a through h? a) 42 + l2 f) 4(4 - 1)
c) 4(4 + 1) e) 42 - l2
b) (4 + l)2
g) 42 + 4
d) (4 - l)2 h) 42 - 4

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 5

Figure 4 Figure 6
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o « O O O Bf
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o O O O o o o o ® ooos
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oooa oooa
o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oooa a»»« O O O J®

Lesson 8: Parentheses
 add v and 3 and fL Find
then square the result, we write - : r the mmba a
Write an . : each oi the

ng . ■ perad I
ttract 5 from z and
resulL
^ ±en add y.
:
b) if x is 4

d) if x is 30
:o 6 and then multiply by r.
• and then subtraa y.
e) Subtract v from 10 and then divide by x. e) if x is 3
: r and 2 by the sum is 4
: and 7. g .: x is 10
ie the difference is 50
twice .v.
h) Square the product of 3 and x and
subtraa the result from 11.
i) Subtraa the product : 3 and from 11
and square the result.
j) Add the . . . and multiply
the resoll

Set III
9. Tell whether ot not the in each E B + 3-(8 — 3
of the following pairs are equal. i + 3) • (8 — 3
a) (14-61-1 and 14 -(6-1) g 12-2-5-1
14 + 6)-! and 14 - (6 - 1) h) (12 - 2)-(5 - 1)
1-6)- 1 and 14-(6- 1) . l2-(2-5- 1
. L4-6)+l and 14 - (6 - 1) j) 12 - 2 • (5 - 1)
. - : • - and : ■ : •- 4

- 2 ■4 ••' ~
g : - : ■- and : + (2-4
:
b and ■ n) 4-2
-
a) 3-42 32-4

c) 8 + 3-8 — 3
------
n t-

- *- -■ ---•;-
Chapter!: FISDAMESTAL OPERATIONS
11. The figure shown here illustrates the
expression (5 — l)2.

a) 32 - 22 e) 32 + 22
b) (3 - 2)2 f) 3(3 + 2)
c) 3(3 - 2) g) 32 - 3 • 2
d) (3 + 2)2 h) 32 + 3 • 2

Which figure below illustrates each of the

expressions in parts a through h?

OOO O 0 & O J6I K OOO QO OOO OO OOO 0 O

oss® oss 0a s o o o ooooo
OOO o o OOO o o

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 6

Figure 5

12. To show that someone is to subtract 2 from 13. Find the values of the following expressions
x and then multiply the result by 3, we for the numbers given.
write 3(x - 2) or (x - 2)3. Write an x2 + 4x —
expression for each of the following sets of
operations. a) if x is 2
a) Add 1 1 to x and multiply by y. b) if x is 4
.f x .g 1Q
b) Multiply 1 1 by y and then add x. ,. .f . ._
c) Divide x by 3 and then subtract 1.
d) Subtract 1 from x and then divide by 3. (x + 6)(x -
e) Add x and y and square the result. e) if x is 2
f) Add the squares of x and y. f) if x is 4
g) Multiply the difference between x andjy g) if x is 10
by x. h) if x is 15
h) Cube the product of 2 and x and subtract
the result from 9.
i) Subtract the product of 2 and x from 9
and cube the result,
j) Divide the sum of x and y by 5 times y.

Lesson 8: Parentheses
 Set IV
The value of the expression 1 ill 2 111 3 ill 4
depends on the symbols of operation with which
we replace the blanks. Examples are shown in
the picture at the right.
1 . Can you figure out which of the following
symbols of operation, + , — , • , and -=- ,
should be used to replace the blanks in the
expression
1 III 2 111 3 11111 4 111 5 1111 6 11 7 11 8 11 9 11 10
in order to make it as large a number as
possible?
2. What is the value of the number?
3. Suppose that, in addition to replacing the
blanks with symbols of operation, you may
add parentheses wherever you wish. What
would you do to make the expression as
large a number as possible?
4. What is the value of the number?

52 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 LESSON 9
The
Distributive
Rule

The oldest game in the world may be the game of Go. It originated in China
and is thought to have been played as long ago as the twenty-fourth centurv B.C.
Go is played with black and white stones on a square board. The object is to
capture more territory than the other player while losing as few stones as
possible in doing so. The photograph above shows how the board might look at
the end of a game.
Although the way in which the stones are arranged on the board makes them
difficult to count, the stones in the pattern below are easy to count. Two ways to
count them illustrate a simple but very useful pattern called the distributive rule.
One way is to multiply the sum of the numbers of black and white stones in one
row, 6 + 4, by the number of rows, 8:

i + 4) = 8(10) = i

The other way is to multiply each of these numbers, 6

and 4, by 8 and add the results:

8(6) + 8(4) = 48 + 32 = 80

Comparing the first way with the second, we see that

8(6 + 4) = 8(6) + 8(4)

This pattern is true for any set of three numbers.

 ► The Distributive Rule (Addition)
For any three numbers a, b, and c, a(b + c) = ab + ac.

Notice that this rule is about a relationship between multiplication and

addition. Sometimes it is stated by simply saying that "multiplication distributes
over addition."
There is a similar rule relating multiplication and subtraction.

► The Distributive Rule (Subtraction)

For any three numbers a, b, and c, a(b — c) = ab — ac.

Because the product of two numbers does not depend on the order of the
numbers, the two distributive rules can also be written with the numbers in each
product interchanged; that is, because

a(b + c) = ab + ac and a(b — c) = ab — ac

it is also true that

(b + c)a = ba + ca and (b — c)a — ba — ca

The distributive rules are among the most fundamental patterns of algebra.
Here are examples of how they are used.

EXAMPLE 1
Use the distributive rule to write the product 10(.v + 2) as a sum.
SOLUTION
10(.v + 2) = 10(.v) + 10(2) = lO.v + 20

EXAMPLE 2
Use the distributive rule to write the product (5 + -v)v as a sum.
SOLUTION
(5 + .v)v = 5v + xy

EXAMPLE 3
Use the distributive rule to write the product .v(.v — 1) as a difference.
SOLUTION
X(X- 1)=.V(.Y)-.Y(1) = .Y--.Y

54 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Exercises

Set I b) How many words can Miss Peck type in

5 minutes?
1. Simplify each of the following expressions.
c) How long would it take Mr. Hunt to
a) a + a + a + a + a
b) bbb type y words?
3. The largest pizza ever baked weighed 1,000

a) If it contained .v pounds of cheese, how

d) 0(a + b) pounds.
much did the other ingredients weigh?
2. Mr. Hunt can type 20 words per minute and b) If the pizza were cut into y equal pieces,
Miss Peck can type x words per minute. how much would each piece weigh?
a) If they type at the same time, how many c) If 10 people ate z pounds each, how
words can they type in a minute? much would be left?

Set II
4. The figure below illustrates the pattern
2(4 + 3) = 2(4) + 2(3).

o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o

Write a pattern illustrated by each of the

following figures.
o o o o &
O O O O 0
oooooooo OOOOB
ooooHjai oooooooo
o o o o o o o o OOOO0S) oooooooo o o o o s
o o o o o o o o 00000)2) o o o o s
oooooooo oooos
o o o o o o o o o o o o a ® ) oooooooo - (-v + y)

5. The multiplication problem 5.v2 and the d) (.v + y) + (x

• .v) "
addition problem x2 + x2 + x2 + .v2 + x2 9 of them
are equivalent. Write a multiplication
Write an addition problem equivalent to
problem equivalent to each of the following
each of the following multiplication
addition problems.
a) -t3 + x* + x3 + xi problems.
b) 2x + 2x + 2x + 2x + 2x + 2x + 2x f) 5(3x)
c) (.v + 1) + (.v + 1) + (x + 1)
g) 4(* + 7)
e) 2.v4
Lesson 9: The Distributive Rule
 6. According to the distributive rule,
4(.v + 2) = 4.v + 8. One way to prove this
is by writing 4(.v + 2) as a repeated addition
problem and rearranging the numbers being
added:

a) Do the following multiplication problem.

t + 2) = (x + 2) + (.v + 2) + (x + 2) + (x + 2)
=x+x+x+x+2+2+2+2
= 4.v + 8

Use the same method to prove that

b) Show, by using X43
the distributive rule, why
a) 3(x + 5) = 3.v + 15
b) 2(.v + v) = 2x + 2y what you have done is correct.
c) Now do this mutiplication problem.
c) 4(.v- + 1) = 4x2 + 4
. Use the distributive rule to write each of the 43
following as a sum or difference.
a) 8(.v + 3) f ) (4 + .v)v
b) 5( v - 2) g) (v - .v)7 d) Explain your method
X72 by using the
distributive rule.
c) x(x + 1) h) (.v - 6).v
d)y(x-y) i) 10(.v-' + 4)
9. Write the total area of each of these
e) (x + 9)2 j) x(x3 - 1)
rectangles in two different ways.
10
x 5 X

4 X

The way in which you learned to multiply

numbers in arithmetic has as its basis the x y 3
X /
distributive rule. For example, to multiply
51 by 32 we write 3

51
X 32 10. Buster Brown owns x pairs of tennis shoes
102 and y pairs of loafers.
a) If he has no shoes other than these, how
+ 1530
1632 many pairs of shoes does he own in all?
b) \X rite the number of shoes that he owns
To see how the distributive rule applies, con- altogether as a product.
sider the fact that 32 = 2 + 30 so that c) How many individual tennis shoes does
he own?
32-51 = (2 + 30)51 d) How many individual loafers does
= 2-51 + 30-51 he own? X*
= 102 + 1530 e) Write the number of shoes that he owns
= 1632
altogether as a sum.

56 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Set III
1 1 . The figure below illustrates the pattern
3(6 - 2) = 3(6) - 3(2).
o o o o ® ia
OOOOBIB
O O O O 13 &

Write a pattern illustrated by each of the following figures.

o o o&
o o o o
o o o o o o o »
o o o o o o o o o oo oo oo
o o o o o ooo»
o o o o o o o o
O O O |3(
o o o o o o o
o o o o
o o o
o o o o
o o o o

12. The multiplication problem 3x4 and the Use the same method to prove that
addition problem x4 + x4 + x4 are a) 2(x + 6) = 2x + 12
equivalent. Write a multiplication problem b) 4(x + y) = 4x + 4y
equivalent to each of the following addition
c) 3(x2 + 2) = 3x2 + 6
problems. 14. Use the distributive rule to write each of the
a) x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 following as a sum or difference.
b) 5x + 5x + 5x
a) 2(x + 5) f ) (6 + x)x
c) (x + 7) + (x + 7)
b) 4(jy - 7) g) (y - 4)5
d) (x + y) + (* + jy) + ■ - ■ + (x + jQ
c) x(3 + x) h) (x - y)y
10 of them
d) y(y - 1) i) 3(x2 + 9)
Write an addition problem equivalent to
e) (x + 8)10 j) x2(x - 2)
each of the following multiplication
problems. 15. The way in which you learned to multiply
numbers in arithmetic has as its basis the
f) 4x3
e) 2(7x) distributive rule. For example, to multiply
g) 3(x + 8) 62 by 14 we write 62
13. According to the distributive rule,
5(x + 1) = 5x + 5. One way to prove this
is by writing 5(x + 1) as a repeated addition 248
XJ4
problem and rearranging the numbers being
added:
+ 868
620
5(x + 1) = (x + 1) + (x + 1) + (x + 1) + (x - 1) + (x + 1)
= X + X + X + X + X +1 + 1 + 1- 1 + 1
= 5x + 5

Lesson 9: The Distributive Rule

 To see how the distributive rule applies. 17. Alice's Restaurant sells espresso coffee for 40
consider the fact that 14 = 4 + 10 so that cents a cup. Suppose that one week it sells x
cups of the coffee and the next week it sells
14 • 62 = (4 -r 10)62 = 4-62 + 10-62 v cups.
= 248 + 620 = 868 a) How many cups does the restaurant sell
in all?
a) Do the following multiplication problem.
b) Write the total amount charged for the
84 coffee during the two weeks as a product.
c) How much did the restaurant charge for
X21 the coffee during the first week?
b) Show, by using the distributive rule, why d) How much did the restaurant charge
what you have done is correct. during the second week?
c) Now do this multiplication problem. e) Write the total amount charged for the
coffee during the two weeks as a sum.
21

X84
d) Explain your method by using the
distributive rule.

16. Write the total area of each of these rectangles in two different ways.
a) b) c)
x y 6 d)

Set IV
You know from the distributive rule of
multiplication over addition that, for all values a) if x is 2 and v is 0.
of x and v. b) (x+y)2
if x is 0 and v is 6.
c) if x is 3 and v is 4.
2(.v + v) = 2x + 2y d) if x is 9 and y is 1.
Is it also true that x2+y2
e) if x is 2 and v is 0.
{x+y)- = x--y-} f) if x is 0 and v is 6.
1. To find out. find the values of the following g) if x is 3 and y is 4.
h) if x is 9 and y is 1.
expressions for the numbers given.
. What do you conclude about (x + y)2 and
x2 + v2 on the basis of your results?

58 Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

 Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have reviewed the fundamental operations and their rela-
tionships.

Addition {Lesson 1) The result of adding two numbers, say a and b, is called
their sum and is written as a + b. It does not depend on the order of the
numbers, and so a + b = b + a.

Subtraction (Lesson 2) The result of subtracting one number from another,

say b from a, is called their difference and is written as a — b. It may be
understood to mean either "b taken away from a" or "the number that must be
added to b to give a."

Multiplication (Lesson 3) The result of multiplying two numbers, say a and b,

is called their product and is written as ab. As in addition, it does not depend on
the order of the numbers, and so ab = ba. Multiplication can be understood as
repeated addition; for example, 3a means a + a + a.

Division (Lesson 4) The result of dividing one number by another, say a by b,

is called their quotient and

multiplied by b to give a.
 Raising to a Power (Lesson 5) To raise a number to a power means to
multiply the number by itself one or more times; for example, a4 is read as "a
to the fourth power" and means a- a- a- a. The 4 is called an exponent. The
second and third powers of a number such as a are called "a squared" and "a

cubed."
Zero and One (Lesson 6) Zero is the only number that can be added to or
subtracted from another number without changing it. For every number a,
a + 0 = a and a — 0 = a.
Whenever any number is multiplied by zero, the result is zero. For every
number a, a • 0 = 0.
Although zero may be divided by another number, giving zero as the result,
we never divide a number by zero. For every number a (except 0), — = 0;. —

and — are meaningless.

One is the only number that can be multiplied by or divided into another

number without changing it. For every number a, a • 1 = a and — = a.

Several Operations (Lesson 7) In performing a series of operations, we work

from left to right, first raising to powers, then multiplying and dividing, and
finally adding and subtracting.

Parentheses (Lesson 8) Parentheses are often used to change the usual order of
operations by indicating that the operation inside them is to be done first. The
fraction bar used to indicate division acts as a parentheses symbol.

The Distributive Rule (Lesson 9) The distributive rule relates multiplication

and addition. It says that for any three numbers a, b, and c,

a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca

A similar rule relates multiplication and subtraction. For any three numbers a,
b, and c,

a(b — c) = ab — ac and (b — c)a = ba — ca

Chapter 1: FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Exercises
Set I
1. Write another expression equivalent to each 5. This problem is about the powers of 4.
of the following. a) Make a table showing the values of the
second through sixth powers of 4.
a) 7 + 7 + 7 + 7
b) Can you guess
4100 might be? what any of the digits of
b) 7 • 7 • 7 • 7
c) 2x
6. A chessboard contains 26 small squares.
d)y* a number for each of the following:
2. Write a) How many squares is that?
a) The number w squared. b) Can you write 26 as a number squared?
b) The product of 3 and x. 7. The perimeter of a rectangle is the sum of
c) The number y taken away from 17. the lengths of its sides. The area of a
d) The fifth power of z. rectangle is the product of its length and
3. Here are directions for a number trick. width. What are the perimeter and area of
each of these rectangles?
Step 1. Think of a number.
Step 2. Multiply by five.
Step 3. Add eight.
Step 4. Subtract three.
Step 5. Divide bv five.
Step 6. Subtract the number that
you first thought of.

a) Show how the trick works by drawing

boxes and circles to illustrate the steps. Find the value of each of these expressions.
b) What is the result at the end of the trick?
c) Two steps in the trick could be combined a) 30-9-7
b) 30 - (9 - 7)
into one without changing the end result.
Which are they?
d) What would the step replacing them be? c) 1 + 43
d) (1 +4)3
4. Which figure below and at the right
illustrates each of the following expressions? Figure 2
a) 4 + 32 b) 4 • 32 c) (4 + 3)2 O O O O OOO
O O O O OOO
Figure 3
O O O O OOO
O O O O OOO
Figure 1 O O OOO
OOO
O O
OOO OOO OOO OOO OOOO OOO
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
OOO OOO OOO OOO
OOO
OOO
OOO OOO OOO OOO OOOO

Summary and Review 61

 9. A can of Goober's Mixed Nuts contains c) Raise x to the sixth power and then
almonds, cashews, and peanuts. subtract 7.
a) If one can contains 9 almonds, x cashews,
13. Write each of these products as a sum or
and 142 peanuts, how many nuts does it difference.
contain in all?
b) If another can contains 160 nuts of which a) 7(a + 2) b) b{\ - b) c) (c - 9)5
x are almonds and v are cashews, how 14. A molecule of propane gas consists of three
many peanuts does it contain? carbon atoms and eight hydrogen atoms, as
shown in the model below.
10. Division by zero makes no sense.

a) Explain why there is no number equal to -=

b) Is there any number equal to — ?

11. Mr. Bunyan is a lumberjack.

a) If he can cut down 600 trees in an hour,
how many trees can he cut down in x
hours?
a) How many of each atom do x molecules
b) If he can saw up x logs in a day, how
many days would it take him to saw up of propane contain?
b) Write the total number of atoms in x
10,000 logs?
propane molecules as a sum.
12. Write an expression for each of the c) How many atoms does one propane
following sets of operations. molecule contain?
a) Multiply x by 5 and then add 1. d) Write the total number of atoms in x
b) Add 3 to x and then square the result. propane molecules as a product.

Set II
1. Write another problem equivalent to each of
the following.
a) 11 — 11 — 11 c) 5.v 3. Write a number for each of the following:
b) 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 • 2 a) The difference between a and 5.
b) The number b cubed.
2. The pictures below illustrate the steps of a c) The sum of 2 and c
number trick. Tell what is happening in each
step. d) The quotient of 1 and J.
4. If possible, express each of the following as
Step 1. a power of the number given.
Step 2. a) 32 as a power oi 2.
b) 3 as a power of 1.
Step 3. c) 1,000,000 as a power of 10.
SteP 4. 5. During the month of July, there were x
shark attacks off the shore of Amity Beach,
Step 5.
a) If 3 of the attacks were within 50 feet of
Step 6. the shore, how many were farther away?

62 Chapter I: FLNDAMESTAL OPERATIONS

 b) If 5 attacks occurred in August, how 10. Write an expression for each of the
many were there in all? following sets of operations.
a) Subtract 6 from x and then multiply
6. Find the missing dimension for each of
these rectangles.
b) by
Divide
2. x by 8 and then add 4.
c) Cube x and then subtract the result
from 150.

1 1 . Write each of these products as a sum or

20 difference.
a) 8(7; + 11) c)x(y + z)

b) (w - 6)3
12. Show how each of these figures illustrates
the distributive rule by writing its area as
7. Par on the Shady Acres Golf Course is 72.
both a product and a sum.
a) If Colonel Bogey's score is x strokes
above par, what is his score?
b) If Miss Birdie's score is y strokes below
par, what is her score?
c) Mr. Bunker's score on the first nine holes
is 75 (he has a terrible time with sand
traps) and his score on the second nine is
*~T~1 6- c), * '-
x. How many strokes above par is his X Y
total score?

8. Find the value of each of these expressions.

13. Since going on a diet, Mrs. Uppington has
a) 6 • 102 lost 3 kilograms each week.
b) (6 • 10)2 a) At this rate, how many kilograms would
c) (2 + 7)(8 - 3) she lose in x weeks?
d) 2 + 7 ■ 8 - 3 b) If she weighed 200 kilograms before
9. The cube numbers are related to the beginning the diet, how much would she
differences of square numbers in an weigh after x weeks of it?
interesting way. c) If she wants to lose x kilograms, how
a) Copy and complete the following table. many weeks will it take her?

32 - l2 = 8 = 23 14. Find the values of the following expressions

62 - 32 = 1111 = IIP for the numbers given.
102 - 62 = 11111 = IIIIIP
x2 + 5x - 14
152- 102 = llllll = lllllll3
a) if x is 2 (x + 7)(x -
d) if x is 2
b) Can you guess what the next line of this
table is? b) if x is 3 e) if x is 3
c) if x is 10 f ) if x is 10

Summary and Review

 Chapter 2
FUNCTIONS AND
GRAPHS
 ■

LESSON 1
An Introduction
to Functions

How does a person's intelligence as a child relate to his intelligence in later life?
Fr:~ the z'.i:~ ;r. :r.:> zin::~ :: hivir.z the ~r.: . : ;r. e;rh:-yeir-; .j _: ±e _jr
of four, one might conclude that such a person's mental age will be twice his
physical age throughout his life. The table below shows this relationship.
kal age
6 7
Mental age

To each physical age in this table, there corresponds a mental age: 8 corresponds
to 4. 10 to 5.. and so forth. :: -a
A mathematician would say that a person's mental age is a function of his
physical age.

A function is l pairing of two sets of numbers so that to each number in the first

One way to represent a function is with a table, as was done above. Another way
to represent a function is by writing a formula. To show, for example, that a
certain person's

mental age is two times his physical age

we might let p represent physical age and m represent mental age and simply
write
m = 2p

The two letters in this formula are called variables: as p varies in value, so
does m. For example, if p = 15, then m = 2(15) = 30 and if p = 25, then
m = 2(25) = 50.
As the character in the last panel of the cartoon has pointed out, it is also
possible to conclude from the claim of having the mind of an eight-year-old at
the age of four that the person is merely four years ahead in intelligence. The
table below illustrates this possibility.

Physical age 4 5 6 7 8 ...

Mental age 8 9 10 11 12 ...

A formula stating that someone's mental age is always four years more than his
physical age is

m = p + 4

Although it is unlikely that either of these functions is correct, it is certainly

true that a person's intelligence does change in the course of a lifetime. The
method by which a person's I.Q. is determined takes this change with age into
account.

Exercises

Set I
1. Find the value of each of these expressions: b) The number that must be multiplied by x
a) 12 - 32 c) l3 + 23 to give x.
b) (12 - 3)2 d) (1 + 2)3 c) The number that must be multiplied by x
2. Write a number for each of the following: to give 0.
a) The number that must be added to .v to 3. Contrary to popular opinion, ghosts do not
last forever. According to the Gazetteer of
give x.

Lesson 1: An Introduction to Functions

 British Ghosts, they fade away after 400 b) If a ghost has been haunting a castle for
x years, how many years has it to go?
years.
a) If a ghost has existed for x centuries,
how many years has it been around?

Set II
4. One way to represent a function is with a 5. To find the value of a complicated
table. For example, if a function has the expression that includes x, it is helpful to
formula y = 3x, then a partial table for it replace each x with parentheses first and
might look like this: then write the number for x in each. For
■x +has3 the formula
example, suppose a function
x 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 3 6 9 12

Copy and complete the tables shown for the To find the value of y if x = 5, we first
functions having these formulas, write y = 2( )2 — ( ) + 3 and then
a) Formula: y = x + 5 y - 2(5)2 - (5) + :3.Ix2
Simplifying,
Table: y = 2 • 25 - 5 + 3 = 48.
Copy the tables for the following
x 0 1 2 3 4
functions and use this method to complete
v 5 Ililll 1111 ill Ililll them.

b) Formula: y = 4x
Table: a) Table:
Formula: y = 1 + 3x2
x 0 2 4 6 8
x 2 3 4
v ililll 8 Ililll 111 Ililll
ililll
y 13 11
c) Formula: v = 2x + 3
Table:
b) Table:
Formula: y = 2x3 — x2
x 0 1 2 3 4
x 2 3 4
v 3 1111 111 11 llll
y 12 ill
lllllli
d) Formula: y = x2 6. Guess a formula for the function represented
Table:
by each of these tables. Begin each formula
x 1 2 3 4 5 with y = .
y 1111 llll 111
111 l 122 3 4 5
y 6 18 24 30
12
e) Formula: y = —X a) x 0 1 2 3 4
y 7 8 9 10 11
Table: b) x
5 6 7 8 9
x 2 4 6 8 10 y 1 2 3 4 5
v 6 111 111 111 111 c) X

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 2 3 b) Write a formula for the perimeter. />. of a
d).v
V 4 9 square whose sides are 5 units long.
2 3 c) What is the area of a square whose sides
e) x are 10 units long?
v 5 10 17 26 37
(Hint: Compare table e with table d.) d) Write a formula for the area, a, of a
square whose sides are 5 units long.
)x 1 2 3 4 5
8. The distance that Miss Winfield travels on
y 5 11 17 23 29
her bicycle (she goes at a constant speed) is
(Hint: Compare table f with table a.)
a function of the time she has been riding.
x 4 5 6 7 8 Here is a table for this function.
v 43 53 63 73 83
Number of seconds, s 15 30 45 60
x 4 5 6 7 888 Number of meters
v 44 55 66 77 165 330 495 660
traveled, m
x 3 4 5 6 7
v 9 8 7 6 5 a) What is Miss Winfield's speed in meters
x 1 2 4 5 10 per second?
b) Write a formula for this function.
v 20 10 5 4 2
c) How far would Miss Winfield go in 70
seconds?
7. The perimeter and area of a square are
functions of the length of one of its sides. 9. The population of a city is a function of
time. This table shows the population of
Grover's Corners every twenty years.

O
starting at 1900.

Year 1900 1920 1940 1960

Population 205 372 620 8145

a) What can you conclude from this table?

a) What is the perimeter of a square whose b) Do you think there is a formula for this
sides are 10 units long? function?

Set III
10. One way to represent a function is with a a) Formula: y :
table. For example, if a function has the Table:
formula y = x + 2, then a partial table for 0 12 3 4
it might look like this: 0 P:i ill

1 3
b) Formula: v = x — 3
Table:

Copy and complete the tables shown for the .v 3 4 5 6 7

functions having the following formulas. v 0 ;

Lesson 1: An Introduction to Functions 69

 10* 12. Guess a formula for the function represented
c) Formula:
Table: by each of these tables. Begin each formula
with y — .
X 1 2 5
y 11 y =11111 1111 0 1 2 3 4
y 3 4 5 6 7
a) x
d) Formula 4 5 6 7 8
Table:
y 20 25 35 40
X 1 2 4 b) x 2 4 306 8 10
111! y x2111+
= Iillli 1 2 3 4 5
y y
c) X 7 8 9 10 11
e) Formula 1 2 3 4 5
Table: X3 d)x
v = 0 1 2 3 4
x 0 1 4 0 1 8 27 64
y 111! 111 lllllll e) x
4 5 6 7 8
19 29 34 39
11. To find the value of a complicated f)x
(Hint: Compare table f with table b.)
expression that includes x, it is helpful to
replace each x with parentheses first and
then write the number for x in each. For )x 0 12 3 4
jy
y 2 3 10 29 66
example, suppose a function has the formula
(Hint: Compare table g with table e.)

y = x2 + 4.v — 5 3 4 5 6 7
y 34 44 54 64 74
To find the value of y when x = 3, we first
h).v 3 4 5 6 7
write y = ( )2 + 4( ) - 5 and then
y 33 44 55
v = (3)2 + 4(3) - 5. Simplifying, i) X
y = 9 + 12 - 5 = 16. 2 3 4 665 776
Copy the tables for the following y 8 7 6 5 4
functions and use this method to complete
them.
13. The number of people listening to Senator
a) Formula: y = 4x3 + 2 J) -v
Table: Claghorn give a speech is a function of the
time he has been speaking. This table shows
X 0 1 2 3
what happened at a speech he gave last
y 2 111 1111 11 week.

b) Formula: v = 5x2 - 7x Number of minutes

Table: the senator had 10 20 30 40
been speaking
X 2 3 4 5
6 11 111 Number of people
y lllllll who were listening 500 384 245 109

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 a) What can you conclude from this table? 15. The number of times that the hour hand of
b) Do you think there is a formula for this a clock goes around the clock is a function
function? of the time.

14. The amount of money that Mr. Babbitt

makes is a function of the number of hours
that he works. Here is a table for this
function.

Number of hours
16 24 32 40
worked, h
Number of dollars
60 120 180 240 300
earned, d a) How many times does the hour hand go
around the clock in one day (24 hours)?
a) How much money does Mr. Babbitt b) How many times does it go around the
make per hour? clock in seven days?
b) Write a formula for this function. c) Write a formula for the number of times,
c) How much money would Mr. Babbitt n, that the hour hand goes around the
make in 50 hours? clock in d days.

Set IV
Thousands of meteors enter the earth's
atmosphere each year. This shows a piece of one
that was found in Saskatchewan, Canada.
As a meteor enters the earth's atmosphere, it
rapidly becomes white hot so that it looks like a
"falling star." The degree to which it is heated
depends on how fast it is traveling. More
specifically, the highest temperature reached by
the meteor is a function of the speed at which it
enters the atmosphere.

The table below shows some approximate

values for this function.

Speed of meteor, s,
in kilometers per
second

Highest temperature
reached by meteor, 11,250 16,200 22,050 28,800 36,450

t, in °C

Lesson 1: An Introduction to Functions

 1 . There is a pattern in the numbers in the second row of this table. Can you
figure out what it is?
2. What would be the highest temperature reached by a meteor if it entered the
earth's atmosphere at a speed of 10 kilometers per second?

72 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 LESSON 2
The
Coordinate
Graph
"I really look forward to your cheery little visits."

According to the chart on the wall, this fellow's progress in the hospital
doesn't look very encouraging. What the doctor has been drawing each
day is called a coordinate graph. The patient's health is a function of
time, and this is evidendy what is being pictured on the graph.
The coordinate graph is one of the simplest, yet most useful, ideas in
all of mathematics. Invented in the seventeenth century by a French
mathematician and philosopher, Rene Descartes, it has been used in a
wide variety of applications ever since.
To construct a coordinate graph, we begin by drawing two perpen-
dicular lines as shown in the figure at the right. The two lines are labeled
with letters, usually x and y as shown, and are called the axes of the
graph. The horizontal line is ordinarily called the x-axis and the vertical
line is called the y-axis. The point in which they intersect is labeled with
a capital O and is called the origin. The axes continue indefinitely in
each direction from the origin.
 y Each axis is numbered like a ruler, beginning with zero at the origin.
5 To locate a point, such as the one named P at the left, we move along the
4

: f
.v-axis until we are directly below the point, counting the units as we go.
3 Then we move directly up to the point itself, again counting the units
2
along the way. The location of the point is given by these two numbers,
7
which are called its coordinates. They are written in parentheses and
O 7 2 3 4 5 separated by a comma like this: (3, 2). The .v-coordinate is always given
first, because we always move in the direction of the x-axis first.
Because a function can be represented by pairs of numbers in a table,
these pairs of numbers can be used as coordinates of points to make a
picture called the graph of the function. For example, to graph the
function represented by this table,

we plot the points (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6), and (5, 7). (Writing the table
in columns rather than rows, as has been done at the left, c)
makes the
paired numbers easier to read.) The numbers in the table follow a
simple pattern, which means that the points in the graph also form a
simple pattern.
b)

Exercises

Set I
1. Write another expression equivalent to each these rectangles. The expression inside each
of the following. rectangle represents its area.
a) n+n+n+n+n p
b) nnnnn X

X P
d)c)7-7^4 2
2. Find the missing dimension for each of

74 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

3. Write an expression for each of the c) Add the squares of a and b.
following sets of operations. d) Add a and b and then square the result.
a) Multiply x by 4 and then subtract 9.
b) Subtract 9 from x and then multiply by 4.

Set II
4. Write the coordinates of each of the seven b) How many points are included in the
table?
points in this graph (including the origin)
that is named with a letter. c) Graph the function by drawing a pair of
axes and plotting these points.
d) What do you notice about the points?
y
10 - »A
•C
•B
•D

5<-F

5. On graph paper, draw a separate pair of axes Figure 1 Figure 2

extending 8 units in each direction from the 1. A certain function has the graph shown in
origin for each part of this exercise. Connect Figure 1, above.
the points with straight line segments in the a) Copy and complete the following table
order given to form each geometric figure. for this function.
a) Right triangle: (2, 1), (2, 7), (6, 1), and
x 0 1 2 3 4
(2, 1).
b) Trapezoid: (3, 6), (7, 6), (8, 3), (1, 3), and v 4 1111 III 1111 ill
(3, 6).
b) What is a formula for this function?
6. A certain function is represented by this
table of numbers. 8. A certain function has the graph shown in
Figure 2, above.
1 2 a) Copy and complete the following table
2 4 for this function.

a) What is a formula for this function? x 0 1 2 3 4

Begin your formula with y =. v 111! 1111 111 11111 Hi

Lesson 2: The Coordinate Graph 75

 b) What is a formula for this function? 10. A function has the formula y = 3x — 2.
a) Copy and complete the following table
9. A function has the formula y = 8 — x. for this function.
a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.

x 0 2 4 6 8
v 8 II iilll
b) Graph the function.
b) Graph the function.

Set III
11. The coordinate graph makes it possible to 13. A certain function is represented by this
study a geometric figure by means of table of numbers.
numbers because each point of the figure can
1 2 3
be located by a pair of numbers.
1 4 9
y
a) What is a formula for this function?
Begin your formula withy =.
w - b) How many points are included in the
table?
c) Graph the function by drawing a pair of
axes and plotting these points.

14. A certain function has the graph shown in

the figure below.

This graph shows a circle whose center is

the point (5, 5). What are the coordinates of
each point on the circle that is identified by
a letter?

12. On graph paper, draw a separate pair of axes

extending 8 units in each direction from the
origin for each part of this exercise. Connect a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
the points with straight line segments in the
order given to form each geometric figure. x 1 2 3
a) Kite: (3, 5), (5, 7), (7, 5), (5, 1), and (3, 5).
v 0
b) Rectangle: (2, 1), (8, 3), (7, 6). (1, 4), and
(2, 1). b) What is a formula for this function?

76 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

15. A certain function has the graph shown in 16. A function has the formula jy = 2x — 3.
the figure below. a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.

x 2 3 4 5 6

y 1 11111 111 1111 Hill!

b) Graph the function.

a) Copy and complete the following table

a) Copy and complete the following table for this function.
for this function.
0 2 4 6
0 III!
4 ■III 1111 111 111
111
b) Graph the function.
b) What is a formula for this function?

Set IV
This exercise requires care and patience but Set 2: (11,2.5), (11, 1), (10, 1), (9,0.5), (9,0),
gives an interesting result. Draw a pair of axes (12, 0), (12, 2.5), (13, 1), (14, 1), (13, 2),
extending 15 units in each direction. Connect the and (13, 2.5).
points in each set in order with straight line Set 3: (4.5, 4), (3, 6), (2, 6), (1, 5.5), (0, 4), and
segments. After you have connected the points in
one set, start all over again with the next. In Set 4: (4,
(10, 3).
8), (10, 10), (11.5, 11), and (12, 12).
other words, do not connect the last point in each Set 5: (7, 2.5), (7, 1), (5, 1), (4, 0.5), (4, 0),
set to the first point in the next one. (8, 0), and (8, 2.5).
Set 6: (4, 3), (6, 7), (8, 8), (11, 8), (12, 7),
Set 1: (9, 8), (9.5, 10), (8, 11), (9, 12), (9, 13),
(14, 3), (13, 2.5), (7, 2.5), and (4, 3).
(7, 13), (8.5,14.5), (10, 14), (11, 14.5),
(10, 12), (11, 12), (12, 13), (13, 12), and To finish the figure, draw a large dot at (2, 5)
(12, 10). and another large dot at (9, 14).

Lesson 2: The Coordinate Graph 77

 LESSON 3
More on
Functions

Roger Bannister was the first person to run the mile in less than four minutes.
He did it in 1954 with a time of 3:59.
The table at the left shows how the record for the mile has changed in the past
century. To picture the change, we can plot points corresponding to the pairs of
numbers in the table on a graph. A graph in which the years and record times
Record
time are the respective x- and ^'-coordinates of the points is shown at the top of the
Year next page.
1870 4:29 In Lesson 1, we defined the word function in the following way.
1880 4:23
1890 4:18 ► A function is a pairing of two sets of numbers so that to each number in the first
1900 4:16
set there corresponds exactly one number in the second set.
1910 4:16
1920 4:13
4:10
In our example., the first set of numbers is a set of years from 1870 to 1970 and
1930
4:06
the second set of numbers is the set of record times for those years. The record
1940
1950 4:01 time for the mile is a function of the year because to each year there corresponds
1960 3:55 exactly one record time.
1970 3:51 If the two columns of numbers in the table at the left were interchanged as
shown in the table at the top of the next page, the new pairing of the numbers
would not be a function because to the record time of 4: 16 there corresponds two
years.. 1900 and 1910.
A convenient way to represent a function is with a formula. Not all functions
have formulas., however. The relationship between the year and the record time
 Record
tunc Year
4:29 1870 25
1880
30
20
4:23
1890
4: 15
4:18 ■1900 •§4-
*4. 10
4:16
4:16 1910
Si 4:
4:13 1920 05
4:10 1930 3 00
4:06 1940 3 55
4:01 1950 50 oooooooooop
3:55 1960
3:51 1970
Year

for the mile, for example, is too complicated to have a simple formula. And,
even if we were able to write a formula for it, there would be no reason to expect
it to work in the future.
For a function that does have a formula, it is often useful to be able to graph
that function. The most obvious way to do this is to
1. use the formula to make a table and
2. use the table to graph the function.
Here is an example.

EXAMPLE

Graph the function y = 9 — x2.

SOLUTION
First, we make a table of some numbers.

Next, we plot the points whose coordinates

are the numbers in the table: (0, 9), (1, 8),
(2, 5), and (3, 0), as shown in the figure at the
right. The points do not lie on a straight line.
Whenever this is the case, we will assume that
they lie on a smooth curve.* We finish the
graph by sketching in the curve.

* All of the formulas that we study in this c e will have graphs that are either straight lir
r smooth curves.

Lesson 3: More on Functions

Exercises
Set I
1. Tell whether or not the expressions in each 3. One of the world's largest roller coasters,
of the following pairs are equal. called "The Great American Scream
a) (9 + 4) + 3 and 9 + (4 + 3) Machine," is in Atlanta, Georgia.
a) If it has x cars, each of which can hold
b) (9 - 4) + 3 and 9 - (4 + 3)
c) (9 + 4) - 3 and 9 + (4 - 3) six people, how many people can ride on
it at one time?
d) (9 - 4) - 3 and 9 - (4 - 3)
b) If 24 people went for a ride on it and .v
2. Use the distributive rule to write an
of them fell off, how many people would
expression equivalent to each of the be left at the end of the trip?
following.
a) 3(.v + y) c) .v(2 - x)
V) (x- 7)5 d) (y+ \)y2

Set II

4. A certain function has the graph shown at

the right.
a) Make a table for this function.
b) Write a formula for it. Begin your
formula with y = .

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

5. The graph shown at the right is not the
graph of a function because to each value of
x there does not correspond exactly one
value of j'. '
a) For which value of x are there two values
of v?
b) What are they?

6. Which of the following graphs represent functions?

7. Make a table of numbers for each of the

following functions and graph each function.
In each case, connect the points with a
smooth line or curve.
a) y = x, letting x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
b) y = x + 2, letting x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
c) y = 2x, letting x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
d) y = 2x - 1, letting x = 1, 2, 3, and 4.
e) y = x2, letting x = 0, 1, 2, and 3.
letting x = 0, 3, 6, and 9.
0>' =

h) _y = — , letting ; 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Lesson 3: More on Functions

Set III y
8. A certain function has the graph shown in
Figure 1.
a) Make a table for this function.
b) Write a formula for it. Figure 1

9. The graph shown in Figure 2 is not the

graph of a function because to each value of
x there does not correspond exactly one
value of v.

a
5 * y
a) For which value of x are there two values
ofy?
b) What are they? Figure 2
5-

10. Which of the following graphs represent functions?

?
11. Make a table of numbers for each of the
d) v = x3, letting x = 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2.
following functions and graph each function. e) y = 2x + 1, letting .v = 0, 1, 2, and 3.
In each case, connect the points with a f) v = -v2 + 1, letting x = 0, 1, 2, and 3.
smooth line or curve.

a) v = x + 3, letting x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. g) 3> = -j a letting .v = 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8.

b) y = 3.v, letting x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
h) v = — , letting x = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
c) y = 3x - 2, letting x = 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

Set IV
A musician once drew a picture of part of the New York skyline on a sheet of
graph paper and translated the result into music!

THE SCHILLINGER SYSTEM OF MUSICAL COMPOSITION

by JOSEPH SCHILLINGER

CARL FISCHER. Inc.^

If just the outline of the buildings were considered, as illustrated in the sketch
below, it would not be the graph of a function.

1. Why not?
2. Can you figure out what to remove from the graph so that it does represent i
function? If you can, do it.

Lesson 3: More on Functions 83

 LESSON 4
Direct Variation

At any given time during the day, the length of an objects shadow depends on
its height. Here is a table showing the heights of some different objects and the
lengths of their shadows at a certain time in the afternoon.

Height of object in feet 1 3

Length of shadow in feet 1.5 4.5

Because to each height there corresponds exacdy one shadow length, this is
the table of a function. It is easy to see that the two variables in this function,
height and shadow length, vary in the same way. If the height is doubled, for
example, then the shadow length is also doubled. If the height is tripled, then
the shadow length is tripled, and so on.
Because of this, the two variables are said to vary directly and the function
relating them is called a direct variation. The numbers in the table for this

"shadow" function have a simple pattern, and so the function can also be
represented by a formula. In each case, the length of the shadow is 1.5 times the
height of the object. Letting x represent the height and v represent the shadow
length, we can write

1.5.V
 If the six points in our table are located on a graph (as shown at the left
below), they seem to lie along a straight line. It is possible to prove that every
point whose coordinates fit the formula y — 1.5* lies on this line. Moreover,
every point on the line has coordinates that fit the formula. Because of this, we
can draw the line through the points and refer to it as the graph of the function.
-/-
y

■ — 1> w-
7
/
n/
The graph of y = 1.5x.

The formula and line give a much more complete picture of the function than
do the original table and six points. For example, from the formula we see that,
if x = 0, then y = 1.5(0) = 0. This means that the point (0, 0) is part of the
graph; the line intersects the axes at the origin.

► In general, a direct variation is a function that has an equation of the form

y = ax
in which a is a fixed number other than zero.

The number a is called the constant of variation. In the example of the

"shadow" function, the constant of variation is 1.5. The graph of every direct
variation is a straight line that intersects the origin.

Lesson 4: Direct Variation

Exercises
Set I
Figi
1. Which figure below illustrates each of the expressions in parts a through d?
jreo 2 o

00 o o
Figure 1 o o

O0 o 0
O 0

0O O o
O O
O O
a) 2-42 o o o o
O O

0O O o
b) 22 • 4 O O

c) (2 + 4)2 o o
d) 22 + 42 O
O O
O O O O O
O O O O
oooo oooo
oooo oooo F|sure 4 0o o ooo
ooooo
Figure 3 oooo oooo
oooo oooo
oo o
o oooo
oooo

2. Guess a formula for the function represented

by each of these tables. Begin each formula
with y = . 3. Miss Brooks, an English teacher at Madison
High, has 120 papers to grade.
2 3 4 5 6
a) x a) If it takes her x minutes to read each
y 4 3 2 1 0
one, how long will it take her to read the
1 2 3 4 5 entire set?
b)x 11 31
y 21 41 51 b) If she has finished grading v papers, how
0 1 2 3 4 many does she still have to read?
c) X
y 0 1 8 27 64

Set II
4. The graph of a certain function is shown here.

a) Copy and complete the following table

for this function.

x 0 1 2 3
y 111 111 11111 111

b) What happens to y if x is tripled?

c) What kind of function is this?
d) Write a formula for the function.
e) Use your formula to find the value of y
when x = 7.

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

5. The following table represents a direct
variation. b) y = 3x
12 Willi c) yGraph
d) = 4x all three functions on one pair of
axes. Write each equation along its line.
75
111 15 e) What are the constants of variation for
these functions?
a) Copy and complete the table.
f ) Which line is the steepest?
b) By what number do the .v-numbers have
g) How are the constants of variation related
to be multiplied in order to get the
to the steepness of the lines?
corresponding v-numbers?
c) Write a formula for the function. 9. The height that a ball bounces varies
6. A direct variation is a function that has an directly with the height from which it is
dropped. A formula for this function for a
equation of the form y = ax. certain rubber ball is
a) If x = 0 in this equation, what can we
conclude about v?
b) Why? y = 0.5x
c) What are the coordinates of the point for in which x represents the height from which
which x = 0? the ball is dropped in centimeters and y
d) What does this indicate about the line represents the height of the bounce in
that is the graph of a direct variation? centimeters.
a) If the rubber ball is dropped from a
7. Tell whether the function represented by
height of 150 centimeters, how high does
each of the following tables is a direct it bounce?
variation.
b) If the ball bounces 120 centimeters, from
a) x 1 2 3 4 5 what height was it dropped?
y 1 2 3 4 5 c) How is the constant of variation in this
b) x 0 1 2 3 4 formula related to the "bounciness" of
the ball?
y 3 4 5 6 7
d) Do you think the constant of variation in
c) x 2 4 6 8 10 the formula for a bouncing ball could be
y 1 2 3 4 5 larger than 1? Explain.
d) x 0 1 2 3 4
y 4 4 4 4 4
e) x 1 2 3 6 10. The number of revolutions that a 45 rpm
j 6 3 2 1 record makes as it is being played varies
8. The graph of every direct variation is a directly with the time that it is on the
straight line. The position of the line is turntable.
determined by the constant of variation. a) Write a formula for this function, letting
Make a table for each of the following direct x represent the number of minutes and y
variations. Let x = 0, 1, 2, and 3 in each represent the number of revolutions.
table. b) Describe, without drawing it, what the
a) y = 2x graph of this function would look like.

Lesson 4: Direct Variatio

Set III
11. The graph of a certain function is shown and explain why you believe as you do.
here. a) The distance of a star and the time it
takes its light to reach us.
b) The weight of a cat and its age.
c) The number of cooks and the time
needed to make the soup.
d) The number of empty Coke bottles
returned to the market and the amount of
the refund.

14. Tell whether the function represented by

each of the following tables is a direct
variation.

0 1 2 3 4
y 0 4 8 12 16
a) x
1 3 5 7 9
b)xy 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4
a) Copy and complete the following table y 7 7 7 7 7
for this function. C) X
3 6 9 12 15
2 4 6 8 10
a- 0 1 2 3 4 d) yx
y 111 111 111 1111 111 1 2 3 4 5
y 5 4 3 2 1
b) What happens to y if x is doubled? e) x
c) What kind of function is this? . Each of the lines shown at the top of the
d) Write a formula for the function. next page is the graph of a direct variation.
Write a formula for
e) Use your formula to find the value of y
when .v = 10.
a) line 1.
12. The following table represents a direct b) line 2.
variation. c) line 3.
d) line 4.
x 2 4 6 11 111 e) What are the constants of variation for
these functions?
y 7 1111 HI! 42 63
f ) What line is the steepest?
a) Copy and complete the table. g) How are the constants of variation related
b) By what number do the x-numbers have to the steepness of the lines?
to be multiplied in order to get the
corresponding _y-numbers?
c) Write a formula for the function.
13. Tell whether you think the quantities in each
of the following relationships vary directly

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

16. The volume of a balloon varies directly with centimeters, what is the temperature?
the temperature in degrees Kelvin of the air c) How is the constant of variation in this
inside it. A formula for this function for a formula related to the size of the balloon?
certain balloon is
The price of Mrs. See's chocolates varies
directly with the weight. One pound costs
y = 2x
in which x represents the temperature in $3.50.
a) Write a formula for this function, letting
degrees Kelvin and y represents the volume x represent the number of pounds bought
of the balloon in cubic centimeters. and y represent the price in dollars.
a) If the temperature is 300 degrees Kelvin, b) Describe, without drawing it, what the
what is the volume of the balloon? graph of this function would look like.
b) If the volume of the balloon is 500 cubic

Set IV
Pacific Stereo sells Maxell UD-90 cassette tape
according to the price scale shown in this graph.
1 . If it were not for the last three points, this $30
would be the graph of a direct variation. Why
do you suppose they are not along the same
line as the other points?
\$20
2. Explain why it would not be a good idea to
buy eleven cassettes.
I $10
O 5 10
Number of cassettes

Lesson 4: Direct Variation

 LESSON 5
Linear
Functions

The deepest mine in the world, located in Carltonville, South Africa, extends
more than two miles below the earth's surface. The walls of the mine are so hot
at the bottom that refrigerated air has to be pumped into it to make it possible
for the miners to work.
The temperature inside the earth is a function of the depth below the surface.
Geophysicists have found that, within the earth's crust, it increases steadily as
the depth increases. Near the surface, the temperature is about 20 °C; it increases
at the rate of 10 degrees for each kilometer of depth. A table for this function,
along with a graph, are shown below.

Depth in 0 1 2 3 4
kilometers
Temperature 20 30 40 50 60

in °C
Because the graph of the function is a straight line, the function is called
linear. Although direct variations are linear functions, this one is not a direct
variation. As the depth is doubled, the temperature is not doubled: the temper-
 ature at a depth of 2 kilometers, 40 °C, for 60 ~
example, is not twice the temperature at a
depth of 1 kilometer, 30 °C. Furthermore,
the graph does not intersect the origin
because the temperature at a depth of 0
o 50
kilometers is not 0°C.
If we let x represent the depth and y
represent the temperature, the formula for a
this function is
ft -
1030
S |20
y = lOx + 20

The fact that its graph is a straight line 12 3 4

does not depend on the specific numbers Depth in kilometers
in its equation, but rather on the pattern of
the equation. The pattern is: "y is equal to
the sum of some number times x and some
number."
Another function whose equation has
the same pattern is

Its graph, shown at the right, is also a

straight line.

► In general, a linear function is a function

that has an equation of the form

y = ax + b
The graph of y = —x + 5.
in which a and b are constant numbers.

The graph of every linear function is a

straight line.

Lesson 5: Linear Function1

 Exercises

Set I
1. What is the length marked with a question
mark in each of these figures? 2. There are two pints in a quart and four
quarts in a gallon.
a) How many pints are there in x quarts?
b) How many quarts are there in x gallons?
c) How many pints are there in x gallons?
3. Tell, by evaluating both sides of each
equation, whether it is true or false.

a) 32 + 4- = 52
b) 33 + 43 + 53 = 63
C) 34 + 44 + 54 + 64 = 74

Set I
4. If a function is linear, it has an equation of 5. By doing exercise 4, you found out how the
position of the line that is the graph of
the form y = ax + b, in which a and b are
constant numbers. These numbers determine
the position of the line that is the graph of y = ax + b
the function. changes as b changes. By doing this exercise,
Make a table for each of the following you will see the effect of changing a.
linear functions, letting x = 0. 1,2. and 3 Make a table for each of the following
in each table. linear functions. Let x = 0, 1. 2. and 3 in
each table.
a) y = x + 2
a) v = 2.v - 1
b) y = a- - 4
c) y = x + 7 b) y = 3.v - 1
d) Graph the three functions on one pair of d)
c) yGraph
= 4.v the
- 1three functions on one pair of
axes. Write each equation along its line. axes. Write each equation along its line.
e) What do you notice about the lines?
e) \\"hat do you notice about the lines?
f) Where does each line meet the v-axis? f) Where does each line meet the v-axis?
g) Where do you think the graph of the g) Where do you think the graph of the
equation y = x + 10 would meet the y- equation y = lO.v + 1 would meet the y-
axis? axis?

92 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

6. A function has the formula y = Ox + 5. b) What kind of function is this?
a) Make a table for this function, letting c) Does the perimeter of a rectangle whose
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. width is 3 vary directly with its length?
b) Graph the function.
Spring scales work on the-Ocm
principle that, if a
c) What do you notice about the graph?
weight is hung from one end of a spring, the
d) What is a simpler formula for the - 10
function?
-30
7. There is a connection between the equation
for a linear function, y = ax + b, and its
table if we let x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and so forth.
For example, compare the equation
y — 3x + 5 and the table

LX
a) In what way does the number 3 (a in the
equation) appear in the table? total length of the spring is a function of the
b) Where does the number 5 (b in the amount of the weight. The equation for a
equation) appear in the table? certain spring is
Use your answers to parts a and b to
discover equations for the linear functions y = 0.5x + 20
having the following tables.
0 1 2 3 in which x is the weight in grams and y is
C) X
8 10 12 14 the length of the spring in centimeters,
y
a) Copy and complete the following table
d)x 0 1 2 3 for this function.
y 1 8 15 22
0 1 2 3 0 12 3
e) x 11111 11111 111 Hill
y 6 10 14 18
f)x 0 1 2 3
b) How long is the spring if no weight is
y 4 10 16 22 attached to it?
. The perimeter of a rectangle whose width is c) How much is the spring stretched if a
3 is a function of its length. weight of one gram is hung from it?
d) How long would the spring be if a
weight of 20 grams were hung from it?

a) Write a formula for this function, letting

y represent the perimeter of the rectangle
and x represent its length.

Lesson 5: Linear Functions

 Set III 12. A function has the formula y — O.v — 2.
10. If a function is linear, it has an equation of a) Make a table for this function, letting
.v = 0. 1. 2. 3. and 4.
the form y = a.x — b. in which a and b are
constant numbers. These numbers determine b) Graph the function.
c) What do you notice about the graph?
the position of the line that is the graph of
the function. d) What is a simpler formula for the
function?
Make a table for each of the following
linear functions, letting x = 0. 1. 2. and 3 in 13. There is a connection between the equation
each table. for a linear function, y = ax + b, and its
table if we let x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and so forth.
a) v = 2x - 1
For example, compare the equation
b) v = 2.x - 4
y = 4.v + 7 and the table
c) v = 2x - 5
d) Graph the three functions on one pair of
axes. Write each equation along its line. v 15
e) What do you notice about the lines?
a) In what way does the number 4, a in the
f ) WTiere does each line meet the v-axis?
g) Where do you think that the graph of the equation, appear in the table?
b) Where does the number 7, b in the
equation y = 2.x + 8 would meet the v-
axis? equation, appear in the table?
Use your answers to parts a and b to
discover equations for the linear functions
11. By doing exercise 10, you found out how having the following tables.
the position of the line that is the graph of 0 1 2 3
c) x 2 8 14 20
0 1 2 3
1 4 7
changes as b changes. By doing this exercise,
d).x 0 1 2
you will see the effect of changing a. 103
Make a table for each of the following 9 14 19
linear functions., letting x = 0, 1. 2. and 3 in 0 1 2 243
each table. 5 14 23 32
f).v
a) v = l.v - 3 14. The perimeter of an isosceles triangle whose
b) v = 2.x - 3 base is 5 is a function of the length of one
c) v = 3.v - 3
of its equal sides.
d) Graph the three functions on one pair of
axes. Write each equation along its line.
e) What do you notice about the lines?
f ) Where does each line meet the v-axis?
g) Where do you think that the graph of the
equation y = 7x — 3 would meet the v-
axis?

94 Chapter 2: FLSCTIOSS AND GRAPHS

 a) Write a formula for this function, letting a) Copy and complete the following table
y represent the perimeter of the triangle for this function.
and x represent the length of one of its 0.5
equal sides.
b) What kind of function is this?
c) Does the perimeter of an isosceles
triangle whose base is 5 vary directly b) Write a formula for this function.
with the length of one of its equal sides? c) Do an employee's weekly earnings vary
directly with the number of weeks he has
15. Mr. Scrooge pays his employees a starting been working?
salary of $80 per week with weekly raises of d) How much money would someone earn
50 cents. As a result, the number of dollars during the 50th week that he works for
one of his employees earns in a week, y, is a Mr. Scrooge?
function of the number of weeks he has
been working, x.

Set IV
The speed at which a certain ant travels is a
function of the temperature. This table shows
how the two variables are related.

Speed of ant in
centimeters 2 3 4 5
per second
Temperature 16 22 28 34
in °C
1. Can you figure out a formula for this
function? (Let x represent the speed of the
ant and y represent the temperature.)
2. How cold must it be for the ant to stay
home?

Lesson 5: Linear Functions

 "But I couldn't have been going 70 miles an hour!
LESSON 6 I only left home 20 minutes ago!"

Inverse Variation

The time that it takes someone to drive a certain distance is a function of the
speed at which he or she drives. The faster the speed, the shorter the time.
Suppose, for example, that the young man in this cartoon wants to travel 120
miles. The times that the trip would take at several different speeds are shown in
this table.

Average speed in mph 20 40 50

Time the trip takes in hours 6 4
30 3
2.4

As one of the variables in this function increases, the other decreases. More
specifically, if the average speed is doubled, the time the trip takes is halved. For
example, if the average speed changes from 30 to 60 miles per hour, then the
time the trip takes changes from 4 hours to 2 hours. If the speed were tripled,
the time would be divided by three, and so on.
Two variables that change in this way are said to vary inversely and the
function relating them is called an inverse variation. The time of the trip in this
"driving speed" function is found by dividing the distance, 120 miles, by the
 average speed. If we let x represent the average speed and y represent the time,
we can write
120

What would a graph of this function look like? The graph shown in Figure 1
(below) includes the seven points represented in the table. It is evident that they
do not lie on a straight line. If we use the equation to figure out additional
points, such as (25, 4.8), (35, 3.4), (90, 1.3), and (100, 1.2), and join them with
the others to make a smooth curve, we get the graph shown in Figure 2. As they
do for the other functions that we have studied, the equation and curve give a
much more complete picture than do the original table and seven points.

► In general, an inverse variation is a function that has an equation of the form

in which a is a constant number other than zero.

The number a is called the constant of variation. The graph of every inverse
variation is a curve.

Figure 1 Figure 2
- •

5: 3

50 100 50 100
Speed in mph The graph of y= HQ

Lesson 6: Inverse Variation

Exercises
Set I
1 . Write an expression for each of the c) What are the pairs of numbers used to
following. locate points on a graph called?
a) The number that is four less than x. Sir Isaac Newton, who was once Master of
b) Twice the sum of x and five. the Mint in England, assumed that, if the
c) The difference between the cube of x amount of money in circulation is doubled,
and one.
then prices will also double.
2. A convenient way to picture a function is a) If this is true, how do these two
with a graph. quantities vary with respect to each other?
a) What are the two lines labeled x and y b) What would a graph of such a function
called? look like?
b) What is the point at which these lines
intersect called?

Set II
4. The graph of a certain function is shown
below.
b) What happens to y if x is tripled?
c) What kind of function is this?
d) Write a formula for the function.
e) Use your formula to find the value of v
when x = 10.
5. The following table represents an inverse
variation.
x 2 4 6 1111 1111
y 30 111 llll 5 3

a) Copy and complete the table.

b) Into what number do the x-numbers have
to be divided in order to get the
corresponding jy>-numbers?
c) Write a formula for the function.
a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function. 6. An inverse variation is a function that has an
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 equation of the form y = — .
y Bill 111 11111 11111 2.4 1111 a) Write the equation that you would have if

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 x were replaced by 1 and the result were 9. Each of these drawings contains the same
simplified. number of circles.
b) What number cannot replace x in the

equation y = —x ? oooooooooooo
oooooooooooo
c) Why not?
d) Can the curve that is the graph of an
oooooooo
o o o o
inverse variation touch the jy-axis?
oooooooo o o o o
oooooooo o o o o
7. Tell whether the function represented by
each of the following tables is an inverse
o o o o
variation.
o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o
1 2 3 4 o o o o o o
a) x
y 24 12 8 6 o o o o o o
0 1 2 3 4 o o o o o o
b) x
y 10 9 8 7 6
1 2 3 4 5
C) X a) The number of rows is a function of the
y 32 16 8 4 2 number of circles in each row. Write a
2 3 5 6 formula for this function, letting x
d)x
y 15 10 6 5 represent the number of circles in each
0 1 2 3 4 row and y represent the number of rows.
e) x b) What is the constant of variation for this
y 25 16 9 4 1
function?
The graph of every inverse variation is a c) How do x and y vary with respect to
each other?
curve. The shape and position of the curve
are determined by the constant of variation. 10. The time that it takes to run the 100-meter
Make a table for each of the following dash varies inversely with the speed of the
inverse variations, letting x = 1, 2, 3, 4, and runner.
5 in each table.
a) Copy and complete the following table
■>,=4 for this "100-meter dash" function.

Average speed in 2
meters per second
b)y = Time in seconds 11111
10
c) y- b) Write a formula for this function, letting
d) Graph all three functions on one pair of t represent the time and s represent the
axes. Write each equation along its curve. average speed.
e) What are the constants of variation for c) In 1977, the women's world record time
these functions? for the 100-meter dash, held by Marlies
f ) How are the constants of variation related Oelsner of East Germany, was 10.88
to the distances of the curves from the seconds. What can you conclude about
origin? her average speed?

Lesson 6: Inverse Variation

Set III 13. Tell whether you think that the quantities in
1 1 . The graph of a certain function is shown each of the following relationships vary-
here. inversely and explain why you believe as

youA do.
a) person's age and the length of his or
her attention span.
b) The time required to swim across a lake
and the rate at which you swim.
c) The number of kilograms of sugar you
can buy for S10 and the price of one
kilogram.
d) The number of dogs pulling a sled and
the speed at which it goes.
14. Tell whether the function represented by
each of the following tables is an inverse
variation.
1 2 3 4
) Copy and complete the following table 30 20 15
for this function. 600 1 2 3 4
8 7 6 5 4
b).v 1 2 3 4 5
16 8 4 2 1
2 3 6 18
b) What happens to v if x is doubled? 9 6 3 1
c) What kind of function is this? 1 2 3 4 5
d) Write a formula for the function. 9 3 1
e) Use your formula to find the value of v 81 27
when x = 20. 15. The graph of even- inverse variation is a
curve. The shape and position of the curve
12. The following table represents an inverse vari- are determined by the constant of variation.
ation.
Make a table for each of the following
2 4 6 ■ ■ inverse variations, letting x = 1. 2, 3. 4. and
5 in each table.
v 24 ■ 4 3

a) Copy and complete the table.

b) Into what number do the x-numbers have
to be divided in order to get the
corresponding v-numbers?
c) Write a formula for the function.

Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS ASD GRAPHS

 d) Graph all three functions on one pair of a) The width of each rectangle is a function
axes. Write each equation along its curve. of its length. Write a formula for this
e) What are the constants of variation for function, letting x represent the length
these functions? and y represent the width.
f ) How are the constants of variation related b) What is the constant of variation for this
to the distances of the curves from the function?
origin? c) How do x and y vary with respect to
each other?
16. Each of these rectangles has the same area.
17. The number of times that a wheel revolves
in rolling one kilometer varies inversely with
its diameter. If the wheel's diameter is
measured in meters, the constant of variation
for this function is approximately 318.
a) Write a formula for this function, letting
d represent the diameter of the wheel in
meters and n represent the number of
revolutions it makes in rolling one
kilometer.
b) If a wheel has a diameter of 0.5 meter,
how many times does it revolve in rolling
one kilometer?

Lesson f>: Inverse Variation

 Set IV
A lever can be used to move a heavy object with
a small force. Suppose that a rock having a mass
of 600 kilograms is located one centimeter from
the pivot point of a lever. The rock can be

moved by a force of only 6 kilograms if the

force is applied 100 centimeters from the other
side of the pivot.
1. Given that the force required to move the
rock varies inversely with the distance it is
applied from the other side of the pivot, can
you write a formula for this function? Let d
represent the distance in centimeters from
the pivot and / represent the force in
kilograms.
2. If B.C. wants to move the rock described
above by pushing at a point 80 centimeters
from the pivot, how much force would he
have to exert?

102 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have become acquainted with the idea of a function and have
learned how several types of functions can be pictured with coordinate graphs.

Functions (Lessons 1 and 3) A function is a pairing of two sets of numbers so

that to each number in the first set there corresponds exactly one number in the
second set. A function can be represented by a table, by a formula, or by a
coordinate graph.

The Coordinate Graph (Lesson 2) A coordinate graph contains two perpen-

dicular lines called axes that intersect in a point called the origin. Points are
located on such a graph by means of pairs of numbers called coordinates. To
graph a function when given its formula, first use the formula to make a table
and then use the table to graph it.

Direct Variation (Lesson 4) A direct variation is a function that has an

equation of the form y = ax, in which a is a constant number other than zero.
The number a is called the constant of variation. The graph of every direct
variation is a straight line that intersects the origin.

Linear Functions (Lesson 5) A linear function is a function that has an

equation of the form y = ax + b, in which a and b are constant numbers. The
graph of even- linear function is a straight line.

Inverse Variation (Lesson 6) An inverse variation is a function that has an

equation of the form y = — , in which a, the constant of variation, is a number
other than zero. The graph of every inverse variation is a curve.
 Exercises

Set I 4. Guess a formula for the function represented

1 . Draw a pair of axes extending 8 units in by each of these tables. Begin each formula
each direction from the origin. Connect the with y = .
6 7 8 9 10
points in the following list with straight line
1 2 3 4 5
segments in the order given to form a
2 3 4 5 6
square. 3 5 7 9 11
(2, 1) (6, 3) (4, 7) (0, 5) (2, 1) 0 3 6 9 12
0 1 2 3 4
2. Copy and complete the tables for the
following functions. 2 4 6 8 10
101
5 17 37 65
a Formula 7 -x d)x
Table:
5. The graph of a certain function is shown
X 1 2 here.
y ■ y -111!!

b Formula: .V3 + 1
Table:

y =

c) Formula: v = x(x - 4)
Table:
a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
x 4
y
Ill
3. Read the following statements carefully and
tell whether each is true or false. b) What happens to y if x is tripled?
c) What kind of function is this?
a) In an inverse variation, if one variable is
doubled, then the other is halved. d) Write a formula for the function.
e) Use your formula to find the value of v
b) If one of the coordinates of a point is when x = 30.
zero, the point lies on one of the axes.
c) All linear functions are direct variations. 6. Make a table of numbers for each of these
d) The graph of even,- direct variation functions, letting x equal 1, 2, 3, and 4, and
intersects the origin.
graph each one.
e) The constant of variation for the function a) v = x - 1 . = 8
v = x is 0.
b) y = 2x + 3 '" x
104 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
 in which x represents his age and y
represents his height in feet,
a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.

12 16
Age in years, x
Height in feet, y
■II 111

b) Graph it.
c) For the ages graphed, this height function
seems to be linear. Do you think it would
be linear for ages less than 4 and more
than 16?

d) Does the fellow's height vary directly

with his age for the ages graphed?

7. When lightning strikes, the time interval

between the flash that you see and the
thunder that you hear depends on the :i'ji"
distance that you are from where the
lightning struck.
A formula for this function is y = 3x, in
which x is the distance in kilometers and y
is the time interval in seconds.
a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.

x 1 2 3 4
y 1111 IIP ill! 111!
b) Graph it.
c) What type of function is it?
d) How long is the time interval between
the flash and the thunder if lightning
strikes 2.5 kilometers away?

8. A person's height is a function of his or her

age. A formula by which to find the height
of the fellow in this cartoon from age 4 to
age 16 might be

3
u going to do when vou grow up?"
y = -
Summary and Review 105
 9. The amount of heat lost through a Thickness ,
....x
in millimeters, 3 4. :> 6
window-pane depends on how thick the glass
is. A formula for this function for a certain Units of heat lost, y
window is

b) Graph it.
._ 12 c) How do the thickness and units of heat
in which x represents the thickness of the lost van' with respect to each other?
d) As one of the two variables in this
pane in millimeters and y represents the function becomes very large, what
number of units of heat lost.
a) Copy and complete the following table happens to the other?
for this function.

Set II
1 . Draw a pair of axes extending 8 units in 3. Read the following statements carefully and
each direction from the origin. Connect the tell whether each is true or false.
points in the following list with straight line a) All direct variations are linear functions.
segments in the order given to form a b) The graph of even,- linear function
parallelogram. intersects the origin.
c) Every point on a coordinate graph is
(7, 5) (5, 2) (0, 1) (2, 4) (7, 5) located by a pair of numbers.
d) If one variable in a direct variation is
2. Copy and complete the tables for the
following functions. tripled, then so is the other.
e) If the graph of a function is a curved
a) Formula: v = 4.v — 1 line, it is an inverse variation.
Table:
1
4. Guess a formula for the functions
represented by each of these tables. Begin
b) Formula: y = x2 + 3.v each formula withy =.
Table:
3 4 5 6
x 0 1 2 3 4
■ ■ ■ a) yx 5 4 3 2 1
0 2 4 6 8
y 0 4 16 36
b)x
c) Formula: y = 2(.v + 5) 1 2 3 4 5
Table: 64
9 19 29 39
c) yX
x 1 2 3 4 5 4 6 8 10 12
y m m m ■ ■ y
d)x
6 9 12 15
49
18

106 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 Time
Height inofseconds 0 10 20 30 40
5. The graph of a certain function is shown water Q 5 1Q 15 20
below.
in inches

a) Write a formula for this function, letting

x represent the time in seconds and y
represent the height of the water in
inches.
b) How does the water height vary with
respect to the time?
'-^
c) What would a graph of this function look
like?

. The relative amount of gold in a ring is

measured in karats. A formula for this
function is

a) Copy and complete the following table

for this function. in which x represents the number of karats
and ring.
the y represents the percentage of gold in
0 4
111 ill a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
b) Is y doubled if x is doubled?
c) What kind of function is this? 0 6 18 24
d) Write a formula for the function. 1111 1111
e) Use your formula to find the value of y ■II
when x = 25. b) How many karats is a ring made of pure

c) Graph this function. (Let each unit on

6. Make a table of numbers for each of these the jy-axis represent a 10 percent change
functions, letting x equal 1, 2, 3, and 4, and gold?
in the amount of gold.)
graph each one. d) What type of function is it?
a) y = \.5x 9. The time that it takes a horse to run a race
b) y = 9 - 2x depends on how fast it runs. A typical
c) y = x2 + 1 formula for this function is

7. As a prank, Davy Jones's friends decided to

fill his gym locker with water, using a hose.
The table at the top of the next column in which x represents the horse's average
shows the height of water in the locker as a speed in meters per second and y represents
function of time. its time in seconds.

Summary and Review 107

 a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.

Speed in meters ,~ 14 16 18
per in
Time second, x y
seconds, 11111 ■III 11111
12.9

b) Graph it.
c) How do the horse's time and speed vary
with respect to each other?
d) Explain, mathematically, why we cannot
figure out the horse's time if its speed is
0 meters per second.

108 Chapter 2: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

 Chapter 3
THE INTEGERS
 LESSON 1

The Integers

Temperatures
on the Celsius scale

100 — -Water boils

The substance boiling in the kettle shown in this photograph is

T—-~ Body temperature
being heated by a block of dry ice! Dry ice is much colder than
I-*- Room temperature ordinary ice and usually has a temperature of 78 degrees below
0 — «- Water freezes zero on the Celsius scale. This is very hot, however, in com-
parison with the liquid in the kettle: it is liquid nitrogen and its
temperature is 196 degrees below zero!
These temperatures are shown on the scale at the left. The
Swedish astronomer who invented the Celsius scale assigned
L— Dry ice evaporates the number 0 to the temperature at which water freezes. Tem-
peratures warmer than 0°C are positive and temperatures
colder than 0°C are negative. For example, a person's normal
body temperature is +37 °C and the temperature at which dry
ice evaporates is -78 °C. Although the symbols for plus and
minus are used here, they do not mean to add or subtract. In-
stead, they indicate whether the temperature is above or below
zero on the Celsius scale and are read as positive and negative.
If we forget about the temperatures and turn such a scale
-200 — "*~~ Liquid nitrogen sideways so that the positive numbers are on the right, we get a
boils
scale called a number line (shown at the top of the next page).
 Larger

-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3+4 +5 +6 +7+8 +9 +10 ^

Smaller

The numbers shown above the line in this figure are called integers. As we read
from left to right along the line, the integers get larger. The integer +4. for
example, is larger than +3 because +4 is to the right of +3 on the line. The
number -4, on the other hand, is smaller than -3 because -4 is to the left of -3
on the line. The symbol for "is larger (or more) than" is >, and so "+4 is larger
than +3" can be written as "+4 > +3." Turn the symbol around and it means "is
smaller (or less) than." To show that -4 is smaller than -3, we write "-4 < -3."
The integers consist of three sets of numbers: the positive integers, which are
larger than zero; the negative integers, which are less than zero; and zero itself,
which is neither positive nor negative. Because the positive integers are the same
as the counting numbers with which even-one becomes familiar as a child, they
are usually written without the "positive" symbol: "+3" and "3," for example,
mean the same number.
Although we can't count with negative numbers, they are numbers nonethe-
less. Many measurements with respect to a reference point, such as distance
below sea level or time before a certain event, lend themselves to the use of
negative numbers. A good understanding of what negative numbers are and how
their presence affects calculations will be essential to our work in algebra; so we
will study their properties in several lessons.

Exercises

Set I
1. The number 25 • 92 is quite unusual. 3. Mehitabel catches three mice each day.
a) Find its value. a) At this rate, how many days would it
b) What do you notice? take her to catch x mice?
2. Find the value of b) How many mice would she catch in y
weeks?
(1 +xX2 + *X3 + *X4-x)if
a) .v = 1 c) What is the name for the variation of the
b) x = 2 total number of mice caught with the
total number of davs?
c) .v = 3
d) .v = 4

Lesson 1: The Integers 111

 Set I
4. What do the positive and negative numbers The number of the point midway between 2
mean in each of the following statements? and 8 is 5, as the figure below shows.
a) The melting point of mercury is -39 °C.
b) The elevation of the Caspian Sea is -29
meters. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
c) The Roman emperor Nero was born
in +37. Use the number line below to find the
number of the point midway between each
d) The class starts in -10 minutes. of the pairs of points in parts a through h.

-70-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

a) 0 and 6
5. The fact that +37 °C is a higher temperature b) 0 and -6
than +25 °C can be expressed in symbols as c) 1 and 9
+37 > +20. Use symbols to express the d) -1 and -9
number relationships in the following e) -2 and 2
statements.
f ) 7 and -7
a) An elevation of +12 meters is higher than g) -3
-5 and
and 53
an elevation of - 1 5 meters. h)
9. The distance between -3 and 1 is 4, as the
b) A temperature of -196° C is lower than a
temperature of -78 °C. figure below shows.
c) The number -3 is to the left of the
number +3 on a number line. -3 -2-7 0 1
d) The apparent weight of a helium balloon,
-22 grams, is more than the apparent Use the number line in exercise 8 to find the
weight of a hydrogen balloon, -24 grams. distance between each of the following pairs
6. Copy each of the following, replacing each of points.
11111 with either > or <. a) 2 and 7 e) -3 and 3
b) -2 and -7 f) -10 and 10
a) 4 Hi e) 5 11111-11
b) 0 111! 9 f) -1 1111 -6 c) 0 and 8 g) -6 and 1
d) 0 and -8 h) -1 and 6
c) 7 1111 -7 g) -12 Ulll 8
d) -3 1111 0 h) -10 111 -2 10. Write each of the following statements in
symbols, letting x represent the number.
7. The following questions are about these a) A certain number is less than zero.
numbers:
b) The square of a certain number is more
+1 _2 +3 -4 +5 -6 +7 -8 than five.
a) Which number is the largest? c) The sum of a certain number and one is
b) Which is the smallest? less than ten.
c) Arrange the numbers in order from d) The quotient of a certain number and
smallest to largest. two is more than eight.

112 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Set III
1 1. What do the positive and negative numbers
mean in each of the following statements? 15. The distance between -2 and 4 is 6, as the
a) The elevation of Mexico City is +2300 figure below shows.
meters.
b) The Greek scientist Archimedes died in
-212. -2-10 7 2 3 4
c) On September 3, 1929, the Dow Jones
industrial average changed -48 points. Use the number line below to find the
d) Mr. Micawber's net worth is -800 distance between each of the following pairs
dollars.
of points.

-70-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-7 0 1 23456789 10

a) 1 and 5 e) -2 and 2
12. The fact that an elevation of +48 meters is
b) -1 and -5 f ) -6 and 6
less than an elevation of +50 meters can be
c) 7 and 0
expressed in symbols as +48 < +50. Use d) -7 and 0 g) -8
h) -3 and
and 83
symbols to express the number relationships
in the following statements. 16. The number of the point midway between 3
and 1 1 is 7, as the figure below shows.
a) A temperature of + 1 5 " C is higher than a
temperature of -40 = C.
b) The number -8 is to the left of the 10 11
number 2 on a number line.
c) An elevation of 12 meters is more than Use the number line in exercise 15 to find
an elevation of -12 meters.
the number of the point midway between
d) In counting toward blast-off, the time -60 each of the following pairs of points.
seconds comes before the time -50
seconds. a) 0 and 8 e) 5 and -5
b) 0 and -8 f) -9 and 9
1 3. Copy each of the following, replacing each c) 3 and 7 g) -4 and 6
with either > or <. d) -3 and -7 h) -6 and 4
a) 2 8 d) -4 4 g) -10 1
b) 11 5 e) 7 -9 h) -12 -8 Write each of the following statements in
c) 0 -6 f) -1 -3 symbols, letting x represent the number.
a) A certain number is more than
14. The following questions are about these
numbers: negative two.
b) The cube of a certain number is less than
twenty.
0 _1 +2 -3 +4 -5 +6 -7
a) Which number is the smallest? c) The product of four and a certain
b) Which is the largest? number is more than one.
c) Arrange the numbers in order from d) The difference between a certain number
smallest to largest. and two is less than zero.

Lesson 1: The Integers 113

 Set IV
While hidden behind a billboard, Officer Krupke
sees three cars pass by in the following order: a
Mustang, a Cougar, and a Rabbit. He estimates
their respective speeds going east to be 55, -70,
and -75 miles per hour.
If the cars pass by Officer Krupke within a
minute of each other and they continue traveling
on the same street at these speeds,
1. will the Cougar overtake the Mustang?
2. will the Rabbit overtake the Cougar?
Explain your answers.

114 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 LESSON 2
More on the
Coordinate Graph

"He's lost the scent. Let him smell your keys again, lady."

To help people find their cars in a vast parking lot, some kind of coordinate
system is usually used. We have already become acquainted with a coordinate
system for finding points on a graph. This system, which uses the positive
numbers and zero, is limited to two directions: to the right and up.
In a parking lot, these directions might correspond to east and north. The
location of a car on the lot could be given by saying, for example, that it is four
rows east of your starting point and in the sixth space toward the north. The
coordinates of its location, then, would be (4, 6).

JO

(4,6)

4 10

What if the parking lot also extends to the west and south? Suppose that a car
is in the fifth row zvest of the starting point and in the third space toward the
south. What would the coordinates of its location be? If we extend the x- and
j'-axes of a coordinate graph beyond the origin and think of them as number
lines, then we get the figure shown at the top of the next page. The system we
have been using to locate points still works, but now one or both of the
coordinates may be negative. The coordinates of the car five rows west and three
spaces toward the south, for example, would be (-5, -3).
 10

-10 -3 \' O
(-5,-3)

-70 —
Notice that the origin of this graph is at the center rather than the lower left
corner. The graph now has four regions instead of one. The regions are called
quadrants and are numbered counterclockwise, starting with the upper right, as
shown in the figure at the left.
With four directions in which to move from the origin, it is important to
remember that the x-coordinate of a point is always given first. This means that,
2nd to locate the point, we begin by moving either left or right. The jy-coordinate,
1st depending on its sign, then tells us how far to move up or down.
Here is another example of how points are plotted on a graph that contains all
3rd 4th
four quadrants.
The quadrants
Y
BhZ6)
EXAMPLE
Plot the following live points on
a coordinate graph: A (6, -2),
B (-2, 6), C (-4, -4), D (-3, 0),
and E (0, -3).
SOLUTION 1
The graph is shown at the right. K-3,0) 0 5
Notice that the x-coordinate of
each point tells how many units -5<
to the right or left of the jy-axis f-4.-4) r
it is and the v-coordinate tells c ' D
how many units above or below
the x-axis it is. A(b-2)
E(0,-3)

116 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Exercises
Set I
1. The figure shown here is a rectangle.

3
c) What do you think is the next equation
in this series?
d) Is it true?
3. A snail is crawling along at a steady speed.
The distance that it travels is a function of
a) How is the perimeter of a rectangle time, as shown in this table.
found?
h) What is the perimeter of this rectangle? Number of minutes, t 2 4 6 8
c) How is the area of a rectangle found? Number of meters traveled, d 12 3 4
d) What is the area of this rectangle?
a) How does the distance traveled van- with
2. Tell, by evaluating both sides of each respect to the time?
equation, whether it is true or false. b) What
minute?is the snail's speed in meters per
a) p + 23 = (1 + If
b) l3 + 23 + 33 = (1 + 2 + 3)2 c) Write a formula for this function.

Set II
4. This graph shows a curve
called an ellipse. Write the
coordinates of the points on
the ellipse that are named
with letters.

Lesson 2: More on the Coordinate Graph 117

 . On graph paper, draw a pair of axes . A function has the formula y = 5 — x.
extending 6 units in each direction from the -l
origin. Then connect the following points in a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
order with straight line segments: (4, 4),
(-6, -1), (5, -3),
-1 (-3, 5), (-1, -6), and (4, 4). .v 0 1 2 3 4 5
. A certain function is represented by this y llllll llllll llllll llllll llllll 111
table of numbers.
b) Plot the six points in this table on a

c) Draw a line through the points and

extend it into the second and fourth
graph.
a) Graph this function by drawing a pair of
axes and plotting these points. -1 d) quadrants.
Copy and complete these tables by
b) Write a formula for the function. referring to your graph.
c) Draw a line through the points and
extend it into the second quadrant.
d) Copy and complete this table by referring y llllll 111 111
to your graph.

-4 -3
7
iiii III 11111 111!
Imagine a point that moves across a
coordinate graph so that its j'-coordinate is 9. This exercise is about the functions
always 3 more than its x-coordinate. y — 2x + 1 and y = x — 1 .
a) Copy and complete this table of some of
a) Make a table for each of these functions.
the point's positions. In each table, let x = 1, 2, 3, and 4.
x 0 1 2 3 4 b) Graph both functions on the same pair of
y 3 111!!! ill! ill llllll axes by plotting the points in the tables
and joining them with lines.
b) Write a formula for y in terms -1of x. c) What are the coordinates of the point in
c) Plot the points, join them with a line, and which the two lines intersect?
extend it into the second -2
and third
quadrants.
d) Copy and complete this table of some
other positions of the point by referring
to your graph.

118 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Set III
10. This graph shows a curve called a parabola. 12. A certain function is represented by this
table of numbers.

a) Graph this function by drawing a pair of

axes and plotting these points.
b) Write a formula for the function.
c) Draw a line through the points and
extend it into the second and third

d) quadrants.
Copy and complete this table by referring
to your graph.

-4 -3 -2 -1
ill ill 11111 11111
13. Imagine a point that moves across a
coordinate graph so that its jy-coordinate is
always twice its x-coordinate.
a) Copy and complete this table of some of
-4
the point's positions. -1
4

Write the coordinates of the points on the b) Write a formula for y in terms of ■III
x.
parabola that are named with letters. c) Plot the points, join them with a line, and
extend it into the third quadrant.
1 1. If both coordinates of a point are positive, it
d) Copy and complete this table of some
is in the first quadrant. Where is a point if
other positions of the point by referring
a) both of its coordinates are negative? to your graph.
b) its x-coordinate is positive and its
jy-coordinate is negative?
11111 lill
c) its x-coordinate is negative and its
jy-coordinate is zero?
d) its x-coordinatc is zero and its
jy-coordinate is negative?

Lesson 2: More on the Coordinate Graph 119

 14. A function has the formula y = .v - 4. 15. This exercise is about functions y = x — 5
a) Copy and complete the following table and y = 3 — x.
for this function. a) Make a table for each of these functions.
In each table, let x = 0. I, 2. and 3.
.v 4 5 6 7 8
b) Graph both functions on the same pair of
axes by plotting the points in the tables
and joining them with lines.
b) Plot the five points in this table on a
c What are the coordinates of the point in
which the two lines intt
c) graph.
Draw a line through the-1 points and
extend it into the third and fourth
quadrants.
I py and complete this table by referring
to your graph.

1
■ hi

Set IV Another Picture Graph

Draw a pair oi axes extending from -10 to +10 Set 4. (1.-1.5) (4.-1) (5.-2) (5.-5) (2,-6)
in each direction. Connect the points in each set (-2.-6) ,-2.5.-5.5) (-3.-0 -3.5, -5.5
with straight line segments in the order given. (_L_6) (-3.-4) (-2.-4) (-2.-6)
After you have connected the points in one set. Set 5. (-3.-2) (-4.-4) (-1,-4) (-1,-2)
start all over again with the next. In other
la not connect the last point in each set Set 6. (-3.0) (-4.-1) (-5.-3) (-5.-5)
to the first point in the next one. (-4.-5.5)
Set 7. (-1.-6) (-1.-8) {-2.S) (-3.-9)
Set 1. (-1.5.3) (3.3) (2.9) (-1.9) (-1.5.3)
(5.-9) (4,-8) (1,-8) (1.-6)
(-3.2 2,2.5 $,3 4,3 5,2 (5,1)
(4.0.5) ,3.0.5) (2.1) (1.1) (0,-1) Sa b :.-- :. -a ;.-- 5.5.-9) (4.-9)
(-1.5.0) (-1,1) -3, -2 1 Set 9. (5.-3) (7,-2 8,-3 7,-3 8,-4
Set 2. (0;. J.5,-0.5)
(5.-4)
Set 3. ,-5.; -4,1 -2,-1) (0,-1) Set 10. (6.5. -4) (6.-9) (6.5.-9) (7.-4)
(1.-1.5) (3.-. 4.53 ,.0.5)

120 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 LESSON 3
In 1054, a very bright "star" appeared in the sky. The remnants of this "star"
are known as the Crab Nebula, which is one of the strongest sources of radiation
Addition
in our galaxy. Astronomers have speculated that its energy may result from the
destruction of antimatter.
Antimatter has been produced in the laboratory. When an antiparticle collides
with an ordinary particle, the two annihilate each other.*
The figure below shows what happens when two protons come in contact with
two antiprotons.
o o • • —» no particles
The result is not four particles , but none. Thinking of the number of protons as
positive and the number of antiprotons as negative, the figure shows that

+2 + -2 = 0

The numbers +2 and -2 are called opposites of each other. If we represent a

number by the letter x, then its opposite is -x and

If a positive number and a negative number are opposites of each other, their
sum is zero. What about the sum of two numbers that are not opposites?

* "Anti-Matter" by Geoffrey Burbidge and Fred Hoyle, Scientific American, April 1958.
 Considering what happens when different numbers of particles and antiparticles
come in contact makes it obvious. Look at the examples below.

EXAMPLE 1
What is the sum of -3 and -4?
SOLUTION

• •• •••• -> •••••••

Three antiparticles put together with four more make seven antiparticles in all:
-3 + -4 = -7.

EXAMPLE 2
What is the sum of -2 and 5?

• • OOOOO —> 000

Two antiparticles would annihilate two of the five particles, leaving three particles
in all: -2 + 5 = 3.

EXAMPLE 3
What is the sum of 1 and -6?

One particle would annihilate one of the six antiparticles, leaving five antiparticles
in all: 1 + -6 = -5.

EXAMPLE 4
What is the sum of 15 and -23?
SOLUTION
Rather than drawing a picture for this problem, we can reason in the following way;
-23 = 15 + (-15 +
= (15 +-15) -
= 0 + -8
= -8

122 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Exercises
Set I
1. Copy each of the following, replacing each 3. The most frequently used pay phone in the
11111 with either > or <. United States is in the Greyhound bus
a) 0 1111 -10 terminal in Chicago. It averages 270 calls a
day.
b) -25 III -2
c) 34 111 -43 a) The number of calls made on this phone
is a function of the time. Write a formula
2. Find the value of each of the following
for it, letting x represent the time in
expressions.
weeks and y represent the number of
a) 5-42 calls.
b) 4 • 52 b) To what does the constant of variation in
c) 52 - 42 your formula refer?
d) 25 - 24

Set II
7. What number should replace 1111 in each of
4. Make some drawings like those on page 122 the following equations to make it true?
to illustrate the following addition problems. 5 + 11 = 0
Use open circles for positive numbers and I -2 + 11111 = 0
solid circles for negative numbers. -2 + 111 = -4
a) 2 + 3 I -7 + 1 = 11111
b) -7 + -1 I 4 + 11111 = 15
c) -4 + 4 f) _4 + 111 = -15
d) 6 + -2 12 + llll = 2
e) 3 + -5 -12 + llll = -2
5. Two numbers are opposites of each other if ■II + -3 = 7
their sum is zero. What are the opposites of
the following numbers? )) llll + -3 = -7
I 111 + 5 = -3
a) 8 1) llll + -5 = -3
8. Find each of the following sums.
b)-3 , _3 + -3 + -4
c) 1
d) -15 -3 + 3 + -4
-3 + -3 + 4
e) x
i)-y I 5 + -5 + -7 + 7
5 + -5 + -7 + -7
6. Find each of the following sums. f) -5 + -5 + -7 + 7
a) 6 + -6 ) 9 + -2 + 2 + -8 + -9
b) -2 + 2 g) 0-27+ +-106
h) _1 + _6 + -10 + 6 + -1
c) -5 + 12 i) -4 + -15 1 + _6 + -10 + -6 + -1
d) -11 + -9 ) -1 + -3 + -5 + -7 + -9 + -11
e) 3 + -8 ))
k) 9-32+ +-1 0 F-3 + 5 + -7 + 9 + -11
f ) -7 + -7 1) -13 + 21 1) -1 + 3 + -5 + 7 + -9 + 11

Lesson 3: Addition 123

 k)

Set III
9. Make some drawings like those on page 122 What number = 0should replace i in each of
to illustrate the following addition problems. the following = equations
0 to make it true?
Use open circles for positive numbers and 10 + =4
solid circles for negative numbers. i) -10 - = -4
b)
a, -3
7 -+ = -6 g)
a) 4+ 1
b) -3 + -2
c)
d)
-3 +
-8 + 1
-
= 12 + -2 = 18
+ -2 = -18
= -12
c) 5 + -5 e) 5 +
d) -4 + 7 + 7 = -2
e) 2 + -8 0-5 + + -7 = -2
1 3. Find each of the following sums.
10. Two numbers are opposites of each other if
their sum is zero. ^XTiat are the opposites of a) -5 + -5 + -2
the following numbers? b) -5 + 5 + -2
c) -5 + -5 + 2
a) 5 d) -12
b) -7 e) a d) 8 + -8 + -3 + 3
c) 0 f) -b e) 8 + -8 + -3 + -3
f) -8 + -8 + -3 + 3
11. Find each of the following sums.
g) I + -9 + 9 + -10 + -1
a) 4 + -4 h) -4 + -7 + -6 + 7 + -4
g)
h) -6
-21 + + -63
b) -9 + 9 i) 4 + -7 + -6 + -7 + -4
c) -7 + 17 i) -1 + -39 j) -1 + -2 + -3 + -4 + -5 + -6
d) -5 + -8 )") 0 + -4 k) 1 + -2 + 3 + -4 + 5 + -6
e) 2 + -11 k) 16 + -7
1) -1 + 2 + -3 + 4 + -5 + 6
f) -15 +0 1) -8 + 25

Set IV
The sum of the six integers from -2 to 3
inclusive is

-2 + -1+0+1+2 + 3 = 3
Can you figure out each of the following sums?
If you can, explain how you got your answers.
1. The sum of the two hundred and one
integers from -100 to 100 inclusive.
2. The sum of the two hundred and one
integers from -95 to 105 inclusive.

124 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 LESSON 4
Subtraction

In arithmetic, most subtraction problems are limited either to subtracting a

smaller number from a larger one or to subtracting a number from itself. In the
first case, the answer is positive and, in the second case, it is zero. By having
negative numbers to work with, it becomes possible to subtract any number
from another. Consider, for example, the problem in this cartoon. Thinking in
terms of particles, the problem is to take six particles away from four.

Although this seems to be impossible, there is a way to do it. We simply add two
pairs of particles and antiparticles to the picture:
o o o o o o

This doesn't change things because each particle-antiparticle pair adds up to

nothing and adding zero to a number does not change it. Now we can take six
particles away, leaving the two antiparticles.

The answer is -2.

 In general, whenever a larger number is subtracted from a smaller one, the
answer is negative.
Here are two more examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Subtract -1 from -
SOLUTION
To take one antiparticle from seven antiparticles is easy. We are left with six
antiparticles. So -7 1 = -6.

EXAMPLE 2
Subtract 2 from -5.
SOLUTION
To take two particles from five antiparticles, we first add two particles and two
antiparticles. • • • • • o 0
••
Taking away the two particles leaves seven antiparticles. So -5 — 2 = -7.

Although even7 subtraction problem can be solved by drawing an appropriate

picture and taking away particles or antiparticles, there is another way to deal
with subtraction that is generally easier to use. To every subtraction problem there
corresponds an addition problem that has the same answer. This means that to get
the answer to a subtraction problem we don't have to subtract. We can change
the problem to an addition problem and add instead.
The method is based on the principle that subtracting a number gives the same
result as adding its opposite. Here are some examples to illustrate this principle.

Subtraction problem Corresponding addition problem

4 6 = -2 <— > 4 -6 = -2
8 -3=11 <— > 8 3=11
-7 1 = -8 <— > -7 -1 = -8

Because of this connection between subtraction and addition, mathematicians

prefer to think of subtracting as "adding the opposite" rather than as "taking

126 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Exercises

Set I 3. The graph of a

certain function
1. Draw a number line extending from -8 to
+8 and use it to find the number of the is shown here.
point midway between each of the following
pairs of points.
a) -8 and 0.
b) -5 and 5.
c) -4 and 2.
2. The position of a point is determined by its
coordinates. For example, if a point is in the
second quadrant, its x-coordinate is negative a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
and its jy-coordinate is positive. What can
you say about the coordinates of the 1 5
following points?
11111 11111
a) A point in the third quadrant.
b) A point in the fourth quadrant. b) What kind of function is it?
c) A point to the right of the origin on the c) Write a formula for it.
x-axis. d) Use your formula to find the value of y
d) A point below the origin on the jy-axis. when x = 25.

Set II
4. Make some drawings like those on page 126
to illustrate the following subtraction c) 3 -4 e) 6 - -1
problems. Use open circles for positive d) -5 - -8 f ) -2 - 3
numbers and solid circles for negative 6. Find each of the following differences.
numbers.
a) 7 - 2 d) -5 - -8 a) 12-5
b) -8 - -5 e) 6 - -1 b) 5 - 12
h) -3 - -8
c) 3 - 4 f ) -2 - 3 c) 12 - -5 g) 3 - -8
d) -5 - 12 i)
)') 00 -- -2
2
5. Because subtracting a number gives the same
e) -11 - 9
result as adding its opposite, the subtraction k) -4 - -4
f) -11 - -9
problem 4 — 6 has the same answer as the 1) -4-4
addition problem 4 + -6. Write the addition 7. Find the value of each of the following
problem that corresponds to each of the expressions.
following subtraction problems and then a) 12 - (5 + 3) e) 7 - (4 + 8)
solve each problem.
b) 12-5-3 f) 7-4-8
a) 7 - 2 c) 12 -(5 -3)
g) 7 -(4 -8)
b) -8 - -5 d) 12-5 + 3 h) 7-4 + 8

Lesson 4: Subtraction 127

 i) 2 - (6 + 10) k) 2 - (6 - 10) temperatures for each of the other three
months,
j) 2 - 6 - 10 1) 2 - 6 + 10
b) In which month was the difference
Look again at parts a through 1 of this
between the high and low temperatures
exercise and at your answers. What you see
there should help you to find an expression the greatest?
without parentheses that is equal to the . The amount of money that Freddie the
expression Freeloader bet and the amount that he won
m) x - (y + z) at the racetrack on four successive weekends
n) x-(y-z) -2 are given in the table below.
. The high and low temperatures in Mudville Number of dollars bet
for four successive months are given in the Number of dollars won
table below.
-20 a) Freddie's net loss the first week was $16,
Oct. Nov. which can be represented as -16. Write
his net winnings or losses for each of the
High 19 14
other three weekends as a positive or
Low 4 -3
Jan. negative number.
b) Write his net winnings or losses for the
a) The difference between the high and low i)
four weekends as a sum.
temperatures in October was 15°. Write c) How much money did he come out ahead
the differences between the high and low or behind in the four weekends?

h)
a)
Set III
c) k)
10. Make some drawings like those on page 126 12. b) d) differences.
Find each of the following
to illustrate the following subtraction a) 20 - 9 g) 13 - -3
problems. Use open circles for positive e
b) 9 - 20 ) h) -13 - -3
numbers and solid circles for negative c) 20 - -9 f) i) 0 - 8
numbers. d) -9-20 j) 0 - -8
a) 8 - 1 d) -4 - -6 e) -4 - 7 k) -5 - -5
b) -6 - -4 e) 7 - -2 f) -4 - -7 1) -5 - 5
c) 2 - 3 f) -1 - 5 13. Find the value of each of the following
1 1 . Because subtracting a number gives the same expressions.
15 -(4 + 1)
result as adding its opposite, the subtraction g) (2 - 10)
problem 3 — 7 has the same answer as the 15-4-1
i)
2+10
addition problem 3 + -7. Write the addition 15 -(4- 1) (11 + 5)
15-4+1
problem that corresponds to each of the
3 - (2 + 10) 11 - 5
following subtraction problems and then
3-2-10 (11-5)
solve each problem. 11 + 5
a) 8 - 1 d) -4 - -6 Look again at parts a through 1 of this
b) -6 - -4 e) 7 - -2 exercise and at your answers.3-What you see
c) 2 - 3 f) -1 - 5 there should help you to find3-an expression
6 -
128 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS 6 -

66 --
 without parentheses that is equal to the 15. The number of births and deaths in Gopher
expression Prairie for four successive months are given
m) x - (v + z) in the table below.
n) x - (y - z) Number of births 7 2
14. The elevations in meters of several very low Number of deaths 3 5 1
and very high places on the earth are listed
below.
a) The town's net change in population in
the first month is 44. Write the net
The Dead Sea, Israel- Jordan -397
change in Gopher Prairie's population in
Death Valley, California -86 each of the other three months as a
Mount McKinley, Alaska 6,194
positive or negative number.
Mount Everest, Nepal-Tibet 8,848
b) Write the net change in the town's
population for the four months as a sum.
a) How much higher is Mount Everest than
c) What is the net population change in the
Mount McKinley?
four months?
b) How much higher is Mount McKinley
than Death Valley?
c) How much lower is the Dead Sea than
Death Yallev?

Set IV
There is an old Chinese legend about the
Emperor Yu, who lived in about 2200 B.C. He
was standing by the Yellow River one day when
a turtle appeared on the bank with a pattern of
numbers on its back.
This drawing shows how we would write
these numbers. The pattern is called a "magic
square" because the sum of the three numbers in
any row, column, or diagonal is the same: 15.
1. Copy the magic square and then make
another pattern by subtracting 10 from each
number in it.
2. Is the resulting pattern also a magic square?
3. What do vou notice about it?

Lesson 4: Subtraction 129

LESSON 5
Multiplication

This photograph, taken during the flight of Apollo 1 1, shows the earth from a
distance of approximately 240,000 miles. The surface of the moon is in the
foreground.
The earth and moon are moving apart at the rate of about 4 feet each year.
This means that one year from now the moon will be 4 feet farther away from
the earth, two years from now it will be 8 feet farther away, and so on.
The increase in distance between the earth and the moon is a function of time.
We can represent this function with a table

Time in years 3
Increase in distance in feet 12

or by means of a formula. Letting x represent the time and y represent the

increase in distance, the formula is

y = 4.v
Graph of the moon
Because this function is a direct variation, its graph is a straight line that
moving away intersects the origin. If we draw the line and extend it into the third quadrant,
from the earth. we get the graph shown at the left.
 -1
-2 -4
-3 -8

A more complete table for the function is

-12
0 1 2 3
0 4 8 12

Notice that negative x-numbers represent times in the past and negative
j'-numbers represent decreases in distance. Three years ago the moon was 12
feet closer to the earth, two years ago it was 8 feet closer, and so on.
Our formula says that each j'-number is always 4 times the corresponding
-v-number, which means that
-12 : 4(-3)
-8 :
4(-2)

and so forth. In these examples, the product of a positive number and a negative
number is a negative number. This is always true.

► The product of a positive number and a negative number is always negative.

What happens when both of the numbers being multiplied are negative? To
find out, let's imagine that the moon is moving toward the earth instead of away
from it. Look again at the formula for the moon moving away from the earth:

y = Ax
The 4 in this formula is the rate at which the moon is moving away: 4 feet per
year. If the moon were moving at the same rate but in the opposite direction, the
4 would become -4 and the formula would become

-8
y — -Ax -4
-1
Because the earth and moon -2 would have been farther apart in the past and
would be closer in the future, the second row of numbers -12
in our original table
would be reversed, as shown here.

3 0 1 2 3
2 8 4 0
Graph of the moon
moving toward
The graph for this formula and table is shown at the right. the earth.

Lesson 5: Multiplication 131

 The formula says that each v-number is always -4 times the corresponding
.v-number. which means that

12 = -4{-3)
8 = -4(-2)

and so forth. In these examples, the product of two negative numbers is positive.
Although this may seem like a strange result, there are many other patterns that
lead to the same conclusion.

► The product of two negative numbers is always positive.

Exercises

Set I
1. Find the following sums. c) Divide 1 by the sum of v and 4.
a) -2 + -2 + -2 + -2 + -2 d) Cube 2 and subtract the result from 5.
b) -333 + -22 + -1 + 1 + 22 + 333 e) Subtract s from 5 and cube the result.
C) -1000 + 100 + -10 + 1
3. A bottle of Coca-Cola originally cost 5
2. Write an expression for each of the cents. -1
following. a) At this price, how many dollars would x
a) Multiply the integer x by the next larger bottles cost?
integer. b) How many bottles could be bought for y
b) Divide the sum of 1 and y by 4. dollars?
-3

Set II
4. Use repeated addition to show that each of 6. The result of multiplying any number by 1
the following equations is true. is the same number.
a) 3(4) = 12 a) Copy and complete this table showing the
b) 3(-4) = -12 result of multiplying numbers by - 1 .
C) 4<-3) = -12 -1 -x 3 2 1
5. Find each of the following products. -1?
a) 3(-7) f) -11(-12)
b) -4(9) g) 2(-18) b) In general, what is the result of
c) -5(-5) h) -1(-1) multiplying a number by -1?
d) 7(-8) i) -13(3) c) What is the result of multiplying x by
e) -10(0) j) -15(-20)

132 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 d) From your table find a number x for h) (-1)(-1)(10)(10)
which -x is negative. i) (-1)(-1)(-1)(10)(10)(10)
e) From your table find a number x for
j) (-5)(-4)(-3)(-2)(-l)
which -x is positive. k) (-5)(4)(-3)(2)(-l)
f) Does -x always represent a negative 1) (_5)(4)(-3)(2)(-l)(0)
number?
9. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
7. What number should replace 111111 in each of should replace JlllE in each of the following?
the following equations to make it true? a) -1(10) II -1(9)
a) -9(12) = 1111 b) -2(-3) III 4(-5)
b) 9(-12) = 1111 c) -7(4)(0) 11 -5(-5)(-3)
c) 4(11111) = 40 d) -4(-8)(3) 111 -3(4)(-8)
d) 4(11111) = -40 e) -9(-8)(-7) 1111 -6(-5)(-4)(-3)
e) -4(11111) = 40 10. Find the values of the following expressions,
f ) -7(111111) = 0
given that x = -5 and y = -6.
g) -7(111111) = 7 a) 3x d) x + y
h) -32 = 2(11111)
i) 32 = -2(1111) b) -2y e) x - y
c) x2 f ) xy
j) (llllX-6) = -54
1 1. This exercise is about raising a negative
8. Find each of the following products.
a) 3(5X7) integer to different powers.
b) -3(5X7) a) Find the values of (-3)2, (-3)3, (-3)4,
c) 3(-5)(-7) (-3)5, and (-3)6.
b) Which powers of -3 are positive?
d) -3(-5)(-7)
c) Is the 13th power of -3 positive or
e) (_2)(-2)(-2)(-2)
f) (_2)(-2)(-2)(-2)(-2) negative?
g) (-2)(-2)(-2)(-2)(-2)(-2)

Set III 14. Simplify each of the following expressions.

12. Use repeated addition to show that each of Assume that x and y represent positive
the following is true. numbers.
a) 4(5) = 20 a) 0(x) e) x(-y)
b) 4(-5) = -20 b) 0(-y) f) -x(y)
c) 5(-4) = -20 c)
d) -\{x)
-l(-y) g) -x(-y)
1 3. Find each of the following products.
a) -2(10) f) -12(-7) 15. What number should replace 111 in each of
b) 7(-6) g) -5(15) the following equations to make it true?
c) -8(9) h) -4(-4) a) -11(11) = 11111
d)-6(-l) i) 9(-ll) b)-ll(-ll) = |||||||
e) 0(-3) j) (-10)(-35) c) 3(111) = 27

Lesson 5: Multiplication 133

 d) 3(1111) = -27
b) 7M2) 1111! -6(-8)
e) -3(111111) = 27 c) -2(9)(-4) 111! -9(4)(-2)
f ) -5(11111) = -35 d) -4(-7)(-8) i||||-5(0)(-ll)
g) -8(lil|||) = 0 e) -l(-3)(-5)(-7) 111 -2(-4)(-6)
h) -8(111111) = 8 18. Find the values of the following expressions,
i) -18 = 9(1111111)
given that x = -7 and y = -3.
j) 18 = -9(111) a) 2x d) x + y
b)-5y e)x-y -3
16. Find each of the following products. c) x2 f) xy
a) 4(5)(6)
b) -4(5X6) 19. This exercise is about raising negative
c) 4(-5)(-6) integers to powers.
d) -4(-5)(-6) a) Copy and complete this table of squares.
e) (_1)(-1)(-1)(-1) _2 -3 -4 -5
f)
g)
h)
(_l)(-l)(_l)(-l)(-l)
(-l)(-l)(-l)(-l)(-l)(-l)
(-3X-3X 10X10)
111! Ill 11111 111111
-15
b) Do you think that the square of an
i) (-3)(-3)(-3)(10)(10)(10)

-6
integer can ever be negative?
j) (-4)(-2)(-2)(-4) c) Copy and complete this table of cubes.
k) (_4)(-2)(2)(4)
1) (-4)(-2)(0)(2)(4) -1 -2
111 1111
17. Which of these symbols, >, = , or <,
should replace 11111 in each of the following? d) What can you conclude about the cube of
a) 3(-4) 111 3(-5)
-24
a negative integer?

Set IV A Number Puzzle

-10
12 3
This number puzzle is similar to one that you
may have seen before.
Put a penny in one of the squares in this
diagram. Put another penny on a square that is
not in the same row or column as the first
penny. Put a third penny on a square that is not
in the same row or column as either of the first
two pennies.
Now look at the numbers under the three
30
8 2
pennies and find their product. If you followed
the directions correctly, it should be 720,
regardless of where you put the pennies. Can
you explain why?

134 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 LESSON 6
Division

It isn't any trick to divide a number in half, even if the number is negative. The
figure below illustrates the number -10 divided in half. (The solid circles
represent antiparticles.)

If a group of -10 circles is divided in half, each half contains -5 circles.

Dividing a number in half is equivalent to dividing it by 2, and so

Because division has a meaning in terms of multiplication, it is possible to

-5
2 ^ =
ask what number must be multiplied by 2 to give -10? The number is -5.
Here is another division problem that includes a negative number. What is 12
divided by -3? We can't answer this by drawing a figure because there is no way
to divide 12 circles into -3 groups. Thinking in terms of multiplication, how-

12 •
must be multiplied by -3 to give 12. The number is -4.
-4
Each of the two division problems that we have considered includes one
negative number. What happens
-2H when both numbers are negative? For example,
what is -20 divided by -4? It is =2
the0 number
= 5. that must be multiplied by -4 to
give -20; because 5(-4) :
 You may have noticed from these examples that, because even- division
problem has a corresponding multiplication problem, the signs of quotients of
positive and negative numbers are like those of products:

► The quotient of a positive and a negative number is always negative; the

quotient of two negative numbers is always positive.

Exercises

Set I
1. Use this number line to find the distance between each of the pairs of points
given in parts a through c.

-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
a) 2 and -2
b) -1 and -6 3. On the basis of your answers to exercises 1
c) -7 and 8 and 2, what do you think is the distance
between two points numbered x and y on a
Find each of the following differences. number line
a) 2 - -2 a) if x is larger than y?
b) -1 - -6 b) if .v is smaller than v?
c) 8 - -7 e)

Set II f)
-49 5. The result of dividing any number by 1 is
-18
4. Find each of the following quotients. the same number.
-12
-3 -12 a) Copy and complete this table showing the
3 7
result of dividing numbers by - 1 .
_2
-10
x 3 2 1 0-1-2-3
30
-2 0
-30 _18
g) ^j -3
b) In general, what is the result of dividing
a number by -1?
c) What is the result of dividing x by -1?
d) Does -x always represent a negative
number?

136 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 -6
8. What number should replace 1111 in each of
the following equations to make it true?
42
— ." Because = -2 and the c
3 a) ^| = 111 g) 11111 " y_
= 2.
-2 is 2,-f Use the same
hv -20 .
b) ^ = Iilllll
<>-£
to simplify each of the following
expressions.
■»-? c)il_9
2
7 -8 -i^ Iilllll "
o-^ d)fi = -9 j iilllll "
■*-f b){
" Iilllll "
g)-|
e)M-_4
<>-^
•»-3 n 1111 4
d>-§
9. Find the values of the following expressions,
given that x = -8 and y = -4.

"f
7. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, a) x + 2
0^
^f if
should replace 1111 in each of the following?
2
1
e) xv

-10 iiiHi 9 c) y -
r iiiiiii^
d)-

Set III
-7
a) each of the following
10. Find-5 -12 quotients.

g)-f
-7 — = -4 and the opposite of
15 o -4 is 4,
0
b)-15
-4 = 4. Use the same reasoning «-f
c) 5
-32
-9
-18
to simplify each of the following «-¥
J^ expressions.
d) -32
4
-4 52
4
e)
27
3 d)-^>
36 -2'
a) -

b)- Lesson 6: Division 137

c) - 0_d£
 -11

12. Simplify each of the following expressions. 14. What number should replace in each of
Assume that neither x nor y is zero. the -28 .
following equations to make it true?
^ -28 «,« d)

»0 ^
g)
m ~^~
-21 =_ 3 ,

-1

-6
13. Which of -18 •-!
these symbols, >. = . or <.
=>f^>
15. Find the values of the following expressions,

£
should replace in each of the following?
9 given that x = -10 and y — -2.
< -22
-5
of
^ -40 -12
b) | e) at
0
c) v - 2 f) i

__1

Set IV
Calculation:
20 20
You know that a division problem such as — can be solved by repeated
-_5 1
subtraction. The method is shown at the right. -J 15 2
Try using this method to solve these problems.
- 105 3

20 _ ,
4 times
3. Can you explain why the method works in one of the problems and not the
other?

138 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 LESSON

Several Operations

The first official world record in the shot put, set in 1876, was slightly less than
31 feet. Since then the record has increased to more than 71 feet.
It is possible, using mathematics, to predict how high and how far the shot
will go if the speed and direction in which it is thrown are known. A typical
formula, for example, for the upward speed of a shot is

v = 25 - 32t

in which v represents the speed in feet per second and t represents the time in
seconds since the shot was released. By substituting different numbers for t in
this formula, we can find the upward speed of the shot at different times.*
When t = 0, for example,

v = 25 - 32(0)
== 25
25-0

At the instant the shot is released, it is traveling upward at a speed of 25 feet per
second.

* This formula, like others that we have considered in this course, is from a subject other than
mathematics. You are not expected to be able to derive these formulas or see immediately why
they are true. You should be able, however, to understand how they are being used in the lessons.
 Half a second later, t — 0.5, and
v = 25 - 32(0.5)
== 925-16

■32(1)
The shot is then moving upward at a speed of 9 feet per second.
One second after the shot is released, t = 1, and
: 25
: 25
32

According to the formula, the upward speed is now -7 feet per second. What
does this mean? That one second after it is released, the shot is moving down-
ward at a speed of 7 feet per second.
Many practical applications of algebra, like the example we have just con-
sidered, require performing several operations that include one or more
-3 negative
numbers. Because it is important to be able to do such problems accurately, we
will practice making calculations with positive and negative -1
-2 numbers in this
lesson.

-i

Exercises

Set I
1. Draw a figure to illustrate each of these 2 3 4 5 6
expressions. Use open circles to represent y l 0
b)x
positive numbers and solid circles to 0 1 2 3
represent negative numbers. y 6 14 18 22
c) X
a) 2 • 32 + -7 , When asked to10 name the smallest number he
b) 3(4 + -1)
c) 5(-2) + 1 could think of, Obtuse Ollie said "negative
2. Guess a formula for the function represented a)
one What is the largest integer smaller than
million."
by each of these tables. Begin each formula -1,000,000?
with v =. b) What is the smallest integer larger than
-1,000,000?

140 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Set II
4. Here are directions for a number trick and part of a table to show
what happens if the trick is done with several different numbers.
Think of a number: 7 2 0-4
Subtract three: 4 Hill ill lllll
Multiply by two: 8 11 111 111
Add eight: 111 lllll 111 1111
Divide by two: nil ill ill ill
Subtract the number that
you first thought of:

a) Copy and complete the table.

b) Show how the trick works by illustrating the steps with boxes and
circles. The first two steps are shown below.

Think of a number: □
Subtract three: D
(Because subtracting 3 is the same thing as adding -3, 3 solid circles
have been drawn to represent adding -3.)
5. Find the value of each of 1)the following
expressions. Remember that powers are
figured out before multiplications. k)
a) 5(-3)2 c) 2(-4)5 e) (-1)3(3)4
b) -3(5)2 d) -4(-2)3 f) (-l)W
J)
m) n)
6. Find the value of each of these expressions.
a) 2-3(4) (-1)2o)- (-9)
b) 2 + -3(4) -4
c) 2-3(-4) (-l)2(-9)2
2 + 2(-5)3
d) _2 + -3(-4) 5 - 2(-2)3 8. If an arrow is shot upward at a speed of 50
e) 7 - (2 + 12) (2 - 5)(2)3 meters per second, its velocity at any given
f) 7 - (2 - 12)
instant is given by the formula
g) (9 - l)2 v = 50 — lOf, in which t represents the time
h) (1-9)2 in seconds and v represents its upward
i) (l)2-(9)2 4 velocity in meters per second. Find the
P) velocity of the arrow after
(-4)4
7. Find the values of the following expressions, a) 2 seconds.
given that x = -7 and y = -3. b) 5 seconds.
44
a) x + by d) xy — 1 c) 7 seconds.
b) 4x — y e) x2 — y2 d) What does your answer to part b mean?
C) 2{X+y) f){x+y){x-y) e) What does your answer to part c mean?

Lesson 7: Several Operations

 9. The formula for converting temperatures in temperature and C represents the Celsius
degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Celsius is temperature. Use this formula to find the
Celsius temperature corresponding to
a) 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
n_%F~ 32) b) 5 degrees Fahrenheit.
c) -40 degrees Fahrenheit.
in which F represents the Fahrenheit
-5

-12
Set III
10. Here are directions for a number trick and part of a table to show
what happens if the trick is done with several different numbers.
Think of a number: 4 1 0
Multiply by three: 12 111 111 111 nil
Subtract six: 6
Will! 111
11111 ■ ill
Divide by three: 1111 ill; in
Add seven: 1111 Ill
■III ■ lllllll ill
Subtract the number that ill 111
you first thought of: 11111 111 ill
a) Copy and complete the table.
b) Show how the trick works by illustrating the steps with boxes and
circles. (Because subtracting 6 is the same thing as adding -6, 6
solid circles can be drawn in the third step to represent adding -6.)
1 1. Find the value of each of the following
expressions. Remember that powers are
figured out before multiplications.
a) 3(-4)2 d) -2(-5)3
b) -4(3)2 e) (-l)W
c) 5(-2)3 f) (-l)W
12. Find the value of each of these expressions.
a) 7-2(5)
j) (_3)2-(-10)
b) 7 + -2(5)
k) (-3)2(-10)2
13. Find the values of the following expressions,
c) 7-2(-5)
1) 4 + 4(-2)3 given that x = -4 and y = -6.
d) -7 + -2(-5)
e) 4 - (3 + 9) m) (4 + 4)(-2)3 a) x + 3v
n) 4 - 2(-4)3
f) 4 -(3 -9) v -18 -30 c) -3(.v + y)
b)7x-y
o) ~r + -r
g) (5 - l)3 d) xy — y
h) (1 - 5)3 V) 2 -3
i) (3)2-(10)2 i)(x-y){x+y)
P) i^-^o e) -v2 — v2
142 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS
 , If a ball is dropped from the roof of a 15. The formula for converting temperatures in
building 200 meters high, its distance above degrees Celsius into degrees Fahrenheit is
the roof of a neighboring building 75 meters
high is given by the formula d = 125 — 5r2,
in which / represents the time in seconds
and d represents the distance in meters. Find + 32
the distance of the ball above the roof of the in which C represents the Celsius
temperature and F represents the Fahrenheit
second building after
temperature. Use this formula to find the
a) 3 seconds.
Fahrenheit temperature corresponding to
b) 5 seconds.
a) 100 degrees Celsius.
c) 6 seconds.
b) -5 degrees Celsius.
d) What does your answer to part b mean?
c) -40 degrees Celsius.
e) What does your answer to pan c mean?

Set IV
A man carrying eight identical balloons filled with helium stepped on a scale and
found that it read 170 pounds. He let go of the balloons and the scale then read
172 pounds.
1. How could this have happened?
2. On the basis of this information, how much does each balloon seem to have
weighed?
3. Do you think that it is possible for something to actually weigh less than
nothing?

(S^UAiW

Lesson 7: Several Operations 143

 «-GCS8*....
ON A SCALE OF 1 TO lO
WriAr PO Y&J THINK OF
ME AS A LCVBR ?

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have become acquainted with the properties of positive and
negative numbers.

The Integers (Lesson 1) The integers can be represented by points evenly

spaced along a number line. The integers consist of three sets of numbers: the
positive integers (also known as the counting numbers), zero, and the negative
integers.

More on the Coordinate Graph (Lesson 2) A complete coordinate graph

includes four regions, called quadrants, that are numbered counterclockwise,
starting with the upper right. Points for which both coordinates are positive are
located in the first quadrant. Points having either a positive and a negative
coordinate or two negative coordinates lie in one of the other three quadrants.
Points for which one coordinate is zero lie on one of the axes.

Addition (Lesson 3) The numbers x and -x are called opposites of each other.
The sum of a number and its opposite is zero. The addition of positive and
negative integers can be pictured in terms of combining groups of particles and
antiparticles.

Subtraction (Lesson 4) Although subtraction can be pictured in terms of

"taking away," it is more convenient to subtract a number by adding its
opposite: a — b = a + -b.
Multiplication and Division (Lessons 5 and 6) The product or quotient of a
positive number and a negative number is always negative. The product or
quotient of two negative numbers is always positive.

Several Operations (Lesson 7) In performing a series of operations, we work

from left to right, first raising to powers, then multiplying and dividing, and
finally adding and subtracting. Parentheses usually indicate operations that are
to be done first.

Exercises

Set I 3. Write the addition problem that corresponds

1 . Read each of the following statements to each of these subtraction problems.
carefully and tell whether it is true or false.
If you think a statement is false, give an a) 3 - -7
example to explain why. b)
c) -8
x-y- 4
a) The opposite of even* number is 4. Write each of the following statements in
negative. symbols, letting x represent the number.
b) If the v-coordinate of a point is positive, a) A certain number is more'illthan zero.
the point is above the .r-axis. b) The cube of a certain number is equal to
c) The product of two negative numbers is the product of the number and nine.
always positive. c) The difference of a certain number and
d) The sum of two numbers is always more three is less than two.
than their difference.
5. Here are directions for a number trick and
e) The cubes of some integers are negative.
pan of a table to show what happens if the
2. Find each of the following. trick is done with several different numbers.
a) The sum of -15 and 3. Think of a number: 2
1111!
lllllili
b) The difference between -15 and 3. Add six:
c) The product of - 1 5 and 3. Multiply by two:
d) The quotient of -15 and 3. Subtract eighteen:
e) The sum of -15 and -3. Divide bv two: in
f) The difference between -15 and -3. Add five: ■ I liiil
g) The product of - 1 5 and -3. Subtract the number that
h) The quotient of -15 and -3. you first thought of: 111

Summary and Review

 a) Copy and complete the table. c) The number of the point midway
b) Show how the trick works by illustrating between -1 and -9.
the steps with boxes and circles. (Draw d) The distance between 11 and -11.
solid circles to represent negative 10. Simplify each of the following expressions.
numbers.)
6. What number should replace Jill in each of
the following equations to make it true? »)-f „-i
a) -9 + 111!! = 2 . , , _ .

b) 3(111) = -3 e)H-7 = -l
c) 111! + 8 = 0 1111 _ c
f) -10 11. Find the value of each of these expressions.
a) -(1 -61)
b) -4 + 5(-3)
d)- c) 7(2 - 11) + 2(7 - 11)
7. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
d) -7(11)(13) - 13(H)(7)
should replace 11111 in each of the following? d)-
a) 2 + -3 111 2 --3 e) (-4)3 + (-3)4
b) -4 + 1511-4(15) 12. Acute Alice and Obtuse Ollie took a test on
c) 0(-8)il«0-8 which the score was found by subtracting
d) -45(39) III! 45(-39) the number of wrong answers from the
number of correct ones.
e) (-708)3 illllll (-78)2
8. A point moves across a coordinate graph so a) Ollie's score was -5. What does that
mean?
that its jy-coordinate is always 2 less than its
x-coordinate. b) Alice's score was 3. If she answered 14
wrong?
questions correcdy, how many did she get
a) Copy and complete this table of some of
the point's positions.
c) How many points higher was Alice's
score than Ollie's?
Ill 13. Find the values of the following expressions,
b) Write a formula for y in terms of .v. given that x = 2 and y = -5.
c) Plot the points, join them with a line, and a)
b) .vllx+y
- 3y
extend it across your graph. c) -2(x + y)
d) Copy and complete this table of some d) 4 + xy
other positions of the point by referring
to your graph.
14. According
e) x-y2 to the distributive rule for
x -2 -1 0 1 addition, for any three numbers, a, b, and c,
y Illllll 1111 Illllll 111
9. Use a number line to find each of the a(b + c) = ah + ac
following. Show that this equation is true if
a) The number of the point midway a) a = 2, b = -4, and c = -6.
between -3 and 7.
b) a = -5, b = 8, and c = -1.
b) The distance between -3 and 7. c) a = -7, b = -3, and c = 9.

146 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

Set II
1 . Read each of the following statements 6. Here are directions for a number trick and
carefully and tell whether it is true or false. part of a table to show what happens if the
If you think a statement is false, give an trick is done with several different numbers.
example to explain why.
a) Zero is an integer. Think of a number:
3 ill
■III 0 -1
ill
b) The sum of two negative numbers is Multiplv by four:
always negative.
Subtract ten: ill 111 ill
c) If the x-coordinate of a point is negative,
Add the number that you
first thought of:
the point is below the x-axis.
Divide by five: IN ill
11111 111 1111
1111
d) The squares of some integers are
Add seven: 11111 1111 11111
negative.
e) The sum of a number and its opposite is Subtract the number that you
zero. first thought of: 111 111 111 111
2. Use a number line to find each of the a) Copy and complete the table.
following. b) Show how the trick works by illustrating
a) The distance between 2 and -10. the steps with boxes and circles. (Draw
b) The number of the point midway solid circles to represent negative
numbers.)
between 2 and -10.
c) The distance between -7 and -3. f
d) The number of the point midway 7. What number ) should replace 111 in each of
between -5 and -1. the following equations to make it true?
3. Write each of the following statements in a) -4(|«|||««) = -12
symbols, letting x represent the number. b) lllll + : 613= -2
a) A certain number is less than negative
four.
b) Twice a certain number is equal to its d) -9 + 111 = 7
square. e) 11 - 5 = -5
c) The quotient of a certain number and
two is more than five. c) -

4. The average of a set of numbers is found by 8. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
adding them and dividing the sum by the
should replace 111 in each of the following?
number of numbers. Find the average of 1 '
a) 5 --11 11- 5+ 11
each of the following sets of numbers.
b) -3 — 4 lllllll -3(-4)
a) -7, 16, 21
c) -2(-2)(-2) 111 -2 + -2 + -2
b) -1, 3, -5, 7, -9 d) -67(-28) 1111 67(-28)
c) 12, 34, -56, -78
5. Use repeated addition to show that each of e) (495)2 111 (-495)2
the following equations is true.
a) 5(-3) = -15
b) 4(-x) = -4x

Summary and Review 147

 a)

9. Simplify each of the following expressions.

28 d)(-5)-'-(-5)?
e) -3{-7)(37) + 37(7)(-3)
7
12. A person's financial worth is found by
subtracting his liabilities from his assets.
c)-- a) Stan's financial worth is S300. What does
b) that mean?
--
10. A function has the formula y = 3 — .v. b) Oliver's financial worth is -S75. If his
a) Copy and completed)- the following table liabilities are S200, how much are his
for this function. assets?

c) How much greater is Stan's financial

worth than Oliver's?
1 3. Find the values of the following expressions,
b) Plot the four points in this table on a given
a) 7.v that
+ y x - -\ and y — 8.

c) graph.
Draw a line through the points and
extend it into the second and fourth c)
b) x4(.v-y)
- 3v
quadrants. d) * - y
d) Copy and complete these tables by
referring to your graph.

.v -3 -2 -1
14. According to the distributive rule for
subtraction, for any three numbers, a, b,
and XTc.

a(b — c) = ab — ac
Show that this equation is true if
11. Find the value of each of these expressions. a) a — 4, b = 1, and c — -9.
a) 5 - (3 - 18) b) a = -6, b = 2, and c = 5.
b) _(_25 - 6) c) a = -7,b= -3, and c = 8.
c) 2(3 - 9) - 3(2 - 9)

148 Chapter 3: THE INTEGERS

 Chapter 4
THE RATIONAL
NUMBERS
 LESSON 1
The Rational Numbers

This sign was put up along a road near the Fresno

airport after it was discovered that many drivers
were not slowing down as much as they should. The
fact that the number on the sign is not an integer has
proved very effective in getting people to pay atten-
tion to it. The number 12— is an example of a
rational number.

► A rational number is any number that can be

written as the quotient of two integers.

The number 12— is rational because it can be

written as — . Doing the division indicated by this

quotient
12.5

shows that 12— can also2)25.0

be written as 12.5. Written

this way, it is said to be in decimal form.

Rational numbers written as fractions can always
be changed to decimal form by carrying out the
indicated division. Here is another example.

,1
 0.375

24
lj3!000
SOLUTION 60
56
Dividing 8 into 3 as shown at the right, we get 0.375.
40
-2
0

Every integer is a rational number because every integer can be written as the
quotient of itself and one. For example, 5 is a rational number because 5 = — ,
and -2 is a rational number because -2 = — .
1
Rational numbers, like integers, can be represented by points on a number
line. The number 12—, for example, is located halfway between 12 and 13 on
the number line.
10 11 12 13 14 15

k
Several other examples of rational numbers on a number line are shown in the
figure below.
-5-4-3-2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
t t f t
-3.5 .1 2.1 4i

The relative sizes of two rational numbers can be determined by their relative
positions on the line.

EXAMPLE 2
Which number is larger: -3.5 or 2.1?
SOLUTION
Because 2.1 is to the right of -3.5 on the line, 2.1 is larger. (We could have
answered this question without finding the numbers on a line by reasoning that,
because all positive numbers are to the right of zero and all negative numbers are
to the left, every positive number is larger than every negative number.)

Lesson I: The Rational Numbers 151

 EXAMPLE 3

Which number is larger: or -4?

SOLUTION

Because — 4
is to the right of -4. - —4 > -4.

Exercises
Set I
1. Find the value of each of these expressions.
a) 15-3-4-2 a) Copy and complete the following table
b) 15 — 3 • (4 — 2) for this function.
C) (15 - 3)-4 - 2 x 1 2 4 5
d)(15-3)-(4-2)
2. The graph of a certain function is shown 2.5
here.
b) When x is doubled, what happens to y?
c) What kind of function is this?
d) Write a formula for it. starting with y = .
3. Mr. and Mrs. Dinky charge children SI and
adults S2 to skate at their ice-skating rink.
One Saturday x children's tickets and y adult
tickets were sold.
a) How many people paid to skate at the
Dinky rink that day?
b) How much money did the Dinkys make
from the ticket sales?
c) If it costs S 1 50 per day to operate the
rink, what was the net profit for the day?

Set II
4. Change each of the following rational numbers to decimal form by carrying out
the indicated divisions.
a)T
10
500 16
d j_ LOO 210
16 16 3

152 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

 . The number 0.3 is rational because it can be 7. Copy each of the following, replacing each
written as the quotient of two integers: II with either > or <.

0.3 = — — . Show that each of the following a) 4.21114.3

b) -4.2111-4.3
numbers is rational by writing it as the c) -7.61116.7
quotient of two integers. (Each part has d) -7.6 II -6.7
many correct answers.) e) 0.05 ill 0.5
a) 4 f) 0.05 111 -0.5
S)3
f) -2.9
|
b) 0 g) 2.1112.09
c) 0.7 h) -2.1 1111-2.09
d) 0.01 8. Do the indicated operations.*
e) 6.5 h)-4 a) ;12.3 + 0.75
0.75
6. Use a ruler to draw an accurate number line b) 12.3 - 0.75
c) 12.3(0.75)
extending from -8 to +8. A convenient
distance to use between each pair of
consecutive integers is 1 centimeter,
a) Mark the following points on the line. e) 0.22 + 0.022
Write the number of each point beside it. )i^- 0.022
f)'d0.22
0.022
-7.1 g) 0.22(0.022)
0.9 4.5
,1

b) Which of the seven numbers that you

have located is the largest?
h) 0.22
c) Which number is the smallest?

* Some decimal calculations are done easily by using an electronic calculator, whereas others
are simple enough to do without it. Beginning with this lesson, exercises for which an electronic
calculator would be helpful will be marked with an asterisk.

Set III h) 10. The number 1.7 is rational because it can be

9. Change each of the following rational written as the quotient of two integers:
10
17
e) form by carrying out
numbers to decimal . Show that each of the following
1.7 :
the indicated divisions.
U 24 numbers is rational by writing it as the
11 _ AX _J_
4 125 6 quotient of two integers. (Each part has
many correct answers.)
10 240
40 -
d)125 6
a) 6 d) 0.09 8) 72
11 b) 1 e) 4.5
0 100 n 24
c) 0.2 f) -3.1 h) -5^
KM) 125 U 60

Lesson I: The Rational Numbers

 d):
hh
11. Use a ruler to draw an accurate number line 13. Do the indicated operations.*
extending from -8 to +8. A convenient a) 5.1 + 0.24
distance to use between each pair of
b) 5.1 - 0.24
consecutive integers is 1 centimeter, c) 5.1(0.24)
a) Mark the following points on the line. 5.1
Write the number of each -5.4
point beside it. 0.24
-0.5

1.6 3.1 e) 0.99 + 0.099

f ) 0.99 - 0.099
g) 0.99(0.099)
b) Which,1 of the seven numbers that you 0.99
have located is the largest? 0.099
c) Which number is the smallest?
*See footnote on page 153.
12. Copy each of the following, replacing each
il with either > or < .
a) 2.7 2.6 e) 0.8 0.08
b) -2.7 -2.6 f) -0.8 i ,i 0.08
c) 4.5 -5.4 g) 3.11 3.1
d) -4.5 -5.4 h) -3.11 -3.1

Set IV
Most rational numbers do not come out "even" if changed to decimal form, but
"keep on going," For example, — = 0.33333 . . . , in which the three dots indicate
that the threes continue without end. It is obvious from this pattern that the 100th
digit after the decimal point will also be a 3.

1. Can you figure out what the 100th digit after the decimal point of — is?

2. How about the 100th digit after the decimal point of — -?

154 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

 LESSON 2
Absolute Value
and Addition

"But they don't say plus or minus, you'll notice.

You can't get more fiendish than that."

According to the sign in this cartoon, the change in the Dow Jones industrial
average was 24.04 points. If it had said +24.04, the market would have gone up;
-24.04 would indicate that the market had gone down. The sign in the cartoon,
however, merely gives the amount of the change. This amount is also called the
absolute value of the change.
A good way to picture the absolute value of a number is with a number line. It
is simply the distance between the number and zero. The figure below shows that
the absolute values of -24.04 and +24.04 are the same: 24.04.

24.04 24.04

The symbol for absolute value looks like this: . The figure above shows that
|-24.04| = 24.04 and |+24.04 1 = 24.04.
Whenever we are dealing with a number in decimal form, we can always
write its absolute value by dropping the + or - sign as we have done above.
However, we cannot write the absolute value of a variable, such as x, by
 dropping the + or - sign, because x itself has no sign. In this case, we must use
the following algebraic definition of absolute value.

► If x is positive or zero, then \x\ = x. If x is negative, then |jc | = -x (or the

opposite of x).

The idea of absolute value is helpful in extending our knowledge of how to

compute with the positive and negative numbers that are integers to other
numbers as well. In this lesson, we will learn how it applies to the addition of
rational numbers.
To add positive and negative integers, we used a particle-antiparticle model.
To extend this idea to adding rational numbers, we can think in terms of
"lengths" and "antilengths" instead. Here are some examples. (Color is used in
the diagrams to represent antilengths.)

EXAMPLE 1
What is the sum of 1.2 and 5.3?
SOLUTION

H 1 1 1 h* — • 1 1 1 1 h
53 - 6.5

EXAMPLE 2
What is the sum of -3 and -2.4? ■ 5.4

EXAMPLE 3
What is the sum of 4.5 and -6?
SOLUTION
i 1 1 1 H

4.5+ -6 = -1.5

(The dashed line surrounds the lengths that "annihilate" each other.)

156 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

EXAMPLE 4
What is the sum of -1.8 and 4.8?

-1.8 + 4.8

From examples 1 and 2, we see that the sum of two positive numbers is the
positive number given by the sum of their lengths, and the sum of two negative
numbers is the negative number given by the sum of their antilengths. In terms
of absolute value, this means that the sum of two numbers having the same sign can
be found by adding their absolute values, the answer having the same sign as the
numbers.
Examples 3 and 4 show that, when a positive and a negative number are
added, the one that has the shorter length or antilength is "annihilated," leaving
as the answer the rest of the number that has the longer length or antilength.
This means that the sum of two numbers having opposite signs can be found by
subtracting their absolute values, the answer having the same sign as the number
having the larger absolute value.
Here is another example illustrating this second principle.

EXAMPLE 5
Add 1.5 and -7.6.
SOLUTION
Because one number is positive and the other is negative, we find the difference
of their absolute values: 7.6 — 1.5 = 6.1. Because the absolute value of -7.6 is
larger than the absolute value of 1.5, the answer is negative: -6.1.

Lesson 2: Absolute Value and Addition 157

 Exercises
Set I
1. Find the value of (x — l)(.r ■ 3)(.t - 5) if 3. On January 22, 1943, a strange thing
happened in Spearfish, South Dakota. The
temperature rose from -4°F to 45 :F in
c)\.v = 3a e) x = 5 only two minutes!
a) How many degrees was the temperature
2. Use the distributive rule to write an increase?
expression equivalent to each of the b) Show how this problem can be written
following. as a subtraction problem.
a) 5(.r-v) c) (.v- l)v c) Show how it can be written as an
b)-5{x+y) d)-j'(l-.v) addition problem.

Set II
4. What is the absolute value of each of the c) |jc| - |jy| = |xy|
following?

a) +8 d) x3each
8. Find 1 = of
x3 the following sums.
b)-5 e) x0 if x > 0
f) a) _2 + -8.2 e) 3.1 + -11.1
c) +0.6 b) -2 + 8.2 f) -5 + 1.05
g) x if x < 0
d) -3.4 c) 7 + -4.7 g) -0.6 + -6.6
5. Perform the operations indicated. d) -7 + 4.7 h) 8.19 + -9
a) |-1| + |+12| e) |-3|-|7|
*9. In adding signed numbers with a calculator,
b) |-1 1 + |-12| f) |-3| -|-7| it is convenient to use the following
c) -91 - !-4| g) |8| - |-2|
principle: subtracting a number is
d) -4 - !-9| h) |-2| -r- |8|
equivalent to adding its opposite, and
6. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, adding the opposite of a number is
should replace in each of the following? equivalent to subtracting it. In symbols, the
a) +4 4 e) -0.5 0 fact that
b) -1.7 -1.7 f) -10 -1
c) -2.2 +2.2 g) -10 -1 x - y = x + -y
d) -2.2 +2.2 h) - 3.8 -3.8
7. Tell whether you think each of the
following statements is true for all values
of the variables that it contains. If you
think that a statement is false for some For example, to find the answer to the
values of x, give an example of a value of
x for which it is false. problem
a) |x| =x
b) \x\ + \y\ = \x+y\

158 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

 on a calculator, we can do the problem For example, to find the answer to the

1.3 - 3.8
problem
instead. Subtracting 3.8 from 1.3, we get
-2.5.
on a calculator, we can do the problem
Do each of the following problems on a
calculator. 0 - 6.2 + 0.7

a) 3.54 + -0.6
The answer is -5.5.
b) 1.9 + -7.21 Do each of the following problems on i
c) 0.875 + -4.6 + -2.38 calculator.
d) 5.02 + -0.7 + 3.572 + -11
a) -7.9 + 4.03
*10. (Exercise 9 continued.) If the first number b) -0.611 + 2.5
being added is negative, we can begin by c) -8.32 + -10.7 + 0.56
subtracting it from zero because d) 8.32 + 10.7 + -0.56
e) -4.18 + 0.92 + 3 + -7.4
0 - x - 0 + -x - -x
f) 4.18 + -0.92 + -3 + 7.4

Set III
1 1 . What is the absolute value of each of the 14. Tell whether you think each of the
following? following statements is true for all values
of the variables that it contains. If you
a) +2 think that a statement is false for some
e) -0.3
b) -9 f) x if x > -x values of x, give an example of a value of
c) +7.1 x for which it is false.
d) 0 g) X if X < -X
a) |x| >0
12. Perform the operations indicated. b) |*| - \y\ = \x-y\
a) |+11| + |-4| e) |8| • |-6|
b) I— XI | + |-4| f) |-8|-|-6| 1*1 =x21*1
c) |jc2|
c) |-7| - |-2| g) |-15| hh |3| Lvl \y\
d) |-2| - |-7| h) |3| + |-15|
15. Find each of the following sums.
13. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
a) _6.3 + -3 e) 8 + -1.8
should replace v in each of the following?
b) 6.3 + -3 f ) -4.4 + -0.4
a) |-5 1 1115 c) 2.5 + -9.5 g) -7 + 1.02
b) |-8.2| 11-8.2 d)-
d) -2.5 + 9.5 h) 5.26 + -6
c) +4.3 II -4.3
d) |+4.3| H |-4.3| *16. In adding signed numbers with a calculator,
e) Ollllli ,-6.1 it is convenient to use the following
f ) -7 ■ -9 principle: subtracting a number is
equivalent to adding its opposite, and
g) 1-71 -9
h) !-10.6| ill||-|10.6| adding the opposite of a number is

Lesson 2: Absolute Value and Addition 159

 equivalent to subtracting it. In symbols, the *17. (Exercise 16 continued.) If the first number
fact that being added is negative, we can begin by
subtracting it from zero because

0 - x = 0 + -.v = -x

For example, to find the answer to the

problem -2.9 + 7.3

For example, to find the answer to the
problem
on a calculator, we can do the problem
4.6 + -5.3
0 - 2.9 + 7.3
on a calculator, we can do the problem
The answer is 4.4.
4.6 - 5.3 Do each of the following problems on a
calculator.
instead.
-0.7. Subtracting 5.3 from 4.6, we get
a) -1.37 + 5.8
Do each of the following problems on a b) -6.2 + 4.95
calculator. C) -9.14 + -0.23 + 7.6
a) 2.8 + -5.72 d) 9.14 + 0.23 + -7.6
e) -5.72 + 8 + -0.61 + 9.3
b) 4.11 + -1.3
f) 5.72 + -8 + 0.61 + -9.3
c) 3.5 + -0.645 + -1.97
d) 0.92 + -8.5 + 12 + -4.023

Set IV
A spider walks +3 units along a number line and then -4 units more. If we
assume that the positive and negative numbers mean that it went first in one
direction and then in the opposite direction, it is easy to see that the spider ends up
1 unit from where it started. The point at which it ends depends on the direction
in which it headed first. +3

Now suppose that the spider walks x units along a number line and then y units
more and that x and v can each be either positive or negative. In terms of x and
\y\»
1. what is the largest distance that the spider can end up from where it started?
(Hint: It may help to substitute specific numbers for x and v.)
2. what is the smallest distance that the spider can end up from where it started?

160 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

 "How high would it be otherwise?"
LESSON 3
More on Operations
with Rational Numbers

Suppose that the couple in this cartoon has $1275 to invest in a savings account.
How much would the account be worth at the end of a year if they put their
money in this bank?
One way to answer this question is to reason like this. An interest rate of
6.27% means that each $100 in the account earns $6.27 in interest per year.

$1275 = 12.75 12.75($6.27) = $79.9425

$100 $1275

+ $$1354.94
79.94*
The account would be worth $1354.94 at the end of a year.
Finding this answer required making several calculations with rational num-
bers, all of which are positive. In this lesson, we will learn how to apply the
rules that we learned for computing with integers to computing with positive
and negative rational numbers.
In learning how to subtract integers, we found that subtracting a number is

s round the interest paid to the nearest cent.

 equivalent to adding its opposite. By using this principle, we can change
subtraction problems into addition problems and then think in terms of addition.

EXAMPLE 1
What is the difference between 7.4 and -1.9?
SOLUTION
Remember that finding the difference between 7.4 and -1.9 means subtracting -1.9
from 7.4.
7.4 - -1.9 = 7.4 + 1.9 = 9.3

EXAMPLE 2
Subtract -6.5 from -4.1.

-4.1 + 6.5 = 2.4

The rules for multiplying and dividing integers also apply to multiplying and
dividing rational numbers. Stated in terms of absolute value, they are:
The product or quotient of tzvo numbers having the same sign can be found by
multiplying or dividing their absolute values, the answer always being positive.
The product or quotient of two numbers having opposite signs can be found by
multiplying or dividing their absolute values, the answer always being negative.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the product of -2.5 and -0.64.
SOLUTION

(-2.5X-0.64) = (2.5)(0.64) = 1.6

EXAMPLE 4
Divide 9.24 by -2.8.
SOLUTION

9.24 9.24 , ,

162 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

Exercises

Set I
1 . Show that each of the following numbers is 3. On graph paper, draw a pair of axes
rational by writing it as the quotient of two extending 4 units in each direction from
integers. the origin.
a) Connect the following points with
a) -7
b) 0.3 d) 2A straight line segments in the order given:
c) -1.6 (2, 3), (-2,1), (0,-3), (4,-1), (2, 3).
b) What kind of geometric figure is
2. Express each of the following as a power of formed?
the indicated number. If a number cannot
be expressed as the power indicated, say so. c) The point (3, 1), midway between two
consecutive corners of the figure, is h)
a) 16 as a power of -2. called the midpoint of one of its sides.
b) -243 as a power of -3. Give the coordinates of the midpoints of
c) -1,000 as a power of -10. the other three sides.
d) -1,000,000 as a power of -10.
-1

Set II
4. Write the addition problem that 8. What number should replace 1111 in each of
corresponds to each of the following ; 1.6
the following equations to -7.2
make it true?
subtraction problems and then solve each a) 2.5 + 11111! = 0
e) 111 +- =-3 2 = 0.3
problem. b) 2.5(111111111) = -2.5
a) 6.1 - -1.9 c) -5 - 7.1 f) 111111(3) = -0.3
c) 1111! - 1.6 = 1.6 g) 7.2 - 111 = 2
b) -2.5 - -2.5 d) 3.03 - 4
5. Find each of the following differences. 1
-0.5
a) 0.8 - -3 c) -2.64 - -0.4
b) -1.7 - 1.7 d) 4 - 5.8 9. Here are directions for a number trick.
4.5 1.8
6. Find each of the following products. Think of a number:
a) 6(1.5) d) l.l(-90.9) Subtract it from 4: 111
b) 6(-1.5) e) -3.2(-8) 1111
Hill 1111 1111
c) -11(9.09) f) -0.32(-0.8) Multiplv bv -3:
Add 6: ■1! 1111
7. Find each of the following quotients. Divide bv 3:
Subtract the number that mill ■III
II i
ill
14.1
4.7
,-. -0.56
' 0.8 you first thought of: ■II
-14.1 x 39.2 a) Copy and complete the table to show
what happens if the trick is done with
some rational numbers.
-5.6 f) -3.92
b) What number is the result of this trick?

Lesson 3: More on Operations with Rational Number?

 *10. Use a calculator to do each of the
following problems. Apply the rules for
positive and negative numbers in your c) -9.12 + -34.5
calculations, d) -9.12(-34.5)
a) 8.46 - -0.375 e) 3.9 + -14 - 4.07
8.46 f) 3.9(-14)(-4.07)
-0.375

b)-
Set III 16. Here are directions for a number trick.
11. Write the addition problem that
corresponds to each of the following Think of a number: 1.2 5.1
3.8 1111 -3.5
111
subtraction problems and then solve each Subtract it from 5:
11111 111 111
problem. Multiply
Add 4: by -2: If 11 Hi
a) 4.5 - -5.4
b) -7.3 - -7.3
Divide by 2: ■III 1111 ill
c) -2 - 8.9 Subtract the number that
d) 1.06 - 6 you first thought of: ill 111 ill
12. Find each of the following differences. a) Copy and complete the table to show
a) 5 - -0.2 what happens if the trick is done with
b) -4.1 - 4.1 some rational numbers.
c) -8.73 - -0.3 b) What number is the result of this trick?
d) 2 - 3.9
*17. Use a calculator to do each of the
1 3. Find each of the following products. following problems. Apply the rules for
a) 5(2.8) d) -4.4(10.1) ' -5.94 in your
positive and negative numbers
b) -5(2.8) e) -9.6(-3)
a) calculations.
c) 44(-1.01) f) -0.96(-0.3)
a) 2.45 - 6.18
14. Find each of the following quotients, b) 2.45(-6.18)
25.6 } 0.7 e) -21 + 14.3 - 0.37
c) -74.25 + -5.94 f) -21(14.3)(-0.37)
3.2
-25.6
-3.2 ' ^063
-9.2
d^425
-6.3 > _92
c)
Set IV A Calculator Riddle
7
f 4,14 Acute Alice invited Obtuse Ollie over for dinner
15. What number should replace HI in each of one evening and he didn't show up until
the following equations to make it true? 11:00 p.m. To find out what got cooked, solve
-1 the following
' -0.18problems with a calculator and
a) + 1.8 = 0 e) -4 + = 0.4
turn it upside-down to read the answer.
b) (1.8) = -1.8 f) 4('i|f) = -0.4
■3.5
c) ill - 3.5 = 3.5 g) 12.3 - 111 = 3
-12.3 _ -
(123)(-778.2)

2. (-7.59)(-1860) - 58(-360.2)
d)-
164 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS
h)-
Ask someone to tell you what time it is and he or she will
probably give you an approximate answer. The answer LESSON 4
may be to the nearest hour, such as "about noon," to the
nearest five or ten minutes, such as "about 12:05," to the Approximations
nearest minute, such as "12:04," or even to the nearest
second. In each case, the number that is the exact time is
being approximated by another.
Actual time
1 1 1 1 i-L —
12:00 12:01 12:02 12-03 12:04 12-05

Possible
approxima tions^

The number that we use as a given approximation

depends on the precision in which we are interested. For
example, the rational number written in decimal
To the nearest unit
formis 3.142857.
- , ,T,
The first figure at the right shows that this number is
To the nearest tenth
closer to 3 than it is to 4, the second figure shows that it is
closer to 3. 1 than to 3.2, the third figure that it is closer to « ' ■ ■ ' J I
3.1-
I
3.2
3.14 than 3.15, and so forth. Each successive approxima-
tion is more precise than the preceding one. We will use To the nearest hundredth
the symbol ~ to indicate that22an. approximation is being ■ , .t , , .
3.14+^ 3.15
To the nearest thousandth

forth. 3.142
 In making an approximation of a given number, we generally have to choose
between two numbers, one on the left and the other on the right of it on the
number line. If the number is exactly midway between the two, one number is
as good an approximation of it as the other. In such cases, we will apply the
*~/.zero
following convention. We will choose the number that is farther from 3 on the
line.
1.25
1.25 -7.25

-7.25 1.2 j
— •— ►
*
-1.3*+-*. ?—-1.2
-*-1.3-+-^
— •— -1.2
This means that, to the nearest tenth,

1.25 *z> 1.3

and

-1.25 =-1.3

Ordinarily when we write a number such as "1.3" we mean exactly 1.3. In

approximate arithmetic, however, "1.3" means "1.3 to the nearest tenth." The
number written as "1.30" means "1.30 to the nearest hundredth," "1.300"
means "1.300 to the nearest thousandth," and so forth.
Here are some more examples of making approximations of numbers.

EXAMPLE 1
Approximate -11.5 by the nearest integer.
SOLUTION
Because -11.5 is midway between -11 and -12 on a number line, we choose the
number farther from 0, which is -12.

166 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

EXAMPLE 2 0.416.
Find an approximation in decimal form of — — to the nearest hundredth. 48
20
12)5.000

12
80
Dividing 5 by 12 on a calculator can give an answer rounded to eight places, 72
0.41666667, but even that is approximate.

Exercises
Set I
1. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, 3. The Dogpatch Dingos and the Pine Ridge
should replace 1111 in each of the following? Possums played a football game in which the
a) |-2.5| Hi 2.5 points were scored by either touchdowns (6
b) -7.4111-7.3 points each) or conversions by kicking (1
c) |-7.4| 111 |-7.3| point each.)
d) -0.91110 The Dingos made 3 touchdowns and x
conversions.
e) |-0.9| HO
a) What was the Dingos' final score?
2. Find the average of each of the following The Possums made y touchdowns and 2
sets of numbers. conversions.
a) -1, -3, -6, -10 b) What was the Possums' final score?
b) -1, _3, -6, 10 The Possums won the game. e)
c) -1, 3, -6, 10 c) Write an inequality expressing this fact.

c)
Set II
4. Approximate each of the following numbers Find an approximation in decimal form to
to the nearest integer. the nearest hundredth for each of the
a) 2.7 c) -5.1 e) 13.49 following rational numbers.
b) 2.07 d) -1.5 ' f) -0.08
5. An important number in mathematics is the
number 'V: 3.141592 .... Round this 17
number to the nearest 700
3
a) integer. d) thousandth.
b) tenth. e) ten-thousandth. 7 ' 7000
c) hundredth. f) hundred-thousandth.

Lesson 4: Approximate
 the following r: i ±e values of til .
. : Go the nearest tenth. Exrre>> each answer to the nearest tenth.
a) -1.23 - -4.56
;:
-5 5 i) 2(5.4) - 2QSJ5
- ; 5.4 _ - --
c) 5.4s - G53
j 5.4-6L5)2
c " - 0.95 9. Find the values of the following exr:.
. -8 -1 42
:.: i aa that .v = 7.60 and. =-2 3 1
each answer to the nearest hundredth,
f) -0.8<-: 42
g)-0-8»-: 142
-
b " V e> X
a) x -

Set III - .'.fr

rroximate each oi the following numbers
-4.09)
to the nearest integer. 5 - 8.00
d -7.5 -14
ei 0.09

. -7 I :" -11.48 : - : —.- - - -

11. An important number in mathematics
number 2.718281 Round this " -1.4
[) 9.9
-1.4
r.-_n-.?e: :. -j-.e r.e3re>:
a) mtega 9.9
■ hundredth
;
-.:■: '
d) thousandth. 9.9
e .^--thousandth.
14. Find the values of the folic ing c
f) hundred-thousandth.
press each answer to the nearest tenth.
12. Find an approximation in decimal form to
the nearest hundredth for each of the

2 *4
following rational numbers.
d)l
--- :- - ::
f
: - ■

: : :- - " :
_ 2(1 jh -
« 13

od die values of the folic ing

13
_ - that = -. '.': and j = S.9. Express
.;..-. _r.- .: : -_-= r.. _:-.-: hur.irri:h
c -- ^ : 13

.5 Find ax lowing problems.

-
a) -1.35 - -6.42
b) -135 - -: 42

168 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NLMBERS

E =
Set IV
Several years ago, a painting by the French artist Henri Matisse was accidentally
hung upside down in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. It was
reported that 116,000 people had seen the painting before someone noticed that
something was wrong.
1. This number is surely not exact, but rather an approximation of the number
of people that had seen the painting. How do you suppose it was determined?
2. If the number is accurate, what do you think are the smallest and largest
numbers of people that might have seen the painting?

Lesson 4: Approximate
 Atlantic Coast Shoreline

Future ?

LESSON 5
More on Graphing Functions
Geologists think that 15.000 years ago the level of the earth's oceans was more
than 100 meters lower than it is today. If this is true, the shorelines of the
continents have changed in appearance. The maps above show how the Atlantic
coast of the United States is thought to have looked 15.000 years ago. how it
looks now, and how it may look in the future.*
The level of the oceans is a function of time. The graph below shows how
scientists think that it has changed in the past. The .v-axis represents time in
thousands of years (-40 represents 40.000 years ago. for example) and they-axis
represents the changes in level relative to its present level (-50 represents 50
meters below the present level, for example).
Time before the present
in thousands of years y

5 SS

* "The Continental Shelves'' by K. O. Emery. Scientific American, September 1969.

 As we already know, the graphs of many functions, like this one, include
negative numbers. One way in which to draw the graph of a function is by
plotting points from a table. If a formula for the function is known, it can be
used to make such a table. In this lesson we will make tables and draw the
graphs of functions that include both positive and negative numbers.
Here are examples to help you recall how it is done.

EXAMPLE 1
, Let; -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
Draw a graph of the function y ■.
SOLUTION
First we use the formula to find the _v-numbers
corresponding to these .v-numbers. For example, if
.v = -2,

v = 5 - 2(-2) = 5 - (-4) = 5 + 4 = 9

- 2(-l) = - (-2) = 5 + 2 :
and so forth.
After arranging the numbers in a table like this,

we plot the points having these numbers as their

coordinates, (-2, 9), (-1, 7), and so forth, on a
graph.
The points seem to lie on a line and so we
connect them with one, getting the graph shown
at the right.

EXAMPLE 2
Draw a graph of the function y — : . Let x van' in tenths from 0 to ]
SOLUTION
Making a table of numbers, we get

x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
y o 0.01 0.04 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.36 0.49 0.64 0.81 1.00

Plotting points having these numbers as coordinates as shown on the next page,

Lesson 5: More on Graphing Functions 171

 we find that they seem to lie on a curve. Connecting the points with a smooth
curve gives the result shown.
Y
1.00

0.50

Exercises
Set I
1. Perform the operations indicated, 3. Obtuse Ollie counted the change in his
a) 0.40 + -1.25 -1.25 pockets and found that he had 7 pennies,
b) 0.40 - -1.25 nickels, y dimes, and 2 quarters.
c) 0.40 (-1.25) a) How many coins were there in all?
. Arrange the following sets of numbers in b) What was their value in cents?
order from smallest to largest. c) What was their value in dollars?
a) 1.8, 1.08, 1.008
b) -1.8, -1.08, -1.008
c) 0.5, 0.55, 0.555
d) -0.5, -0.55, -0.555

Set II
4. A function has the formula y = 0.5.v - 1.
a) Copy and complete the following table 2 = 0.5(6) - 1
for this function.
= 3-1
3
Iff
ill Parts d and e refer to the following points:
b) Plot the five points in this table on a
(4,1), (7,2.5), (1,0.5), (-4,-3)
graph.
c) Draw a line through the points and d) Which of these points are on the line in
extend it into the third quadrant. your graph?
The point (6, 2) is on the line and its e) Which of the points have coordinates that
coordinates make the formula v = 0.5.r — 1 make the formula v = 0.5.x - 1 true?

172 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

5. A function has the formula y = xi.
a) Copy and complete the following table for this function.
Round each v-number to the nearest hundredth.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
111 0.00 0.01 in iiiiiii ill ill mil ill iiiiiii
b) Plot the points in this table on a graph. Number the axes in the
same way as the graph for example 2 on page 172.
c) Draw a smooth curve through the points.
6. The five lines labeled A, B, C, D, and E in
A t?
the figure at the right are the graphs of five y /
functions.
c /
a) What kind of functions are they?
The formulas of three of the functions are:
/
--x + 5
: X
/
-.x -2 0 /
/ i

b) Each formula has the form y = x + b, in

which b is either positive, zero, or
/
negative. What does the value of b have
/ 3
//
to do with the position of the line on the
graph?
c) What is the formula of function B?
d) What is the formula of function E?

7. Make a table of numbers for each of the . Compare the formulas of the functions for
following functions and draw its graph. In exercise 7 with their graphs.
each case, connect the points with a line or a a) Which functions are linear?
curve. b) Which are direct variations?
a) y = -3x Let x vary from -2 to 2. c) Which functions have graphs that are
b) y = 2x — 5 Let x vary from -1 to 5. curves?
c) y — x2 — 5 Let x vary from -3 to 3. d) Which one is an inverse variation?
d) y — x2 + x Let x vary from -3 to 2.
/'
Let x vary from -6 to 6.
e) y--
Let x vary from -6 to 6.
f)y--

Lesson r>: More on Graphing Functions 173

 Set III
9. A function has the formula y = 4 — 0.5.t.
3 == 4-
3 0.5(2)
a) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
= 4-1

Pans d and e refer to the following points:

b) Plot the five points in this table on a

(6,1), (3,2.5), (-1,5), (-4,6)
c) graph.
Draw a line through the points and d) Which of these points are on the line in
extend it into the second quadrant. your graph?
The point (2, 3) is on the line and its e) Which of the points have coordinates that
coordinates make the formula v = 4 — 0.5* make the formula v = 4 — 0.5* true?

10. A function has the formula y = 1 — .r2.

a) Copy and complete the following table for this function.
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.99 0.96

b) Plot the points in this table on a graph. Number the axes in the
same way as the graph for example 2 on page 172.
c) Draw a smooth curve through the points.

11. The lines labeled A, B, C, D, and E in the A B C D E

figure at the right are the graphs of five
functions.
a) What kind of functions are they?
The formulas of three of the functions are:
A:
y = 2.x + 4
C: v = 2x
D:
V = 2.v - 3

b) Each formula has the form v = 2x + b,

in which b is either positive, zero, or
negative. What does the value of b have
to do with the position of the line on the

graph? is the formula of function B?

c) What
d) What is the formula of function E?

174 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

 . Make a table of numbers for each of the 13. Compare the formulas of the functions for
following functions and draw its graph. In exercise 12 with their graphs.
each case, connect the points with a line or a) Which functions are linear?
curve. b) Which are direct variations?
a) y = -x Let x vary from -3 to 3. c) Which functions have graphs that are
b) y = 3.v — 7 Let x vary from -1 to 5. curves?
c) y = xi — 7 Let x vary from -1 to 2. d) Which one is an inverse variation?
d) y = 4 — x2 Let x vary from -3 to 3.
Let x varv from -8 to 8.
t)y.

i)y. Let x van' from -8 to £

Set IV
This photograph, taken with a strobe light,
shows a golf ball falling through the air and
then bouncing several times.
A formula for part of its path is

y = x{6 - x)

1. Make a table for this formula, letting x van-

in halves from 0 to 6.
2. Draw a graph.
3. What do you notice?

Lesson 5: More on Graphing Functions 175

 Now if you want to spend a little more money.

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have extended our knowledge of positive and negative

numbers to include the rational numbers.

The Rational Numbers (Lesson 1) A rational number is any number that can
be written as the quotient of two integers. Because every integer can be written
as the quotient of itself and one, every integer is a rational number. A rational
number can be changed into decimal form by carrying out the indicated
division. A number in decimal form such as 1.2 is rational because it can be

written as the quotient of integers, -

Absolute Value and Addition (Lesson 2) The absolute value of a number,

represented by the symbol | |, is the distance between the number and zero on
1_2
a number line. In general, |x | = x if x is positive and \x\ = -x (or the opposite
of x) if x is negative. The absolute value of 0 is 0.
The sum of two numbers having the same sign can be found by adding their
absolute values, the answer having the same sign as the0' numbers. The sum of
1
two numbers having opposite signs can be found by subtracting their absolute
values, the answer having the same sign as the number having the larger
absolute value.
More on Operations with Rational Numbers (Lesson J) Subtracting a
number is equivalent to adding its opposite.
The product or quotient of two numbers having the same sign can be found
by multiplying or dividing their absolute values, the answer always being
positive. The product or quotient of two numbers having opposite signs can be
found by multiplying or dividing their absolute values, the answer always being
negative.

Approximation (Lesson 4) The symbol ~ is used to indicate that a number is

being used as an approximation of another. If a number is exactly midway
between two numbers that might be used as approximations of it, we choose the
number that is farther from zero on the line.

More on Graphing Functions (Lesson 5) To draw a graph of a function when

given its formula, first use the formula to make a table of x- and jy-numbers.
Then plot the points having these numbers as their coordinates. Finally connect
the points with either a straight line or a curve.

Exercises
Set I
1 . Show that each of the following numbers is
rational by writing it as the quotient of two b) -8.1 111 -8
c) |-8.1| ill |-8 1
integers.
d) 0.02 111 -0.2
e) 0.0211 |-0.2| -2.7
a) -3
b) 1 d) -5 j f) -7.4 ■ -7.40
c) 0.09 , Perform the operations indicated.
2. Change each of the following rational
numbers to decimal form. a) 8 + -0.3
b) 0.8 + -3 0.9
c) -4.1 + -5.1 2(-0.16)
a); 2-
8 b)} ^
25 c); ^2
-12 d) -4.1 --5.1 -0.16
e) -4.1(-5.1)
3. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, 2
f) -2.7 + 0.9 (-0.1 6)2
should replace III in each of the following?
a) 3.51113.06 h) -2.7(0.9)
g) -2.7 - 0.9

Summary and Review 177

 d)

What number should replace in each of c) 0.583 to the nearest hundredth.

the following equations to make it true? d) -6.5 to the nearest integer.
Find an approximation in decimal form to
b) 1.3
a) 1.3( + ) =0^=0 the nearest hundredth for each of the
c) - 4.4 = 4.4 following rational numbers.
: 2.5
< <
d)-
e) +-0.1=6 ux HO ,, 9
f) 8( ) = -0.8 -6 110
6. Here are directions for a number trick.
Make a table of numbers for each of the
Think of a number: 1.6 0.5 -2.4 following functions and draw its graph In
Subtract 3:
each case, connect the points with either a
Divide by 2: line or a curve.
Add 6.5:
a) v = -0.5.x Let x van- from -6 to 6.
Multiply by 2: b) v = x2 4- 1 Let x vary from -3 to 3.
Subtract the number that
c) v = 4.v - 3 Let x vary from -1 to 3.
you first thought of:
Let x van- from -6 to 6.
a) Copy and complete the table to show
what happens if the trick is done with 10. d) v :
Compare the formulas of the functions in
some rational numbers. exercise 9 with their graphs.
b) What number is the result of this trick? a) Which functions are linear?
7. Approximate each of the following numbers b) Which one is a direct variation?
as indicated. c) Which functions have graphs that are
a) 4.09 to the nearest integer. curves?
b) -1.27 to the nearest tenth. d) Which one is an inverse variation?

Set II
1. Show that each of the following numbers is 3. Which of these symbols. >, =, or <,
rational by writing it as the quotient of two should replace in each of the following?
integers. a) 5.08 5.7
b) -1.9 -2
b) 0 c) |-1.9| H| -2 1
c) 6.1 d)-4 d) 3.60 3.6
-42following rational
2. Change each of the -16 e) 0.04 I -0.4
numbers to decimal
-24 form. f) 0.04 -0.4
13

178 Chapter 4: THE RATIONAL NUMBERS

 d)
4, Perform the operations indicated. 7. Approximate each of the following numbers
a) 6 + -0.7 •v' 0.4
2.8 as indicated.
h) 0.6 + -7 a) 5.91 to the nearest integer.
c) -5.2 + -2.5 b) -2.736 to the nearest hundredth.
»3(-1.2)
l) — —
d) _5.2 - -2.5 ))^ c) 8.04 to the nearest tenth.
e) -5.2(-2.5) d) -4.5 to the nearest integer.
k) (-1.2)3
f") -2.8 + 0.4 8. Find an approximation in decimal form to
g) -2.8 - 0.4 the nearest hundredth for each of the
h) -2.8(0.4)
following rational numbers.

«? «£
5. What number should replace 11111 in each of
the following equations to make it true?
a) 111 + 5.7 = 0 120 ,, 7
b) 1111(5.7) = 0 -4

c) *£■ = -3 1 120
9. Make a table of numbers for each of the
} 111 " following functions and draw its graph. In
d) 111 - 2.3 = 2.3
e) -4 + 111 = 8.4 each case, connect the points with either a
f) 0.5(1111) = 6 line or curve.
b)-
6. Here are directions for a number trick. a) y — x + 2.5 Let x vary from -6 to 5.
b) y = 0.8x Let x vary from -5 to 5.
Think of a number: 3.5 -8.1 -0.6
Let x vary from -4 to 4.
Multiply bv -2: 11 111 ill!
Add 7: 11 11 111
- x Let x vary from -2 to 3.
Divide by 2: 111 111 11111
Subtract 4.5:
c) y -- the formulas of the functions in
10. Compare
Add the number that exercise 9 with their graphs.
you first thought of: 111 111 111 d) y--
a) Which functions are linear?
b) Which one is a direct variation?
a) Copy and complete the table to show
c) Which functions have graphs that are
what happens if the trick is done with curves?
some rational numbers.
d) Which one is an inverse variation?
b) What number is the result of this trick?

Summary and Revie

 Chapter 5
EQUATIONS IN
ONE VARIABLE
 The Jrte
as tbeit too:fecs Boe crtcnoc to Dittmcrc it ortelp. (nto

oftottte,
tiDOopartEB. S3berC0ftbcfirtteiS, then one number a
taualletnto one other. 2nD tbc [cconicis.lhenone nam:
kir is compared is tqualle Vnto.l.stbirnoml/eis.
lUujairs Unllpng pou to rnnrbcr, that rou rcDucc
tof)tc!)c is tbc reroute parte of pour nombcrs , to ttictr Icattc Denominations, ana
ArithmeulceicontainrngttiertrfU' fmallcttc fo:mcs,bcfo:e you p:ocr Dc any farther.
3no again, if pour eaiutun be fochc, that tbc grca^
tion of ivoctcs: Ibe CcpK' p^erifr,
telle Denomination CoQUts , be loincD to anr parte of a
Icitb the ruli of Eauaiion-.anD compounDenombrr,rou ujalltournritfo , tbattbc
tl)8 iuoo;bcs of Smd: nombcroftbegrratctte fignc alone, maiefianoeas
Hombtrs.
Uno tbis is all tbat nraDctb to be taugbtc , concer
cquallctotbcrcttr.
nrngtbi5tuoo;bc.
liotobcit.fo; caQe alteratio of eauat-.tns.j Vuill p:o
Though many fonts doe buregreatcfrke pounDc a feVuc eraplrs,buaurc tbc crrrarrion of then
Ihe^haiione'sforeierfite rootcs,maic tbe mo:c aptlr brc bj;oughtr. lino to a
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Dulit tbinges andharde it lull 'fi chaange, qualle to : J toill fcttc as 3 coc often in u)oo:Uc bfc,a
jfrJmakj them fharpejo right good vfi: patrc of parallcles,o: OcmoVuc lines of one lengtbe,
jftl artefmen {nol>e,tbei cannot ibtife, tl)UB:-==,bicaufc noe.;. tbrngcs,can be moarc
iut v/e his helpt.yct 44 men fee, cquallr. 3nD nolu inarae trjrfc nombcrs.
Kufharpentffeftmeth'm
The grounde of artes didbrede it to lee. thajhnr
Hit \fe is greate,andmoare then one,
Met i if} eu I ft you r ttiff e s to trhette.

Sharpe lilies trefintdtt their fulle trtde

Ko \>, prone, and praife,>a you dttfinde, ,9.sg--j— i92.f— log— f— tosf — loig,
jfndtoyourfelj be nit \n\tnde.

C^bcfe 13oohf s arc ta brc folCf ,at 545— — i2sg.-=-4osg,— i— 43of— 9.5*
tbc Klc(icDoo:cof ponies, Jn tbe firfic tbcre appcarrtb. : . nombcrs , tbat is
bi'5bonl3rugaen:.

lesson 1 Equations

The first algebra book in English, called The Whetstone of Witte, was written by
Robert Recorde and published in 1557. It was in this book that the equal sign
was used for the first time in history. The book's title page and the page on
which the equal sign first appeared are shown above. Mr. Recorde explained that
he chose a pair of parallel lines having the same length to indicate equality
because "no two things can be more equal." This symbol has been used ever
since to indicate that two expressions represent the same number.
Any mathematical sentence that contains an equal sign is called an equation.
Equations, like sentences in general, may be true or false. For example, the
equation 2 4- 3 = 5 is true, whereas the equation 7 — 1 = 4 is false.
The equation x + 6 = 10, on the other hand, is neither true nor false as it
stands. If the letter .v, called the variable in the equation, is replaced by the
number 4, the equation is true. If it is replaced by any other number, however,
the equation is false.
A number that can be used to replace a variable in an equation to make it true
is called a solution of the equation. Some equations, such as x + 6 = 10, have
only one solution. Others have more than one solution. The equation x2 = 9,
for example, has two solutions in that both 32 — 9 and (-3)2 = 9. It is also
possible that an equation has no solutions. For example, the equation x = x + 5
has no solutions because no number is five more than itself.
To solve an equation means to find all of its solutions. For simple equations it
is possible to do this by guessing. To learn how to solve equations whose
solutions cannot be easily guessed is a goal of algebra. In this chapter, we will
learn some methods for solving certain types of equations containing one
variable.

Exercises
Set I
1. An important number in mathematics is the 3. The following questions are about the
golden mean: 1.618033 .... The golden mean calendar.
is the ratio of the length of one of the a) How many days are there in an ordinary-
diagonals (shown here in green) of a regular year and how many days are there in a
leap year?
b) How many days are there in four years if
one of them is a leap year?
c) How many days are there in x years if y
of them are leap years?

Thirty days hath September, April,

June and November. All the rest have
pentagon to the length of one of its sides. thirty-one — except Friday — which has
Round this number to the nearest twenty-eight and twenty-nine days each
a) integer. d) thousandth. leap year. That old saying merely makes
it easier to figure the number of days in
b) tenth. e) ten thousandth. each month, but it fails to explain why
c) hundredth. some months have more davs than others.
— Sarasota (Fla.) Herald-Tribune.
2. Write another expression equivalent to each
of the following. And that isn't all it fails to explain,
either.
a) -8 + -8 + -8 + -8 c) 3(-.v)
b) (_8)(-8)(-8)(-8) d) (-.v)5

Lesson 1: Equations 183

 Set II
4. The equation x — 2 = 8 can be translated c) 12 - x = 3 n) lOx = 0
into the sentence, "If 2 is subtracted from a o) x - 10 = -10
certain number, the result is 8." Translate
each of the following equations into p) _i0x = -10
sentences. d)f12 = 3 q) x - x = 0
e) "rV = 3
r) 1 _ x - _i
a) 2.v = 8 f) x + x = 16 X

b) x + 3 = 11 1
g)
h) .v2
.v == 2x16 t) X2 = -1
5. Tell whether you think each of the following l) A" = X + 2
equations is always true, always false, or true
x3
d) variables
u) X3 = -1
v) 8J = 64
for certain values of the and false w) 4' = 64
for others. k) 3 + x = -21
X2
1)j) 3xX == -21 x) 1' = 8
a) 2 + 3 • 6 = 20 m)10 + x = 0
b) 52 - 42 = (5 - 4)2
c) x + 7 = 10
d) 3(x + 2) = 3.v + 6 7. The numbers 2 and 5 are both solutions to
e) x = x — 8
the equation x2 + 10 = 7x because
f) x2 + 3 = 12
(2)2 + 10 = 7(2) and (5)2 + 10 = 7(5).
6. If possible, find a number or numbers that Check each of the following numbers to see
can replace x in each of the following which are solutions of the equation given.
equations to make it true. If you think that a) x2 + 3 = 4x 0, 1, 2, 3
no such number can be found, briefly b) x(x + 2)(x - 5) = 0 0, 2, -2, 5, -5
explain why. c)x + 4 = (x + 4)2 0,-1,-2,-3,-4,-5
a) x + 5 = 100 d) x(x - 1) = (x + 2)(x - 3) + 6
b) 5.v = 100
1,3,8,-2,-9

Set III
8. The equation x3 = 27 can be translated into 9. Tell whether you think each of the following
the sentence, "If a certain number is cubed, equations is always true, always false, or true
the result is 27." Translate each of the for certain values of the variables and false
following equations into sentences. for others.
a) 3x = 27
b) x - 4 = 10 a) 4 • 5 - 9 = 11
b) 23 + 33 = (2 + 3)3
c)^x = 6 c) x - 8 = 6
d) 2(x + 5) = 2x + 10
d) x2 = 25 e) x + 7 = x
f) x2 + x = 30
184 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE
10. If possible, find a number or numbers that
can replace x in each of the following p) _9x = -9 t) x2 = -8
h) q) x + x = 0
equations to make it true. If you think that r) _2 - x = 2 u) x3 = -8
no such number can be found, briefly v) 9' = 81
explain why. k) w)3' = 81

a) x + 4 =
24 i)
.)f = 2 x) 1J = 1
1 1 . The numbers 3 and 8 are both solutions to
b) 4x = 24 : 5 x = 5x
c) 60 - x =
i) the equation x2 + 24 = 1 lx because
0n)x = x - 1 (3)2 + 24 = 11(3) and (8)2 + 24 = 11(8).
m) x3 o=) x Check each of the following numbers to see
d)^ = 5
; -7 + x = \< which are solutions of the given equation.
\ 6x 0 c -7x = 14
a) 6x - x2 = 8 1, 2, 3, 4
x + 9 = 0 b) x(x - 3)(x + 7) = 0 0, 3, -3, 7, -7
f ) x + x = 36 9x = 0
c) (x + 5)2 = x + 5 0,-1, -2, -3, -4, -5
x - 9 = -9 d) x(x - 2) = (x - l)2 - 1 2, 6, 1 1, -8, -9
g) x2 - 36

Set IV
One of the oldest mathematical documents in
existence is the Rhind papyrus. It is thought to
have been written in about 1650 B.C. A fragment
of it is shown at the right.
The papyrus reveals that the ancient Egyptians
solved certain algebraic equations by the
following method. For example, to find a
number for x that would make the equation
• gm** WWW *| -
x + — = 16 true, they first made a guess.

only one-fourth of 16. They reasoned that the

guess must be one-fourth of the correct answer.
Because 3 is one-fourth of 12, x = 12.
This method works for only certain types of
equations. Try it on each of the following by
guessing the number indicated.
: 36 Guess 4. Does the
1. 5x - 2. j + 4 = 24 Guess 8. Does the method
method work for this work for this problem?

problem?

Lesson 1: Equations 185

 LESSON 2
Inverse Operations
In the first panel of this cartoon Irwin is given a dollar and in the second panel
he gives the dollar back. Although it wasn't immediately apparent to him, it is
easy to see that he is now back where he started. Adding a dollar followed by
subtracting a dollar is equivalent to no change. Because subtraction undoes
addition, the two operations are called inverses of each other.
We used the word "inverse" earlier to refer to a type of variation, but we are
now using it in a different sense.

► If one operation undoes the effect of another, the operations are i verses of each
other. They are called inverse operations.

Subtraction is the inverse of addition because, for any number y that we add
to x and then subtract from the sum, the result is always the same number as that
with which we started.
x + y - y = x

Addition is the inverse of subtraction because, for any number y that we subtract
from x and then add to the outcome, the result is also always the same number as
that with which we started.
x - y + y = x

To see why this is so, remember that subtracting a number is equivalent to

adding its opposite. Because of this, x— y+y = x + -y + v. The sum of a
number and its opposite is zero, and so -v + v = 0, and x + -v - y =
x + 0 = x.
Multiplication and division are also inverse operations. For example, if a
number is multiplied by 3 and the result is then divided by 3, the answer is the
original number. In general, if a number x is multiplied by any number v other
than zero and the result then divided by v. then

If a number x is divided by any number y other than zero and the result then
multiplied by \\ then

Here are examples of problems that require inverse operations.

EXAMPLE 1

What operation on the expression x — 3 would give x as the result?

SOLUTION

The expression x — 3 means that 3 is being subtracted from .v. Because addition is
the inverse of subtraction, we can change this expression back to x by adding 3:

So the answer is, "Add 3."

EXAMPLE 2

What operations on the expression 5.v + 1 would give x as the result?

SOLUTION

The expression 5x -+- 1 means that x is being multiplied by 5 and 1 is added to the
result.

Multiply by 5:
Add 1:
5x + 1

Lesson 2: Inverse Operations 187

 ^* x

The easiest wav to get back to x is to undo these operations in reverse order as
shown here.

Subtract 1: I
>5.v
Divide by 5: (r5x + 1

The answer is. "Subtract 1 and divide the result by 5."

Exercises
Set I
1. What can you conclude about a number if a) Copy and complete the following table
a) it is equal to its opposite? for this function.
b) the result of adding it to itself is positive?
c) the result of multiplying it by itself is
positive?
d) its cube is negative?
b) What kind of function is it?
2. The graph of a certain function is shown c) Write a formula for it.
below. d) Use your formula to find the value of y
if .v = -10.

3. Five years ago Rip Van Winkle was x vears

old.
a) How many years old is he now?
b) If he has spent twenty years of his life
asleep, how many years has he been
awake?
O X
j \ 3

188 Chapters: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Set II
4. What operation is the inverse of each of the 7. Write an expression for each of the
following operations? following sets of operations.
a) Addition a) Multiply x by 2 and add 6 to the result.
b) Multiplication b) Add 6 to x and multiply the result by 2.
c) Subtraction c) Divide x by 5 and subtract 1 from the
d) Division result.
d) Subtract 1 from x and divide the result
5. In each of the following, what operation
should be performed on the first expression
e) Add
by 5. 3 to x and subtract y from the
to give the second? result.
a) 5x to give x.
f ) Subtract y from x and add 3 to the result.
b) x + 5 to give x.
g) Multiply x by 4 and divide the result
c) x - 2 to give x. by y.
h) Divide x by y and multiply the result

e) x + -8 to give x.
f ) -8x to give x.
8. If you
answers should be the same as the
h>4(f
by 4.have done exercise 7 correctly, your

expressions below. What operations should

be performed on each expression to give
h) x 6 to give x. back x as the result?
i) 9 — x to give 9. a) 2x + 6 e) (x + 3) - y
9 b)2(x + 6) f)(x-y) + 3
j) — to give 9. (Assume that x is not zero.)

6. Write a number or expression for each of

the following. l
a) The number that must be added to 3 to
give 10.
b) The number that must be added to 3 to 9. Copy and complete the following tables.
give x. a) Think of a number: -3 -2 -1 0
c) The number from which 5 must be Subtract 5: -8 111 11111 11
subtracted to give 7. Addd);7: -1 111 HI! 11
d) The number from which 5 must be
subtracted to give x. b) Think of a number: -3 -2 -1
Add 7: 4 111 111
e) The number that must be multiplied by 8 Subtract 5: -1 11 111
to give 32.
f) The number that must be multiplied by 8 c) Think of a number: -2 - 1 0
to give x. Multiply by 3: 111 11 111
Subtract 2: 111 11
-1 11
0
g) The number that must be divided by 2 to
give 9. d) Think of a number:
h) The number that must be divided by 2 to Subtract 2: 111 11111
give x.
Multiply by 3: ■1 111

Lesson 2: Inverse Operations 189

 e) Think of a number: 10. The last lines of tables a and b in exercise 9
Divide bv 4: are the same because, for anv number x,
Add 8:
-.{x-
f ) Think of a number:
Add 8: Use the results of the rest of the tables to
Divide by 4: tell whether each of the following is true or
false.
g) Think of a number: a) For any number x,
Multiply by 6:
Divide by 2: (x • 3) d.)
c and - 25)-= (x - 2) • 3. (Look at tables

h) Think of a number: b) For any number x,

Divide by 2: (jc -=- 4) + 8 = (x + 8) -=- 4. (Look at
tables e and f.)
Multiply by 6:
c) For any number x,
i) Which pairs of tables have the same
results on the last line? (x • 6) -=- 2 = (x -=- 2) • 6. (Look at tables
g and h.)

Set III
1 1. In each of the following, what operation c) The number from which 3 must be
should be performed on the first expression subtracted to give 4.
to give the second? d) The number from which 3 must be
subtracted to give x.
e) The number that must be multiplied by 7
a) y to give x.
to give 70.
b) x - 3 to give x. f ) The number that must be multiplied by 7
c) 7 + x to give x.
d) 7x to give x. to give x.
g) The number that must be divided by 5 to
e) x + -5 to give x.
f) -5x to give x.
h) The
give number
1 1. that must be divided by 5 to
g) x 2 to give x.

h) — — to give x.

i) 8 - x to give 8. 1 3. Write an expression for each of the

following sets of operations.
j) — to give 8. (Assume that x is not zero.)
a) Multiply x by 4 and subtract 9 from the
12. Write a number or expression for each of result.
the following. b) Subtract 9 from x and multiplv the result
a) The number that must be added to 6 to
c) by
Divide
4. x by 7 and add 3 to the result.
give 8.
b) The number that must be added to 6 to Add 3 to x and divide the result by 7.

give x. .:'? tract 1 from x and add y to the result.

190 Chapter5: EQUATIONS IS ONE VARIABLE

 -3

f ) Add y to x and subtract 1 from the d) Think of a number:

result. Add 2: IIIIIII
g) Multiply x by 5 and divide the result Multiply by 5: ■1 111 IIIIIII
by y. 111 0
e) Think of a number: -10
h) Divide x by y and multiply the result Subtract 10: -15 111
by 5. Divide by 3: 111 111
(f) Think of a number:
■I-10
0 6
14. If you have done exercise 13 correctly, your 1111 111
Divide by 3: -15
answers should be the same as the
Subtract 10: 111 111 111
expressions below. What operations should
0
be performed on each expression to give g) Think of a number:
back x as the result? Divide by 5: 11111 11
Multiply by 4: 111 IIIIIII IIIIIII
a) Ax - 9
0
b) 4(x - 9) h) Think of a number:
Multiply by 4: 111 111
Divide by 5: 111 IIIIIII 111
c)y + 3
i) Which pairs of tables have the same
results on the last line?
d)*±±
e) (x- l)+y
16. The last lines of tables a and b for exercise
f) (x+y)- 1
1 5 are the same because, for any number x,

h'5©
-i
-2
= (x - 8) + 3
-7 Use the(xresults
+ 3) - of the rest of the tables to
a) -i
-2 tell whether each of the following is true or
15. Copy and complete the following tables. false.
Think of a number: 0 1
b) 3:
Add 1 iiiiiii
IIIIIII IIIIIII a) For any number x,
Subtract 8: -i iiiiiii
111 ■ill c and
(x • 5) d.)
+ 2 = (x + 2) • 5. (Look at tables
Think of a number: 0 1
c) b) For any number x,
Subtract 8: 1111 ill 111
IIIIIII (x - 10) h- 3 = (x h- 3) - 10. (Look at
Add 3: linn ill 111 111 tables e and f.)
Think of a number: 0 1 2 c) For any number x,
Multiply b}j 5: 111 111 IIIIIII
■11 (X h- 5) • 4 = (x • 4) -h 5. (Look at tables
Add 2: iiiiiii 11111 1111 g and h.)

Lesson 2: Inverse Operations 191

 Set IV
The following passage is from a nonsense poem by Lewis Carroll called
The Hunting of the Snark.

The Beaver brought paper, portfolio, pens,

And ink in unfailing supplies:
While strange creepy creatures came out of their dens,
And watched them with wondering eyes.

So engrossed was the Butcher, he heeded them not,

As he wrote with a pen in each hand,
And explained all the while in a popular style
Which the Beaver could well understand.

"Taking Three as the subject to reason about —

A convenient number to state —
We add Seven, and Ten, and then multiply out
By One Thousand diminished by Eight.

"The result we proceed to divide, as you see,

By Nine Hundred and Ninety and Two:
Then subtract Seventeen, and the answer must be
Exactly and perfecdy true.

"The method employed I would gladly explain,

While I have it so clear in my head,
If I had but the time and you had but the brain —
But much vet remains to be said."

1. Take 3 as suggested in the poem and earn- out the operations described.
2. What do you get for the "answer"?
3. Carry out the same operations, starting out with 4 instead.
4. What is the "answer" this time?
5. What do you think the "answer" will usually turn out to be?
6. Can you explain why?

192 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 LESSON 3
Equivalent Equations

If the two bricks and three 1-pound weights on the left-hand pan in the drawing
above exactly balance the nine 1 -pound weights on the right, how much does
each brick weigh?
Because the three 1-pound weights on the left are balanced by three of the
1-pound weights on the right, the two bricks are evidently balanced by the other
six 1-pound weights. If the two bricks have equal weights, each one must be
balanced by three of the 1-pound weights, and so each one must weigh 3
pounds.
A balanced scale is a good model for understanding algebraic equations
because the reasoning that we used to solve this puzzle is identical with the sort
of reasoning used to solve equations. If we let x represent the weight in pounds
of one of the bricks, then the weight on the pan on the left is 2x + 3 pounds and
the weight on the pan on the right is 9 pounds. Because the weights on the two
pans are equal, we can write

2x + 3 = 9

Compare the method for finding the weight of one of the bricks, illustrated at
 the left below, with the method used to solve this equation, shown at the right.
(The boxes represent the bricks and the circles represent the 1 -pound weights.)

Steps in finding the Steps in solving

weight of a brick the equation

CQ& vc&&. 2x + 3 :

emove three 1 -pound weights Subtract 3 from

from each pan. each side.

2x = 6

emove half of the contents Divide each side

of each pan.

byx 2. = 3
J 1 j k QQO j

All the equations on the right have the same solution because they are
equivalent. In general, any equation can be transformed into an equivalent one
by performing any one of the following operations:

1. Adding the same quantity to each side.

2. Subtracting the same quantity from each side.
3. Multiplying each side by the same quantity other than zero.
4. Dividing each side by the same quantity other than zero.

These operations can be used to solve equations by changing them into

simpler equivalent equations. The idea is to "undo" each operation indicated in
the equation by performing the inverse operation on both sides. Here are more
examples of how it is done.

194 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation -3x = 12.
SOLUTION
This equation says that, if a certain number is multiplied by -3, the result is 12.
To solve it, we divide both sides by -3
-3s 12
-3 -3
to get the equation

Because this equation is equivalent to the original one, it has the same solution:
-4. Checking to be sure that we haven't made a mistake, we substitute -4 for x in
the original equation getting
-3(-4) = 12
12 = 12

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation x + 7.2 = 0.9.
SOLUTION
This equation says that, if 7.2 is added to a certain number, the result is 0.9. To
solve it, we subtract 7.2 from both sides

x + 7.2 - 7.2 = 0.9 - 7.2

getting the equation
x = -6.3

Checking -6.3 to see if it makes the original equation true, we get

-6.3 + 7.2 = 0.9
0.9 = 0.9

Lesson 3: Equivalent Equations 195

 EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation 4x — 1 = 19.
SOLUTION
This equation says that the result of multiplying a certain number by 4 and then
subtracting 1 is 19. To solve the equation, we undo these operations in reverse
order.
Adding 1 to each side of the equation
4* - 1 = 19

gives the equation

Ax = 20

Dividing both sides of this equation by 4 gives the equation

x = 5

Because all these equations are equivalent, the solution to the last one, 5, is also
the solution to the others. Checking 5 in the original equation, we get

4(5)
20 - 1 = 19
19 = 19

Exercises
Set I
Simplify each
4_ of the following expressions. 3. The number of miles that the Cannonball
Express can travel in twelve minutes is a
a) 4 +d) -20
function of its speed.
b) 4 - -20
c) 4(-20)
Speed in miles per hour
Distance traveled in miles
20

2. The following questions are about the a) What number can the numbers in the
opposite of a number. first row of this table be multiplied by
a) What is the opposite of the number -x? to give the numbers in the second row?
b) By what number should the number x b) Write a formula for this function, letting
be multiplied to give its opposite? 5 represent the speed and d represent the
c) From what number should the number x distance traveled.
be subtracted to give its opposite? c) What kind of function is this?

196 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Set II 6. In each of the following, what was done to
4. The diagrams below are of a balanced both sides of the first equation to give the
scale: the boxes represent bricks and the second?
circles represent 1-pound weights. a) 4x = 12 to give x = 3.
b) x = 3 to give 4x = 12.
c) x — 5 = 6 to give x = 1 1 .
d) x = 1 1 to give x — 5 = 6.
e) x + 9 — 1 to give :x30.- -8.

.^U g) 3x + 21 = 0 to give 3x = -21.

h) 3x = -21 to give x = -7.
v n j v op j i) -J - 1 = -9 to give £ = -8.

a) What was done to the scale in the first

diagram to obtain what is shown in the
second? k) 6 - x = 10 to
1) -x = 4 to give give -x = 4.
x = -4.
b) What was done to the scale in the
second diagram to obtain what is shown 7 Solve each of the following equations for x.
in the third?
a) x + 12 = 3
d)
h)f
c) Write an equation illustrated by the first
b) 12x = 3
diagram. c) x — 5 = -1
d) Write an equation illustrated by the
second diagram. f) f = -20
g) -x
h) 2x == -20
7
e) Write an equation illustrated by the third d) Ar = -1
diagram. e) x + 2 = -20
f) What could be done to the first equation . Solve each of the following equations
-0.3 for x.
that you wrote to get the second? a) x + 1.2 = 9 e) x - 2.5 = -10
g) What could be done to the second b) 1.2x = 9 f) -2.5* = -10
equation that you wrote to get the third? c) x - 1.2 = 9 g) x + 7 = -0.3
h) What is the weight of one brick?
. Write the equation that results from c) 1.2
performing the indicated operation on both 9. Solve each of the following equations by
sides of each of the following equations. transforming it into equivalent equations as
a) 2x + 1 = 6 Subtract 1. described. Check your answers to see if
b) 5x = 0 Divide by 5. they make the original equations true.
d)i7x - 4 = 10
c) Add 4. a) 3x + 1 1 = 5 Subtract 1 1; divide

Multiply by 8.
b) 2x - 9 = 7 Add by9; 3.divide by 2.
e) 3x + 7 = 1 Subtract 7. Add 2; multiply by 4.
f) -2x = 12 Divide by -2.

Lesson 3: Equivalent Equations 197

lit
 d) — + 5 = -1 Subtract 5; multiply 10. Solve each of the following equations for x.
Check your answers,
by 2.
e) -5x + 8 = -7 Subtract 8; divide a) 2x + 15 = 3
b) 5x - 1 = -11
f) 6 — x = 15 by -5.6; divide
Subtract C) 7 + 4x = 7
e) 3x -
by -1.

Set III
1 1 . The diagrams below are of a balanced 12. Write the equation that results from
scale: the boxes represent bricks and the performing the indicated operation on both
circles represent 1 -pound weights. sides of each of the following equations.
a) 5jc — 8 = 1 Add 8.
Multiply by 6.
7.
c) 3x = -33 Divide by 3.
2.^_ d) 8x + 2 = -10 Subtract 2.
e) 2x - 9 = -7 Add 9.
f) -Ax = 24 Divide by -4.
3. v. v^ OQOO^
1 3. In each of the following, what was done to
both
b)- sides of the first equation to give the
a) What was done to the scale in the first second?

fl-
diagram to obtain what is shown in the a) x + 2 = 7 to give x = 5.
second? b) x = 5 to give x + 2 = 7.
b) What was done to the scale in the c) 3x = 12 to give x = 4.
second diagram to obtain what is shown d) x = 4 to give 3x = 12.
in the third? e) x + 8 = 6 to give x = -2.
c) Write an equation illustrated by the first " : 96 to give x = 45.
diagram.
d) Write an equation illustrated by the
second diagram. g) 4x + 28 = 0 to give 4x = -28.
h) 4x = -28 to give x = -7.
e) Write an equation illustrated by the
third diagram.
i) £ - 1 = -10 to give £ = -9.
f) What could be done to the first equation
that you wrote to get the second? = -9 to give x = -54.
g) What could be done to the second
equation that you wrote to get the third? — x = -5 to give -x =
h) What is the weight of one brick? o-
k) 7 c = -12 to give x = 12.

198 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 14. Solve each of the following equations tor v. b) 4x + 9 = 1 Subtract 9; divide by 4.
a) .v + 8 = 6 e) x + 5 = -5
7 = 2 Add 7; multiply by 3.
b) 8.v = 6 f) 5.v = -5
= -7
d) —8
+ 1 = -6 Subtract
by 8. 1; multiplv

d) x 3 = -7 h) -.v = 9 c) ■
e) —2x + 11 = -5 Subtract 11; divide
*15. Solve each of the following equations for ;
a) x +4.4= 11 e) x - 1.5 = -6
f) 10 - x = 12 Subtract 10; divide
b) 4.4.v =11
d) f) -1.5.Y = -6 by -2.
c) x - 4.4 = 11 g) x + 8-0.25
= -0.25
, Solve each of the following equations for x.
11 by -1.
4.4 Check your answers.
a) 4.v -17 = 3
16. Solve each of the following equations by
transforming it into equivalent equations as b) 2.v + 9 = -1 11 :
c) 1 + 3.x- = -5 f ) x. + 8 = 0
described. Check your answers to see if
thev make the original equations true. e) 5x -
a) 5.v _ 3 = -23 Add 3; divide by 5. d) ^ + 2 = 6

Set IV
The following puzzle is from a book of puzzles
published in 1914.*

"If a bottle and a glass balance with a pitcher,

a bottle balances with a glass and a plate, and
two pitchers balance with three plates, can you
figure out how many glasses will balance with a
bottle?"

* Cyclopedia of Puzzles by Sam Loyd (Morningside

Press, 1914). Reprinted by Pinnacle Books, 1976.

Lesson 3: Equivalent Equations 199

 LESSON 4
Equivalent Expressions

BHHas
One type of question frequently asked on I.Q. tests is illustrated above. The
figures are all alike except for one. Can you tell which one is different?*
Now look at the following algebraic expressions:

2(1 + x) 2 + 2x 2{x +1) 2x + 1

They are also all "alike" except for one. Can you tell which one is "different"?
Two algebraic expressions are equivalent if they are equal for all values of
their variables. It is easy to see that the first two expressions are equivalent
because of the distributive rule:

2(1 + x) = 2 + 2x

Furthermore, the first and third expressions are equivalent because the sum of
two numbers does not depend upon their order:

2(1 + x) = 2{x + 1)

It is the last expression that is different.

It is important to be able to recognize algebraic expressions that are equiva-
lent. The following properties of the fundamental operations will be helpful in
doing this.
First, you know that the sum of two or more numbers does not depend on
either their order or the order in which they are added. These facts are called the
commutative and associative properties of addition.

* From Know Your Own 1.0. by H. J. Eysenck (Pelican Books, 1962), page 121. Copyright ©
H. J. Eysenck, 1962. Reprinted by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. The figure in the middle is
the one that is different.

200 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

► Commutative Property of Addition
For any two numbers a and b, a + b = b + a.

► Associative Property of Addition

For any three numbers a, b, and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

Similar properties hold for multiplication.

► Commutative Property* of Multiplication

For any two numbers a and b, ab = ba.

► Associative Property* of Multiplication

For any three numbers a, b, and c, (ab)c = a(bc).

Earlier in the course, you learned about a properly* relating multiplication to

the operations of addition and subtraction called the distributive rule.

► Distributive Property* of Multiplication over Addition and Subtraction

For any three numbers a, b, and c,

a(b + c) = ab + ac
and

a(b — c) = ab — ac

The relations between division, addition, and subtraction are not simple if
expressed in terms of the -h sign. However, if division by a is expressed in
fractions, we have the simple distributive properties shown below.

► Distributive Property' of Division over Addition and Subtraction

For any three numbers a, b, and c,

b + c _ b_ c_
a a a
and
b — c _ b c

Lesson 4: Equivalent Expressions 201

 Here are examples of how these properties are used.

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify the expression 3(4x).
SOLUTION
According to the associative property of multiplication,

3(4x) = (3 • 4)x = \2x

EXAMPLE 2
Add 7 to the expression 2x + 1.
SOLUTION
According to the associative property of addition,

(2x + 1) + 7 = 2x + (1 + 7) = 2x + i

EXAMPLE 3
Divide the expression 1 Ox — 6 by 2.
SOLUTION
According to the distributive property of division over subtraction,
lO.v - 6 10.r 6 . -x

In addition to the properties listed in this lesson, our knowledge of the

meanings of the operations can be used to recognize equivalent expressions.

EXAMPLE 4
Simplify the expression 9 • x • x.
SOLUTION
Because x • x = x2, 9 • x • x = 9x2.

202 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

EXAMPLE 5
Simplify the expression 5x — x.
SOLUTION
Because 5x = x + x + x + x + x, 5x — x = x + x + x + x = 4x.
Another way to do this problem is to use the distributive rule:

5x — x = 5x — Ix
= Ax
(5 - l)x

Exercises
Set I
1. Find the value of each of these expressions.
a) 3 - (9 - 27) c)-12 + 6(2 - 6) y
-2 c) X
b) (1 — 12)(12 — 1) d) (-10)3 -t- (-10)2
-3 3. Baby Snooks said to her father: "I am
2. Guess a-4formula for the function represented thinking of a number. If I multiply it by a
-5 formula
by each of these tables. Begin each
-5 million and add one, the answer is two."
with y = . -5 a) Write an equation for what she said,
-5 0 letting x represent the number.
a)x -5
y 12 9 6 3 0 b) Is there such a number, or was Baby
0 1 2 3 4 Snooks only fooling?
b) x
y

Set II
4. Tell whether or not the following pairs of 5. Use the property named to write another
algebraic expressions are equivalent. expression equivalent to each of the
following.
a) 2x + 5 and 5 + 2x
b) x • x • x and x3 a) 8x + 1 Commutative property of
c) x — 9 and 9 — x addition.
d) x - 9 and -9 + x b) x(x + 3) Commutative property of
e) 7x2 and 7 •x •x multiplication.
f) 2x + 3x and 5x c) x(x + 3) Distributive property of
g) 6x — x and 6 multiplication over addition.
h) 7 + (1 + x) and 8 + x d) 5 + (2 + y) Associative property of
i) 7( 1 + x) and 7 + x addition.
j) 2(6x) and 12x e) 5(2y) Associative property of
k) 3(x - 5) and 3x - 15 multiplication.
f) 6(4x — 1) Distributive property of
1) 8x + 4 and 2x + 1 multiplication over subtraction.

Lesson 4: Equivalent Expressions 203

 3x + 3 8. Simplify each of the following expressions.
Distributive property of
3
division over addition. a) x + 2x + 4x e) x - 8 + 1
b) x(2x)(4x) f) x - (8 + 1)
h) (lx)x Associative property of c) x + 2x + 4 g) 5x - 5 — x
multiplication. d)x(2x)(4) h)5x-(-5x)
6. Name the property that is illustrated by each 9. Here are directions for a number trick.
of the following equations.
Think of a number.
a) 4x = x • A
b) 7(x + 3) = Ix + 21 Subtract 3.
c) (x + 8) + 2 = x + (8 + 2) Multiply by 2.
Add 8.
Divide by 2.
d) i5^L = 9 - x
Subtract the number that
e) 3(6x) = (3 • 6)jc
f) 10 + x = x + 10 you first thought of.

7. Write a simpler expression equivalent to a) Show how the trick works by letting x
each of the following. represent the original number and writing
a) 7.v + 3x an appropriate expression for each of the
other steps.
b) (x + 7) + 3 g) (4x)(4x)
c) 4(2*) h) 9x + x b) What is the result of this number trick?
d) 4 • x • x i) 9x - x
e) Ax + Ax j) 5x - 4x
f ) 4x - Ax k) 4x - 5x

Set III
10. Tell whether or not the following algebraic 11. Use the property' named to write another
f
expressions are equivalent. expression equivalent to each) of the
following.
a) 5x + 1 and 1 + 5x
b) 5x + x and 6x a) 3(3 + x) Distributive property of
c) x4 and x + x + x + x multiplication over addition.
d) 10x3 and 10 • x • x • x b) 2x + 1 1 Commutative property of
e) 2x - 1 and 1 - 2x addition.
f) 2x - 1 and -1 + 2x c) (x + 4) + 6 Associative property of
g) 3 + (4 + x) and 7 + x addition.
h) 3(4 + x) and 12 + x d) x(x — 5) Distributive property of
i) 3(4x) and 12x multiplication over subtraction.
j) 8x - x and 8 e) x(x — 5) Commutative property of
k) 4(x - 9) and 4x - 36 multiplication.
n 3x + 15 , 7x + 7
Distributive property of
1) ^ and x + d division over addition.

204 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 g) 2(10x) Associative property of 14. Simplify each of the following expressions.
multiplication, a) 5x + 3x + x e) x - 7 + 2
h) (1 + x) + x Associative property of b) 5x(3x)(x) f) x - (7 + 2)
addition.
c) 5 + 3x + x g) 6x - 4 — 4x
12. Name the property that is illustrated by each d) 5(3x)(x) h) 6x - (-4x)
of the following equations. 15. Here are directions for a number trick.
a) x + 8 = 8 + -v
b)2(7*) = (2-7).v Think of a number.
c) 5(x + 4) = 5x + 20 Multiply by 3.
d) 3x = x • 3 Subtract 6.
v 9x - 9 , Divide by 3.
e) — — = x - 1
Add 7.
f) (x + 6) + 5 = x + (6 + 5) Subtract the number that
you first thought of.
13. Write a simpler expression equivalent to
each of the following. a) Show how the trick works by letting x
a) 4x + 9x represent the original number and writing
b) (x + 4) + 9 g) (5x)(5x)
h) 7x + x an appropriate expression for each of the
c) 5(3*) other steps.
d) 5 • x • x • x i) 7x — x b) What is the result of this number trick?
e) 5x + 5x j) 3x - 2x
f) 5x - 5x k) 2x - 3x

Set IV An Interesting Number Pattern

1. Copy and complete the following tables. In general, the sum of the cubes of the first
x integers can be represented by the
= 1
1 == 111
3
expression
■ 23 + 33 +
1+ 2
1+ 2 + 3 = 111
By referring to your tables, can you write
1+2 + 3 + 4
1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 11111
another expression to which it seems to
be equivalent?
Add some more lines to each table. Does
Table 2
= 1 your answer to exercise 2 still seem to
= 9 be correct?
= 1111
l3 + 23
= 1111
l3 + 23 + 33
l3 + 23 +l3 33 + 43
= 111
l3 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 5

l3

Lesson 4: Equivalent Expressions 205

 LESSON 5
More on Solving
Equations
"Being a scientist is going to be a lot easier than I thought."

All the equations in Lesson 3 had something in common: the variable appeared
only on the left side. Here is an example of an equation in which the variable
appears on both sides:

5x + 1 = 2x + 7

A picture illustrating this equation is shown here.

^ZL ,nn<^

The five boxes and one circle on the left pan of the balance represent the
expression 5x + 1 and the two boxes and seven circles on the right pan repre-
sent the expression 2x + 7.
To solve the equation

5.v + 1 = 2x + 7

for x is equivalent to finding out how many circles will balance one box. One
way to do this is shown below. The corresponding steps in solving the equation
are shown at the right.

5x + 1 = 2x + 7
^ J3Q

Remove two boxes from each pan. Subtract 2x from each side.

.nm^ ^ 3x + 1 = 7

Remove a circle from each pan. Subtract 1 from each side.

3x = 6
vEOLL

Because three boxes are balanced Divide each side by 3.

by six circles, one box would
be balanced by two circles.

-H.

The procedure in solving the equation is to transform it into equivalent

equations that become progressively simpler. In the last one, the variable
appears by itself on one side of the equal sign: this is always the goal in solving
an equation.
To make sure that the equations that we write are equivalent to the original
one and to each other, we can do any of the following things:

1. Add the same number to both sides.

2. Subtract the same number from both sides.
3. Multiply both sides by the same number other than zero.
4. Divide both sides by the same number other than zero.
5. Change the form of either side by using the facts that we know
about equivalent expressions.

Here are more examples of how these steps can be used to solve equations.

Lesson 5: More on Solving Equations 207

 EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation 3x + 10 = 7x — 2.

3x + 10 = Ix - 2
Because the variable appears on both sides of this equation, we might begin by
removing it from one side. One way to do this is to subtract 3x from each side:

Now we want the variable to be by itself on the right side. Adding 2 to each side,
we get

Dividing both sides by 4 gives

The solution is 3.
CHECK
Substituting 3 for x in the original equation,

3(3) + 10 = 7(3) - 2
Simplifying,

9 + 10 = 21 - 2
19 = 19

So 3 is correct.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation 4(x — 11) = 6 -
SOLUTION

Mpc- 11) = 6-X

When an equation contains parentheses, it is usually a good idea to perform the

operations that will result in their removal. Using the distributive rule, we get

208 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 4x — 44 = 6 — x

For the variable to be by itself on one side, we can add x to each side:

Sx _ 44 = 6

Adding 44 to each side gives

5x = 50

Dividing each side by 5 gives

.v = 10

The solution is 10.

CHECK
Substituting 10 for * in the original equation,

4(x - 11) = 6 - x

4(10 - 11) = 6- 10
Simplifying,

4(-l)
-4 ==-4
-4

So 10 is correct.

Exercises
Set I
1 . Write each of the following expressions 3. A function has the equation y = \x\.
without parentheses. a) Make a table for this function, letting
a) 2 + (3 - x) c) 2 + (-3jc) x = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3.
b) 2(3 - x) d) 2(-3x) b) Plot the seven points in your table on a
graph. Connect the points.
2. The "minus" sign has a different meaning c) Is (0.5, 0.5) on your graph?
in each of the following expressions. Tell
what it means in each one. d) Is (-1.5, 1.5) on your graph?
e) Is (2.5, -2.5) on your graph?
a) -5 b) x — 5 c) -x

Lesson 5: More on Solving Equations 209

 Set II
4. The diagrams below are of a balanced 5. Make drawings like those in exercise 4 to
scale: the open circles represent positive illustrate how each of the following
numbers and the solid circles represent equations might be solved.
negative numbers. a) 3.v + 1 = x + 9
b) 4.v - 3 = 3.v - 8
6. Solve the following equations for x,
i [~1 — ;
;. .HqHoQ/ showing each step on a separate line. Check
your answers.
2. vfWlgQ, a) 5.v - 3.v = 8
b) 5.v -3 = 8
c) 5.v - 3 = 8.r
3.afflL d)
e)
2x
2x
- 11 = 4 - x
- 11 = 4 + x
f) 2x + 11 = 4 + x
g) Ix - 6 = 18 + 3*
4. h) 7.v + 6 = 18 - 3.v
XL 7. Solve the following equations for x. Start
What was done to the scale in
by doing the operations required to remove
a) the first diagram to get what is shown in the parentheses. Show each step on a
the second?
separate line and check your answers.
b) the second diagram to get what is shown
in the third? a) 5(x - 2) = 30
c) the third diagram to get what is shown b) 5(2 - x) = 30
in the fourth? c) (x + 3) + x = 17
Write an equation illustrated by d) (x + 1) + (x + 4) = 0
d) the first diagram. e) 3(6 + x) = 2x
e) the second diagram. f) 3(6 - x) = 2.v
f) the third diagram. g) 2(4* - 9) - 6x = 0
h) 8{x + 5) = 7(.v - 7)
g) the fourth diagram.
What could be done to
*8. Solve the following equations for x.
h) the first equation that you wrote to get Express your answers to the nearest tenth.
the second?
a) 7.5x — 1.5.v = 6.6
i) the second equation that you wrote to b) 2x + 13.6 = 0.4a:
get the third? c) 2x - 13.6 = -0.4a:
j) the third equation that you wrote to get d) 4.2(.r - 1) = 9.8
the fourth?
e) 1.7(2* + 5) = 3(.v - 8.1)
k) If a box represents x, what does the
fourth diagram tell us about .v?

210 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Set III
9. The diagrams below are of a balanced 10. Make drawings like those in exercise 9 to
scale: the open circles represent positive illustrate how each of these equations might
numbers and the solid circles represent be solved.
negative numbers. a) 5x + 1 = 3x + 7
b) 2x - 6 = x - 2
11. Solve the following equations for x,
showing each step on a separate line. Check
your answers.
2. v 009 vnru^ a) Ix - 2 = 12
b) Ix - 2x = 12
c) Ix - 2 = \2x

3. I OOOQ J
v nn d) 3x + 10 = 4 + x
e) 3x - 10 = 4 + x
f) 3* - 10 = 4 - *

4. v. op XL g) 5x + 4 = 16 - Ix
h) 5x - 4 = 16 + Ix
ZJ
12. Solve the following equations for x. Start
What was done to the scale in by doing the operations required to remove
a) the first diagram to get what is shown in the parentheses. Show each step on a
the second? separate line and check your answers.
b) the second diagram to get what is shown a) 4(x - 3) = 24
in the third?
b) 4(3 - x) = 24
c) the third diagram to get what is shown
in the fourth? c) (x + 7) + x = 15
d) (x + 2) + (x + 6) = 9
Write an equation illustrated by e) 7(2 -x) = 3x
d) the first diagram. f) 7(2 + x) = 3x
e) the second diagram. g) 5(6x - 1) + 20x = 0
f ) the third diagram. h)2(x+ ll) = 9(x-3)
g) the fourth diagram.
What could be done to * 1 3. Solve the following equations for x.
Express your answers to the nearest tenth.
h) the first equation that you wrote to get
the second? a) 8.2x - 5.2x = 4.5
i) the second equation that you wrote to b) 4x + 11.7 = 0.3x
get the third? c) 4x - 11.7 = -0.3x
j) the third equation that you wrote to get d) 2.6(x + 1) = -9.4
the fourth? e) 1.3(5x - 8) = 6(x + 7.6)
k) If a box represents x, what does the
fourth diagram tell us about x?

Lesson 5: More on Solving Equations 211

 Set IV
\X"hen asked her age. Miss Grundy refused to 2. How old was she 72 years ago?
tell. After being begged for a hint, however, she 3. Write the information given in this problem
finally admitted that in 12 years she hoped to be as an equation.
three times as old as she was 72 years ago. 4. Solve the equation to find out how old
Miss Grundy is now.
1. If x represents Miss Grundy's present age, 5. Check your answer by seeing if it agrees
how old will she be 12 years from now? with Miss Grundy's hint.

212 Chapters: EQUATIONS IN ONE \ARIABLE

 LESSON 6
Length and Area

A baseball diamond is square in shape, having sides that are 90 feet long.
The distance that a player has to run in going around the diamond is called
its perimeter. This distance, the sum of the lengths of its sides, is

90 + 90 + 90 + 90 = 360 feet

10
product of its length and width:

90-90 = 8,100 square feet

i »
9
This means that the diamond could be divided into 8,100 squares, each
measuring one foot on each side.
The methods for finding the perimeter and area of a baseball diamond
can be applied to any rectangle. It is easy to see why if the sides of a
rectangle have lengths that are integers. The figures at the right, for
example, show why a rectangle 3 centimeters long and 2 centimeters wide
has a perimeter of 10 centimeters and an area of 6 square centimeters.
213
 ► The perimeter of a rectangle (or any geometric figure bounded by straight line
segments) is the sum of the lengths of its sides.

► The area of a rectangle is the product of its length and width.

Here are examples of how our knowledge of equations can be applied to

problems about lengths and areas.

x+3
EXAMPLE 1
Find the length and width of this rectangle if its
perimeter is 24 units.
SOLUTION
Because the perimeter is the sum of the lengths of its X+3
sides (two lengths and two widths), we can write the equation

2(x + 3) + 2x = 24
Solving this equation for x, we get

2x + 6 + 2x = 24
Ax + 6 = 24
Ax = 18
x = 4.5

Because x = 4.5, x + 3 = 7.5. The length is 7.5

centimeters and the width is 4.5 centimeters.
CHECK

2(7.5) + 2(4.5) = 15 + 9 = 24 centimeters

EXAMPLE 2
Find the length of this rectangle if its area is 3x square units.
SOLUTION
Because the area is the product of its length
and width, we can write the equation x-6
5(x - 6) = 3x x-6
Solving for x, we get
5.v - 30 = 3x
2.v - 30 = 0
2x = 30
x = 15

214 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 Because x = 15, x — 6 = 9. The length of the rectangle is
9 centimeters.
CHECK
Substituting 15 for x in the expression 3.v, we get
3(15) = 45. This agrees with the fact that the length and
width of the rectangle are 5 and 9. Their product is 45.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the length of each segment in this diagram
if AB and CD are the same length. ^. ^ ,g
10 2x
SOLUTION
Because AB and CD are equal in length, we

can write the equation C • A(v-7)

10 + 2.v = 4(.v - 7)
Solving for x,
10 + 2x = 4.x - 28
10 = 2.v - 28
38 = 2.v
19 = x

EB = 2.v = 2(19) = 38
CD = 4(.v - 7) = 4(19 - 7) = 4(12) :

AB = AE + EB = 10 + 38 = 48

Exercises
Set I
1. Name the property that is illustrated by each 2. Solve the following equations for x.
of the following equations. a) -2.4 4- x = 30
a) 4(7x) = (4 • 7)x b) -2.4.v = 30
b) 3(2* + 1) = 6x + 3 c) -2 + 0.4.x- = 30
c) x + -5 = -5 + x d) 2 - 0.4* = 30

d) 8x ~ 40 = 2x - 10

Lesson 6: Length and Area 215

 3. The number of degrees that the earth turns Time in hours 12 3 4
on its axis is a function of time. Number of degrees 15 30 45 60

a) Write a formula for this function, letting

t represent the time in hours and n
represent the number of degrees.
b) Through how many degrees does the
earth turn in 24 hours?
c) Through how many degrees does the
earth turn in 12* hours?

Set 11
4. Find an expression for the perimeter of each of these figures.

a) b) . * c) 9
* * X+1

x+3
a)
5. Find an expression for the area of each of these rectangles,
b) i„
X

7 7 2x
2x x-4

2x
6. The perimeter of the triangle at the right is
19. Use this fact to write an equation
b) and
solve it to find the lengths of the triangle's
sides. Check your answer.
7. Apply the method that you used in exercise 6 to find the lengths of the sides of
the following figures. Check your answers.
c) X-2
v/ \
8 x+5
x x+3 \x x+5
/ +3
2\ /
8 x+4
7 x-2
Perimeter is 16
Perimeter P erimete r Perimeter
is 26 is 30 is 17

216 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 Find the lengths of the sides of the following rectangles.
Check your answers.

x-4

x+2
x-4

Area is 36 Area is 10 x Area is x+24

9. Find the length of each segment in each of the following diagrams.
In each figure, AB and CD are the same length.
b) E

5x 4•B A. Hx-1) £ —3x

3(x+6) 3d

x+11 6 (x+2)
E
x+4 x+9 2IX+10)

b)

Set III
10. Find an expression for the perimeter of each of these figures.

x-3

c) X+2

x+2

1 1 . Find an expression for the area of each of these figures.

x+3

a) b) c)
f, *
7

x+3

Lesson 6: Length and Area 217

 12. The perimeter of the triangle below is 20. Use this fact to write an equation
and solve it to find the lengths of the triangle's sides. Check your answer.

x+3

13. Apply the method that you used in exercise 12 to find the lengths of the sides
of the following figures. Check your answers.
c)

b)

2x
Perimeter Perimeter
is 14 is 40

14. Find the lengths of the sides of the following rectangles.

Check your answers.
x+3
7

X 8 8
7 XT J x-1
Area is 42 4
Area is 16 x
ea is x+20
15. Find the length of each segment in each of the following diagrams.
Ar
In each figure, AB and CD are the same length.

3x 4(x-3)
2x
S(x+1) 39 x-
c) A.

x+8

9(x-2)
3(x+5)

218 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

C«
Set IV
Obtuse Ollie wanted to get a photograph
enlarged so that the length and width of the
enlargement would be twice those of the
original. Because the original cost 40 cents, Ollie
assumed that the enlargement would cost 80
cents.
1. Does this seem reasonable? Explain.
2. If the length and width of one rectangle are
each three times those of another, how do
you think their areas compare?
3. If the length and width of one rectangle are
each x times those of another, how do their
areas compare?

Lesson 6: Length and Area 219

 LESSON 7
Distance, Rate,
and Time

It isn't possible to solve the homework problem described in this cartoon with
the information given. Instead of being told the speed limit and the number of
gallons that Mr. Jones's gas tank will hold, we need to know how far it is to
Cleveland.
If something moves at a constant speed, there is a simple relationship between
the distance it travels, its speed, and the time that it takes to travel that distance.
Suppose, for example, that Mr. Jones travels at 50 miles per hour for three
hours. A speed of 50 miles per hour means that he travels 50 miles each hour; so
in three hours he travels 3 • 50 = 150 miles.
50 ' 50 ' 50
► The distance traveled by something moving at a constant speed is the product of
the rate of speed and the time traveled. This relationship is often expressed by
the formula

Suppose that Air. Jones decides to drive at a speed of 80 miles per hour and
that he covers 16 miles at this rate before being stopped by a highway patrol
officer. How many minutes did he travel before being stopped?
From the formula d = rt, we can write the equation

16 = 80t
Solving for t by dividing both sides of the equation by 80, we get

16
t, or t = 0.2

Mr. Jones traveled at this rate for 0.2 hour, or, because there are 60 minutes in
an hour, for 0.2(60) = 12 minutes.
Suppose that, having received a ticket, Mr. Jones slows down and takes 90
minutes to travel 8 1 miles. If he travels at a steady rate, what is his new rate of
speed? From the formula d = rt, we can write the equation
81 = r(1.5)

(If we want to find his speed in miles per hour, we must express the time, 90
minutes, in hours.) Solving for r by dividing both sides of the equation by 1.5,
we get
_8J_
: r, or r = 54
1.5

Mr. Jones's new rate of speed is 54 miles per hour.

Exercises

Set I
1. Write expressions for the following sets of Americans consume an average of 15
operations. pounds of oranges per person each year.
a) Multiply x by 5 and subtract 1 from the On the basis of this figure,
result. a) how many pounds of oranges would be
b) Subtract 1 from x and multiply the consumed by x Americans in a year?
result by 5. b) how many Americans would consume y
c) Divide x by 3 and add 8 to the result. pounds of oranges in a year?
d) Add 8 to x and divide the result by 3.
2. Simplify each of the following expressions.
a) 6x(x) d) 6(x + x)
b) 6x — x e) x - 6.v
c) 6(x - x) f) x - 6 + x

Lesson 7: Distance, Rate, and Time 221

 a)
c)

d)

Trip
Set II
4. Draw a figure like the one on page 220 to What number or expression belongs in each
illustrate each of the following statements. of the blanks?
a) If a bus traveled 55 miles per hour for b)
Distance Rate Time
two hours, it would travel 110 miles.
b) If a truck traveled x miles per hour for (miles) (mph) (hours)
four hours, it would travel 4.r miles. 1 0.25
c) If an airplane traveled (.v + 10) miles 2 40 ei 0.8
60
per hour for three hours, it would travel 3 35 70
(3.v - 30) miles. 4 25 65 X
r> 75 V
5. An ostrich can run at a speed of 45 miles
per hour.
6 z 0
a) Copy and complete the following table
to show the distances an ostrich can run 8. Mr. Fogg plans to travel around the world,
in various times. a distance of 24,900 miles, in 80 days.
a) Write a distance-rate-time equation for
Time in hours 0 1 3 the trip, letting x represent the rate.
Distance in miles 0 b) Solve the equation for x to find what
Mr. Fogg's
in miles per average
day. rate of speed will be
b) How does the distance van.- with respect
to time?
*9. The world speed records for free-style
c) Write a formula for this function, letting
swimming are shown in the following table.
d represent the distance and t represent
the time.

6. Chicago and London are 3,960 miles apart, 100 meters 49 sec
a) Copy and complete the following table 200 meters 1 min 50 sec
to show how long it would take to fly 400 meters 3 min 52 sec
from one citv to the other. 800 meters 8 min 2 sec

Speed in mph 400 450 500 550

Time in hours a) Find the average speed for each distance
in meters per second. Round each
answer to the nearest hundredth.
b) Write a formula for this table, letting r
b) Find the average speed for 100 meters
represent the speed and t represent the
time. in meters per minute.
c) Find the average speed for 100 meters
c) How does the time van- with respect to in meters per hour.
the speed?
d) Find the average speed for 100 meters
7. The following table represents six different in kilometers per hour. (One
trips made by Fonzie on his motorcycle. kilometer = 1,000 meters.)

222 Chapters: EQUATIONS IS OSE VARIABLE

Set III What number or expression belongs in each
of the blanks?
10. Draw a figure like the one on page 220 to
illustrate each of the following statements. Distance Rate Time
a) If a train traveled 40 miles per hour for Flight a) ■
(miles) (mph) (hours)
two hours, it would travel 80 miles.
1 40 0.5
b) If a ship traveled x miles per hour for
2 90 2
three hours, it would travel 3x miles. b) 11111
3 80 60
c) If a car traveled 2x miles per hour for c) 1111
4 d) 11111 X 1
five hours, it would travel 10* miles.
5 y e) 111 3
1 1 . An eagle can fly at a speed of 90 miles per 6 50 z f) 11111
hour.
a) Copy and complete the following table 14. The earth travels 584,000,000 miles each
to show the distances an eagle can fly in year in its orbit around the sun.
various times. a) On the assumption that a year contains
exactly 365 days, write a distance-rate-
Time in hours 0 2 time equation for the trip, letting x
Distance in miles 0 11111 represent the rate.
b) How does the distance vary with respect
■I b) Solve the equation for x to find what the
to the time? earth's average rate of speed in its orbit
around the sun is in miles per day.
c) Write a formula for this function, letting
d represent the distance and t represent *15. The world speed records for skating are
the time. shown in the following table.
Time
Distance
12. Paris and Istanbul are 1,400 miles apart.
a) Copy and complete the following table 500 meters 37 sec
to show how long it would take to fly 1,000 meters 1 min 16 sec
from one city to the other. 1,500 meters 1 min 55 sec
3,000 meters 4 min 9 sec
Speed in mph 400 500 700 800
Time in hours 111 |||||||||| III |||||||||| a) Find the average speed for each distance
in meters per second. Round each
b) Write a formula for this table, letting r answer to the nearest tenth.
represent the speed and t represent the b) Find the average speed for 500 meters
time. in meters per minute.
c) How does the time vary with respect to c) Find the average speed for 500 meters
the speed? in meters per hour.
d) Find the average speed for 500 meters
13. The following table represents six different in kilometers per hour. (One
flights made by Mr. Wright in his airplane. kilometer = 1,000 meters.)

Lesson 7: Distance, Rate, and Time 223

 Set IV
Mr. Mercer wants to drive his Raceabout two
miles at an average speed of 50 miles per hour.
1. If he drives the first mile at 25 miles per
hour, how much time does he have left to
drive the second mile?
2. Can he do it? If so,, at what speed?

224 Chapters: EQUATIONS IN ONE \ARIABLE

 LESSON 8
Rate Problems
Several years ago the British Royal Aeronautical Society offered a prize of
$85,000 to the first person who could build a man-powered plane that could fly
a round-trip course of one mile. The prize was won by Paul B. MacCready,
whose plane, named the Gossamer Condor, successfully completed such a flight
in August 1977.*
The plane took 4 minutes and 20 seconds to cover the first part of the flight,
flying against a wind of 2 miles per hour. The return trip, in which the plane
flew with the same wind, took 3 minutes. When the flight was over, the designer
wanted to know the plane's airspeed. We can use the information that we have
and some simple algebra to figure it out.
If the Gossamer Condor can fly x miles per hour in still air, its speed against
a 2-mile-per-hour wind would be (x — 2) miles per hour and its speed with the

* "Science and the Citizen," Scientific American, October 1977, p. 74.

 same wind would be (x + 2) miles per hour. Its time flying against the wind was
4 minutes and 20 seconds, or 260 seconds. Because there260 are 60 • 60 = 3600
seconds in an hour, the plane flew against the wind for — hour. Reasoning in
180
the same wav, we can conclude that the return trip with the wind took 3600
hour.
Assuming that the plane flew at a constant speed during each part of the flight,
we can use the formula

to write an expression for the distance covered each way. Flying against the
260
' 3600 miles.
wind, the plane traveled (x — 2) • ' Returning with the wind, it flew

<-v + 2)'Jlmks' Against wind

(x-2)1^-
With wind
180
3600

(x+2) -
Because the distances for both parts of the flight are the same, we can write
the equation,

(x_2).J60_
V } 3600 = V
( 2).J80_
; 3600

Multiplying each side of this equation by 3600, we get

260(.v - 2) = 180(.v + 2)

Applying the distributive rule to each side gives

260.v - 520 = 180a- + 360

226 Chapters: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Solving for x gives

80* - 520 = 360

80x = 880
x = 11

The airspeed of the Gossamer Condor was 1 1 miles per hour.

To solve rate problems such as the one we have just done, it is helpful to draw
a diagram to illustrate the distances. The information in the diagram can then be
used to write an equation. Here is another example.
Suppose that someone drives for a certain distance at a speed of 60 miles per
hour and then slows down to a speed of 50 miles per hour. If it takes two hours
to travel 105 miles, how much time was spent traveling at each speed?
If we let x represent the time spent driving at 60 miles per hour, then 60x
represents the distance in miles traveled at that speed. Because the total time is
2 hours, (2 — x) is the time spent traveling at 50 miles per hour. The distance
traveled for that part of the trip would be 50(2 — x) miles.
From the figure at the right below illustrating the trip, we see that

60* + 50(2 - x) = 105 | 60x 1 50(2-x) l

-« 105 miles »-
Solving this equation for x, we get

60x + 100 - 50x = 105

10* + 100 = 105
lOx = 5
x = 0.5

If x = 0.5, then 2 — x = 2 — 0.5 = 1.5. The time spent driving at 60 miles per
hour is 0.5 hour and the time spent driving 50 miles per hour is 1.5 hours. To
find out whether this is correct, we write

60(0.5) + 50(1.5) = 105

30 + 75 = 105
105 = 105

Lesson 8: Rate Problems

 Exercises
Set I
1. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, c) Add 6 to a number and multiply the
should replace llllll in each of the following? result by 2. Multiply a number by 2 and
a) 0.1 ill (0.1 )2 add 12 to the result.
b) -(11 -8) III -(8- 11)
3. A popular quiz show of the 1940s was
c)4li-T
-4 4 "Double or Nothing." Each successive
question answered correctly doubled the
d)3(-5) llllll (-5)3 amount of your winnings. An incorrect
2. Tell whether or not the steps in each of the answer meant that you lost everything. How
following will always give the same result. much money would you have won if, after
a) Subtract 2 from a number and add 5 to winning x dollars, you answered
the result. Add 5 to a number and a) one more question correctly and then
subtract 2 from the result.
b) Multiply a number by 3 and subtract 1 b) three questions correctly before quitting?
from the result. Subtract 1 from a c) five questions correcdy and then missed a
number and multiply the result by 3. quit?
question?

Set II
, Daisy and her boyfriend, Alf Kerazy, decide 5. The largest swimming pool in the world,
to have a bicycle race. Because the rates at located in Casablanca, is 480 meters long.
which Daisy and Alf can ride are 720 and

"*03-v:
660 meters per minute, respectively, Alf is
given a headstart of two minutes.
a) If Daisy catches up with Alf in x
minutes, how many minutes has Alf been
riding? (Give your answer in terms of x.)
b) Copy and complete the diagram below,
which shows the race to the point at
which Daisv overtakes Alf.

Daisy
720x
I
c) Use the information in this diagram to Suppose that two swimmers at opposite ends
write anI equation. of the pool jump in at the same time and
d) Solve the equation to find out how long begin swimming toward each other at speeds
it takes Daisy to catch up. of 70 meters per minute and 80 meters per
e) At this time, how far has each one gone? minute, respectively.

228 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 a) What distance will each one swim in x 6. An airplane flying at a speed of about 100
minutes? miles per hour was once overtaken and
b) Copy and complete the diagram below, passed by a flock of sandpipers! Suppose that
which shows the point at which the a flock of these birds can fly at 1 10 miles
swimmers will meet. (Let x represent the per hour with a certain wind and at 90 miles
time that each one has been swimming.) per hour against it. If they fly a certain
distance with the wind and the same distance

swimmer swimmer against it, how far can they fly in all if the
trip takes two hours?
2nd a) If .v represents the time that the flock
spends flying with the wind, how much
480 meters «~ time does it spend flying against it?
b) Draw a diagram showing the distance
c) Use the information in this diagram to flown with the wind and the distance
write an equation. returning against it.
d) Solve the equation to find how many c) Use the information in your diagram to
minutes it will take the swimmers to write an equation.
meet. d) Solve the equation for x.
e) At the point at which they meet, how far e) How far can the flock fly altogether?
will each swimmer have gone?

Set III

. A cheetah and an impala spot each other

when they are 450 meters apart. The impala Cheetah
begins running directly away at a speed of
20 meters per second. At the same instant,
the cheetah takes off after it, running at a
speed of 26 meters per second. Impala
a) If x represents the time it takes for the , 450
cheetah to overtake the impala, how far c) Use the information in your diagram to
will each one have run during this time? write an equation.
(Give your answers in terms of .v.) d) Solve the equation to find out how long
b) Copy and complete the diagram at the it takes the cheetah to catch up.
right, which shows the chase to the e) At this point, how far has each animal
point where the cheetah catches up. run?

Lesson 8: Rate Problems 229

 8. The Wright brothers took off from an d) Solve the equation to find how many
airport at the same time and flew in opposite hours it took for the planes to be 900
directions. Their respective speeds were 160 miles apart.
miles per hour and 200 miles per hour. e) At that point, how far had each plane
a) How far had each one flown after x flown?
hours?
9. An Explorer Scout paddled his canoe
b) Copy and complete the diagram below, downstream and back in four hours. If his
which shows the positions of the
rate down the river was 5 miles per hour
planes when they were 900 miles apart. and his rate up the river was 3 miles per
hour, how far down the river did he go?
1st plane 2nd plane a) If x represents the time that the scout
Airport spent going down the river, how much
time did he spend going up the river?
■* 900 miles *- b) Draw a diagram showing the distance
traveled down the river and the distance
traveled up the river.
(Let x represent the time each plane c) Use the information in your diagram to
had been flying.) write an equation.
c) Use the information in your diagram to d) Solve the equation for x.
write an equation. e) How far down the river did the scout go?

Set IV
A member of the Cleveland Indians once How many seconds had passed between the
managed to catch a baseball thrown from a time that the ball was thrown and the time
blimp hovering overhead. If the ball was thrown that it was caught?
from the blimp at a speed of 10 feet per second,
its speed at any given instant afterward is given The distance traveled by a falling object is
by the formula given by the formula
r = 10 + 32*
d = \6t2
in which d is the distance in feet and t is the
in which r is the speed in feet per second and t
is the time in seconds. time in seconds that the object has been falling.
1. The ball was traveling at a speed of 234 2. How far above the ground was the blimp
feet per second at the instant it was caught. from which the baseball was thrown?

230 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

 Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to solve certain types of equations con-
taining one variable and how to use such equations in solving perimeter, area,
and rate problems.

Equations (Lesson 1 ) An equation is a mathematical sentence stating that two

expressions represent the same number. To solve an equation means to find all
of the numbers that can be used to replace the variable in the equation to make
it true. Some equations have only one solution, some have more than one, and
some have none at all.

Inverse Operations (Lesson 2) If one operation undoes the effect of another,

the operations are inverses of each other. Addition and subtraction are inverse
operations, as are multiplication and division. Inverse operations are useful in
solving equations.

Equivalent Equations (Lesson 3) An equation can be transformed into an

equivalent one (one having the same solutions) by: adding the same quantity to
each side; subtracting the same quantity from each side; multiplying each side
by the same quantity other than zero; or dividing each side by the same quantity
other than zero.
 Equivalent Expressions (Lesson 4) Equivalent expressions are expressions
that are equal for all values of their variables. The following properties can be
used to recognize equivalent expressions.

Commutative property of addition. b + a

a + b =
Associative property of addition. (a + b) + (b + c)
+ c = a
ab = ba a(bc)
Commutative property- of multiplication.
Associative property of multiplication.
a(b + c) = ab + ac
Distributive property of multiplication
over addition and subtraction. (ab)c
a{b - = c) = ab — ac
= A +
c
Distributive property of division b + c
over addition and subtraction. a a a
b - c b c

More on Solving Equations (Lesson 5) To solve an equation, we transform it

into equivalent equations that become progressively simpler. In the last one, the
variable appears by itself on one side of the equal sign and does not appear at
all on the other side.

Length and Area (Lesson 6) The perimeter of a rectangle (or any geometric
figure bounded by straight line segments) is the sum of the lengths of its sides.
The area of a rectangle is the product of its length and width.

Distance, Rate, and Time (Lesson 7) The distance traveled by something

moving at a constant speed is the product of the rate of speed and the time
traveled. This relationship is often expressed by the formula

d= rt

Rate Problems (Lesson 8) To solve rate problems, it is helpful to draw a

diagram to illustrate the distances. The information in the diagram can then be
used to write an equation.

232 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

Exercises

Set I
1. Tell whether each of the following 7. Use the property named to write another
equations is true, false, or neither, expression
following. equivalent to each of the
a) 43 - 42 = 4
6 + 2 = 6 2 a) (x — 5)2 Commutative property of
2 2 2 multiplication.
)- b) x(x + 8) Distributive property of
c)b .v + 7 = 1
multiplication over addition.
d) 3(5*) = 15.v
c) 3 + (7 + x) Associative property of
2. If possible, find a number or numbers that addition.
can replace x in each of the following d) 3(7.v) Associative property of
equations to make it true. If you think that multiplication.
no such number can be found, briefly
explain why. c) x + x = 16 division over subtraction.
a) x + 6 = -10 d) x =x-2
8. Write a simpler expression equivalent to
39 _ , e) x2 = 64 each of the following.
f ) 2* = 64
b)- a) 9x + 2x d) 4x - x
3. Check each of the following numbers to see
which are solutions of the equation given. b)
e) 9(2x)
- e) 6 • x • x • x
c) 9 + (2 + x) {)6 + x + x + x
a) x2 - 3 = 2x 1, 2, 3, -1, -2, -3
b) x(x + 7) = 0 0,1, 7, -1, -7 9. Solve the following equations for x. Check
c) (x + 2){x - 2) = x2 - 4 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 your answers.
a) 9x - x = -24 d) (x + 8) + x = 6
4. What operations should be performed on
each of these expressions to give x as the b) 2x - 11 = 7x e) 4(x - 1) - x = 1 1
result? c) 5(x - 3) = 25 f) 10(x + 2) = 2(x + 10)
b)
a) Ax *10. Solve the following equations for x.
x + i y) a) 3.6.r - 2.2x = 4.2
c)2(
d) |-x+
3'
3 b) 8x + 9.3 = 1.8*
5. Solve each of the following equations for x. c) 6.5(.v - 2) = 2.6
d) 4(0.2* + 3.7) = 0.7x - 6.7
a) 8 + x = -5
11. Find expressions for the perimeter and area
b) -5 + x = 8 e) — = -7
c) -5x = 8 of each of these rectangles.

d)x-9 = -7 0-* = -3
6. Solve each of the following equations for x.
Check your answers.
3x
a) 3x + 1 1 = 5

d) 4 + 4 = 1 3x
b) | -15=0 /
e) -x + 8 = -10 3x
c) -5x + 6 = -9
3x
Summary and Review 233
 12. Find the lengths of the sides of the following figures.
Check vour answers.

x+5 10 x-4
x-4

10
2x x-2 'D
Perimeter is 50 Perimeter is 33 Areax+5is 48 Area is 7x+11

1 3. Find the length of each segment in each of these diagrams.

In each figure. AB and CD are the same length.
•D

16(x-1) 3(x+5) x
E
6X-27
46 " ~ 4x 14

14. Suppose that an athlete could run a mile in three minutes.

a) What would his average speed in miles per hour be?

b) At this rate., how far would he run in x hours?

15. A weasel can run at a speed of nine

kilometers per hour.
a) Copy and complete the following table
b) How does the distance van,- with respect
to show the distances that a weasel can to the time?
run in various times. c) Write a formula for this function,
letting d represent the distance and t
Time in hours 0 12 3 4
Distance in km 0 represent the time.

234 Chapter 5: EQUATIONS IN ONE VARIABLE

16. After their boat capsized in the middle of b) Draw a diagram to represent the
Lake Tippecanoe, Acute Alice and Obtuse
Ollie swam in opposite directions toward c) problem.
Use the information in your diagram to
shore. Alice swam twice as fast as Ollie write an equation.
and, after 3 minutes, they were 1,125 feet d) Solve the equation for x.
apart. Find out how far each one swam by e) How far did each one swim?
doing each of the following,
a) If Ollie swam at the rate of x feet per
minute, at what rate did Alice swim?

Set II
1. Tell whether each of the following 6. Solve each of the following equations for x.
equations is true, false, or neither. Check your answers,
a) 6(4 • 2) = 24(2) c) 7(x - 1) = Ix - 7 a) 20 + 4x = 0
b) 22 + 32 = 52 d) x = 4x
2. If possible, find a number or numbers that
can replace x in each of the following c) -7x + 5 :
equations to make it true. If you think that
no such number can be found, briefly
explain why. j) £. _ \2
10 :
a) 2x = -22 4
b) 8 - x = -5 e) x2 = 25 7. Use the property named to write another
e) -x -
c) x + 3 = x f) 5* = 125 expression equivalent to each of the
following.
3. Check each of the following numbers to see
which are solutions of the equation given. a) (x + 9) + 3 Associative property of
addition.
a) x2 + 2x = 8 2, 3, 4, -2, -3, -4
b) x(x - 5) = 6 0,1, 6, -1, -6 - b) (x + 9)3 Commutative property of
y multiplication.
c) (x - 3)(x + 3) = x2 - 9 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
4. What operations should be performed on c) — j Distributive property of
each of these expressions to give x as the division over addition.
result?
b) d) (2x)x Associative property of
a) 6(x + 2) c) 3x + y multiplication.
e) x(x - 10) Distributive property of
10
multiplication over subtraction.
5. Solve each of the following equations for x. 8. Write a simpler expression equivalent to
a) 3 + x = -4 dx)- each of the following.

b) -4 + x = 3 e) Zg = ~9 a) 4x + 5x d) 7 • x • x
C)-4* = 3 b) 4 + (5 + x) e) 7 + x + x
f) x-2
*)-*-* c) 4(5x) f) lOx - x
d) x - 8 = -9
Summary and Review 235
 9. Solve the following equations for x. Check * 10. Solve the following equations for x.
Your answers a) 5.4.x- - 4.1.V = 6.5
a) 5.v - 3.v = 1 d) (.v - 7) + x = 9 b) 7x - 9.5 = 3.2.v
b)
b) 12 - x = 2.x e) %x - 4) - 2x = 6 c) 3.7(.v- 1)= 11.1
c) 2(x + 8)= 10 f) 12(.v -l) = 2(x+l) d) 8(0.4.v ~ 2.9) = 1.2.v - 5.8

11. Find expressions for the perimeter and area of each of these rectangles.
c) I
a
5x
x+7

5x
4

12. Find the lengths of the sides of the following figures. Check your answers

x+3
X-4
x-4
x+3

Perimeter is 25 Perimeter is 48 Area is 35 Area is 10x + 6

13. Find the length of each segment in each of these diagrams.

In each figure. AB and CD are the same length.

44 2x
29
7x-10
E
8ix+1) ~6(x-7) 4(x+2)
4x 5(x-2

b) Write a formula for this table, letting r

14. Minneapolis and Denver are _i
apart. represent the speed and t represent the
a) Copy and complete the following table time.
to show how long it would take to flv c) How does the time vary with respect to
from one city to the other. the speed?

Speed in mph 350 400 500

Time in hours

236 Chapters: EQLATIOSS IS OSE \ARIABLE

15. The man in this photograph rowed his boat a) What was his average speed in miles per
across the Atlantic Ocean! It took him 71 day? (Round your answer to the nearest
integer.)
days to go 1,900 miles.
b) At this rate, how far would he go in x
days?
16. In a horse race, Dog Biscuit is 30 feet
ahead of the next horse, Beetlebaum. While
Dog Biscuit is running at a speed of 46
feet per second, Beedebaum speeds up to 50
feet per second. Find out how long it will
ispajSpSxESS take Beetlebaum to catch up by doing each
of the following.
a) If x represents the time it takes, what
distance does each horse run during this
time? (Give your answers in terms of x.)
b) Draw a diagram to represent the

c) problem.
Use the information in your diagram to
write an equation.
d) Solve the equation for x.
e) How far did each horse run during this
time?

Summary and Review 237

 Chapter V^/

EQUATIONS IN
TWO VARIABLES
 JUST PUT AND
FRANKLIN DOWNDON'T
"ELEVEN"
WORW
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LESSON 1

Equations in
Two Variables

So far, the equations that you have learned to solve have contained only one
variable. However, many practical problems in algebra require solving equa-
tions having two variables or even more. Here is an example of such an
equation:

3x - 2y = 15

To solve this equation, we have to rind numbers that can replace x and y to make
the equation true. The numbers named in the cartoon will work because

3(11) -2(9) =
33 - 18 = 15

A simple way of writing the solution x = 1 1 and y = 9 is to write the

numbers as if they were the coordinates of a point: (x,y) = (11, 9).
It is easy to find more pairs of numbers that are also solutions of the equation.
For example, if x = 1, then

3(1) - 2y = 15
3 - 2y = 15
3 + -2y = 15
-2y = 12

j' = -6
Checking x = 1 and v = -6 in the equation,

3x -2y = 15
we get
3(1) - 2(-6) = 3 - (-12)
== 3+12
15

So another solution is (1, -6).

It is possible, in fact, to replace x with any number and find a number for y
that will make the equation true. This means that the equation has an unlimited
number of solutions. Some more solutions are: (5,0), (6, 1.5), and (-3,-12).
Equations that contain more than one variable usually have an unlimited
number of solutions. If we restrict the solutions to certain types of numbers,
however, their number may be limited. For example, the only pairs of positive
integers that can replace x and y to make the equation x + y = 4 true are (1, 3),
(2, 2), and (3, 1).
Notice that the order in which we name a pair of numbers is significant: (1, 3)
means that x = 1 and y = 3, whereas (3, 1) means that x = 3 and y = 1.
Because of this, the solutions to an equation having two variables are called
ordered pairs.

Exercises
Set I
1. Write the coordinates of each corner of the
figure pictured in this graph.

2. The smallest positive integer is 1.

a) Is there a smallest negative integer? If so,
what is it?
b) Is there a largest negative integer? If so,
what is it?
c) What is the smallest integer that is larger
than every negative integer?

Lesson 1: Equations in Two Variables 241

 3. The rectangles below contain the same Number of rows, x 1
number of squares. Number of squares „,,,
in each row, y
IIII1IIII1III
b) How does the number of squares in each
row vary with the number of rows?
a) The number of squares in each row is a
function of the number of rows. Copy c) Write a formula for this function
and complete the following table for this beginning with y = .
function.

Set II
4. The value of an expression such as 3.v + y 2.v + 5v = 15
depends on the numbers by which we
a) (5,1) i) (2,4)
replace the variables. Replacing x and y with b) (1,5)
the ordered pair (4, 5), for example, gives
1)
k) (4,2)
(5,11)
c) (15,-3)
3.v + v = 3(4) + (5) = 12 + 5 : 17 d) (-3,15) .v2 - 4y = 40
1) (0,-34) 3y
xy - 10 = 2 3y
Find the values of the following e) (3,4) m) (6,8)
expressions
a) if * and v are replaced by the n) (8,6)
ordered
b) c pairs given. f) (3,-4) o) (7,0)
2.v )+ 5v 9.v-v
g) (0,0)
h) (-1,-12)
d(5,1)
) i) (2,4)
(1.5) 6. The following questions P)are (2,-9)
about the
J) (4,2) rectangle shown here.
e(15,-3)
) k) (5,11)
(-3, 15) x2 - 4y
1) (0,-34)
xy - 10
(3.4) m) (6,8)
0 (3,-4) n) (8,6)
(0,0) o) (7,0)
h)
(-1,-12)
P) (2,-9) a) Write an expression for its perimeter.
5. g>
One of the solutions to the equation b) Write an equation stating that its
3.v + v = 17 is the ordered pair (4, 5) perimeter is 30.
because
If its perimeter is 30, can
17 c) x = 3 and y = 4?
3(4) + (5) = 12 + 5 :
d) x = 6 and y = 3?
Tell whether or not each of the following e) x= 1 and v = 12?
ordered pairs is a solution of the given f ) Write an expression for the area of the
equation. rectangle.

242 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 g) Write an equation stating that its area is c) Plot the five points having the numbers
36. in this table as their coordinates on a
If its area is 36, can
h) x = 3 and y = 4? d) What do you notice about the points?
graph.
i) x = 6 and y = 3?
j) x = 1 and j- = 12? , If possible, find every pair of positive
integers that can replace x and y in each of
-3 the following equations to make it true. If
7. This exercise is about -1the equation
you think that an equation has an unlimited
y - 4x = 9. number of such solutions or that it has no
a) Copy and complete the following table of
solution, say so.
some of the solutions of this equation.

a) x + y = (
y 13 11111 11 11 111 b) 2x + y = e) 5y = 1 1 - x
f) x + y = 0
g) x = y + 3
b) What happens to y if x is decreased by 1? c) h) x2 =y2 + 3
d) yxy = = 4x10

Set III
9. The value of an expression such as x + ly 10. One of the solutions to the equation
depends on the numbers by which we x + ly = 19 is the ordered pair (5, 2)
replace the variables. Replacing x and y with because
the ordered pair (5, 2), for example, gives
14 = 19
x + ly = (5) + 7(2) = 5 + 14 = (5) + 7(2) :
19 Tell whether or not each of the following
ordered pairs is a solution of the given
Find the values of the following
expressions if x and y are replaced by the equation.
ordered pairs given. 16 3x - 10.y = 10
5x + by 3x - 10y
5x + 6y -.
a) (2,1)
a) (2,1) i) (8,2)
i) (8,2) b) (1,2)
b) (1,2) )') (2,8)
c) (8,-4) )) (2,8)
c) (8,-4) k) (-1,0)
k) (-1,0) d) (-4,8)
d) (-4,8)
1) (0,-1) 1) (0,-1)
xy — 4 xy - 4 = 20 8.v + y2 = 40
e) (4,6) 8* + y2
m) (4, 3) e) (4,6) m) (4, 3)
f) (4,-6) n) (3,4) n) (3,4)
g) (0,0) 0 (4,-6)
o) (-8,-8) g) (0,0) o) (-8,-8)
h) (-3,-8) p) (-13,12) h) (-3,-8) P) (-13,12)
Lesson 1: Equations in Two Variables 243
 11. This exercise is about the rectai 12. This exercise is about the equation
here. .. 2x + 3y = 12.
a) Copy and complete the following table of
some of the solutions of this equation.
4x 0 6 12
4x llillll llillll 1111
b) What happens to y if x is increased by 3?
c) Plot the five points having the numbers
a) Write an expression for its perimeter. in this table as their coordinates on a
b) Write an equation showing that its
perimeter is 36. d) What do you notice about the points?
If its perimeter is 36, can graph.
1 3. If possible, find every pair of positive
c) x = 4 and y — 2? integers that can replace x and y to make
d) x = 8 and y = 1?
each of the following equations true. If you
e) x = 2 and y = 10?
think that an equation has an unlimited
f ) Write an expression for the area of the number of such solutions or that it has no
rectangle.
solution, say so.
g) Write an equation showing that its area is
32. a) x + y = 7 e) 4x= 12 -y
If its area is 32, can b) f) x+y=l
c) xx + 3>- = 8
= 5y
h) x = 4 and y = 2? g) xx2 - +y2
y = =1 10
h)
i) -v = 8 and j- = 1? d) xy = 9
j) x = 2 and y = 10?

Set IV
Obtuse Ollie and Acute Alice went to a swap meet and bought some records.
Ollie bought some B. Bumble and the Stingers records, some for 35 cents each and the
rest for 45 cents each. He spent $4.25 altogether.
1. Can you figure out how many records Ollie bought? Explain.
Alice bought some Dicky Doo and the Don'ts records, some for 25 cents each and the
rest for 50 cents each. She spent $3.75 altogether.
2. Can you figure out how many records Alice bought? Explain.

244 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 LESSON 2
Formulas

Perhaps the heaviest human being of all time was Robert Earl Hughes, whose
greatest recorded weight was 1,069 pounds. Six feet tall, he weighed 700 pounds
when the photograph shown here was taken.
The "normal" weight of a man can be determined by the equation
w = 5.5h - 220

in which w represents his weight in pounds and h represents his height in inches.
According to this equation, a man who is six feet tall (72 inches) should weigh
approximately

176
5.5(72) - 220 = 396 - 220 :

pounds. Given someone's height in inches, it is easy to find his "normal" weight
by using the equation as we have done here: replace h with the height and figure
out w.
An equation containing two or more variables that is used to solve practical
problems is called a formula. Most formulas are written so that one variable
appears by itself on the left of the equal sign and an expression containing the
other variable or variables appears on the right. The variable on the left is called
 the subject of the formula, and the formula tells how to find its value when
values for the other variables are known. The subject of the formula

id = 5.5/* - 220

is to; the formula tells how to find w when h is known.

It is frequendy useful to change the subject of a formula to one of the other
variables. For example, to find the "normal" height for a man whose weight is
known, it would be convenient to have a formula that tells how to find h when
given w. We can create such a formula by solving the formula

m = 5.5/z - 220

for h in terms of w.
An easy way to get h on the left is to switch the two sides of the equation:

5.5/z - 220 = w

Adding 220 to each side, we get

5.5/z = to + 220

and. dividing each side by 5.5.

£ _ to + 220

This is the formula we were looking for; it tells how to find h when given to.
To find the "normal" height for a man who weighs 165 pounds, for example, we
can write

, 165 + 220 385 _n

The "normal" height is 70 inches.

Here are some more examples of how to solve a formula for one of its
variables.

246 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IS TWO \ARIABLES

EXAMPLE 1
The formula for the volume of a box having
length t, width w, and height h is v = Iwh. Solve
this formula for h.
SOLUTION
Switching the sides of this formula, we get
iwh = v

Because // is multiplied by the product Iw, we

have to divide both sides of the equation by this
product to get

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the formula y = 2x + 1 for x.
SOLUTION
Switching the sides of this formula, we get
2x + 1 = y

Subtracting 1 from each side gives

2x = y - 1
and dividing each side by 2, we get

y-\

Exercises
Set I
1 . Find the value of each of these expressions. 2. Solve the following equations for x.
a) (4 + 5)2 a) Ix - 5 = Ax + 13
b) 42 + 52 b) 3x + (x - 2) = 0
c) (7 - 3)2 c) 5(* + 6) = 8(* - 3)
d) V - 32
Lesson 2: Formulas 247
 3. Charles Lindbergh, the first person to make letting x represent Captain Lindbergh's
a solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean, took actual speed.
33.5 hours to complete the trip. If he had b) Use the information in your diagram to
gone 26 miles per hour faster, the flight write an equation.
would have taken 27 hours. Find out how- c) Solve the equation for x.
far the flight was by doing the following, d) Find the length of the flight in miles.
a) Draw a diagram to represent the problem,

Set II

Write a formula for each of the following

tables. Begin each formula with y = .
a) x 0 12 3 4 a) Write a formula for its area, a, in terms
y 3 4 5 6 7 of b and h.
8 9 10 11 12 b) Solve your formula for b.
b)x
y 0 1 2 3 4 c) Solve your formula for h.
0 1 2 3 4
c) X The average of two numbers, x and y, is the
y 0 4 8 12
16 number midway between them on the
0 2 4 6 8
d) x 0 1 2 3 4
y
0 1 2 3 4
e) x 10 9 8 7 6 x +y
y
0 1 2 3 4
f)x
y 1 6 11 16 21 number line. It is given by the formula
5. Solve each of the formulas that you have
written for exercise 4 for x. Use the tables
to check your answers.
6. Solve each of the following equations for the a) Solve this formula for .t.
variable indicated. b) Solve this formula for y.
c) Use the formula above to find the average
x + y = 3 2x = 5>' of 3 and 11.
a) For x d) Check your answer for part c of this
fe)) For
For yx
b) For >' exercise in your formula for part a,
xy = 6 4x-y = letting x = 3 and y = 11.
c) For x e) Use the formula above to find the average
d) For y h) For
g) For ya:
of 2 and -8.
f ) Check your answer for part e of this
7. This exercise is about the rectangle shown exercise in your formula for part b,
at the beginning of the next column. letting x = 2 and y = -8.

248 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 9. When a rocket is launched upward, how c = \n + 5
high it goes depends on its height and speed
in which c is the cost in cents and n is the
weight of the package in pounds.
a) How much does it cost to send a package
weighing 8 pounds by the library rate?
b) Solve this formula for n in terms of c.
c) Check your answer for part a of this
exercise in your formula for part b,
at "burn-out," the moment at which its letting n = 8.
propellant is used up. A formula for this is
11. Psychologists use the formula
* = a + io 100 m

in which h is how high the rocket goes in

meters, a is its height at burn-out in meters, to measure a person's intelligence. Called the
intelligence quotient, or I.Q., i is expressed
and r is its speed at burn-out in meters per
second. in terms of m, the person's mental age, and
r2 c, his or her chronological age, or number of
a) Use this formula to find out how high a
rocket goes if it is 40 meters high at years he or she has lived.
a) Find the I.Q. of someone whose mental
burn-out and traveling at a speed of 30 age is 18 and whose chronological age
meters per second. is 15.
b) Solve the formula for a in terms of h
and r. b) Solve the formula for m in terms of i
and c.
c) If a rocket is traveling 40 meters per
c) Check your answer for part a of this
second at burn-out, what would its height exercise in your formula for part b,
at burn-out have to be in order for the
rocket to reach a height of 150 meters? letting m = 18 and c = 15.
d) Solve the formula that you wrote for pan
10. In 1978 the formula for the cost of sending b of this exercise for c in terms of i
: through the mail at the library and m.

Set III
12. Write a formula for each of the following
tables. Begin each formula with y = .
0 1 2 3 4 0 4 8 12 16
a) x
l 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4
y d)xy
6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4
b) x
0 1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5 4
y e) yx
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 134
c) X
y 0 3 6 9 12 f)xy 5 7 9 11

Lesson 2: Formulas 249

 1 3. Solve each of the formulas that you have
written for exercise 12 for x. Use the tables
to check vour answers.

14. Solve each of the following equations for the

variable indicated.
x + v = 5 3.v = 4v
a) For x e) For x
b) For v f)Forv
x - 6v = 12
xy = 2
c) For x
d) For y g)
h) For
For xv
15. The distance that an object moving r meters
The pyramids of Gi
per second travels in t seconds is given by
the formula
b) Use the formula above to find the volume
of a pyramid whose base has edges of
length 30 meters if it is 25 meters high.
a) Solve this formula for r.
c) Solve the formula for h in terms of a
b) Solve this formula for t.
and v.
16. This exercise is about the rectangle shown d) Find the height of a pyramid whose
here. volume is 1600 cubic meters and whose
b
base has edges of length 20 meters.
18. In 1978, the formula for the cost of sending
a letter by first-class mail was
c= lln + 2

m which c is the cost in cents and n is the

a) Write a formula for its perimeter, p. in
terms of b and h. weight of the letter in ounces.
a) How much does it cost to send a letter
b) Solve your formula for b.
c) Solve your formula for h. weighing 3 ounces by first-class mail?
b) Solve this formula for n in terms of c.
17. The volume of a pyramid having a square c) Check your answer for part a of this
base depends on the height of the pyramid exercise in your formula for part b,
and the size of its base. A formula for this is letting n = 3.
19. Anthropologists use the formula

in which v is the volume of the pyramid, a . _ 100 w

is the length of an edge of its base, and h is to measure the human head. Called the
its height. cephalic index, c is expressed in terms of w,
a) Draw a figure of a pyramid, showing a the width of the head from side to side, and
and h.
I, its length from front to back.

250 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 a) Find the cephalic index of someone
whose head is 12 centimeters wide and 1
centimeters long.
b) Solve the formula for w in terms of c
and i.
c) Check your answer for part a of this
exercise in your formula for part b,
letting w = 12 and i = 15.
d) Solve the formula that you wrote for
part b for I in terms of c and w.

Set IV
Robert Earl Hughes, the man whose photograph appears in this lesson, once
weighed 1,069 pounds. According to the formulas given in this lesson,
approximately how many feet tall should a man of this weight be?

Lesson 2: Formulas 251

 LESSON 3
Graphing Linear Equations

Broom Hilda's system for winning a game of dice by throwing a seven seems to
be based on the principle, "If at first you don't succeed, try and try again." If two
dice are thrown, in how many different ways can they land so that the sum of the
numbers that turn up is 7?
One way to answer this question is to make a table, letting x represent the
number on one die and y represent the number on the other.

The table shows that there are six ways in all.

The question that we have just answered is equivalent to asking how many
different solutions that the equation

x +y = 7
has if the solutions are restricted to pairs of positive
integers. The solutions, listed in the table above, are:
5- • (1, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 2), and (6, 1). If we think
of each ordered pair as the coordinates of a point and
plot the six points on a graph, we find that they lie
along a straight line. The graph is shown at the left.
The six points in this graph show all of the solutions
of the equation.
x + y = 7
 y
that are pairs of positive integers. What would happen a\
if we drew a line through the points and extended it
*. 10- -\B
beyond them? The result is at the right. This line
shows where all of the solutions of the equation would
be if we did not restrict them to pairs of positive inte-
gers. Point A, for example, has coordinates (-2, 9) and

-2 + 9 = 7
0 I \ r i
Points B and C have coordinates (2.5, 4.5) and (8, -1): 5 V 10
2.5 + 4.5 = 7 and 8 + -1 = 7

Because the line shows where all of the solutions of the equation are, it is called
the graph of the equation.
Other equations having graphs that are straight lines are: 5-

x + 4y = -2, 2x - ly = 0, 5y -. and y — 3x = 5

It is possible to prove that the graph of every equation equivalent to an equation

of the form
ax + by — c

is a straight line if a and b are not both zero. For this reason, such equations are
called linear equations in two variables. A linear equation in two variables
written in the form ax + by = c is said to be written in standard form.

EXAMPLE 1
Show that each of the equations listed in the preceding paragraph is a linear
equation in two variables by writing it in the standard form of such an equation
and giving the values of a, b, and c.
SOLUTION In standard form Values of a, b, and c
Equation
x + 4y = -2 \x + 4v = -2 a = 1, b = 4, c - -2
2x - ly = 0 2x +-7y = Q a = 2, b = -7, c = 0
5y = 8 Ox + 5y = 8 a = 0, b = 5, c = 8
y - 3x = 5 -3.r + ly = 5 a = -3, b = 1, c - 5
(y + -3x = 5)

Lesson 3: Graphing Linear Equations 253

 One way to graph a linear equation is to solve the equation for y, use the
resulting equation to make a table, plot the points of the table, and draw a line
through them. -5-
j

EXAMPLE 2
Graph the equation y — 3x = 5.
SOLUTION
Solving this equation for y by adding 3x to each y
side, we get
y = 5 + 3x
Choosing some values for x and using this
equation to find the corresponding values for y,
we get
x -1 0 1 2
y 2 5 8 11
Plotting the points (-1, 2), (0, 5), (1, 8), and
(2, 11) and connecting them with a line, we get 10-
the graph at the right.

EXAMPLE 3
Graph the equation x + 4y = 8.
SOLUTION
Solving this equation for y, we get

4y = 8 - x
8 - x

Choosing some values for x and using this

equation to find the corresponding values for y,
we get
x 0 1 2 4 8
y 2 1.75 1.5 1 0
Plotting the five points having the pairs of
numbers in this table as their coordinates,
we get the graph at the right.

254 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

Exercises
Set I
1. Simplify each of the following expressions, 3. Helen of Troy was said to have been so
beautiful that her face could launch a
a) 2 • x • x • x
b)2 + x + x + x thousand ships. A table having this fable as
c) 2x + 2x + 2x its basis is shown here.
d) (2x)(2x)(2x)
-2 -4 Number of
-2 for the function represented
2. Guess a formula times Helen
-4
=.
by each of these tables. Begin each formula
with y
looked out
her window, x
0 2 4 Number of ships
launched, v 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
a) x 4 2 0
y
1 2 3 4 5
b) x a) Write a formula for this function.
y 60 30 20 15
12 b) Solve the formula for x.
0 1 2 3 4 c) How do x and y vary with respect to
C) X
y 0 2 8 18 32 each other?

Set II
4. Write each of the following equations in them with a line, and extend the line
standard form and give the values of a, b, across the graph.
and c.
d) Does the point (-1, 10) lie on the line?
a) 6x + y = 2 e) 3.v = 1 1 e) Is (-1, 10) a solution to the equation
b) 3y + 2x = -7 f) 2y = 8 - x 5x + 2y = 15?
c) 2(x + Ay) = 9 g) x + 10 = 6v f ) Does the point (6, -7) lie on the line?
d) 4x - 5v = 1 h) 7v - 0.5x = 0 g) Is (6, -7) a solution to the equation
5x + 2v = 15?
5. Solve each of the following equations for y 7. What does the graph of the equation v = 2
in terms of x. look like? Writing it in standard form, we
a) y - 4x = 3 d) 8x + 2v = 1 get Ox + \y = 2.
b) 9x = 1 + y e) 3(5.v + y) = 0 a) Use the equation in this form to make a
c) x - 10 = 5y f ) 6x - >' = 7 table. Choose at least four different values
for x.
6. This exercise is about the equation b) Plot the points in your table, connect
5x + 2y= 15. them with a line, and extend the line
a) Solve this equation for y in terms of x. across the graph.
b) Use your equation to make a table. c) Does the point (2, 8) lie on the line?
Choose at least four different values d) Is (2, 8) a solution to the equation y = 2?
for x. e) Does the point (8, 2) lie on the line?
c) Plot the points in your table, connect f) Is (8, 2) a solution to the equation y = 2?

Lesson 3: Graphing Linear Equations 255

 8. Use the methods described in exercises 6 c) 2.x + y = 0
and 7 to graph the following equations.
d) What
e) 2* + j;do= you
-4 notice about the graphs?
a) 4x + y = 8
b) 5y - 1 = 3x 10. Graph the following equations on one pair
c) x - 2y = 0 of axes.
d)x = 6
a) x — y = 6
9. Graph the following equations on one pair b) 2x - y = 6
of axes.
c) 3x — y = 6
a) 2x + y = 2 d) 5x - y = 6
b) 2x + y = 8 e) What do you notice about the graphs?

Set III
11. Write each of the following equations in d) Does the point (-2, 11) lie on the line?
standard form and give the values of a, b, e) Is (-2, 11) a solution to the equation
and c. 3x + 2y = 16?
a) x + ly = 3 f ) Does the point (7, -3) lie on the line?
b) 9y + 2x = -1 g) Is (7, -3) a solution to the equation
c) 4(2* + ;y) = 5 3x + 2y = 16?
d) 6x - 1 ly = 0 14. What does the graph of the equation y = 5
e) 5y = 9 look like? Writing it in standard form, we
f) 3x= 12-jj
get Ox + ly — 5.
g)2>- 13 = -* a) Use the equation in this form to make a
h) 8jy - 1.5* = 2 table. Choose at least four different values
12. Solve each of the following equations for y for x.
in terms of x. b) Plot the points in your table, connect
a) 5x + y = 2 them with a line, and extend the line
across the graph.
b) 4x = y - 8
c) x + 9 = 3>- c) Does the point (5,-3) lie on the line?
d) 2x + 7.y = 10 d) Is (5, -3) a solution to the
e) 6(x + 2y) = 1 equation y = 5?
f) 9jc - y = 5 e) Does the point (-3, 5) lie on the line?
13. This exercise is about the equation f ) Is (-3, 5) a solution to the equation
3x + 2y = 16.
a) Solve this equation for y in terms of x. 15. Usey the
= 5?methods described in exercises 13
b) Use your equation to make a table. and 14 to graph the following equations.
Choose at least four different values
for x. a) 2x +y = 9

c) Plot the points in your table, connect b) 5y - 4 = x

c) x + 3y = 0
them with a line, and extend the line
across the graph.
d) x = -2

256 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

16. Graph the following equations on one pair 17. Graph the following equations on one pair
of axes. of axes.
a) 4.v + v = 4 a) x + y = 8
b) 4.v + v = 6
b) x + 2>> = 8
c) 4.v + y - 0 c) x + 4y = 8
d) Ax + y = -8 d) x + 5y = 8
e) What do you notice about the graphs? e) What do you notice about the graphs?

Set IV
The graph of the equation \x\ + \y\ = 4 is a familiar geometric figure. Can you
figure out what it is? (Hint: Four points on the graph are (4, 0), (0, 4), (0, -4),
(-4, 0). Check these and then find other points on the graph.)

Lesson 3: Graphing Linear Equations 257

 LESSON 4
Intercepts

32. Dado o quadro de valores :

x 6 0 4

y 0-3-1
a) Trace o grafico ;
b) Escreva a expressao algebrica que relaciona os valores do
quadro.

This is a problem from an algebra book written in Portuguese.

The first part of the problem is to use the table to "trace a
graph." Plotting the three points having the numbers in the
table as their coordinates, we find that they lie along a line. The
graph at the left shows the points and the line.
Notice that the line crosses the x-axis in the point (6, 0) and
the jy-axis in the point (0, -3). The numbers 6 and -3 are called
the x- and ^-intercepts of the line.

► The intercepts of a line are the numbers corresponding to the

points in which it crosses the coordinate axes.

If we know that the graph of an equation is a line, then we can draw the line
by using only its intercepts. We could, for example, have drawn the line in the
graph above using only the points (6, 0) and (0, -3). The third point (4, -1) isn't
needed to draw the line at all; it is useful, nevertheless, as a check on whether
the line that we have drawn is correct.
Suppose that, instead of having been given a table in the problem above, we
had been given an equation of the line instead. An equation for the line in
standard form is
• 2v = 6
To find the intercepts of this line, we can use the fact that, because each crossing
point lies on one of the axes, one of its coordinates is zero. For example, the
x-coordinate is zero where the graph crosses the jy-axis. So, if we let x = 0 in
this equation, we get
(0) - 2y = 6
-2y = 6

Thus, the jy-intercept is -3. Letting y y= =0 in

-3 the equation, we get

x - 2(0) = 6
x - 0 = 6
x = 6
The x-intercept is 6.
Here are more examples of how to graph a linear equation by finding its
intercepts.

EXAMPLE 1
Graph the equation Ax + 1y = 18.
SOLUTION
First, letting x = 0 in this equation, we get

4(0) + 3v = 18
ly= 18

This means that the jy-intercept is 6. Thus, y = 6

one crossing point of the line is (0, 6).
Letting y = 0 in the equation, we get The y-intercept is 6.
■ 3(0) : 18
18
4X :
4.5
The x-intercept is 4.5; so the other
crossing point is (4.5, 0).
Ploning these two points and connecting
them with a line, we get the graph at the right.
To check our work, we can choose another
point on the line to see if its coordinates fit the
equation of the line. For example, the point

Lesson 4: Intercepts 259

 (3, 2) is on the line:

4(3) + 3(2) = 18
12 + 6 =18
18 = 18

EXAMPLE 2
Graph the equation 2y = 7.
SOLUTION
First, we want to let x = 0 in this equation. But x does not appear in it. We can
make x appear by writing the equation in standard form:

Ox + 2y.

Now, letting x = 0, we get

0(0) + 2y = 7
2yv == 73.5

The v-intercept is 3.5 and the line crosses the j'-axis in the point (0, 3.5).
Letting y = 0 in either the original equation

or in the equation in standard form 2(0) =

Ox + 2(0) = 7
:7
results in a false equation:
y

* r
This means that y can never equal 0 in the equation
2y = 7; so the line does not have an x-intercept.
Because the line does not cross the x-axis, it must be
parallel to it.
Drawing a line fitting this description, we get the
graph at the right.

It is also possible for a line not to have a jy-intercept. In such a case,- illustrated
5
at the left at the top of the next page, the line is parallel to the j-axis.

260 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 This line does not This line crosses both
have a v-intercept. axes in the same point,
the origin.

Finally, both intercepts of a line can be zero. In this case, illustrated in the
right-hand figure, the line goes through the origin. To graph an equation for
which both intercepts are zero, we have to choose a second point that is on
neither axis.

b)

Exercises

Set I
1 . Tell whether each of the following equations x-5
is true for all values of x, false for all values 3x
of x, or true for some values of x and false
for others. X-1 x-5
a) x + 3x = 4x
d) 2(x Perimeter is 30 Area is 5x+14
b) x + 3x = 4 11)= = 2 2x - 2
C) x _ 1 = x - 2
3x
e) 2x -
3. When Obtuse Ollie evaluated the following
2. Find the lengths of the sides of the
expression on his pocket calculator
following figures. Check your answers.
5-3x7+8-2

he got 1 1 for his answer.

a) Is this answer correct? If not, what is the
correct answer?
x+2 b) Rewrite the problem to show what
Perimeter is 24 expression Ollie evaluated.

Lesson 4: Intercepts 261

 ~V
Set II -5

4. What are the x- and v-intercepts of each of the lines in the following graphs?

V
a c e d

tfl /

— +- \=f?/ 1— *
fc: i-
5

v
1
y .

5. Find the x- and _y-intercepts of the lines b) Use the intercepts to graph the equation.
having the following equations.
a) 2x + Sy = 20 e) 4x - 9y = -18 c) Does the point (2, 8) lie on the line?
x +
b) 8a: + y = 8 f ) y = 2jc + 6
d) Is (2, 8) a solution to the equation
c) -v - 3>- = 12 g) 5.v + 0v = 14
d) 5.v + 7v = 0 h) 2y - 1 1 = 0 6?
6. Find the x- and v-intercepts of the lines
having the following equations.
e) Does the point (8, 2) lie on the line?
a) .v — 3y = -6
b) 2.v - 6v = -12 f ) Is (8, 2) a solution to the equation
c) -x + 3y = 6

d)|-v = -2
e) What can you conclude about the graphs Graph the following equations by finding
of these equations? their intercepts. If an equation cannot be
f ) Can you explain why? graphed using the intercepts, graph it by
finding other points on the line. Use a third
7. This exercise is about the equation point on each graph to check your answers.
a) x + fry = 6 x y
x + y = 6
b) 5x + 2y = -10 a) 3 4
a) Find the x- and v-intercepts of the graph
of this equation.

262 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES e) 7.v -

f) 7x -
9. Graph the following equations on one pair 10. Graph the following equations on one pair
of axes, of axes.
a) x + v = 10 a) 3x - Ay = 12
h) x + 2v = 10 b) 3x - Ay = -12
c) x + 5y = 10 c) 3x - Ay = 0
d) What do you notice about the graphs? d) What do you notice about the graphs?

Set III
11. What are the x- and jy-intercepts of each of the lines in the following graphs?

y .*>

5-

12. Find the x- and j'-intercepts of the lines 14. This exercise is about the equation
having the following equations. y
a) 3x + Ay = 24 e) 8x - 3y = -12
b) x + ly = 7 f) y = Ax - 4
c) 2x-y= 10 g) Ox + 2y= 15 a) Find the x- and jy-intercepts of the graph
of this equation.
d) 6x + 5y = 0 h) 5x - 9 = 0
b) Use the intercepts to graph the equation.
13. Find the x- and jy-intercepts of the lines c) Does the point (1,9) lie on the line?
having the following equations.
a) 2x - y = -8 d) Is (1,9) a solution to the equation
b) 4x - 2y = -16
c) -2x + y = 8 x + ^ = 4?

e) Does the point (9, 1) lie on the line?

d) x
f) Is (9, 1) a solution to the equation
e) What can you conclude about the graphs
of these equations?
f ) Can you explain why?

Lesson 4: Intercepts 263

 15. Graph the following equations by finding 16. Graph the following equations on one pair
their intercepts. If an equation cannot be of axes.
graphed using the yintercepts, graph it by
_ a) x - y — 9
finding other points on the line. Use a third b) 3x - y = 9
point on each graph to check your answers. c) 9x - y = 9
a) 5x + y = 5 d) What do you notice about the graphs?
b) 2x + ly= -14 17. Graph the following equations on one pair
d) 1 of axes.
4 ' 11
: 3 a) 2x - 5v = 10
c)- b) 2x - 5y = -10
c) 2x - 5y = 0
e) 6x + 6y d) What do you notice about the graphs?
2 3 "= 0
f ) 6x + 6 = 0

■5,5
Set IV
Here is another exercise from the Portuguese algebra book. Can you figure out
what the questions are about and answer each one? (A comma is used in Portuguese
where we would place a decimal point.)

33. Os valores que constam do quadro que segue estao rela-

cionados segundo determinada lei :

4
0,5 1

y 4 5 10 7

a) Faea a representagao grafica :

b) Escreva a fun^ao que relaciona y com x;
c) Preencha os espagos que faltam no quadro.

264 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 LESSON 5
Slope

There's no doubt about it. Any creatures that can walk

up a slope as steep as the one in this cartoon deserve to
be called sure-footed. The left-hand diagram at the
bottom of this page shows some donkeys walking up
hills of differing slopes. The hill represented by line
"a" has the gentiest slope and the one represented by
line "c" has the steepest one. In all three cases, as we
look at the diagram from left to right, the lines repre-
senting the hills go up. They have positive slopes.
The second diagram shows donkeys walking down
hills of differing slopes. In each case, as we look at the
diagram from left to right, the lines representing the
hills go down. These lines have negative slopes.
 If a line is horizontal, it goes neither up nor down. Its
slope, being neither positive nor negative, is zero.
Horizontal If a line is vertical, on the other hand, we often say
This line has a that it goes up and down. Because there is no number
Slope of zero that is both positive and negative, the slope of a vertical
line is said to be undefined.
The slopes of all lines that are not vertical are given by definite numbers. To
find a line's slope, the following method is generally used. First, two points on
the line are chosen. As we go from the left point to the right point (the direction
in which we read), we move a certain distance vertically, called the rise, and a
certain distance to the right, called the run* The slope of the line is found by
dividing the rise by the run:
rise
slope : run

* Or we could move to the right first and then vertically.

266 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

EXAMPLE 1
Find the slope of the line through the points (2, 1) and (6,4).
y
SOLUTION
Plotting the two points and connecting them
with a line, we get the graph shown at the right.
The rise in going from (2, 1) to (6, 4) is 3 and the
run is 4. Thus the slope is — , or 0.75.

As noted earlier, a line that goes down as we read from left to right has a
negative slope. The next example shows how a negative slope can be found.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the slope of the line having the equation 2x +y = 1.
SOLUTION
First, by graphing this equation, we get the
line shown at the right. Any two points on
the line can be used to find its slope; it is
easiest, however, to choose points whose
coordinates are integers. If we choose points
A and B, for example, the rise ("drop" might
be a better word for this line) is -6 and the
run is 3. The slope is

If we had used points C and D instead, the

rise would have been -4 and the run 2. The
slope, however, is the same as before
because

4 = -2
\DI3.S)

Lesson 5: Slope 267

 Exercises
c)
Set I
1. Show that each of the following is a rational 3. Erne Klinker's mother promised to pay her
number by writing it as the quotient of two S5 for even* A and $2 for every- B on her
integers. report card. Although her teachers didn't
b) H
,1 -x 4 give her any A's or B's, Effie managed to
a) -7 d) 6.1 write 752 A's and B's altogether on her card.
If x of them were A's,
Find every pair of negative integers that can a) how many B's did she write?
replace x and y to make these equations b) how much did she expect to get paid for
true. If you think that an equation has an
unlimited number of such solutions, say so. c) the
how A's?
much did she expect to get paid for
If you think that there aren't any such pairs
for an equation, write "none." d) the
how B's?
much did she expect to get paid
a) x + y = -3 c) xy = 8 altogether?
b) y = 2x d) y = x2

Set II
4. Use the points labeled A and B to find the slopes of the lines in the graphs below.

- l\IB
/
aI
1 1
5 0 5 o
Plot the following points, draw a line 7. Draw graphs of the following lines. Graph
through each pair, and find its slope. parts a and b on one set of axes and parts c
a) (2, 1) and (4, 7) and d on another set.
b) (-3,5) and (1,7) a) The line through the origin having a
c) (0,6) and(l, 1)
d) (4, -3) and (4, 5) 6
slope of — .
. Graph the following equations and find the b) The line through the origin with a slope
slope of each. of -6.
a) .v - y = 5 c) The line through (-2, 5) with a slope
b) 2x +y = l
c) 3.x- - 5y = 30
d) 2v -12 = 0 nf 3

268 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 , Use your graphs for exercise 8 to give the
d) The line through (5, -2) with a slope slope and jy-intercept of each function.
a) y = 2x + 5
„rl
e) What is the relation between the lines for b) v = I* + 4
parts a and b? for parts c and d?
c) >- = -\x + 6
Graph the following linear functions,
d)y = -4x - 3
a) v = 2x + 5
j_ :+ 4 e) y = 5x your answers for parts a through e
Compare
b)y = with the equations of the functions. Without
drawing their graphs, tell what you think are
c) y = -lx + 6
d) y = -Ax - 3 the slopes and jy-intercepts of the following
functions.
e) j> = 5*
3*

f ) y = lx + 2

g)y = -3x-8

Set III
10. Use the points labeled A and B to find the slopes of the lines in the graphs below. 1 V

)
f

4 5

n! B

1 O A

11. Plot the following points, draw a line

through each pair, and find its slope.
a) (1,2) and (3, 10) 13. Draw graphs of the following lines. Graph
b) (-4, 1) and (2, 3) parts a and b on one set of axes and parts c
c) (-5, 8) and (0, 6) and d on another set.
d) (-3, 7) and (5, 7) a) The line through the origin with a slope
12. Graph the following equations and find the
slope of each. of I.
a) x - y = 2 c) 2x - ly = 7 b) The line through the origin with a slope
b) 3x + y = 9 d) 4x + 8 = 0 of -5.

Lesson 5: Slope 269

 c) The line through (4,-1) with a slope 15. Use your graphs for exercise 14 to give the

of--. off slope and jy-intercept of each function,

■i. + .
a) y = 3x + 1
d) The line through (-4, 1) with a slope

e) What is the relation between the lines for

e,, = f
b)y.
c) y = -Ax + 7
parts a and b? for pans c and d? d)j' = -l*-5
14. Graph the following linear functions.
a) y = 3x + 1 Compare your answers for parts a through e

b) V :
■i. + < with the equations of the functions. Without
drawing their graphs, tell what you think are
the slopes and _>'-intercepts of the following
c) ;y = -4.Y + 7 functions.
d)jy = -l.v - 5

e) y--
f f ) y = 5x + 3

g) y = _2x - 9

Set IV
The world record for skiing down the steepest
slope is held by Sylvain Saudan. This
photograph shows him skiing down the northeast
side of Mont Blanc.
1. Find, as accurately as you can, the slope of
the mountain in the picture.
2. Approximately how many meters
downward does the mountainside go for
each 100 meters in a horizontal direction?

270 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 .i LESSON 6

The Slope-Intercept Form

The amaryllis is a remarkable plant. It grows from a bulb to a height of

about 18 inches in just a few weeks.
The plant shown in the pictures above grew at a rate of about 3 inches
per week. If it was 4 inches high at the beginning, its height, y, while it
was growing at this rate would be given by the formula

y = 4 + 3x

in which x is the number of weeks that had passed. This equation can
also be written in the form

y = 3x + 4
O 5
Its graph is shown at the right. Notice that the line has a slope of 3 and
that its jy-intercept is 4. The equation y = 3x + 4, then, includes two isTime plant
growing
pieces of information about the line that is its graph: its slope and its
jy-intercept.
 We know that any function that has an equation of the form

y = ax + b
in which a and b are constant numbers is a linear function and that its
graph is a straight line. The equation describing the growth of the
amaryllis reveals what the numbers a and b mean: a is the slope of the line
and b is its ^-intercept. Because of this, an equation of the form
y — ax + b is said to be in slope-intercept form.
An equation in slope-intercept form is very easy to graph. Here are
examples of how it is done.

EXAMPLE 1
Graph the equation y = 2x — 1 .
SOLUTION
Writing this equation in slope-intercept form,
we get

y = 2x + -1
The slope of the line that is the graph of this
equation is 2 and its jy-intercept is -1. First, we
locate the j'-intercept. Then, because slope = —run— ,
we know that the line rises 2 units for every unit
that we move to the right. Plotting additional
points and connecting them with a line, we get y - intercept =-1
the graph at the right.

SOLUTION
Writing this equation in slope-intercept form, we get

272 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 /

The slope of the line is - — and its jy-intercept is

0. This means that it goes through the origin and,
yi •- intercept =0
O
because 4 = —4 , it falls 3 units for every 4 i rv ... _:?
units that we move to the right. The graph is
shown at the right.
Q 4J 5*
' TSL

EXAMPLE 3
y
Graph the equation y = 2.5.
SOLUTION ii /-y- intercept =2 5
This equation written in slope-intercept form is ^S/ope=0
y = Ox + 2.5

The slope of the line is 0 and its jy-intercept is

0
2.5. This means that the line is horizontal. Its
graph is shown at the right.

Exercises
Set 1
1. Simplify each of the following expressions. and which are odd?
a) 2.x + (2 + x)
50 -5 0
b) 2x + (2 - x)
c) 2*(2 + x)
5*
If x represents an even integer, what type
d) 2x(2 - x)
2. Solve each of these equations for the variable b) x + 1 represent?
indicated. c) x + 2 represent?
x — y = 10 3x = y + 2 d) x — 3 represent?
a) For x c) For x If x represents an odd integer, what type
b) For y d) For y of integer does
3. An integer is even if it is two times some e) x + 1 represent?
integer. It is odd if it is not. f) x + 2 represent?
a) Which of the following integers are even g) x — 4 represent?

Lesson 6: The Slope-Intercept Form 273

 Set II
4. The following questions are about the 7. Write equations for-5 the lines labeled a, b,
equation y = ax + b, in which a and b are and d in the graph below.
constant numbers.
c a
a) What are functions that have equations of
this form called?
b) What kind of graphs do such functions
have?
c) What does the number a represent? \ y
V
d) What does the number b represent? /
5. What are the slopes and y- intercepts of the 1
r
lines having the following equations? (If 5
O
necessary, first write the equation in slope-
intercept form.)
a) y = 8.v + 3

b) y = j.v + 5
c) v = -v - 7
d) v = 6(.v - 2)
e) y = x + x

*rrr*"
f ) y = -x
g) y = 10 - 3.v
h)y = 4
. Graph the following equations by using their
i
6. Write equations for the following lines. y-intercepts and slopes. ^^r
a) The line that has a slope of 9 and a a) x = 2.v + 5 5
y- intercept of 1.
b) y = 5x + 2 e) y = J* + 1
c) y = -3.v ^ 4
d) v = _3.v - 4 f) y = 4-v + 1
y-intercept of -6.
c) The line that has a slope of -4 and 9. A point moves so that its y-coordinate is
contains the point (0. 7). always 5 more than its .v-coordinate.
d) The line that has a slope of 2.5 and goes a) Write an equation for its path.
through the origin. b) Graph its path.
e) The line that has a slope of 0 and c) Where does it cross the .v-axis?
intersects the y-axis at -8. d) Where does it cross the y-axis?
f) The x-axis. e) What is its slope?

274 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

10. This exercise is about the rectangle shown a) Write an equation for its perimeter, y, as a
below. 2 function of x.
b) Graph this function.
c) Where does it intersect the x-axis?
d) Where does it intersect the jy-axis?
e) What is its slope?

Set III
11. The following questions are about the 14. Write equations for the lines labeled a, b, c,
equation v = ax, in which a is a constant and d in the graph below.
number.
a) What are functions that have equations of y
this form called?
b) What kind of graphs do such functions
have? f
c) What does the number a represent?
d) Where do the graphs of such functions i/\
intersect the j'-axis?
"5 ^ 5
12. What are the slopes and jy-intercepts of the 0
lines having the following equations? (If -5^
necessary, first write the equation
x + in slope-
intercept form.) -6x
2(x
a) y = 5x + 2
L-x
1 + 9
d) V =
e) v = 1 1 1 1 1 \\
b)y = f)y =
11
g)y =
c)y-- h) v =
13. Write equations for the following
8 - lines.
a) The line that has a slope of 4 and a ;A
y-intercept of 7.
3
b) The line that has a slope of — and a 1 5. Graph the following equations by using
their jy-intercepts and slopes.
jv-intercept of -2.
c) The line that has a slope of -9 and a) y = 3x + 4
contains the point (0, 1). b) v = 4x + 3
d) The line that has a slope of 0 and c) y = -2x + 5
intersects the v-axis at -5.
e) The line that has a slope of 1.6 and goes
through the origin.
r
d) y = -2x
4 - 15

f ) The line that goes through the point (0, 3) e)j>:

whose slope is undefined.

Lesson 6: The Slope-Intercept Forr

 16. A point moves so that its jy-coordinate is 17. This exercise is about the rectangle shown
below.
always 2 less than its x-coordinate.
a) Write an equation for its path.
b) Graph its path.
c) Where does it cross the x-axis?
d) Where does it cross the jy-axis?
e) What is its slope?
a) Write an equation for its area, y, as i
function of x.
b) Graph this function.
c) Where does it cross the x-axis?
d) Where does it cross the j>-axis?
e) What is its slope?

Set IV
The price that the Marx Brothers Bakery charges a grocery store for a carton of its
animal crackers depends on how many cartons that the store buys. If the store buys
10 cartons or more, the price is $4 per carton. Otherwise, the price per carton is
given by the formula

26 -x

in which y is the price in dollars and x is the number of cartons bought.

1. Draw a graph showing the price charged per carton as a function of the num-
ber of cartons bought. Let x vary from 1 to at least 1 5.
2. Describe the slope of the graph as you look from left to right.
3. What can you say about the intercepts of the graph?

276 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to find solutions to equations in two

variables and how to graph linear equations in two variables.

Equations in Two Variables (Lesson 1) Solutions to equations in two

variables are written as ordered pairs. Such equations usually have an unlimited
number of solutions. However, if the solutions are restricted to certain types of
numbers, their number may be limited.

Formulas (Lesson 2) Equations containing two or more variables that are used
to solve practical problems are called formulas. It is frequendy convenient,
before using a formula, to solve it for a particular variable in terms of the others.

Graphing Linear Equations (Lesson 3) The graph of any equation having the
form ax + by — c is a straight line unless both a and b are zero. Such equations
are called linear equations in two variables. One way to graph a linear equation
in two variables is to solve it for y, use the resulting equation to make a table,
plot the points of the table, and draw a line through them.

Intercepts (Lesson 4) The intercepts of a line are the numbers corresponding

to the points in which it crosses the coordinate axes. The intercepts can be used
to draw the graph of the line.
 Slope (Lesson 5) The slope of a line is:

positive if it goes up as we look at it from left to right.

negative if it goes down,
zero if it is horizontal, and
undefined if it is vertical.

It is found by dividing the rise by the run.

The Slope-Intercept Form (Lesson 6) A linear equation written in the form

y = ax + b is said to be in slope-intercept form: its slope is a and its y-intercept
is b. Its graph can be easily determined from these two numbers.

Exercises
Set I
1 . Find the values of the following expressions 3. Find even- pair of positive integers that can
when x and y are replaced by the ordered replace x and y in each of the following
pairs given. equations to make it true. If you think that
x - 3v x2 - v an equation has an unlimited number of
such solutions, say so. If you think that
a) (15,1) d)(-7,0)
b)(-2,7) e)(5,-8) there aren't any such solutions, write "none."
c)(0,-4) f)(-2,13) a) xy = 8
b) x = v - 2
2. Tell whether or not each of the following c) 4.v + v = 14
ordered pairs is a solution of the equation d) x + y2 = 1
given. 4. Solve each of the following equations for the
x - 3v = 12 .v- +y=n variable indicated.
a) (15, 1) d)(-7,0) 3.v = y + 7 6.v +y = 1
-2, 13)
b)(-2,7) e)(5,-8) a) For x c) For x
c) (0.-4) b) For y d) For y

Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO \ ARUBLES

5. The area of a triangle whose base has length b) How much money does it charge per
b and whose altitude has length h is given mile?
by the formula c) Solve the formula above for d.
d) For how many days would a movie
studio have rented a car if it had been
driven 200 miles and the rental cost was

$700?
7. Write each of the following equations in
standard form and give the values of a, b,
and c.
a) Solve this formula for //.
b) Solve this formula for b. a) Sx = y + 10 c) x - ly = 9
c) Use the formula above to find the area of b) 3(x + 2y) = 4 d) 5x + 1 = 0
a triangle whose base is 6 and whose 8. Solve each of the following equations for y
altitude is 4. in terms of x.
d) Check your answer for part c of this a) 6x +y = 12
exercise in your formula for part a, b) x - 8 = 5y
letting b = 6 and h = 4. c) 2x + ly = 1
e) Check your answer for part c of this
d) Ax - y = 9
exercise in your formula for part b.
9. Find the x- and _y-intercepts of the lines
6. The Silver Shadow Car Rental Company having the following equations.
charges for both the number of days that a a) 3x + 5y = 45
car is rented and the number of miles that it
b) 2x - y = 7
c) x + by = 0
1

10. Plot the following points, draw a line

through each pair, and find its slope.
a) (2, 7) and (6, 10)
b) (-1,6) and (1,-4)
)- and (-5, -3)
c) (5, d-3)
11. Draw graphs of the following lines.
a) The line through the origin having a

is driven. A formula for the cost in dollars, slope of—.

c, of renting a car from the company is b) The line through the origin having a

c = 100 </+ 1.5 m

slope of —
in which d is the number of days and m is c) The line through (1, 8) having a slope
the number of miles, of -2.
a) How much money does the company d) The line through (1,-8) having a slope
charge per day? of 2.

Summary and Review 279

 Vj,

5^ f
id

12. What are the slopes and y-intercepts of the

lines having the following equations?
1
a) y = 6x - 2
b)y = \x
1

1
c)y = 7-x '
d)y = 3
13. Write equations for the lines labeled a, b, c,
J
and d in the graph at the right. 0
14. Graph the following equations,
a) 6x + Ay =12 -

H
b)2x-y = -l0 e)y = -x-l

Set II
1. Find the values of the following expressions 4. Solve each of the following equations for the
if x and y are replaced by the ordered pairs variable indicated. x + Ay
3x=y + 7
given.
5x + y x2 - y2 d) Forjy
a) (2,4) d)(6,2) a) For yx
b) c) For x
b)(-3,7) e)(-3,0)
c) (5,-11) f)(-5,-4)
2. Tell whether or not each of the following The density of a substance having mass m
ordered pairs is a solution of the equation and volume v is given by the formula

given.

a) (2,4) d)(6,2)
a) Solve this formula for m.
b)(-3,7) e) (-3,0) b) Solve the formula that you have just
c) (5,-11) f)(-5,-4) written for v.
. Find every pair of positive integers that can c) Use the formula above to find the density
replace x and y in each of the following of a rock whose mass is 7.5 kilograms
equations to make it true. If you think that and whose volume is 2.5 liters.
an equation has an unlimited number of d) Check your answer for part c of this
such solutions, say so. If you think that exercise in your formula for part a,
there aren't any such solutions, write "none." letting m — 7.5 and v = 2.5.
a) x + ly = 20 c) xy = 12 e) Check your answer for part c of this
b) y = 3.v d) x2 + y = 0 exercise in your formula for part b.

280 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

6. Suppose that the person in this cartoon a) How many pounds would she lose per
decided to go on her diet when she reached week?
x pounds. A formula for her weight in b) If she weighed 156 pounds at the
pounds, w, while on the diet would be beginning of the diet, how much would
she weigh after 10 weeks?
zv = x — 3y c) Solve the formula above for y.
in which x is her weight at the beginning of d) Find the number of weeks she would
have to stay on the diet in order to weigh
the diet and y is the number of weeks that
she has been on it. 120 pounds if she weighed 180 pounds at
the beginning.

7. Write each of the following equations in 10. Plot the following points, draw a line
standard form and give the values of a, b, through each pair, and find its slope.
and c. a) (4, 0) and (9, 2)
a) 6* = y + 12 b) (-2, 5) and (0, -3)
b)2(3x+y) = 5 c) (-6,1) and (-6,-1)
c) 4x — y = -1
d) ly - 9 = 0 1 1 . Draw graphs of the following lines.
8. Solve each of the following equations for y a) The line through the origin having a
in terms of x.
a) y - 5x = 10 slope of — .
b) x + 3 = 4y b) The line through the origin having a
c) 6x + 2y = 9
d) 8x - y = 1 slope of — .
c) The line through (3, 6) having a slope
9. Find the x- and y- intercepts of the lines of -4.
having the following equations. If a given
d) The line through (-3, 6) having a slope
equation does not have either an x- or a y- of 4.
y_

intercept, tell which one it lacks.

a) 2x + ly = 28
12. What are the slopes and jy-intercepts of the
b) 5x - y = 9 lines having the following equations?
:1
'3 "
c) - a) y = 4x — 5
d) 4x - 12 =
b)y.
d)ySummary
= and Review 281

c) y--
 bx
13. Write equations for the lines labeled a, b, c, 14. Graph the following equations.
and d in the graph below. a) 4x + 5y = 20
b) x - 3y = 9
c) 2x + 6y = 0
d) y = -5x + 8

z)y = ±x-2
f) y + 7 = 0

282 Chapter 6: EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

 Chapter 7
SIMULTANEOUS
EQUATIONS
 LESSON 1

Simultaneous Equations

The tallest man in the world is reported to be Don

Koehler of Chicago, Illinois. He is shown in this pho-
tograph with Mihaly Mesyaros, who works for the
Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus and is
one of the world's shortest men. Can you figure out how
tall each man is from the following clues? The sum of
their heights is 131 inches; the difference of their heights
is 65 inches.
■+y■ -y
If we let x and y represent Mr. Koehler's and Mr.
Mesyaros's respective heights in inches, these clues can
be translated into the equations
: 131
: 65

Pictures illustrating these equations are shown below.

131

David Frost
Mihaly Mesyaros
 Because we are working with two equations at the same time, we will call
them simultaneous equations. To solve them, we must find an ordered pair of
numbers that can replace the variables in both equations to make them true. One
way to do this is suggested by the picture below. Although it is merely the two
pictures on the facing page drawn as one, it suggests another equation:

x + x : 131 + 65

This equation contains just one variable and is easy to

solve:
2x = 196

Mr. Koehler is 98 inches, or 8 feet 2 inches, tall.

We can replace x by 98 in either of the original
equations to find y:

98 + y = 131

.y = 33
Mr. Mesyaros is 33 inches, or 2 feet 9 inches, tall.
Checking our answers, we find that

98 + 33 = 131
and
98 - 33 = 65

They are correct.

We found the solution to the simultaneous equations

x + y = 131
x — y = 65

to be (98, 33) by writing a third equation,

x + x = 131 + 65

This equation was suggested by a picture illustrating the first two. Is it possible
to write this equation without looking at a picture?

Lesson 1: Simultaneous Equations 285

 The answer is yes. We can get this equation by adding the left sides of the first
two equations, adding their right sides, and setting the sums equal.

x + y = 131
x — y = 65
196
2x
If the first two equations are true, then this equation must also be true.
We will call this method for solving a pair of simultaneous equations the
addition method. Here is another example of how it is used.

EXAMPLE
Write a pair of simultaneous equations, the first in terms of addition and the second
in terms of subtraction, relating the lengths of the line segments in these diagrams.
Then solve the equations for x and y.

h
-33-

SOLUTION
The equations are:

x + 5y = 33
2x - 5y = 6 y—
Adding the left and right sides of these equations to make a new equation, we get

x + 5y = 33
2x - 5y = 6
3x = 39
If 3x = 39, then x = 13.
To find y, we substitute this value for x in either of the original equations.
Substituting it for x in the first equation
x + 5v = 33

13 + 5y = 33
5y = 20

286 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

y= 4
Finally, checking these values for x and y in the second equation
2x - 5y = 6
we get

2(13) -5(4) -6
26 - 20 = 6
6 =6

This shows that our solution, (1 3, 4), is correct.

Exercises

Set I
1. Simplify each of the following expressions. 3. A bumblebee can fly at a speed of 50
a) 3x + 3x d) Ix - x meters per minute in still air.
b) 3x — 3x e) 5x — Ax a) How fast can it fly with a wind having a
c) Ix + x f ) 4x - 5x speed of w meters per minute?
b) How fast can it fly against a wind having
2. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
a speed of w meters per minute?
should replace 1111 in each of the following
to make it true for all values of x? If none c) How far can it fly in x minutes in
still air?
will make the relation true for all values of
d) How long would it take to fly y meters in
x, say so. still air?
a) x + 4||||||||flx d)x-3|||||||x- 1
b)x + 411112 e) x-3110
c) x + x|i2x f)*-*Bo

Set II
4. Tell whether or not each of the following
ordered pairs is a solution of the
simultaneous equations given. (Remember
that, to be a solution, the ordered pair must
make both equations true.) x — 2y =
x + 3y = 10 x +y = 2 y = ±x-
4x — y = \4 x2 + y2 = 4 2
a) (4, 2) d)(l,l) g)(6,0)
b) (1,3) e)(2,0) h)(0,-3)
c)(-5,5) 0(3,-1) i) (-10,-8)

Lesson 1: Simultaneous Equations 287

 5. This exercise is about the simultaneous Solve the following simultaneous equations.
Show your steps and check your answers.
x + 2y-- 9. x +y = 21
x-2y--
x -y = 9
a) Write the equation that results from
adding these equations. 10. 3x + \y = 2
b) Solve this equation for x. 3x - Ay = 10
c) Substitute your solution for x in the first
equation and solve it for y. 11. x +y = 3
d) Write the solution to the simultaneous y - x = 25
equations that you have found as an
12. 7x -y = 8
ordered pair.
e) Check your solution by finding out 3x + y - 42
whether it makes the second equation
true. 13. 8x - 33/ = 23

6. The two diagrams below illustrate a 3y = 7

pair of simultaneous equations. 14. 5x - x=
9y = 1155
-f-y-H 4x -

9v-
-74-
a) Write an equation for the first diagram in
terms of addition.
b) Write an equation for the second diagram
in terms of subtraction.
H-
c) Solve the equations for x and y.
d) Use the diagrams to check your solution.
The diagrams below represent pairs of simultaneous equations. Use the method -Y—\
described in exercise 6 to find the lengths of the line segments in each diagram.

-28-
hy-

288 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Set III
15. Tell whether or not each of the following
ordered pairs is a solution of the
simultaneous equations given. (Remember
that, to be a solution, the ordered pair must
make both equations true.) 2x -y = 10
5x +y = 16 x + y = 3
.v - 2v =1 x2 + y2 = 9
* = \y + 5
a) (3,1)"
b)(l,ll) d) (1,2)
e)(0,3) g)(5,0)
h) (0,-10)
c)(4,-4) f)(-2,5)
i) (-2,-14)
16. This exercise is about the simultaneous
equations
3x +y = 18
3x -y = 12
a) Write the equation that results from
adding these equations.
b) Solve this equation for .v.
c) Substitute your solution for x in the first
equation and solve it for y.
d) Write the solution to the simultaneous
equations that you have found as an
ordered pair.
e) Check your solution by finding out
whether it makes the second equation
true.

17. The two diagrams below illustrate a pair of simultaneous equations.

-\ x 1 x hy—\
-31~ 1

25

a) Write an equation for the first diagram in terms of addition.

b) Write an equation for the second diagram in terms of subtraction.
c) Solve the equations for x and y.
d) Use the diagrams to check your solution.

Lesson 1: Simultaneous Equations 289

 The diagrams below represent pairs of simultaneous equations. Use the method
described in exercise 17 to find the lengths of the line segments in each diagram.

~5-]
-58-

Solve the following simultaneous equations. Show your steps and check your
answers.

20. x + y = 37 22. x - y = 1 1 24. 5.r + 7jy = -14

x -y = 13 x - 7.y = 14
J + x = 5
21. 5.v + 3v = 9 23. 8x - y = 22 25. 4x + >' = 1
5x - 3y = 21 2.x + y = 28 1 \y _ 4X = 35

Set IV
The addition method can be used to solve -*-\
simultaneous equations that contain more
than two variables. Can you figure out the lengths of the line segments in the
following diagrams by writing and solving three simultaneous equations in three
variables? (Hint: Try adding the equations in pairs.)

hz-+-
z

290 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 LESSON 2
Solving by Subtraction
Can you solve the following puzzle? Three cats and one kitten weigh 24 pounds,
whereas three cats and five kittens weigh 36 pounds. How much does each cat
and kitten weigh?
The four extra kittens together evidently weigh 12 pounds. If they have equal
weights, each one must weigh 3 pounds. Knowing that each kitten weighs 3
pounds, we can conclude that the three cats together weigh 2 1 pounds. If they
have equal weights, each one weighs 7 pounds.
The method we have used to solve this puzzle illustrates another way to solve
a pair of simultaneous equations. If we let x represent the weight of a cat and v
represent the weight of a kitten, then the puzzle can be translated into the
equations
3.r + y = 24
3.v + 5v = 36

The conclusion that 4v 12 can be obtained by subtracting the first equation

from the second:
3.v + 5v = 36
- 3jc + y = 24

Solving the equation 4v = 12, we get v = 3. Substituting this value for v in the
first equation, 3x + v = 24, gives

3.t + 3 = 24
3.v = 21
x = 7
 This method for solving a pair of simultaneous equations is called the
subtraction method. It has as its basis the fact that, if two equations are true,
the equation that results from subtracting their left sides, subtracting their right
sides, and setting the differences equal is also true.
Here is another example of the subtraction method.

EXAMPLE
Use the subtraction method to solve the simultaneous equations
6x - Ay = 42
x - Ay = 17
SOLUTION
Before subtracting, it may be helpful to express each equation in terms of addition:
6x + -Ay = 42
x + -Ay = 17
Subtracting the second equation from the first, we get:

6x + -Ay = 42
- x + -Ay = 17
5x = 25
x = 5

Substituting this value for x in the first equation, 6x + -Ay = 42, we get

6(5) + -Ay = 42
30 + -Ay = 42
-Ay = 12

Finally, checking these values for x and y in >/the= second

-3 equation, x + -Ay = 1 7,
we get

5 + -4(-3) = 17
5 + 12 =17
17 = 17

This shows that our solution, (5, -3), is correct.

292 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Exercises
Set I
1. The following questions are about the lines 3. The Engulf and Devour Corporation pays
shown in this graph. its employees S10 an hour but fines them 50
5+y cents for each minute that they are late to
y a b work.
a) Write a formula for the weekly pay, p, of
someone who works h hours in a given
week and is late a total of m minutes.
b) If Minnie works 40 hours in one week
and is late a total of 30 minutes, what is
her pay for that week?
c) Solve your formula of part a of this
exercise for h.
d) If Max is late a total of 80 minutes in
one week but wants to earn $450, how
a) What is the slope of each line?
many hours must he work?
b) What is the v-intercept of each line?
c) What is the equation of line A?
d) What is the equation of line B?

2. Write each of the following expressions as

a sum.
a) x — y c) x — y — z
b) y — x d) 2 — y — x

Set I
4 This exercise is about the diagrams at the
right.
a) By comparing the two diagrams, figure
out the length of one of the segments
labeled x.
b) Use your answer to part a to figure out
the length of one of the segments
labeled y.
c) Write a pair of simultaneous equations for
the diagrams.
d) Use the subtraction method to solve the
equations for x and y.

Lesson 2: Solving by Subtraction 293

 The diagrams below represent pairs of simultaneous equations. Write the
equations and solve them to find the lengths of the line segments in each diagram.

-57-

-43-
yH

\-y-hy- -36-

i-y-ry-i-M

7. This exercise is about the simultaneous

equations 10.
9.v + ly = 51
3x + y : 9.v - 3y = 81
11.
3.V - V : 6.v - v = 15

Show that each of the following methods for

2x-y = 5
solving these equations results in the same 12. 1 l.r - 5v = 23
solution.
ll.v + v = -31
a) Adding the equations.
b) Subtracting the second equation from the Solve the following simultaneous equations by
first. either addition or subtraction. Check your
c) Subtracting the first equation from the answers.
second.
13. 12x +y = 4
Solve the following simultaneous equations by 8.v - v = -64
14.
subtraction. Show your steps and check your 5.v + v = 21
answers.
5.v + 9v = 9
= 20
. 3x + 8y 15. 2x + 17v = 50
3x 13 -2.v + 3y = -50
+ y = =-18
3 16.
. Ax + 5y 3.v - 4v = 12
X +■ 5y = lO.v - 4v = 61

294 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Set III
—
17. This exercise is about the diagrams below. I
-y-\
-Y-\
b) Use your answer to part a to figure out
the length of one of the segments
h
15 labeled x.
c) Write a pair of simultaneous equations for
a)I By comparing the two diagrams, figure the diagram.
y-
out the length of one+ of the segments d) Use the subtraction method to solve the
labeled y. equations for x and y.

The diagrams below represent pairs of simultaneous equations. Write the

equations and solve them to find the lengths of the line segments in each diagram.

— y-
h-x- -38-
62- -y-\
— x- -2-A
-23-

-y^r-y~+-y^-y-hy- Solve the following simultaneous equations by

subtraction. Show your steps and check your
20. This exercise is about the simultaneous answers.
equations 21. 2.x + 5y = 41
x + Ay : 20
2.v +y= 13
x — Ay : 4
22. 9.Y + Ay = 2
Show that each of the following methods for 3x + 4y = -10
solving these equations results in the same 23. 7.v + 3v = -32
solution. 7x - 9;' = -44
a) Adding the equations.
b) Subtracting the second equation from the
first.
c) Subtracting the first equation from the 25. 3.v - lOv :
second. 3.v + 4v =

Lesson 2: Solving by Subtraction 295

 Solve the following simultaneous equations by either addition or subtraction.
Check your answers. -22
:-10
26. 6.v - v = 63 2;. 4.v - 7v 29. 2.v - 9v = 25
28. lOx + 8>- = -57
1 l.v + y = 73 -10* - 5y = 30 13.v - 9y = 14
4x + y --

Set IV
Tweedledum said to Tweedledee: "The sum of
« tfir
your weight and twice mine is 361 pounds."
Tweedledee said to Tweedledum: "Contrariwise,
the sum of your weight and twice mine is 362

How much does each one weigh?

pounds."

296 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 LESSON 3
More on Solving by
Addition and Subtraction
The Golden Gate Bridge is one of the longest bridges in the world. Extending
more than a mile across San Francisco Bay, it is more than twice the length of
the longest suspension bridge in existence at the time that it was being planned.
This photograph shows the bridge at an early stage of its construction. At this
point, catwalks had been hung between the two towers for the workmen, but the
cables had not yet been built.
A lot of mathematics must be worked out before work on a structure as
immense as this one can begin. To make sure that the bridge would be able to
withstand storms from the Pacific, one of the engineers on the project had to
solve a system of thirty-three algebraic equations containing from six to thirty
variables each!*

* Golden Gate by Allen Brown (Doubleday, 1965), p. 35.

 From lessons 1 and 2 of this chapter, you learned two ways of solving certain
pairs of equations in two variables. The equations are either added or subtracted
to produce a third equation that contains just one of the variables.
Here is a pair of simultaneous equations that cannot be immediately solved by
either of these methods.

4* + y = 28
2x + 3y= 24

Adding these equations results in the equation

6x + 4v = 52

Subtracting them (the second from the first) results in the equation

2x - 2y = 4

Although these are both perfecdy good equations — they follow from the orig-
inal equations and give us more clues about x and y — they still contain both
variables.
The reason that addition and subtraction do not eliminate x or y is that the
original equations contain different numbers of x's (4 and 2) and different
numbers of jy's (1 and 3). One way to get around this difficulty is to multiply one
or both of the equations by numbers such that the resulting equations do contain
equal numbers of x's or y's. We can do this because we know that an equation
can be transformed into an equivalent equation by multiplying each side by the
same number other than zero.
Look again at the two equations.

4x + y= 28
2x + -by = 24
If we multiply each side of the second one by 2,

2(2x + 3y) = 2(24)

we get the equation

4.x + 6y = 48

298 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

This equation contains 4 x's, the same number as the first equation. What we
have done is illustrated by the diagrams below.

First equation
V + 4
1 28
Second equation
h t-f- «-r-y+y-f-yH h*-r- *-+-*-+- H-y-fy-r-y+y+y-l-yH
I 24 1 1 — 48 — — I
Subtracting the first equation from the new one produces an equation without
anY X'S: Ax
A + 6y
C = 48
AC

Ax + jy = 28
5y = 20
Because 5y = 20,^ = 4. To find x, we can substitute this value for jy in any one
of the equations that contains both x and y. For example,

4x + .y = 28
Ax + 4 = 28
4x = 24
x =6

It is easy to confirm that (6, 4) is a solution of both of the original equations.

Here are more examples of how multiplication can be used before addition or
subtraction to solve a pair of simultaneous equations.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the simultaneous equations
4x + y = 28
2x + 3y = 24
by eliminating y first instead of x.
SOLUTION

The first equation contains \y and the second contains 3jy's, and so we multiply
the first equation by 3:
3(4* +.y) = 3(28)
12jc + 3y = 84

Lesson 3: More on Solving by Addition and Subtraction 299

 Subtracting the second equation from it,

12* + 3y = 84
- 2* + 3>- = 24

we find that lOx = 60, and so x = 6. Substituting this value for x in one of the
original equations gives . — or

4(6) + y = 28
24 + y = 28

y= 4
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the simultaneous equations
Ix + Ay = 27
3x - 5y = 25
SOLUTION
One way to solve these equations is to eliminate the y's. Multiplying the first
equation by 5 and the second equation by 4 will produce two equations of which
each contains 20jy's:
5(7* + 4y) = 5(27) > 35* + 20y = 135
4(3* - 5y) = 4(25) > 12.v - 20y = 100
Adding these equations, we get
35.v + 20y = 135
12* - 20>- = 100

Dividing both sides of this equation by 47, we find that x = 5.

Substituting this value for x in the first of the original equations, we get

7(5) + Ay = 27
35 + Ay = 27

Ay = -8
Substituting these values for x and y in the second of the original equations gives
y = -2
3(5) - 5(-2) = 25
15 - (-10) = 25
25 = 25

This shows that the solution (5, -2) is correct.

300 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Exercises
Set I
1. Graph the following equations.
The answer is "fleas."
1 a) If someone has x fleas and manages to get
a) 2.v + 7v = 7 3 rid of y of them, how many does he or
b) 3.v - v = -6
C) V :
she have left?
+ 4
d) x = 5 b) If someone got rid of z fleas and couldn't
2. A riddle that is thought to be thousands of catch twice that number, how many fleas
years old is: did he or she originally have?
What we caught we threw away;
What we couldn't catch, we kept.

Set II
Each of the following diagrams illustrates a pair of equations. Write the equations
and tell how the second equation can be obtained from the first.

Write the equation that results from

performing the indicated operation on both c) 8.v + 2y = 20 Divide by 2.
sides of each of the following equations. d)6.v-v = -3 Multiply by -1.
a) x + 4y = 7 Multiply by 3. e) -x + 3v = 0 Multiply by -5.
b) 2x - 5y = 1 Multiply by 8. f) 12* - 8v = 36 Divide by 4.

Lesson 3: More on Solving by Addition and Subtraction 301

 7. This exercise is about the simultaneous f ) Multiply both sides of the second
equations equation by 4.
4x + y = 30 g) Subtract your equation from the first one.
x-3y= 1 h) Solve the resulting equation for y.
i) Substitute the number you got for y in
Solve these equations by doing the any one of the equations and solve for x.
following.
a) Multiply both sides of the first equation Solve the following simultaneous equations.
by 3. Show your steps and check your answers.
b) Add your equation to the second one.
c) Solve the resulting equation for x. 8. x+y = 7 11. 6x + 6y = 24
d) Substitute the number you got for x in 3x + 2y = 25 lQx-y= -15
any one of the equations and solve for y. 9. 2x + 5y = 29 12. 5x - ly = 54
e) Check your solution to see if it makes 4x -y = 25 2x - 3y = 22
both of the original equations true.
Now solve the equations again by doing the 10. 8x - 3y = 32 13. 1.5x + 2.5y = 16
following. Ix + 9y = 28 3x - l.5y = -33

Set III
Each of the following diagrams illustrates a pair of equations. Write the equations
and tell how the second equation can be obtained from the first.

302 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

17. Write the equation that results from e) Check your solution to see if it makes
a)
performing the indicated operation on both both of the original equations true.
b) of each of the following equations.
sides Now solve the equations again by doing the
c) following.
3x +y = 8 Multiply by 2.
d)
5x 1 Multiply by 6. f ) Multiply both sides of the first equation
e) — Ay =
6x + 3y = 27 Divide by 3.
x - 9y = -10 Multiply by -1. g) by
Subtract the second equation from your
5.
-2x + ly = 0 Multiply by -4.
0 lOx - 15y = 40 Divide by 5. h) equation.
Solve the resulting equation for y.
. This exercise is about the simultaneous i) Substitute the number you got for y in
any one of the equations and solve for x.
equations
x + Ay = 35
5x - y = 7 Solve the following simultaneous equations.
Show your steps and check your answers.
Solve these equations by doing the
following. 19. x + 3y = 19 22. x + 9y = 92
a) Multiply both sides of the second 2x + y = 3 8x -Sy = 16
equation by 4. = 25
, x + \y = 13 23. 3x + ly = 42
b) Add your equation to the first one.
Ax + 5y = 30
c) Solve the resulting equation for x. 3x - 2y ■.
d) Substitute the number you got for x in 21. Ix - ly = 44 24. 4.5x - 3y = 48
any one of the equations and solve for y.
5x + \2y = -1 1.5* + 2.5y = -1

Set IV
Can you figure out an easy way
to solve the pair of simultaneous equations
written on the floor in this cartoon?

"I hope you 're not a lifer!

I can't stand much more of this!"
*i =
 I WAS 0UT v =<^— 3V 3^

CtfT ,SJ THE 3^AC>-5^"5

LESSON 4
Graphing
Simultaneous Equations

Suppose that a greyhound spots a cat 30 meters away. If the greyhound runs
toward the cat at a speed of 15 meters per second and the cat runs away at a
speed of 10 meters per second, how long will it take the greyhound to catch up
with the cat? (Judging from what happened in this cartoon, we will assume that
the cat can take care of itself.)
One way to answer this question is with a graph. If the greyhound runs at the
rate of 15 meters per second, the distances it covers in different times are given
by the table
x 0 1 2 3 4 ...
v 0 15 30 45 60 ...

in which x is the time in seconds and y is the distance in meters. A graph

corresponding to this table is shown at the left at the top of the next page. Its
equation is

y = 15.v
If the cat runs at the rate of 10 meters per second and starts out 30 meters

304
 O 5 O 5 O 5
Seconds Seconds
Seconds

ahead of the greyhound, its distances from the point at which the greyhound
begins the chase are given by the table

0 1 3 4
30 40 60 70

The second graph corresponds to this table. Its equation is

y = 30 + 10*

To find out when and where the greyhound catches up with the cat, we can
draw the distance-time graphs of both animals on one pair of axes. This has
been done in the third graph, which shows that the lines intersect in the point
(6, 90). The coordinates of this point are the solution to the simultaneous
equations

y = \5x
y = 30 + lOx

The greyhound catches up with the cat in 6 seconds at a spot 90 meters from
where the greyhound started.
This problem illustrates a way to picture the solution to a pair of simultane-
ous equations. The graph of an equation in two variables consists of those points
whose coordinates are solutions to the equation. This means that, if two equations
are graphed on one pair of axes, their common solution consists of the coordi-
nates of the point or points that are on both graphs. In other words, the point or
points in which the graphs intersect.

Lesson 4: Graphing Simultaneous Equations 305

 Here are more examples of how the solution to a pair of simultaneous
equations can be pictured with a graph.

EXAMPLE 1

Solutions of the equations x + y = 6 and y = 2x that are pairs of positive integers

are shown on the graphs below. Show how the graphs can be drawn on one pair of

axes to illustrate the solution to the simultaneous equations

x + y = 6

SOLUTION y = 2x
The two graphs drawn on one pair of axes are shown at
the right. They intersect in the point (2, 4). The
coordinates of this point are the solution to the
equations
x + y = 6

because y = 2x
2 + 4 = 6
and 4 = 2(2)

EXAMPLE 2

Find the solution of the simultaneous equations

x + Ay

.. 1„

by graphing them. Check your answer.

+ 5
306 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
SOLUTION
To graph the first equation, we can find its .v- and y- intercepts. If x = 0,
0 + 4v = 8; so y = 2. If y = 0, x + 4(0) = 8; so x = 8. The line crosses the axes
in the points (0, 2) and (8, 0).
1
Because the second equation is in the form y -.
1
b = 5, we know that it has a slope of — ■ and that its ^-intercept is 5.
Drawing both lines on one pair of axes, we get the graph shown below. The
solution of the equations is the pair of coordinates of the point in which the lines
intersect: (-4, 3).
Checking this solution in each Y
equation, we get
- 4(3) :
- 12 :

3 = -2 + 5
3 = 3

Exercises
Set I
1 . Solve each of the following equations for the
variable indicated.
a) For x: y = ax + b
b) For x: ax + by = c The British eat more candy than do any
c) For y: ax + by = c other people in the world: about eight
ounces per person per week.
2. Find the length of this rectangle's sides
labeled x About how many ounces of candy
a) do five people in Britain eat in four
weeks?
a) if its perimeter is 36.
b) do x people in Britain eat in y weeks?
b) if its area is x + 36.
How many weeks would it take
Check vour answers.
c) five people to eat 1,000 ounces of candy?
d) x people to eat z ounces of candy?

Lesson 4: Graphing Simultaneous Equations 307

Set II
Use the graphs of the following pairs of
simultaneous equations to find their solutions.
Check each answer by showing that it makes
both equations true. 6. 2x -2y = 3

* = ->'-!

7. This exercise is about the simultaneous

equations
-v + 3y = 3
x +y = 5
a) Graph the two equations on one pair
of axes.
b) Write the equation that results from
adding the two equations.
c) Graph that equation on the same pair
of axes.
d) Write the equation that results from
subtracting the second of the two
simultaneous equations from the first.
e) Graph that equation on the same pair
of axes.
f) What do you notice about the four lines?

Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 8. This exercise is about the simultaneous Check each solution by seeing if it makes
equations each equation
: 2X in the pair true.
2x + v = 8
11. 3x- 2y = 6
2.v — y = 4 -y = 3
Follow the instructions given in exercise 7 10. y.
and answer the question asked in part f. 12. y.

Find solutions to each of the following pairs

of simultaneous equations by graphing them.

-5
Set III
Use the graphs of the following pairs of 14. \x +y = 2

xu
simultaneous equations to find their solutions. x - 2y = 14
Check each answer by showing that it makes
both equations true.

13. v = .v + 8
\
v = -2.v - 1

\ y 1 3T
OW 5

' \xX
4—1 — 1
W
/ \ \\\-*\
-5- \ <2 &
\i»
5
-5 \0 -\
\ \5
\ -3*>
H
-S-- \

1
o
J*-*
\*°
^frtU"
1^6y+^5
15. 3a: = 8><
x = 6y + 5

^^^
Lesson 4: Graphing Simultaneous Equations 309
 16. This exercise is about the simultaneous 17. This exercise is about the simultaneous
equations equations
3x + v = 3 x + 2y.
x - 2y :

a) Graph the two equations on one pair Follow the instructions given in exercise 16
of axes. and answer the question asked in part f.
b) Write the equation that results from
adding the two equations. Find solutions to each of the following pairs
c) Graph that equation on the same pair of simultaneous equations by graphing them.
of axes. Check each solution by seeing if it makes
d) Write the equation that results from each equation in the pair true.
subtracting the second of the two
simultaneous equations from the first. 18. v = ±x 20. 2x + 5y = 10
e) Graph that equation on the same pair
of axes. x+y = 6 y = 2x - 4
21. 3a: -y = 0
f) What do you notice about the four lines? 19. x + 2y = 4
y = x + 5 x +y = -4

Set IV
Suppose that a greyhound spots a cat 40 meters away and begins running toward it
at a speed of 10 meters per second. The four graphs below illustrate some of the
things that might happen. In each graph, the .v-axis represents time in seconds and
the v-axis represents distance in meters.
Describe, as specifically as you can, the situation illustrated by each graph.

-1

asm
310 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
 LESSON 5
Inconsistent and Equivalent Equations

Although the three pairs of simultaneous equations above look

quite similar to each other, their solutions are very different.
The first pair of equations has exactly one solution, the second
pair has no solutions, and the third pair has infinitely many.
To see why, we will graph each pair of equations.
The graph of the first pair

x + y = 5
y = x + 3

shows that their solution is (1, 4). We know moreover, that this
is their only solution because two straight lines cannot intersect
in more than one point.
The graph of the second pair of equations

x + y = 5
y = -x + 3
 consists of two parallel lines. Because parallel lines do not
intersect, this pair of equations has no solutions.
The graph of the third pair of equations

x +y = 5
y = -x + 5
consists of just one line because the graphs of the two equations
are the same. Because every point on one graph is automatically
on the other, this means that these equations have infinitely
many solutions.
It is possible to tell that a pair of simultaneous equations has
either no solutions or infinitely many without graphing them.
Look again at the pair of equations that has no solutions:

x +y = 5
y = -x + 3

If we write the second equation in standard form by adding x to each side, we

x +y = 3
get
Now compare this equation to the first one. One equation tells us that the sum of
two numbers is 5 and the other equation tells us that their sum is 3. These clues
contradict each other and the equations are inconsistent. If we try to find the
solution to these equations by subtraction,

we get a false equation. This means that no pair of numbers can satisfy these two
equations because, if such a pair existed, then zero and two would be equal.
Look again at the pair of equations that has infinitely many solutions:

x + y = 5
y = -x + 5
312 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
The first equation can be transformed into the second one by subtracting x from
each side. This shows that the two equations are equivalent. It follows then,
that any solution to one equation is automatically a solution to the other. If we
try to find their solution by subtraction,

x + y = 5
- x + y = 5
0 =0

we get an equation that is true, regardless of the values of x and y.

The examples that we have considered illustrate the three things that can
happen when we have a pair of linear equations in two variables:

1. The equations can have exactly one solution, in which case their graphs
intersect in a single point.
2. The equations can have no solutions, in which case their graphs do not
intersect. Such equations are inconsistent.
3. The equations can have infinitely many solutions, in which case their
graphs are a single line. Such equations are equivalent.

Exercises
Set I
1. Draw the following lines on one pair
of axes.
d) The line through (0, 1) having a slope of
a) The line through (2, 5) having a slope of
1.
b) The line through (5, 2) having a slope of
1. 2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous
c) The line through (1,0) having a slope of equations.
2 a) 8.v -f 3„v = 5 b) Ix + 2y = 33
5 ' x + 3v = 19 4.v - 5y = 25

Lesson 5: Inconsistent and Equivalent Equations 313

 3. The volume of a balloon depends on the 5 700
temperature of the gas with which it is
filled. The graph of this function for a
typical balloon is shown at the right.
a) What is the approximate volume of the
balloon when the temperature is 70 = C?
b) What is the approximate temperature
when the volume of the balloon is 1 10 50
cubic centimeters?

50 100

Temperature in °C

Set II
4. The graphs of three pairs of simultaneous equations are shown below.
Tell what vou can about the solutions of each.

°X

y = x +
2x + 2>y :

The diagrams for exercises 5 through 8 represent pairs of simultaneous equations.

3x -
For each exercise, do each of the following:
a) Write the two equations illustrated by the diagram in standard form.
b) Try to solve them, telling what happens.
c) If any pair of equations is inconsistent or equivalent, say so.
Ay-.
314 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
 \-x~^x-\ — y 1— y 1
I —25 — 1

| 14 1
■ x-hy^-y^-y-hy-^y-h H
— 42~ —\

Y-y-^y-
I * 1 x h
hy-t-y-r-y-Hy-r-y-

x — f-x— |
I 7 1

-x 1— x-
— 70 —

9. This exercise is about the simultaneous equations

2x + 5y = 10
2x + 5y = 0

a) Graph the two equations on one pair of axes.

b) What do you notice?
c) How many solutions do the equations have?
d) What are equations like these called?

10. This exercise is about the simultaneous equations

3x - 3y = 15

y = x — 5
Follow the instruction given in exercise 9 and answer the questions in parts b
through d.

Lesson 5: Inconsistent and Equivalent Equations 315

 Graph the following pairs of simultaneous equations and tell what you can
about the solutions of each.

11. 6x - 2y= 12 x-y =

13. 4X _y - 2
y = 3x — 6 x + 3y = y — Ax + 1

Set III
14. The graphs of three pairs of simultaneous equations are shown below.
Tell what you can about the solutions of each.

The diagrams for exercises 15 through 18 represent pairs of simultaneous

equations. For each exercise, do each of the following:
a) Write the two equations illustrated by the diagram in standard form.
b) Try to solve them, telling what happens.
c) If any pair of equations is inconsistent or equivalent, say so.

15.

316 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 -+— x-
-y-\

-SH

19. This exercise is about the simultaneous

equations

Ax - 2y = 8
2x — jy = 4
Graph the following pairs of simultaneous
a) Graph the two equations on one pair equations and tell what you can about the
of axes. solutions of each.
b) What do you notice? 21.
c) How many solutions do the equations
have? 5x-y--
d) What are equations like these called? 22. yx2x — + 5x
ly2y-
20. This exercise is about the simultaneous
-14 23. 3x — Ay
equations
3
Ix - ly -.

y = x-
Follow the instruction given in exercise 19 + 3
and answer the questions asked in parts b
through d.

Lesson 5: Inconsistent and Equivalent Equations 317

 Set IV
We have been studying pairs of simultaneous equations whose graphs are lines. The
graphs of the simultaneous equations below are curves.

Graph A Graph B

Ax2 + Ay2 = 36 9x2 + 4y2 = 52

9.v2 + 9v2 = 36 4.v2 + 9y2 = 52

5'

1. Tell what you can about the solutions of each pair of equations.
2. Can you derive a false equation from one pair of equations? If so, what is it?

318 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 LESSON 6
Solving by Substitution

For two people to be able to balance

each other on a seesaw, it isn't nec-
essary that they have equal weights.
The heavier person can simply move

si£
closer to the fulcrum, the point at
which the seesaw is supported.
It is known from experiments with

S52^
levers that, for a seesaw to be bal-
anced, the product of the weight on
one side and its distance from the
fulcrum must be equal to the product
of the weight on the other side and
its distance from the fulcrum. In the

HI IB
~7S~
figure above,
ax = by

in which a and b are the weights and

x and y are their distances from the
fulcrum.
-1&-
 4 Suppose, for example, that a child weighs twice as much as
4
her little brother and that they want to balance on a seesaw. Say
their weights are 40 pounds and 20 pounds. In order for them
to balance, their distances from the fulcrum must be such that
40x = 20y

If the children are seated 12 feet apart (so that x + y = 12),

how far should each one be from the fulcrum?
The answer to this question is the pair of numbers that can
be substituted for x and y to make both of these equations true:

40x = 20v
x +y = 12

One way to solve these equations is to graph them: the result is

shown at the left.
Although the equations could also be solved by the addi-
tion-subtraction method, there is another method that is, for
some equations, easier to use. It is called the substitution method
and it works like this.
Take either equation in the system
40x = 20.y

x + y = 12,

and solve it for one of the two variables in terms of the other.
For example, we might solve the first equation for y by dividing
both sides by 20 to get

2x :
320 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Now, because this equation says that and are the same number, we can
substitute 2x for y in the second equation

x + y = 12
to get

x + 2v = 12

Solving the resulting equation for x, we get

3x = 12
x = 4

To find y, we can substitute this value for x in either of the two equations. For
example,
2x = y

2(4) = y

y = S
The solution is (4, 8).

Here are more examples of how the substitution method can be used to solve
a pair of simultaneous equations.

EXAMPLE 1
Write a pair of simultaneous equations
illustrated by the diagrams at the right.
Solve them by making the indicated
substitution to find the lengths of the line
segments in each diagram.
SOLUTION
The equations are

x + 4V = 25
x = y + 5
Because the second equation tells us that and + 5 are the same number, we can

Lesson 6: Solving by Substitution 321

 5y

for in the first equation:

+ ;) + 4y = 25
Solving for y,
(3
+ 5 = 25
5y = 20
he second y equation,
= 4
X
== 94 + 5
X

The solution to the simultaneous equations is (9, 4) and the lengths of the
segments labeled x and y are 9 and 4, respectively.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the simultaneous equations

2x + 3y = 8
y - x = 11
SOLUTION
In this case, we might begin by solving the second equation for y. Adding x to
each side, we get

v = 11 + x

Substituting for in the first equation:

2.v + 3 =8
2x + 3(1 1 =8
2.v + 33 + 3x = 8
5x + 33 = 8
5x = -25
x = -5
Because we have already shown that y = 11 + x, it follows that

y= ii +(-5)

The solution is (-5, 6). y = 6

322 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Checking these values of x and v in the original equations, we get

2x + 3y = I v - x = 11
2(-5) + 3(6) = I 6 -(-5)= 11
-10 + 18 = I 6 + 5=11
11 = 11

Exercises

Set I
. Use a number line to find each of the c) What is the equation of the jy-axis?
following. d) What is its slope?
a) The distance between -5 and 6.
3. In a contest in 1973, a modified Opel station
b) The number of the point midway
between -9 and 1. wagon got 376 miles per gallon!
a) Write a formula for the distance in miles,
c) The numbers corresponding to the two
d, that this car could go on g gallons of
points whose distance from 8 is 2.
gasoline if it continued to get this
d) The numbers corresponding to the two mileage.
points whose distance from -2 is 7. b) Solve the formula for g in terms of d.
. The following questions are about the axes c) Use your formula for part b to find the
of a coordinate graph. amount of gasoline used by the car to
a) What is the equation of the .v-axis? travel the 14 miles in the contest. (Round
b) What is its slope? your answer to the nearest hundredth.)

Set II
The diagrams for exercises 4 through 7 represent pairs of simultaneous equations.
Write the equations and solve them by making the indicated substitution to find the
lengths of the line segments in each diagram.

y+y+yH

Lesson 6: Solving by Substitution 323

 Solve the following simultaneous equations
by the substitution method. Show your steps and
check your answers.

9. V = X - 1
= 4v
%x+ l)--
10.
10
y = 4 + a
11. v = 3.v - 1
x + 2v = 33
12. This exercise is about the s imultaneous 13. This exercise is about the simultaneous
equations
equations
= ly + 7
- 6 v = 11
2.v y = 2.v + 1
a) Try to solve the equations by the Follow the instruction given in exercise 12
substitution method. and answer the questions asked in parts b
b) What can you conclude from the result? and c.
c) What would a graph of these equations
consist of?

324 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 The diagrams for exercises 14 through 16 15. The distance between the weights is 20.
represent weights balanced on seesaws. For each
exercise, do each of the following:
a) Use the clue and the diagram to write a
pair of simultaneous equations.
b) Solve the equations to find x and y.
c) Check your solution to see if it makes the
seesaw balance. 16. The sum of the weights is 24.

14. The distance between the weights is 35.

12
□

Set III
The diagrams for exercises 1 7 through 20 represent pairs of simultaneous equations.
Write the equations and solve them by making the indicated substitution to find the
lengths of the line segments in each diagram.

Lesson f>: Solving by Substitution 325

 20. | x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
Hy~ I — 26 —

-78-
-y~y^y^

Solve the following simultaneous equations by the substitution method.

Show your steps and check your answers.

21. v = 2x
4x - y = 14
22. y = x - 7 The diagrams for exercises 27 through 29
y = 5x - 19 represent weights balanced on seesaws. For
each exercise, do each of the following:
23. x = y + 1
2* = 3y + 3 a) Use the clue and the diagram to write a
pair of simultaneous equations.
24. x + 1 1 = 5j> b) Solve the equations to find x and y.
x = 2(3v - 8) c) Check your solution to see if it—makes
£ the
25. This exercise is about the simultaneous seesaw balance.
10
equations 27. The distance between the weights is 18.
:2 + 4.V

HL s~
2x - _* y
a) Try to solve the equations by the
substitution method.
b) What can you conclude from the result? 28. The distance between the weights is 21.
c) What would a graph of these equations
consist of? * Y
26. This exercise is about the simultaneous
equations
6x - 3y = 10 29. The sum of the weights is 27.
y= 2x
Follow the instruction given in exercise 25
and answer the questions asked in parts b
and c.
m 7
326 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
Set IV
A seesaw can balance with more than one weight Can you figure out how much the duck and
on each side as long as the sum of the products rabbit on this seesaw weigh from the following
of the weights on one side and their distances clues?
from the fulcrum is equal to the sum of the
The sum of the four weights is 40 pounds.
products of the weights on the other side and
their distances from the fulcrum. The owl weighs 3 pounds.
The chicken weighs 5 pounds.

Lesson 6: Solving by Substitution 327

 LESSON 7
Mixture Problems

The greatest mathematician of the ancient world was Archimedes, who lived in
the Greek city-state of Syracuse in the third century B.C.
The king of Syracuse once came to Archimedes with the following problem.
The king had ordered a crown of pure gold but, when the crown arrived, he
became suspicious that it might actually be made from a mixture of gold and
silver. He asked Archimedes if he could figure out a way to tell whether the
crown was pure gold without damaging it.
After thinking about the problem for awhile, Archimedes
came up with the following ideas. Gold is heavier than silver: a
given volume of gold weighs approximately twice as much as
the same volume of silver. It follows from this that a given
Silver weight of silver has approximately twice as much volume as the
same weight of gold. Specifically, 1 kilogram of gold has a
Gold volume of about 50 cubic centimeters, whereas 1 kilogram of
silver has a volume of about 100 cubic centimeters.
The volume of the crown could have been found by putting
Equal volumes of gold and silver it in a basin of water filled to the brim and measuring the
volume of the water that overflows. Suppose that, by doing this,
Archimedes found that the crown had a volume of 140 cubic
centimeters. By also weighing the crown and finding that it
weighed 2 kilograms, Archimedes was able to figure out exactiy
Gold Silver what it was made of.

1Kg 1Kg First of all, he knew it wasn't pure gold because 2 kilograms
of gold would have had a volume of about 100 cubic centime-
Equal weights of gold and silver ters and the crown had a volume of 140 cubic centimeters.
 If we let x represent the weight of the gold in the crown and y represent the
weight of the silver, then
x +y = 2
because the weight of the crown was 2 kilograms.
Also, because 1 kilogram of gold has a volume of 50 cubic centimeters, x
kilograms of gold has a volume of 50x cubic centimeters. And, because 1
kilogram of silver has a volume of 100 cubic centimeters, y kilograms of silver
has a volume of \00y cubic centimeters. The volume of the crown is 140 cubic
centimeters, and so

50x + 100j; = 140

To find out what the crown was made of, we have to solve the simultaneous
equations
x +y = 2
50x + lOOy = 140

Multiplying the first equation by 50,

50x + 50.y = 100

and subtracting the result from the second equation, we get

50.y = 40
so that
y 50

Substituting this value for y in the first equation, x + y = 2, we get

x + 0.8 = 2
so that
x = 1.2

The crown contains 1.2 kilograms of gold and 0.8 kilograms of silver.
In solving this problem, we wrote a system of two equations, one dealing with
weights and the other with volumes. Any problem about a mixture of two things
can be solved in a similar way.

Lesson 7: Mixture Problems 329

 Exercises
Set I
1. This diagram illustrates a pair of b) that are equivalent.
simultaneous equations. c) that have the solution (1, 2).
3. The wavelength of a radio wave is a
function of its frequency. A formula for this
function is
300,000
/
a) What are the equations? in which w represents the wavelength in
b) How many solutions does the pair of meters and / represents the frequency in
equations have? kilocycles per second.
c) What single word describes such a pair a) What kind of variation is this?
of equations? b) What happens to the wavelength as the
d) What would the graph of this pair of frequency of a radio wave increases?
equations consist of? c) Solve the formula for /
2. Write an equation that, together with the d) Find the frequency of a radio wave whose
equation wavelength is 2,000 meters.
x + 2y = 5,

makes a pair of simultaneous equations

a) that are inconsistent.

Set II
e) Solve the simultaneous equations that you
4. A telephone coin box contains 52 coins, of have written for x and y.
which some are nickels and the rest are f ) How many nickels and how many dimes
dimes. The total value of the coins is $4.50. does the coin box contain?
Find out how many coins of each type it
5. Obtuse Ollie works after school in a health
contains by doing each of the following.
food store. He is supposed to add cranberry
a) Letting x represent the number of nickels juice to apple juice to make 20 liters of
and y represent the number of dimes, cranapple drink. A liter of the apple juice
write an equation relating x, y, and 52. sells for 45 cents and a liter of the cranberry
b) Express the total value of the nickels in juice sells for 60 cents. A liter of the
cents in terms of x. cranapple drink sells for 48 cents. Find out
c) Express the total value of the dimes in how many liters of each juice he should use
cents in terms of y. by doing each of the following,
d) Write an equation expressing the fact that a) Letting x represent the number of liters
the total value of the coins is 450 cents. of apple juice used and y the number of

330 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 liters of cranberry juice, write an equation one relating the numbers of plants and
relating x, y, and 20. the other relating their costs.
b) In terms of x, what is the value of the b) Solve the equations.
apple juice used? buy? many plants at each price did Ivy
c) How
c) In terms of y, what is the value of the
cranberry juice used? 7. Christmas tree tinsel is a mixture of lead
d) Write an equation relating the values of
and tin. Ten cubic centimeters of it weighs
the two juices used to the value of the
83.4 grams. One cubic centimeter of tin
cranapple drink.
weighs 7.2 grams and one cubic centimeter
e) Solve the simultaneous equations that you
have written for x and v. of lead weighs 11.0 grams. Find out how
many grams of each metal are in ten cubic
f ) How many liters of each juice should
Ollie use? centimeters of tinsel by doing the following.
a) Letting x and y represent the numbers of
6. On a trip to the nursery, Ivy got carried cubic centimeters of tin and lead
away and bought 95 plants, some at S3 each respectively, write a pair of simultaneous
and the rest at S5 each. Before the tax was equations, one relating volumes (numbers
added, the bill came to S353. Find out how of cubic centimeters) and the other
many plants she bought at each price by relating weights.
doing each of the following, b) Solve the equations.
a) Letting x and y represent the numbers of c) How many grams of each metal are in ten
plants costing S3 and S5 respectively, cubic centimeters of tinsel?
write a pair of simultaneous equations,

Set III
8. A test contains 42 questions, of which some e) Solve the simultaneous equations that you
are worth 2 points and the rest are worth 3 have written for x and v.
points. A perfect score is 100 points. Find f) How many questions worth 2 points and
out how many questions of each type are on how many questions worth 3 points are
the test by doing each of the following. on the test?

a) Letting x and v represent the numbers of 9. Acute Alice works Saturdays in a nut shop.
questions worth 2 and 3 points She is supposed to add some Spanish
respectively, write an equation relating .v, peanuts worth 84 cents a pound to 40
y, and 42. pounds of Virginia peanuts worth 7 1 cents a
b) Express the total number of points pound to make a mixture worth 79 cents a
possible from the 2-point questions in pound. Find out how many pounds of
terms of x. Spanish peanuts she should add by doing
c) Express the total number of points each of the following.
possible from the 3-point questions in a) Letting x represent the number of pounds
terms of y. of Spanish peanuts added and y the
d) Write an equation expressing the fact that number of pounds of peanuts in the
the total number of points possible on the mixture, write an equation relating x, y,
test is 100. and 40.

Lesson 7: Mixture Problems

 b) In terms of x, how much are the Spanish numbers of tickets and the other relating
peanuts worth? their costs.
c) In terms of y, how much is the mixture b) Solve the equations.
worth? c) How many tickets of each type did the
d) Write an equation relating the worth of theater sell?
the two kinds of peanuts used to the The metal used in gold coins is an alloy of
worth of the mixture.
gold and copper. Ten cubic centimeters of it
e) Solve the simultaneous equations that you weighs 172.2 grams. One cubic centimeter of
have written for x and y.
gold weighs 19.3 grams and one cubic
f ) How many pounds of Spanish peanuts centimeter of copper weighs 8.9 grams. Find
should Alice use?
out how many grams of each metal are in
10. One evening, 1,255 people went to the ten cubic centimeters of the alloy by doing
Orpheum Theatre to see Gone with the each of the following.
Wind. The box office receipts totaled $3,680, a) Letting x and y represent the numbers of
the price of admission for adults being $3 cubic centimeters of gold and copper
and that for children being $2. Find out respectively, write a pair of simultaneous
how many tickets of each type the theater equations, one relating volumes (numbers
sold by doing each of the following, of cubic centimeters) and the other
a) Letting x represent the number of adult relating weights.
tickets sold and y the number of b) Solve the equations.
children's tickets, write a pair of c) How many grams of each metal are in ten
simultaneous equations, one relating the cubic centimeters of the alloy?

Set IV
The following problem was invented by a man
named Mahavira, who lived in southern India
more than a thousand years ago.
The price of 9 citrons and 7 wood apples is
107; the price of 7 citrons and 9 wood
apples is 101. Tell me quickly the price of a
citron and of a wood apple.
fWBtWSf
Can you figure out what the two prices are?

332 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 "Say, I '.kink I see 'jchere we went off. Isn't eight times seven fijty-six'<"

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to solve pairs of simultaneous equations in

two variables by addition and subtraction, by graphing, and by substitution. We
have also learned how to use simultaneous equations to solve mixture problems.

Simultaneous Equations (Lesson 1) To solve a pair of equations in two

variables means to find every ordered pair of numbers that can replace the
variables in both equations to make them true. We search for these solutions by
combining the equations to write an equation that contains only one of the
variables. The solution to this equation can then be substituted into one of the
original equations to find the other variable.

Solving by Addition and Subtraction (Lessons 1, 2, and 3) Some pairs of

simultaneous equations can be solved by adding them. The left sides of the two
equations are added, the right sides are added, and their sums are set equal.
 Other pairs of equations can be solved by subtracting one from the other. The
left and right sides of one of the equations are subtracted from the left and right
sides of the other, and the differences are set equal.
To solve a pair of simultaneous equations by addition or subtraction, the two
equations must contain an equal number of one of the variables. If the numbers
are unequal, one or both of the equations can be multiplied on both sides so that
the resulting equations have equal numbers of one of the variables.

Graphing Simultaneous Equations (Lesson 4) The solution to a pair of

simultaneous equations in two variables can be pictured by graphing the equa-
tions on the same pair of axes. The pair of coordinates of the point (or points) in
which the graphs intersect is the solution to the equations.

Inconsistent and Equivalent Equations (Lesson 5) If a contradiction can be

derived from a set of equations, the equations are inconsistent. Such equations
have no solutions. Their graphs consist of two parallel lines.
Equations are equivalent if each of them can be derived from the other.
Equivalent equations have infinitely many solutions. Their graphs consist of a
single line.

Solving by Substitution (Lesson 6) To solve a pair of simultaneous equations

by substitution, first solve one of the equations for one variable, say x, in terms
of the other, sayy. The expression that is equal to x can then be substituted for
x in the other equation and the resulting equation solved for y. We can also
begin by solving for y in one equation and substituting for y in the other
equation.

Mixture Problems (Lesson 7) Problems about mixtures of two things can be

solved by writing a pair of simultaneous equations, each relating a properly of
the mixture, such as weight, volume, or value.

334 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Exercises

Set I
1 . Tell whether or not each of the following Graph the following pairs of
x +simultaneous
ordered pairs is a solution of the equations and tell what you can about the
simultaneous equations given. solutions of each. = 6
-3y-
- 7
Ix + 2y= 12 x2 -3y= 16 9.y = : 11 10
v = 5x - 1 1
x + y2 = 4 2+ 7 2x - 2y- = 0
a) (0,6) c) (4,0) = 4 2v =
b) (2,-1) io. x -: + 1 12. 4x
d)(2,-4)
e) (-5, 3)
y = -
2. Write the equation that results from
Solve
y = >the following simultaneous equations
performing the following operations on these bv substitution.
equations:
:6 13.
2x + v x+y= 14
2x - Ay : 10 x = 5y 8x-
14. y = 3x y =
a) Adding the two equations. 2x - ly = 27
b) Subtracting the second equation from the 15. ~7T
first. 2x + y = -40
8>- - 3 = x
c) Multiplying both sides of the first
equation by four. 16.
x + 6 = y - 1
d) Dividing both sides of the second 3(x + 3) = 2y
equation by two.
The following diagrams represent weights
Solve the following simultaneous equations balanced on seesaws. Write a pair of
by addition or subtraction. simultaneous equations for each diagram and
solve the equations to find x and y.
3. x + y = 35 5. 3x - 5y = 51
x + 5v = 23 17. The distance between the weights is 21.
x -y = 67

a
4. 6x + llv = 21
10
6. 8x - 7v = 62
6x + y = -9 4x - ly = 66

Solve the following simultaneous

equations.
18. The sum of the weights is 20.
7. 4x + 3y = 31
2x - 9y = 5
8. 7x - 5y = 40
3x - 2y = 16
H* 3 [71
Summary and Review 335
 19. Write an equation that, together with the he was supposed to buy ten dollars worth. If
Mrs. Magoo wanted 85 stamps altogether,
equation
find out how many of each kind she wanted
x + 4y = 8, by doing each of the following.
makes a pair of simultaneous equations a) Letting x and y represent the numbers of
a) that are inconsistent. 10-cent and 13-cent stamps respectively,
b) that are equivalent. write a pair of simultaneous equations,
c) that have the solution (0, 2). one relating the numbers of stamps and
the other relating their costs.
20. Mr. Magoo's wife asked him to buy some
10-cent and 13-cent stamps for her. He b) Solve the equations.
couldn't read the numbers of each kind that c) How many stamps of each kind did Mrs.
she had written down but remembered that
Magoo want?

Set II
1 . Tell whether or not each of the following Solve the following simultaneous equations
ordered pairs is a solution of the by addition or subtraction.
simultaneous equations given.
3. x - y = 8 5. 9x + 2y — 5
x - 6y = 21 x+_y = 43 x-2y = -l5
4y = 1 — x 4. 5x-7y = 92 6. 3x -lly = 43
a) (9,-2)
b)(21,0) 5x +y = 4 \2x - lly = 7

2x + y = -5 Solve the following simultaneous

x2 +y2 = 25
equations.
c)(0,-5) 7. 5x + \y = 53
d) (-4, 3) x - 2y = 5
e) (-1,-3)
8. 4x + 3y = 17
2. Write the equation that results from
3x + =>y = 10
performing the following operations on these
equations: Graph the following pairs of simultaneous
equations and tell what you can about the
6x - 3y = 12 solutions of each.
x + 3y = 2
9.y = c+ 3
a) Adding the two equations. -3x + 1
b) Subtracting the second equation from the x - 2y3y= = -8- 12. v =
first. 9x
2x -
c) Dividing both sides of the first equation 3j. = 9
by three.
d) Multiplying both sides of the second
x + v = -4
equation by six. 2y - x = 7

336 Chapter 7: SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

 Solve the following simultaneous equations 19. Write an equation that, together with the
bv substitution.
equation
13. x - v = 9 15. 3.v + 2v = 4 3x-y= 5,
2:v = -v 5 — 2x = y
makes a pair of simultaneous equations
14. v = x + 3 16. 9.v =j' + 5
x + 4v = 2 a) that are equivalent.
4V _ 3x = -20
b) that are inconsistent.
c) that have the solution (2, 1)
The following diagrams represent weights
balanced on seesaws. Write a pair of 20. On a fishing trip, Huckleberry Finn caught
simultaneous equations for each diagram and 3 1 fish, some of which were bullheads
solve the equations to find x and y. averaging 1.5 pounds each and the rest of

a
which were catfish averaging 5 pounds each.
17. The distance between the weights is 20. The entire catch weighed 92 pounds. Find
out how many fish of each kind Huckleberry

J3 caught by doing each of the following.

a) Letting x and y represent the numbers of
bullheads and catfish respectively, write a
pair of equations, one relating the
18. The sum of the weights is 26. numbers of fish and the other relating

a
their weights.
b) Solve the equations.
8 5 c) How many fish of each kind did he
catch?

Summary and Review

 Chapter 8
EXPONENTS
 fe^?.cto?w.

c^^C.;

"Did it ever occur to you that with all the eggs we've laid
there should be more of us? "

LESSON 1

Large Numbers

If every chicken egg produced a chicken, there would very quickly be many
more chickens in the world than human beings! The number of chicken eggs
produced annually throughout the world is about 390,000,000,000. This number
is so large that, even though it is easy to name, its size is very difficult to
comprehend.* If 390,000,000,000 eggs were packed in cartons and the cartons
stacked in a pile 100 feet long and 100 feet wide, the pile would be more than 38
miles high!
The size of a number such as 390,000,000,000 depends on the number of
zeros needed to write it. Adding a zero at the end gives a number that is ten
times larger. The removal of a zero results in a number that is one-tenth as
large. To prevent mistakes that might result from handling so many zeros, large
numbers are often written in a form called scientific notation.

* The name of the number is "three hundred ninety billion." The names of some large num-
bers that vou should know are million (1,000,000), billion (1,000,000,000) and trillion
(1,000,000,000,000).
 Scientific notation is based on powers of ten. From the table of some of the
powers of ten below, it is easy to see that in each case the exponent is the

102 = 10 • 10 = 100
103 = 10 • 10 • 10 = 1,000
104 = 10 • 10 • 10 • 10 = 10,000
105 = 10 • 10 • 10 • 10 • 10 = 100,000
106 = 10 • 10 • 10 • 10 • 10 • 10 = 1,000,000

number of zeros in the number when it is written in decimal form. The number

1,000,000,000,000,000, for example, would be written as 1015 because it contains

15 zeros. It also follows that the number 10 can be written as 101.
The world's annual production of chicken eggs,

390,000,000,000
can be written as

390 x 1,000,000,000

390 x 109
It can also be written as

3.9 x 100,000,000,000

3.9 x 1011
When it is written in this last form, it is written in scientific notation.

► A number is in scientific notation if it is written in the form

a X 106
in which a is a number that is at least as large as 1 but less than 10* and b is
an integer.

* The reason that a is restricted to numbers that are at least 1 hut less than 10 is merely a matter
of convenience. It is convenient to have exactly one way to write a number in scientific notation.
Without the restriction on a, a given number could be written in scientific notation in many ways.

Lesson 1: Large Numbers 341

 If we compare 390,000,000,000 with its form in scientific notation,
3.9 x 10u, we see that the decimal point has been moved from the end of the

3. 90, 000, 000, 000. = 3.9 x 1011

number to just after its first digit. The point has been moved 11 decimal places
to the left and the 11 has become the exponent of the 10. The decimal point is
placed just after the first digit so that, when the number is written in the form
a x 106, a will be at least 1 but less than 10. The number of places that the point
has been moved to the left becomes the exponent b.
Here are more examples of numbers written in scientific notation.

5,000 = 5 x 103 Scientific notation

Decimal form 450 = 4.5 x 102
12,005 = 1.2005 x 104

Exercises

Set I
1. Solve the following formulas for the 3. Certain types of bamboo grow at incredible
variables indicated. speeds. Measurements taken of one type are
a) For s: p = 4s presented in this table:
b) For p: i = prt
Time in hours, t 0 1 3
c) For h: a2h
3 Height of plant
in inches, h 0 1.5 3 4.5 6
2. Tell which one of the following properties i
illustrated by each equation: commutative a) Write a formula for this function.
property, associative property, distributive b) What kind of function is this?
propertv. c) How many inches per hour does the
a) 2(7*) = (2 • 7).v bamboo plant represented above grow?
b) 2(7 + x) = 14 + 2x d) At this rate of growth, how tall would the
c) 7 + .v = x + 7 plant be 24 hours after planting?

342 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

Set II
4. Write the name by which each of the b) Write it in scientific notation.
following numbers is usually called.
10. Write each of the following numbers in
a) 102 d) 105 scientific notation.
b) 103 e) 106 a) 30,000 d) 20,100,000
b) 80 e) 1,984
c) 104each of the following numbers as a
5. Write c) 720 f) 600,050
power of ten. 1 1 . Write each of the following numbers in
a) 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 10 scientific notation.
b) 100,000,000,000
c) One million a) 1012 d) 0.3 x 1020
d) Ten thousand b) 50 x 105 e) 0.0076 x 104

6. Write the number that is ten times as large

12. c)
The940Chinese
x 108 alphabet contains about forty
as each of the following. thousand characters.
a) 3,400 e) 1015 a) Write this number in decimal form.
b) 5.72 f) 8 x 107 b) Write it in scientific notation.
c) 0.9 g) 0.3 x 10"
d) 0.0016 13. Every person shares his or her birthday with
approximately 11,000,000 other people.
7. Write the number that is one-tenth as large a) Write this number in words.
as each of the following.
b) Write it in scientific notation.
a) 750 d) 10b
b) 2.8 e) 41 x 109 14. The mass of the sun is about 3.3 x 105
c) 0.001 times the mass of the earth.
a) Write this number in decimal form.
8. Write each of the following numbers in
decimal form. b) Write it in words.

a) 2 x 103 d) 6.02 x 101 15. The thirteen cards in a bridge hand can be
b) 1 x 109 e) 0.3 x 1012 arranged in more than 6.227 x 109 different
ways.
c) 7.5 x 104 f) 0.0084 x 107
a) Write this number in decimal form.
9. The number 420 x 105 is not in scientific
b) Write it in words.
notation because 420 is larger than 10.
a) Write 420 x 105 in decimal form.

Set III
16. Write the names of each of the following 17. Write each of the following numbers as a
numbers.
power of ten.
a) 109 e) 1013 a) 10- 10- 10- 10
b) 1,000,000,000,000,000
b) 1010 c) One thousand
c) 10"
d) 1012 d) 10
Lesson 1: Large Numbers 343
 18. Write the number that is ten times as large 23. Write each of the following numbers in
as each of the following. scientific notation.

a) 510 e) 1012
b) 9.23 f) 6 x 105
c) 0.4 g) 0.2 x 108 b) 80 x 104
d) 0.00077 c) a)250109x 1010
19. Write the number that is one-tenth as large d) 0.4 x 102
e) 0.00061 x 107
as each of the following. 24. Parker Brothers has sold more than seventy
million sets of its Monopoly game.
a) 6,400 d) 1010
b) 1.9 e) 27 x 103 a) Write this number in decimal form.
c) 0.05 b) Write it in scientific notation.
20. Write each of the following numbers in 25. One cubic centimeter of smoke from a
decimal form. cigarette contains approximately
a) 8 x 102 d) 4.04 x 109 5,000,000,000 particles of tar and other
b) 1 x 107 e) 0.6 x 101
pollutants.
a) Write this number in words.
c) 5.2 x 104 f) 0.0317 x 106
b) Write it in scientific notation.
21. The number 0.5 x 104 is not in scientific
notation because 0.5 is less than 1.
26. Sand dunes cover approximately 9.7 x 105
a) Write 0.5 x 104 in decimal form. square miles of the Sahara Desert.
b) Write it in scientific notation. a) Write this number in decimal form.
22. Write each of the following numbers in b) Write it in words.
scientific notation. 27. Mars is about 1.41 x 108 miles from the
a) 5,000,000 d) 1,090 sun.
b) 600 e) 77 a) Write this number in decimal form.
c) 48,000 f) 30,020,000 b) Write it in words.

Set IV
To see what one million "looks" like, the
children in an elementary school in Pennsylvania
collected one million bottle caps. This
photograph shows one of the children "buried"
in the pile.
Can you show what each of the following
numbers "looks" like in scientific notation?
1 . The number that is the sum of a million
and a million.
2. The number that is the product of a million
and a million.
3. The number that is the millionth power of
a million.

344 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

 LESSON 2

A Fundamental Property of Exponents

The most distant object in the universe that can be seen without a telescope is
the Great Galaxy in Andromeda. Shown in this photograph, it is about
2,200,000 light-years from the earth. This means that it takes light about
2,200,000 years to cover the distance between this galaxy and our planet.
Because light travels about 5,900,000,000,000 miles in a year, in 2,200,000
years it travels (5,900,000,000,000)(2,200,000) = 12,980,000,000,000,000,000
miles. This means that the Great Galaxy in Andromeda is about 13 x 1018
miles from the earth! The word for 1018 is a quintillion. So the Great Galaxy in
Andromeda is about 13 quintillion miles from the earth.
The numbers in this calculation are so large that they are hard to work with in
decimal form. If the problem is written in scientific notation, it looks like this:

(5.9 x 1012)(2.2 x 106)

 To be able to multiply the numbers in this form, we need to know what to do
with the powers of ten. A few simpler examples are worth considering first.
Compare the following problems in which powers of ten are multiplied in
decimal form and in exponential form.
In decimal form In exponential form
100 • 1,000 = 100,000 102 • 103 = 105
10 • 1,000,000 = 10,000,000 101 • 106 = 107
1,000,000 • 100,000 = 100,000,000,000 106 • 105 = 10u

To multiply two powers of ten, all we have to do is to add the exponents. In

symbols, 10a • 106 = 10a+b, in which a and b are positive integers. Returning to
the problem,
(5.9 x 1012)(2.2 x 106)

we can first rearrange the four numbers being multiplied because the order in
which a series of numbers are multiplied does not matter:

(5.9)(2.2)(1012)(106)
Multiplying 5.9 and 2.2, we get

12.98 x (1012)(106)

Multiplying 1012 and 106 by adding the exponents, we get

12.98 x (1012+6) = 12.98 x 1018

Changing this answer to decimal form, we get

12,980,000,000,000,000,000

In making this calculation, we have applied the fact that 10a • 10b = lO^6, in
which a and b are positive integers. In this equation, a, b, and a + b represent
the exponents of the 10's. The 10 is called the base.

► In the expression x»3 x is the base and y is the exponent.

The rule of adding exponents also applies to multiplying powers for which
the base is a number other than 10. Here are more examples showing why this
rule works.

346 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

EXAMPLE 1

Show why 22 • 23 = 22+3.

SOLUTION

22 = 2 • 2 and 23 = 2 • 2 • 2; so
22 • 23 = (2 • 2)(2 ■2-2) = 2-2-2-2-2 = 22+3

EXAMPLE 2

Show why x6 • x1 = x6+1.

SOLUTION

x6 = x • x • x • x • x • x and xl = x; so
X6 • X ' = (X • X • X • X • X • X)(x) = X'X'X'X'X'X'X :

The rule illustrated by these examples is the first law of exponents.

The First Law of Exponents

If a and b are positive integers, then xa • xb — xa+b.

In words, this law says that, to multiply powers of the same base, we add the
exponents.
Here are additional examples illustrating how this law is used.

EXAMPLE 3 61 = 6
Use the table of powers of 6 shown here to find 63
62 == 216
36

216 •7'776 64
65 = 7,776
1,296
SOLUTION 66 = 46,656
67 = 279,936
From the table, we see that 216 = 63 and 7,776 = 65.

63.65 = 63+5 = 68 68
69 == 1,679,616
10,077,696

From the table, 68 = 1,679,616. So 216 • 7,776 = 1,679,616. 610 = 60,466,176

Lesson 2: A Eundamental Property of Exponents 347

 EXAMPLE 4
Find the product of 4 x 104 and 7 x 107,
writing the answer in scientific notation.
SOLUTION
(4 x 104)(7 x 107) = (4 • 7)(104 • 107) = 28 x 10"
Because 28 = 2.8 x 101,
28 x 1011 = 2.8 x 101 X 1011 = 2.8 x 1012

Exercises

Set I
-9
1. Guess a formula
-4 for the function represented b) xx += y9v + = 5 20
by each of these tables. Begin-25
each formula
-16
with y — . 3. In one of the first automobile races, held in
2 3 4 5
a) x 1 France in 1887, the winner covered a
-2 distance of 20 miles in 74 minutes.
y -1 3 4 5 6
b) x 2 a) What was his average speed in miles per
9 8 7 6 tenth.)
y 10 hour? (Round your answer to the nearest
1 2 3 4
c) x 0
1 4 7 b) At this rate, how long would it take him
-5 following pairs of simultaneous to catch up with another car traveling at
2. Solvey the
a speed of 12.2 miles per hour if the
equations, other car has a headstart of 2 miles? (Let
a) Ax - y = 60 x represent the time in hours.)
3x + v = 59

Set II . Multiply as indicated and express your

4. The product x • x • x • y • y • y - y can be answers in exponential form,
written in exponential form as xy. Write
each of the following products in
exponential form,
a) X'X'X-x' X'X'X-x a) x2-x3
b)yy9
b)yyyyy c) x4 • X4
e) x4 -jv6 -x5 -jy3
c) x-x-yyyyyyy d) yy2-y3
d) x • x • x • x • x • x ' y f) x 'y1 • x • y~ • x • y1
e) x • y • x • y • x • x
g) 2x2
h) 5x3 •• 8x8
3x5
348 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS
 . Find x in each of the following equations.
a) 103 • 108 = 10'
b) 45 • 42 = 4'
c)(-3)6-(-3)^=(-3r
d) yl -y7 =y*
e) 9'-95 = 912
f)(-2)"-(-2)* = (-2)14
g)^-y°=y° 31 = 3

Use the table of powers of 3 at the right to 32 = 9

find the following products without doing 33 = 27
any multiplying. 34 = 81

a) 33-34 d) 6,561-6,561 35 = 243

b) 3-310 e) 27-81-243 36 = 729
c) 243 • 19,683 f) 9 • 9 • 9 • 9 • 9 37 = 2,187
Refer to the table to tell whether each of the 38 = 6,561
following equations is true or false. 39 = 19,683
310 = 59,049
f 35 = V 3" = 177,147
35 = 37 +3434= =315Vs- 312 = 531,441
g )3322<
h) each of the following products. Express
8. Find 313 = 1,594,323
each answer in scientific notation. 314 = 4,782,969
315 = 14,348,907
a) (2 x 103)(4 x 105)
316 = 43,046,721
b) (1 x 106)(6 x 10')
c) (5 x 104)(8 x 107)
d) (3 x 102)(7 x 1012)
e) (10)(9 x 104)
f) (0.5)(16 X 1016)
9. There are approximately 3 x 1018 atoms in
a milligram of gold. One kilogram is equal
to 106 milligrams.
a) How many atoms are there in a kilogram
of gold?
b) Write this number in decimal form.
10. In one year, the earth travels about 584
million miles in its orbit around the sun. b) On the basis of these numbers,
Some scientists think the earth has existed approximately how many miles has the
for about 4.6 billion years, earth traveled about the sun during its
a) Write each of these numbers in scientific existence? Express your answer in
notation. scientific notation.

Lesson 2: A Fundamental Property of Exponents 349

 Set III
11. The product x • x • x • x • x -_y -jy can be 15. Find each of the following products. Express
each answer in scientific notation.
written in exponential form as x5y2. Write
each of the following products in
a) (3 x 104)(2 x 103)
exponential form.
b) (8 x lO'Xl x 108)
a) x •x •x •x c) (6 x 107)(5 x 102)
b) yyyyyyyyy
d) (4 x 105)(9 x 105)
c) x ■ x- X- X- x- x-yyy
d) x-yyyyy e) (10)(7 x 109)
e) x-yyx-yy f) (0.5)(12 X 1012)
16. kilometers
There are approximately 3 x 10"
of ice on the earth. Onecubic
cubic
12. Multiply as indicated and express your
answers in exponential form. kilometer is equal to 109 cubic meters.
a) How many cubic meters of ice are there
a) x4 • x2 e) x3 • y~ • x9 • y5 on the earth?
1o)yT.y f) x6-_yx6-yx6-y
c) x5 • x5 g) 7x7 • 3x3 b) Write this number in decimal form.
d)yy2-y4 h) 4x9 • 9x4 17. The fastest camera in the world is capable of
1 3. Find x in each of the following equations. taking 600 million pictures per second!
a) 106 • 102 = 1CK There are 3,600 seconds in an hour.
b) 212 • 24 = 2* a) Write each of these numbers in scientific
c)(-5)3-(-5)3 = (-5r notation.
b) If the camera could operate continuously
d)y* -y=yT
e) 7'-73 = 715 at this rate, how many pictures could it
f)(_4)2-(-4)' = (-4)10 take in an hour? Express your answer in
scientific notation.
g)jy'-><5 =y25 = 4
h)y'-y' = y6
14. Use the table of powers of 4 at the right to = 16
= 64
find the following products without doing
any multiplying. = 256

a) 42 • 45 = 1,024
= 4,096
b)
c) 4256-262,144
• 48
= 16,384
d) 16,384 • 16,384
= 65,536
e) 256 ■ 1,024 • 4,096
= 262,144
f ) 64 • 64 • 64 • 64
= 1,048,576
Refer to the table to tell whether each of the
= 4,194,304
following equations is true or false. = 16,777,216
= 67,108,864
g) 43 + 44 = 47
= 268,435,456 41
h) 43 • 44 = 47 42
= 1,073,741,824
i) 410 + 42 = 412 43
= 4,294,967,296
=412
j) 4IO.42 44
45
350 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS
46
410
47
41;
48
412
Set IV
How many times does a person breathe in a
A THOUGHT FOR THIS WEEK
lifetime? Use the fact that human beings breathe
\From the Lafayette (Ind.) Journal & at the rate of about 1 5 times per minute to find
Courier]
It is important that we keep breathing
the approximate number of breaths taken by
to maintain good health. someone who lives to be 80 years old. Round
your answer and express it in scientific notation.

Lesson 2: A Fundamental Property of Exponents 351

 LESS ON 3

Two More Properties of Exponents

Babies are currently being born at the rate of about 130,000,000 per year! A year
130 000 000
contains approximately 530,000 minutes, which means that about — d 30,000' J* —
babies are born each minute. Doing the indicated division and rounding the
result, we get 245. About 245 babies are born each minute.
Because the numbers in this calculation are very large, perhaps it would be
easier in scientific notation:
1.3 x 108 _ ?

5.3 x 105
Dividing 1.3 by 5.3 gives 0.245 (approximately). What is 108 divided by 105?
 108 = 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 10- 10 = 10- 10- 10 = 103
105 10- 10- 10- 10- 10

It can be seen that, to divide two powers of ten, we simply subtract the
exponents:

i°4 = io8-5 = 103

So L3 x 1Q8 = 0.245 x 103 = 245

d.3 x 10'
10'
Just as the first law of exponents applies to powers of numbers other than 10,
this pattern of subtracting exponents is also true for division problems in other
bases. Here are two more examples showing why the pattern works.

SOLUTION

37 = 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 • 3 and 32 = 3 • 3; so
= 3
3 3 3-3-3 3 3
3 .3.3.
3-3
2 threes 2 threes

37
EXAMPLE 2 32
'-
Show whv^- = x10-6.
rio

: X • X • X * X = Xlv

10-6 x's

The rule illustrated by these examples is the second law of exponents.

Lesson 3: Two More Properties of Exponents 353

 The Second Law of Exponents
If a, b, and a — b are positive integers and x is any number other than zero, then

In words, this law says that, to divide powers of the same base, we subtract the
exponents. In Lesson 4, we will find out about negative exponents and see that
this law holds for them as well.
In our study of exponents, we have established two rules: one for multiplying
two powers of the same base and the other for dividing them. Another useful
rule helps us find the power of a power. Here are examples of how it works.

EXAMPLE 3
Express (72)3 as a power of 7.
SOLUTION
By the definition of an exponent, (72)3 = 72 • 72 • 72. By the first law of exponents,
?2 . 72 . 72 = 72+2+2 _ 73.2j or 72.3 Sq (72)3 _ ?6

EXAMPLE 4
Express (x6 )4 as a power of x.
SOLUTION
By the definition of an exponent, (x6)4 = x6 • x6 • x6 • x6. By the first law of
exponents, x6 • x6 • x6 • x6 = x6"6*6*6 = x4'6, or x6-4. So (x6)4 = x24.

These examples suggest the following rule.

The Third Law of Exponents

If a and b are positive integers, then (x0)6 = xab.

In words, this law says that, to raise a power to a power, we multiply the
exponents.

354 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

Exercises

Set I
1. Write each of the following numbers in
scientific notation.
a) 186,000
b) 12
c) 30 x 1012
d) 0.5 x 109
2. This exercise is about the graph at the right.
a) Write an equation for line a.
b) Write an equation for line b.
c) What is the solution to the pair of
equations that you have written?
3. A parking meter contains 98 coins, of which
some are pennies and the rest are nickels.
The total value of the coins in the meter is
SI. 50. b) Solve the equations to find out how many
a) Use this information to write a pair of pennies and how many nickels the meter
simultaneous equations. contains.

Set II
4. Show, as was done in the examples in this
Find x in each of the following equations
lesson, why each of the following equations
is true.
b) ; 102
a) 45 ^• 42 = 47
45 _ ,3
a) J£ - 10-

b>f=* g)
i)
h)
64 • 67 = 6'
ll8- ll2 = IF
(64)7 = 6«
c) (45)2
5 \X rite each of the following expressions a
single power of x.
«{*-"
' 9' )) (H8)2 = 11J

*s
k) 4J • 43 = 412
a)7rX12 X8

d) t^ = 910 m) • V3 == 412
1) I1(4') 736
d) (sy as e) <^-2
n) {7*Y = V*
' (-2)'

e) (*2)7
f) (a:6)6
Lesson 3: Two More Properties of Exponents 355
 = 4
= 16
7. Use the table of powers of 4 at the right to
= 64
find the following products or quotients.
= 256
= 1,024
= 4,096
4 49 = 16,384
4,194,304 44 (45)3 = 65,536
fe)
) 45 • 43 = 262,144
64

38,435,45i (16)6
h)g)(4,096)2 = 1,048,576
411 =4,194,304
16,384 412 = 16,777,216
Refer to the table to tell whether each of the 413 = 67,108,864
following equations is true or false. 414 = 268,435,456 41
42
415 = 1,073,741,824
i) 410 _ 48 = 42
416 = 4,294,967,296 43
k) (47)2 = 44
a)
1) 47 • 42 = 45
Find each410 of the following quotients.
46
Express each answer in scientific notation. 410 47
9b) x f)
48 numbers
a) Write each of these population
3 x 42 in decimal form. 9 4
8 x 7 x 108 b) Write each in scientific notation.
4 X c) Approximately how many times as many
104 2
4 X 103 12 people are living on the earth now
6 x 10
r\ 10n compared with two thousand years ago?
I X 105 *' 40 106
105 3 x 1010 10. The earth is about 1.5 x 1013 centimeters
0'^
The earth's 1population two thousand years from the sun. Light travels at a speed of
ago has been estimated to have been one 3 x 1010 centimeters per second. How long
hundred thirty-three million people. It is does it take light from the sun to reach the
now more than four billion. earth?

Set III
1 1 . Show, as was done in the examples in this 12. Write each of the following expressions as a
lesson, why each of the following equations single power of x.
is true.

a) 24 • 23 = 27

b) f = 2'
c) (24)3 = 2>2
356 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS d) (x3)4
e) (x4)3
f) (*8)«
 L)
= 3
1 3. Find x in each of the following equations. = 9
i) = 27
1)
h) = 81
1012
11 ■= V 95 . 93 = 9x = 243
= 729
7 104 k)
g)
J) = 2,187
46 . 44 _ _ 9,4x
(95)3
= 6,561
(-5)' 11*- ll2
= 4,= 11 = 19,683
(-5)f n) (46)4
31 = 3,o = 59,049
2*
(-8)4 = m (IF)2 = ll8 = 177,147
6' • 6' = 616 = 531,441
36 (6-)- = 616 = 1,594,323 31
(-8)' = 4,782,969 32
14. Use the table of powers of 3 at the right to
find the following products or quotients. = 14,348,907 33
= 43,046,721 34
35
36
310 37
3 3 38
3 1
314 (32)6 312 31
531,441 fe)
) 32 • 36 39
2,187
5 313
43,046,721 h)g)(2(2437))3
u
6,561 311 3
316
Refer to the table to tell whether each of the
following equations is true or false.
A swarm of locusts once seen flying across
i) 39 - 34 = 35 the Red Sea was estimated to have consisted
of two hundred fifty billion insects and to

of-*
k) 32-36 = 312
have covered an area of two thousand square
miles.
a) Write each of these numbers in decimal
1) (32)' = 3'2 form.
15. Find each of the following quotients. b) Write each in scientific notation.
Express each answer in scientific notation. c) Approximately how many locusts were
8 X 5 X
2 - 10 5
there in each square mile of the swarm?

. The sun contains about 1 X 1057 atoms. The

6 X 108 4 X
3 / 102 2
volume of the sun is about 8.5 x 1031 cubic

3 ■ 10" 7 X 109
inches. How many atoms, on the average,
are in each cubic inch of the sun? (Round
107 your answer to the nearest tenth.)
10" 106
Lesson 3: Two More Properties of Exponents 357
1012
 Set IV
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

The number that is written as 1 followed by 100 zeros is called a googol. It was
named by a young nephew of the American mathematician Edward Kasner when
the boy was asked to invent a name for a very large number.

1 . Are either or both of the numbers below equal to a googol?

10ioo 100io

2. Write each one in scientific notation.

3. If you think that one number is larger than the other, tell how many times
larger it is.

358 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

 LESSON 4

Zero and
Negative Exponents

27.5

When a piano is tuned, the first note to be tuned is the A above middle C. After
is has been tuned to a frequency of 440 cycles per second, the rest of the A's on
the keyboard are tuned so that each successive A has twice the frequency of the
one before it.* This means that the three A's above "middle A" are tuned as
shown here.

= 440 • 21 :
440. = 440 • 22 : 1,760
440' 2 = 440 • 23 : 3,520
440'high or low it sounds) depends on its frequency (the number of
* The pitch of a sound (how
vibrations per second). The greater the frequency, the higher the pitch.

359
 From the middle column of this table, it looks as if a formula for the frequencies
of these notes is 440 • 2", in which n = 1, 2, and 3. If the keyboard continued, it
seems reasonable to assume that the formula would continue to work, with
n = 4, 5, 6, and so on.
What would happen if we tried applying this formula to middle A itself?
Because the integer before 1 is 0, this would mean that

440 • 2° = 440

Applying the formula to the A's before middle A would require the use of
negative integers, as shown here. 2"1 = 220
440 2'2 = 110
440 2-3 = 55
440 2"4 = 27.5
440

Because it doesn't make any sense to think of zero and negative exponents as
meaning repeated multiplication, we will have to figure out their meanings from
these equations instead.

If 440 • 2° = 440, then it follows that we want 2° to equal 1.

If 440 • 2"1 = 220, then it follows that we want 2"1 to equal — .

In the same fashion,

2-2 :

2-3 = -4 or -22
8 2

1 „ 1
and 2"4 ^
16 24
This pattern also extends to bases other than 2. For example, look at this
pattern of powers of 5:

360 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

 53 = 125
52 = 25
51 = 5
5° = 1

If the exponent is decreased by 1, the resulting number is the preceding one

divided by 5.
This pattern works for all bases except 0; so we can define zero and negative
integer exponents in the following way.

► Definition of the Exponent Zero

x° = 1, in which x may be any number except 0.

► Definition of Negative Integer Exponents

x-° = — , in which x may be any number except 0.

In addition to being consistent with the patterns we have already observed,

these definitions have an even more important consequence. The laws of expo-
nents that we discovered for positive integer exponents work for all integer expo-
nents. They are repeated here.

► The First Law of Exponents

If a and b are integers, then x° • x6 = x?+h.

► The Second Law of Exponents

If a and b are integers and x is a

► The Third Law of Exponents

If a and b are integers, then (x"f — xab.

Here are examples in which there are zero or negative exponents.

Lesson 4: Zero and Negative Exponents

 EXAMPLE 1
Apply the first law of exponents to the expression x° • x° to explain why x° = 1 .
(Assume that x is not zero.)
SOLUTION

According to the first law of exponents, xa • x° = x°+0 = xa. Because the result of
multiplying the number x" by x° is the same number, x°, it follows that x° must
be 1.

42 J
Applv the second law of exponents to the expression -j to explain why 4 2 = — j .
SOLUTION

According to the second law of exponents, -

64

EXAMPLE 3
Write (x-4)-5 as a single power of x.
SOLUTION J16

According to the third law of exponents, (x-4)-5 = x(-4X-5> = x20

Exercises

Set I
1. Find each of the following products. Express 3. There are four consecutive integers whose
each answer in scientific notation. sum is 2.
a) If x represents the smallest integer, how
a) (5)(2 x 1010) would the other three numbers be
b) (1.2 x 1012)(1.2 x 1012)
c) (7 x 107)(9 x 109) represented?
b) Write an equation expressing the fact that
2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous the sum of the four numbers is 2.
equations.
c) What are the four numbers?
a) 3x + Ay = 27 b) 2x - 6y = 11
3x + 5>> = 27 x = 3y + 7

362 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

Set II
4. Write each of the following numbers without 510 = 9,765,625
using any exponents. 59 = 1,953,125
a) l10 h) 5-2 58 = 390,625
b) 101 i) 43 57 = 78,125
c) 07 j) 4"3 56 = 15,625
d) 7° k) (-4)3 55 = 3,125
54 = 625
e) (-1)6 1) (_4)"3 53 = 125
f) 6"> m) (-8)-1 52 = 25
g) (-2)5 n) (-I)"8 51 = 5
5. Use the table of powers of 5 at the right to 5°= 1
find each of the following. 5"1 = 0.2
5"2 = 0.04
a) 52-5"3 5
5"3 = 0.008
b) (52)-3 f) 0.00032
5"4 = 0.0016
g) (78,125)(0.0000128)
5"5 = 0.00032
5"6 = 0.000064
h)(5"')-« 5-7 = 0.0000128
(3,12s)"1
j)i) (9,765,625)°
I (0.00 16)( 15,625)
6. Copy and complete the following table for
the function y = 2X by replacing each 1111
with either an integer or a decimal fraction.
r)
x 4 3 2 1 0-1-2-3
v 16 111 1111 11 111 111 1111 11111

7. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,

should replace 111 in each of the following? n) ^
a) 31 IIIIIIIIII41 e) 6"2 1|||| 6"3
b) 3° 111 4° f)(-2)6|llli(-3)6
c) 3-1 III1II4-1 g) (-1)7 ill 7"1
a) 51 III! 10-1
d) h) (-lO-MIIIIIIIIK-lO)-2
8. Write each of the following expressions as a single power of x. o) 4
(x-3)5
1} x^
■V 1
» 4
b)
h) (x-6)-1
C) X°'Xl°
q)
d) (x°)10 m) —j
e) x4 • x"4 X
f) (x4)-4
g) x-6-x"'
i) -1
Lesson 4: Zero and Negative Exponents 363

P) ^
xv
 Set III
9. Write each of rhe following numbers without
using any exponents.

a) l8
b) 81
c) 012 i) h) 53 6-2
d) 12°
e) (-1)9 k) (-5)3
3
i) 5-
1) (- 5)"3 210 = 1,024
f) 9-1
g)
10. Use (-2)6table of powers
the (-4)2"1at the right to
m) of 29 = 512
find n) (-I)"4
each of the following. 28 = 256
27 = 128
a) 2"3 • 22 26 = 64
b) (2-3)2 f) . 0.0078125 25 = 32
24 = 16
~2^ g) (256)(0.00390625) 23 = 8
c)- 22 = 4
2-3 h) (2-^)-' -3
-# 22 0 (0.5)-8 21 = 2
d)^(0.0625)(32)
e) 2° = 1
j) (0.03125)° 2-1 = 0.5
11. Copy and complete the following table for 2"2 = 0.25
the function y = 10x by replacing each llllll 2-3 = 0.125
with either an integer or a decimal fraction.
2"4 = 0.0625
x 4 3 2 1 0 2-5 = 0.03125
y 10,000 111 llllll llllll 111 111 2-6 = 0.015625
2"7 = 0.0078125
12. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
should replace llllll in each of the following? 2"8 = 0.00390625
a) 61 llllll 5i e) 4-3 lllll 4"2 k> 7
b) 6° 111 5° f)(-3)4 llllll (-2)4
c) 6-1a) llllll 5-1 g)9-' llllll (-1)9
d)8' llllll 2-i h)(-7)-2 llll (-7)">
1 3. Write each of the following expressions as a single power of x.
i) i ») ST

(x6)-2
b) x7- -»4 P>5 q)
x°
d)
c) (Xy h) (x-4)-- ^
e) x-3-x3 } X10

f) (X"3)3 1) *-

364 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

Set IV
New ideas in mathematics often come from the discovery of patterns. In this lesson,
for example, we discovered the meaning of zero and the negative integers as
exponents from a pattern.
The meaning of fractions as exponents can also be discovered from a pattern.
Look at the pattern shown here.

91 .91 = 91+1 _ 92 or 9-9 = 81

9i • 9^ = 9^ = 91 or ? • ? = 9
90 . 90 _ 90+0 _ 90 or 1-1 = 1

1. What number do you think 9^ means?

2. In general, what number do you think xx* means?

Lesson 4: Zero and Negative Exponents 365

 LESSON 5
Small Numbers

This remarkable photograph, made with an electron microscope, shows a virus

magnified to about a million times its actual size. This virus causes respiratory
disease in human beings. The shape of the virus is that of an icosahedron, the
geometric solid shown at the left of the photograph.
The virus is so small that its volume is only 0.00000000000000002 cubic
centimeters. It is hard to believe that something this small could be photo-
graphed or measured. Nevertheless, scientists must work with numbers much
smaller than even the volume of a virus. To do so, they usually express such
numbers in scientific notation.
We have learned that a number written in scientific notation has the form

a X1 but
in which a is a number that is at least 10b less than 10 and b is an integer. To
see how a small number can be written in scientific notation, consider the
numbers 4,000 and 0.004.

4,000 = 4 x 1,000 = 4 x 103

0.004 = — — = 4 x — !— = 4 x -Xr = 4 x 10" 3

1,000 1,000 103

In the first case, the decimal point has been moved 3 places to the left and the
exponent is 3.

4,00 0. = 4 x 103

In the second case, the decimal point has been moved 3 places to the right and
the exponent is -3.

0 . 0 0 4 = 4 x lO"3

These examples illustrate the relationship between the number of digits and
direction in which the decimal point is moved and the exponent when a number
is changed from decimal form to scientific notation. If the decimal point is
moved n places to the left, the exponent is n. If it is moved n places to the right,
the exponent is -n. If the decimal point is not moved at all, the exponent is 0.
Using this relationship to express the volume of the virus in scientific nota-
tion, we get

0.000000000 000 000 02 = 2x 10"17

Here are more examples of how small numbers are written in scientific
notation.

3 = 3 X 10°
0.08 = 8 X 10-2
0.000027 = 2.7 x 10"5
Lesson 5: Small Numbers 367
 Exercises
Set I
1. Solve each of the following equations for x. 3. Bees have to travel about one hundred forty
thousand miles to make a pound of honey.
a) 102x = 105
About three hundred million pounds of
honey are produced in the United States and
Canada each year.
c) x + 102 = 105 a) Write each of these numbers in scientific
2. Graph the following equations, notation.
b) About how far do bees have to travel to
a) y = 3x
make the honey produced in the United
b)y = 3 States and Canada each year?
c) x + y = 3

Set II
4. Write the name that is commonly used to 9. The number 0.06 x 10~3 is not in scientific
refer to each of the following numbers. notation because 0.06 is less than 1.

a) Write 0.06 x 10"3 in decimal form.

a) 10° b) Write it in scientific notation.
e) 1(H
b) 10-' 10. Write each of the following numbers in
5. Write10-2
the number that is scientific notation.
c) d) ten
lO"3times as 1;
as each of the following. a) 80 x 103 c) 0.4 x 106
a) 0.07 d) lO"3 b) 80 x lO"3 d) 0.4 x 10"6
b) 12.345 e) 9 x 10~u
c) 103 f) 0.2 x lO"6 11. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
6. Write the number that is one-tenth as 1 should replace Hill in each of the following?
as each of the following.
a) 0.004 a) 105|lllll(105)2
b) 33.3 b) io-5lil(io-5)2 d
c) 6 x 10-4 111 7 x )lO"4
x 10-5
e) 5 lO d)4x lO"6 11 4 x lO"7
c) 108each of the following
7. Write d) "8 numbers in e) 8x 10-10 IHIJIilll80 x 10-"
scientific notation.
f) 2x 10-3 lllllll 3 x lO"2
a) 2,000 e) 0.0314
b) 0.0002 f) 0.000000000314 12. Find each of the following products and
c) 75 g) 8 quotients. Express each answer in scientific
d) 0.75 h) 0.00000100 notation.
8. Write each of the following numbers in
decimal form. a) (3 x 10"3)(2 x lO"2) f)-f
b) (8 x 106)(5 x 10-6)
a) 6 x 102 d) 3.3 x 10"4 c) (7 x 10"9)(9 x 107)
b) 6 x 10-2 e) 1.05 x 108
c) 3 x 10-4 f) 1.05 x 10-8
8 X 102
8 x 102
368 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS 4 x IP"5
4 x 10-5
2 x 10-7
5 x lO"7
13. Bacteria with lengths as small as 2 x 10~5
centimeter are the smallest living things that
can be seen with an ordinary microscope.
a) Write this number in decimal notation.
b) Name it.

14. The "General Sherman," a redwood tree in

northern California, is thought to be the
heaviest living thing on the earth. Its weight
is estimated to be about 4,000,000 pounds.
It grew from a seed whose weight was only
about 0.00001 pound.
a) Write each of these numbers in scientific
notation.
b) How many times heavier is the tree now
than the seed from which it grew?
c) Write your answer in words.

Set III
15. Write each of the following numbers as s . Write each of the followinj
power of ten. scientific notation.
1
e) 0.000222
J_ a) 900
b) 0.009
f) 0.000000000222
10 1,000
1
1 c) 31 h) 0.00001000
10,000 d) 0.31
100 19. Write each of the following numbers in
decimal form.
16. Write the number that is ten times as large
as each of the following. a) 4 x 101 d) 7.5 x 10"3
b) 4 x 10-' e) 2.08 x 106
a) 0.002 d) 10-5
c) 7 x lO"3 f) 2.08 x lO"6
b) 1.11 e) 4 x lO"8
c) 105 f) 0.3 x lO"12 20. The number 40 x 10-5 is not in scientific
notation because 40 is not less than 10.
17. Write the number that is one-tenth as large
as each of the following. a) Write 40 x 10"5 in decimal form.
b) Write it in scientific notation.
a) 0.9
b) 12.34 21. Write each of the following numbers in
scientific notation.
c) 107 a) 50 x 102 c) 0.7 x 10"
d) 10 7
e) 8 x lO"10 b) 50 x lO"2 d) 0.7 x lO"9

Lesson 5: Small Numbers 369

 22. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, 24. The carburetor in an automobile engine
should replace in each of the following? turns liquid gasoline into a mist of tiny
drops, each having a diameter of about
a) 104 (104)3
3 x 10"7 centimeter.
b) 10-4 (10-4)3
a) Write this number in decimal form.
c) 9 x 10-5I!!I8 x 10-5
b) Write it in words.
d) 5 x 10-q 5 x lO"8
e) 7 x 10"b 6 x IO"7 25. Radio waves and x rays are two types of
f ) 2 x 10"' i ! 20 x lO"2 electromagnetic radiation. A typical radio
23. Find each of the following products and wave has a wavelength of 50,000
quotients. Express each answer in scientific centimeters. An x-ray, on the other hand,
notation. has a wavelength of only about 0.00000001
d centimeter.
a) (2 x) 10"4)(4 x lO"2) a) Write each of these numbers in scientific
b) (5 x 10"8)(6 x 108)
notation.
c) (98e) xX 103)(3 x lO"9)
b) How many times as long is the
2 X
l(H wavelength of a radio wave as that of an
x ray? Express your answer in scientific
8x notation.
2 ■ IO4
3X c) Write your answer in words.

t} 5x 10-5 10~"
IO4
io-5

Set IV Mass in ke
Object
This table shows how a human being compares
in mass with several large and small things in Sun
Earth
the universe. The mass of a human being is
Moon
roughly "half way" between the masses of two Whale
other objects in the table in the sense that one 2 X 1030
object is as many times as heavy as a human Elephant 6 x IO24
being as the other object is as light. Human 7 x 1022
Flea 1 X 105
Can you figure out which objects they are? If
4 X 103
you can, show your calculations. Dust particle 6 X 10'
Hydrogen atom
Electron
3 x IO"4
1 X IO"6
2 X IO"27
9 x 10"31

370 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

 LESSON 6
Powers of Products
and Quotients

One of the most famous formulas of this century is the result of Albert Ein-
stein's discovery that the amount of energy contained in an object is related to
its mass. The formula is

in which E represents energy, m represents mass, and c represents the speed of

light.
The speed of light is 3 X 108 meters per second. Squaring this number as the
formula indicates, we get

(3 x 108)2 = (3 X 108)(3 x 108)

= (3X3) X (108)(108)
= 9 x 1016
Substituting this result into the formula gives

or £ = (9x 1016)m
E = 90,000,000,000,000,000m
 Apparently, the amount of energy contained in even a small amount of matter
is tremendous. It can be shown from the result we have obtained, in fact, that
the amount of energy equivalent to the mass of a single glass of water would be
sufficient to run the entire United States for several hours!*
In finding the square of the speed of light, we found a power of a product.
The results suggests another way to find it:

(3 x 108)2 = (3)2 x (108)2

== 99 *X 101(
1016
This pattern is worth remembering. We will call it the fourth law of exponents.

► The Fourth Law of Exponents

If a is an integer, then (xy)a = xaya.

A comparable pattern holds true for a power of a quotient.

► The Fifth Law of Exponents

If a is an integer and v is not zero, then (— ) = — .

\yl ya
These properties of exponents, like those studied earlier, work even if the
exponent is zero or negative. Here are examples of how they are used.

EXAMPLE 1
Write an expression without parentheses equivalent to (-4x2)3.
SOLUTION
According to the fourth law of exponents,

(_4*2)3 = (-4)3(x2)3 = (-64)(x6) = -64x6

EXAMPLE 2

Find (3 x 10-5)4. Express the answer in scientific notation.

* Liberal Arts Physics by John M. Bailey (W. H. Freeman and Company, 1974), pp. 226-227.

372 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

SOLUTION

(3 x 10-?)4 = (3)4 X(10-5)4

81 xx lO"20
= 8.1 101 x 10-

= 8.1 X lO"19

EXAMPLE 3

2-io
SOLUTION
According to the fifth law of exponents.
12-'° \12/ '
Simplifying this result and using other properties of exponents that we know,
we get

= (61)1

Exercises

Set I
d
1 . Change each of the following )numbers to
decimal form.
100
b)100
125
125 10 3. "I am thinking of a certain number. If seven
is subtracted from four times the number,
10 125
the result is the same as the result of
. Write each of the following numbers without
multiplying one plus the number by five."
using any exponents. a) Translate this information into an

a)(-l)7' c) (-7)1 equation.

b) I"7 d) 7"1 b) Solve the equation to find the number.

Set II
x6/
4. Write an expression without parentheses for each of the following.
a) {xyf e) (x<)2 0))
b) (xy)"1 f) (xy6)5
c) (2x)i g) (4x-5)'
d) (-5y)4
h) (-3y4)3
Lesson 6: Powers of Products and Quotients 373
7x\a
 *%
Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
should replace in each of the following? 8"3 = 0.001953125
8"2 = 0.015625
8"1 = 0.125
8° = 1
b) 22-2>
c) (22f 81 = 8
-23
d) 22 + V- 82 = 64
0 23 •23
e) 22 • 32 83 = 512
f ) 23 - 22 h) 63
i) 63 84 = 4,096
Use the table of powers of 8 at the right to
., 63 85 = 32,768
find each of the following, 86 = 262,144
2:
a) 2 • 2 ■ 2 • 4 ■ 4 • 4 87 = 2,097,152
8s = 16,777,216
b) 4"1f -2-1
)
c) 2(s-• 822r-• 4 • 82
d)
e) 22 ■ 42 • 24 • 44 33

Find x in each of the following equations.

242
Find each of the following powers. Express a) 35 • 125 = x5 fl §! = 8x
each answer in scientific notation.
32
a) (2 x lO4)3 = 12; 82
c) 53 • 5' = 512
b) (7 x 102)2
c) (3 x lO"1 )5 d)
e) (53)'
46 • 46= = 512
4'
103)"1
(5 Xx 10V
d) (1
e) b)3*- = 16'
f) 4b-46

«*s
g) 4'
h) 4' •• 4'
6J == 424
244
f) (2 x lO"6)-2

Set III
9. Write an expression without parentheses for 10. Which of these symbols, >,
each of the following. should replace in each

a) (xyy Q (A6 a) 32 + 42 72
b)(x>o° Vyf b) 32-42 122
c) (7,)2 /^y
d) (-3v)4 V \ 4 / c) 23
d) 23 •+24 24 272'

m
f) (-v\v)3 k) br) f ) 24 - 23 21
e) (23)4 2~-
v2
2)2
-X-1 )5
h)g) ((6. 1)
i) V
374 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

i) 8^
1 1. Use the table of powers of 20 at the right to
find each of the following, 20"4 = 0.00000625
a) 4 • 4 • 5 • 5 g; h2Q
»46 20"3 = 0.000125
^ 20~2 = 0.0025
b) 5-'-4-' 20"1 = 0.05
c) 2(2•0" 2)-} 20° = 1

of
d) 44 • 54 • 10
e) 4" • 55 • 4"2 • 5"2 201 = 20
202 = 400
203 = 8,000
204 = 160,000
12. Find each of the following powers. Express
each answer in scientific notation. 205 = 3,200,000
206 = 64,000,000
a) (3 x 105)2 d) (4 x 105)-1
b) (4 x 104)3 e) (1 x 106)-3
c) (5 x 10-' )4 f) (2 x 10-7)-2
1 3. Find x in each of the following equations.
a) 24 • 144 = x4 e) 35 • 35 = V .* 7^
b) 24 • .v4 = 144 f) 35-35 = 9' ' V
c) 42-4' = 4'4 g) 3*-3* = 312 87
d) (42y = 414 h) 3J-4' = 123 ') ^7

Set IV
IF X IS -ZO* LESS THArtTa=
sb^mt of 4-rfa&74sm
AMP » THAN TOE TAUSEMT
OF THE RECIPROCAL OF
ElTHEg,WdATls Y?

Although the question B. C. has asked Peter in this cartoon doesn't seem to make
any sense, Peter's answer does.
1. Write Peter's answer as a formula.
2. What kind of variation is this?
3. Can the formula be written in terms of a product rather than a quotient? If so,
what would it be?

Lesson 6: Powers of Products and Quotients 375

 g^ m^
"His knowledge is doubling every ten years, and it's making him jumpy."

LESSON 7
Exponential Functions
If the knowledge of the fellow in this cartoon is doubling every ten years, then in
ten years he will know twice as much as he does now, in twenty years he will
know four times as much, in thirty years he will know eight times as much, and
so on. Recording the time in decades and representing the man's knowledge now
by the number 1, we can construct the following table:

Time in decades, 0 12 3 4
Knowledge, y 1 2 4 8 16

If the numbers in the second row are written as powers of 2, the table looks
like this:

Time in decades, ; 0 12 3 4
Knowledge, y
2° 21 22 23 24

With the table written in this form, it is easy to see that, for each value of x,

v = 2*
 -1
This formula continues to work even if we look backward in time. For
example, ten years ago the man knew half as much, twenty years ago, one-fourth
as much, thirty years ago, one-eighth as much, and so on.

Time in decades, x 0

Knowledge, y 2° = 1 2"1 = -2 2"2

Because one of the variables in this function is an exponent in its formula, the
function is called an exponential function.

An exponential function is a function that has an equation of the form

y — a • bx, in which a and b are positive numbers.

In the "knowledge doubling" function, a = 1 and b = 2.

What does the graph of an exponential function look like? If the points of the
two preceding tables are plotted on one pair of axes and then connected with a
smooth curve, we get the graph shown at the left below. As we look at the graph

)/
15
15

10

- V

5-
i
-4-3-2-10 12 3 4 O 12 3 4 5 6 7 8
An increasing exponential function: A decreasing exponential function:
knowledge doubling radioactive decay

Lesson 7: Exponential Functions 377

 from left to right, the ''slope" of the curve becomes steeper and steeper. Many
exponential functions have graphs similar to this one.
The "knowledge doubling" function is an example of an increasing exponen-
tial function. An example of a decreasing exponential function is radioactive
decay. The atoms of radioactive elements break apart into atoms of other
elements at a rate such that the number of atoms remaining is an exponential
function of time. For example, it takes ten years for half of the atoms of any
given amount of a certain isotope of barium to disintegrate. This means that, if
we start with 16 grams of this isotope, after ten years 8 grams of it will remain,
after ten more years 4 grams will remain, and so on. A table for the amount of
barium remaining as a function of time is shown here. (The graph is shown at
the bottom right on the previous page.)

Time in decades, .v 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1
Number of grams left, y 16 8 4 2 1
2 4 8 16

Exponential functions have a wide variety of practical applications. For

example, populations can grow exponentially with time. The speed of a chemi-
cal reaction is an exponential function of the temperature at which it occurs.
Exponential functions apply to compound interest, the healing of wounds, and
many other topics.

Exercises

Set I
1. Copy and complete the tables for these v = (x - l)(x - 2)
functions, c) Formula:
Table: 12 3 4
a) Formula: y = 5 — x

Table: x -4-2 0 2
2. Tell whether each of the following
statements is true for all values of x. If a
statement is not true for all values of x, give
b) Formula: a value of x for which this is so.

Table: a) 1
b) ix2x +| =2
2| = x jxj +2

c) \x\2= |x2|
378 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS
 1*1 a) Write each of these numbers in decimal
form.
b) Write each number in words.
c) What fraction of people living in the
3. Of the 2.2 x 108 people living in the United United States are left-handed?
States, approximately 1.1 x 107 are left-
handed.

Set II
4. Write each of the following in the form Use your tables to graph each function as
a-bc. indicated below. (Graph each one on a
a) 8- 10- 10- 10 separate pair of axes and connect the points
b)5-3-3-3-3-3-3-3 with a smooth line or curve.)
c) 4-4-11
e)
d) y = 3x
10-10-10-
6 10
d)-
2
*x3
Ife) any ==automobile
f)y worth $6,000 depreciates
7.7.7.7.7
by one-fourth of its value each year, its
5. Write in decimal form. value after x years is given by the formula
a) 4 • 53 d) 36 • 3-2
b) 0.2 • 106 e) 8 • l-10 y = 6,000(0.75*)
c) 9 • 2° f ) 4 • 5-3 Find the value of the car after
6. This exercise is about the exponential a) one year.
function y = 4T. b) two years.
a) Copy and complete the following table c) three years.
for this function.
*d) If you have a calculator, find the value of
the car after ten years.
x 0 1 2 3 4
y 111 111 111 lllllll 111 , A certain type of protozoan is able to divide
into two every three hours. Reproducing at
What happens to y if x is increased by this rate, the number of protozoa, y, existing
b) 1? d) 3? after x hours is an exponential function of
c) 2? time. It is given by the formula

7. This exercise is about the functions

a) Make a table for this function, letting

y = 3x, y = x3, and y = 3X x = 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24.
Letting x = -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2, make a b) Beginning with one protozoan, how many
table for would there be after 12 hours?
a) y = 3x c) How many after one day?
*d) If you have a calculator, find out how
b) y = x3 many there would be after two days.
c) y = 3*
Lesson 7: Exponential Functions 379
 Set III
10. Write each of the following in the form
a- If. d) v = 2x
a) 6-d) 10- 10- 10- 10
b)7-2-2-2-2-2 14. e) v = *2 is invested at 6% interest and the
If $1,000
c) 5 e•) 5 • 5 • 4 f)y = 2*is added each year, the amount of
interest
9
money after x years is given by the formula
10- 10
v = 1,000(1.06*)
3-3-3-3-3-3
What will the amount of money be after
11. Write in decimal form.
a) one year?
a) 5 • 24 d) 24 • 2"3 b) two years?
b) 11- 105 e) 4-1"6 c) three years?
c) 7 • 8° f ) 5 • 2"4 *d) If you have a calculator, find what the
amount of money would be after ten
12. This exercise is about the exponential
function y — 5*.
a) Copy and complete the following table 15. Atoms of a radioactive element slowly break
for this function. years.
apart into atoms of other elements. The
amount of a radioactive element remaining
0 -1 -2 -3 -4
after a given period is an exponential
III 111 111 1111 function of the time.
If we start with 80 grams of a certain
What happens to y if x is decreased by
isotope of mercury, the number of grams, y,
b) 1? remaining after x days is given by the
c) 2? formula
d) 3?
13. This exercise is about the functions v = 80(0.5*)

and a) Make a table for this function, letting

: 2x, y =
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
b) The half-life of a radioactive element is
Letting x = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3, make the amount of time that it takes half the
a table for
atoms of the element to disintegrate.
a) y = 2x What is the half-life of this isotope of
mercury?
b)y = x2
c)y = 2* c) How much of the mercury would remain
Use your tables to graph each function as after one week?
indicated in the next column. (Graph each *d) If you have a calculator, find out how
one on a separate pair of axes and connect much of the mercury would remain after
the points with a smooth line or curve.) two weeks.

380 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

Set IV
If hot coffee is poured into a cup and allowed
to cool, the difference between the temperature
of the coffee and the temperature of its
surroundings is an exponential function of time.
A table for this function is shown here.*

Time in minutes, x 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Temperature of coffee
above room temperature 70 59 49 42 35 29 25 21 17
in degrees Celsius, v

1. Graph this function.

2. Is the coffee cooling off at a steady rate?
3. Using the information in the table, about
how many degrees above room temperature
would the coffee be after one hour? (Hint:
How long does it take the difference
between the temperature of the coffee and
that of the room to become half of what
it was?)

*This table is based on data from "The Amateur

Scientist" bv Jearl Walker, Scientific American, Novem-
ber, 1977.

Lesson 7: Exponential Functions 381

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have become acquainted with the properties of exponents,

with how to represent large and small numbers in scientific notation, and with
the nature of exponential functions.

Large and Small Numbers (Lessons 1 and 5) Very large and very small
numbers are frequentiy written in scientific notation. A number is in scientific
notation if it is written in the form a X 106, in which a is a number that is at
least 1 but less than 10, and b is an integer.

A Fundamental Property of Exponents (Lesson 2) In the expression xy, x

is the base and y is the exponent.
The product of two powers:

Two More Properties of Exponents (Lesson 3)

The quotient of two powers:

The power of a power:

Zero and Negative Exponents (Lesson 4) Patterns with exponents that are
positive integers suggest the following definitions of the meanings of zero and
the negative integers as exponents.
Definition of the exponent zero: , in which x may be any number
except zero.
Definition of negative integer exponents: , in which x may be any
number except zero.
Powers of Products and Quotients {Lesson 6)
The power of a product:

The power of a quotient:

Exponential Functions {Lesson 7) An exponential function is a function that

has an equation of the form v = ab1, in which a and b are positive numbers.
The graph of an exponential function is a smooth curve.

Exercises

Set I
1. Write each of the following numbers in the form indicated.
a) One hundred thousand as a power of ten.
b) The number that is ten times as large as 1.35 in decimal form.
c) The number that is ten times as large as 10~8 as a power of ten.
d) The number that is one-tenth as large as 0.007 in decimal form.
e) The number that is one-tenth as large as 2 x 106 in scientific notation.
2.

TOLEDO. APft IS (UPS) PROF T.B. MURRAY ^CRLD FAMOUS PHILOSOPHER -

MATREMATVCIAN, WRITING IN THE PRESTIGIOUS LITERARY MAGAZINE. "YOU
AND THE IDAHO POTATO," CLAIMS TO HAVE SOLVED THE PROBLEM OF FEEDING
220 OOO.OOO AMERICANS. "THE SOLUTION," WRITES THE PROFESSOR. 'IS TO
MOVE THE DECIMAL POINT SEVEN DIGITS TO THE LEFT' FEEDING TWENTY-
TWO PEOPLE 'SHOULD BE A SNAP,' PROF. MURRAY SAID.

r~
a) Write the number 220,000,000 in scientific notation.
b) Write the number 22 in scientific notation.
c) What number is a number divided by when its decimal point is moved seven
digits to the left?
d) When you move the decimal point in a number seven digits to the left, how
does the exponent of the 10 in the scientific notation form of the number
change?

Summar\ and Re\ieu

 3. Write each of the following numbers in 10. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
decimal form. should replace in each of the following?
a) 3 x 104 c) 6.2 x 10"1 i 23 + 33 53
b) 3 x lO"4 d) 0.085 x 109 b) 23 - 33 IBBS 53
4. Write each of the following numbers in c) 32-33!l!l35
scientific notation.
a) 700,000,000,000 c) 0.002 d) (32)3
e) 36 - ill
32 35 34
b) 412 x 105 d) 10.002 11. Find x in each of the following equations.
5. Write each of the following numbers without
using anv exponents.
b) 43 • 63 = xi
a) 34 • 36
a) 8-' ' d) (-6)2 c) 52 • 5Z = 58
b) 5- e) (-6)-2 d) 25 • x5 = 85
c) 12° f) (-2)6 12. Light travels at a speed of about 186,000
6. Write each of the following expressions as a miles per second. Sound travels in air at a
single power of x. speed of about 0.2 mile per second.
c) IF a) Write each of these numbers in scientific
b) x2 • x~s
a) (x2)-8 x^ notation.
1 x b) How many times the speed of sound is
the speed of light?
d)4r c) Write your answer in words.
x4 *~9
f) — 13. This exercise is about the exponential
7. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, function y = 8(0. 5X).
should replace in each of the following? a) Make a table for this function, letting
a) lO"4 10"5 c) 8"3 (-8)3
x = O, 1, 2, 3, and 4. 0-
b) What happens to y if x is increased by 1?
b) 16"1 61 d) (-9)° 9°
c) Graph the function by plotting the points
8. Write an expression without parentheses for and connecting them with a smooth
each of the following.
curve.
a) (4*)3 / r u
14. Suppose that $2,000 is invested at 7%
b) (7y)-> d)-U
interest per year and the interest is added
c) (-5x5)2 VJ ' at the end of each year. The amount of
9. Find each of the following products, money after x years is given by the formula
quotients,
c) or powers. Express each answer in
scientific notation. y =Find
2,000(1.07').
the amount of money after
a) (6 x 106)(9 x 109) « 11x10^ a) one year.
b) (2)(7 X lO"3) ] 2 b) two years.
4 x 101 e) (3 x 102)4 c) Is the investment growing at a steady rate
5 x 106 f) (5 x 10-7)-1 with respect to time? Explain.

384 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

Set II
1 . Write each of the following numbers in the 7. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
form indicated. should replace 111 in each of the following?
a) Ten trillion as a power of ten.
b) The number that is ten times as large as a) 10-7 111 lO-6
0.036 in decimal form.
c) The number that is ten times as large as
c)
b) 8° 111 (-8)°
3' 111 13-1
105 as a power of ten.
8. d)(-5)4|||||||||5-4
Write an expression without parentheses
d) The number that is one-tenth as large as
82.1 in decimal form. equivalent to each of the following.
a)(2*)5 ,2V
e) The number that is one-tenth as large as
7 x 10-4 in scientific notation. b) to)"1 d) M-
2. Write each of the following numbers in Xy>
decimal form. c)(-
9. Find each 3y )4
of the following products,
a) 8 x 103 c) 4.5 x 10"1 quotients, or powers. Express each answer in
scientific notation.
b) 8 x lO"3 d) 0.0072 x 105
3. Write each of the following numbers in a) (8 x 108)(4 x 104)
scientific notation.

a) 50,000,000 c) 600 x 10"5 b) (3)(9 x lO"5)

b) 81 x 109 d) 0.60 x lO"5
2x 104
4. Skunks protect themselves by giving off a
substance with such a strong odor that as 5 x 10-'
little as 0.000000003 milligram of it can be
detected by the human nose. 7 x lO"12
e) (4 x 103)3
a) Write this number in scientific notation. 10. Which c)of- these symbols, >, =, or <,
b) Write it in words. lO"6)"2
f) (5 xreplace
should 111 in each of the following?
d ) -
5. Write each of the following numbers without b)22
a) 22 •+4242111 6262 2« ||96
using any exponents.
a) (-9)° d) (-3)"4
b) I"6 e) 4"3 c)(22)4 111 2*
d)22-24||||||||2<> 0 22III26
g)28-22||||||||||26
c) (-3)4 f) (-7)"1
6. Write each of the following expressions as a
single power of x. 11. Find x ||||
e)fj|||| 62 of the following equations.
in each
a) x~4 • x9
a) 52 • 54 = 5'
b) (x-4)9 b) 25 • 45 == x5
c)3*-33 3'2 10*

o4 A10
d)x3-33=123 IJ'"26- "

Summary and Review 385

 12. Approximately 33 billion bottles of Coca- c) Graph the function by plotting the points
Cola are drunk throughout the world in a and connecting them with a smooth
curve.
year.Write this number in decimal form.
a) 14. If an automobile worth $7,000 depreciates
b) Write it in scientific notation.
c) Approximately how many bottles of Coke by one-fifth of its value each year, its value
after x years is given by the formula
are drunk each day? Write your answer in
scientific notation, in decimal form, and y =Find
7,000(0.8').
the value of the car after
in words.
a) one year.
13. This exercise is about the exponential b) two years.
function y = 0.5(2J). c) Is the value of the car decreasing at a
a) Make a table for this function, letting steady rate with respect to time? Explain.
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4.
b) What happens to y when x is increased
bv 1?

386 Chapter 8: EXPONENTS

MIDTERM REVIEW
Set I
1. Write without parentheses: 8(x — 3).
2. True or false: If one variable in a direct
variation is tripled, then so is the other.
18. Solve for x: x - 18 = -2.
3. Simplify: Ay — y.
A. True or false: This pair of simultaneous 19. Write as a single power: -— .
equations has many different solutions.
20. What number is the result of subtracting 14
4.x- - Ay = 12
from -9?
x-y = 3
21. Solve this formula for p: i = prt.

22. True or false: (12)° = (0)12.

6. A marching band contains eighty people
23. Which symbol, >, =, or <, makes the
arranged in x equal rows. How many people
are in each row? following true?

7. True or false: The graph of an inverse 2-3 I1II2-2

variation is a line through the origin. x-9
24. True or false: One is a rational number.

8. Write as a power of 4: 25. If x represents an odd number, what kind of

number does x + 3 represent?
9. Write without parentheses: -l(x — 7). 26. Write an expression for the following:
10. True or false: These equations are Square x and divide the result by y.
inconsistent.
27. How many miles would a donkey walking x
2.x -y = A 2"1' miles per hour go in 3 hours?
Ax - 2v = 6
28. True or false: The square of even' integer is
11. Find the value of (4 - 1 1 )( 1 1 - 4).
positive.
29. What must be done to the equation
12. If lemons cost x cents each, how many
lemons can you buy for a dollar? .V — 7 = -1 to give the equation x = 6?

13. Find the product of -3 and 14. 30. Write 6-2 without using any exponents.

14. True or false: The graph of the equation 3 1 . Where does the line y = x — 9 cross the
-v = 1 is a vertical line.

15. Write as an addition problem: x — y. 32. jy-axis?

Which symbol, >, —, or <, makes the
following true? • + -10
16. True or false: The sum of two numbers is
always larger than either number. 10

Midterm Review
33. What is the slope of the line y - -x + 17? 37. Write another expression equivalent to

34. Write an equivalent expression without

y.y.y.y.y
parentheses: (2x2)i.
38. True or false: There is no number equal to
35. Write the number that is ten times as large
as 10~4 as a power of 10. _0_
36. Write an expression for the length marked ? 39. Which line is steepest?
in this figure.
y — x + 7 y = 4x — 3 y = 2x — 5

40. Write as a single power: x5 • xi.

Set II
10'
1. Draw a figure with circles to 10. Solve the following simultaneous equations
illustrate: 32 + 42. by graphing:
2. Solve for x: 3x + 7 = jy.
x — y = 6
3. Simplify: -3(2x4). y = -2x
4. Find the value of x3 — jc + 3 if * = -1. 11. Find the distance between -3.5 and 4.5 on a
number line.
5. Graph the equation 2x — 5y = 10.
6. Find the number of the point midway 12. Graph the function y = — — .
between -4 and 10 on a number line.

7. Write the equation that results from adding 13. Write the number "fifteen million" in
scientific notation.
these equations:
14. Solve for x: 11+ 2x = 4.
3x + y = -4 and x - 2y = 5
15. Express 243 as a power of 3.
8. Solve for x: -6x = 21.
16. What must be done to the equation
9. Use the formula /= 1.8c + 32 to find /if 5x — 2 = x + 9 to give the equation
c = 100. Ax - 2 = 9?

Midterm Review
 17. Write in symbols: The cube of a certain
number, .v, is more than half of the number.
form.
18. Solve for x: 5x - 21 = 8x.
32. Write as a power of 18: 25 • 95.
19. Find every pair of positive integers that
33. Solve for y: 3(.v + v) = 2v + 1.
make this equation true: x + ly = 15.
20. Find the slope of the line through the origin 34. Find the value of x2 — y if x = 5 and
and the point (-2, 10). 3' = -5.
35. Guess a formula for this function:
21. Guess a formula for this function:
.v 0 1 2 3 4
.v 1 4 7 10 13
v 4 7 10 13 * 16 ?
j- 14 11 8 5 2
A bus travels 50 mph from A to B and 40
22. Draw a graph of the function y = 3J. mph from B to C, covering a distance of 2 1 5
23. Find the following product: miles in all. The whole trip takes 5 hours.
(6 x 103)(7 x 105). Give your answer in
scientific notation.
50x
24. Solve this pair of simultaneous equations: 215 -+¥+

x + 9v = -2
4.v - 9v = 37 36. Write an expression for the distance marked
25. Which symbol, >, =, or <, makes the ? on the diagram above.
following true? 37. Use the information in the diagram to write
an equation.
38. Find the time, x, that the bus spent in
26. Solve for x: 3 + (x - 1) = 2(5 - 2x). traveling from A to B.
27. Write in decimal form: 3.14 x 105. 39. Find the value of x + 2.v3 if x = -4.
28. Is the 8th power of 5 odd or even? 40. Solve this pair of simultaneous equations:
29. Solve for x: 4(.v + 1) = 3(.v - 5). 5.v - v = 1 1
x=y + 3
30. Find the value of (-3)4 + (-2)3.

390 Midterm Review

Set III
1. Write the number "twelve thousand" in 15. Graph the function y = — .
scientific notation.
16. Solve for x: 2x = 9x + 14.
2. Write in symbols: The square of a certain
number, x, is less than three times the 17. What must be done to the equation
number. 4 - x = 2x + 7 to give the equation
4 = 3x + 7?
3. Draw a figure with circles to illustrate:
5 • 22. 18. Find every pair of positive integers that
4. Write the equation that results from make this equation true: y — 14 — x2.
subtracting the second of these equations 19. Guess a formula for this function:
from the first one:
x 1 2 3 4 5
4x + y = 5 3x — y = 9 y 60 30 20 15 12

5. Find the value of x2 + x — 8 if x = -2. 20. Graph the function y = 21.

6. Solve for x: 8x = -18. 21. Find the slope of the line through the origin
and the point (4, -8).
7. Find the number of the point midway
between -7 and 3 on a number line. 22. Solve this pair of simultaneous equations:

8. Simplify: -4(3x2). 3x - 5y = 36
9. Use the formula 5 = I6t2 - 24 to find s if
x + 5y = -28
t = 3.
23. Write in decimal form: 9.5 x 10~4.
10. Graph the equation 3x — 4_y 12.
24. Solve for x: 7(x - 2) = 6(x + 4).
11. Solve for x: 5x + 12 = 1.
12. Find the distance between -0.5 and 6.5 on a 8 X 1
number line. your answer in scientific notation.
2X 109
13. Solve the following simultaneous equations 26. Which symbol, >, =, or <, makes the
by graphing: following true?

y = 3x - 1 3-9||||3-10
x +y = 1 27. Find the value of (-2)5 + (-5)2.
14. Express 64 as a power of 2. 28. Solve for x: 2(x + 4) = (x - 5) - 9.

Midterm Review 391

 ; tne raiiunai iiumuer 37. Solve for y: 4(x + .y) = 2 + 3jy. -*\C
form. Two bicyclists start from A at the same time
and ride in opposite directions. One cyclist
30. Is the 9th power of 4 odd or even? arrives at B and the other at C five minutes
later. The cyclist going to C rides 40 meters per
31. Write as a power of 12: 36 • 46.
minute faster than the one going to B. They end
32. Find the value of x — jy3 if x — 4 and up 6,200 meters apart.
j- = -4.
33. Solve for x: 2x — 9 = y.
34. Solve this pair of simultaneous equations: 5x
B\
x + 6y = 23 6,200
38. Write an expression for the distance marked
^ = x-2 ? on the diagram above.
35. Find the value of 3x2 + x if x = -2.
39. Use the information in the diagram to write
36. Guess a formula for this function:
an equation.
3 4 40. Find the speed, x, of the bicyclist traveling
13 15 from A to B.

392 Midterm Review

 Chapter 9
POLYNOMIALS
 LESSON 1
Monomials

A falling object does not travel at a steady rate but moves faster
and faster. This photograph, taken with a strobe light, shows
several positions of an apple falling through the air. Although
the time interval between each flash of light is the same, the
distance covered by the apple becomes larger and larger.
A formula relating the distance fallen to the time, discovered
by Galileo, is

in which x is the time in seconds andjy is the distance in feet. In

y = \6x2
the first second, then, an object falls 16(1)2 = 16 feet; in the
first two seconds, it falls 16(2)2 = 64 feet; and so forth.
The expression 16x2 is called a monomial in one variable.

A monomial in one variable, say x, is an expression of the

form ax", in which a is any number and n is a positive integer.
The number a is the coefficient of the monomial and the
integer n is the degree of the monomial.

The coefficient of the monomial 16.v2 is 16 and its degree is

2. Other examples of monomials in one variable are

.v4, whose coefficient is 1 and whose degree is 4,

-2y9, whose coefficient is -2 and whose degree is 9, and
1.5jc, whose coefficient is 1.5 and whose degree is 1. (Re-
member that x = x1.)
 Notice that, according to our definition, zero is a monomial because 0 = Ox1,
0 = Ox2, 0 = Ox3, and so on. Because zero can be written as a monomial of any
degree, however, we will not think of it as having a specific degree.
2
It is useful to define a number by itself, such as 3, or — , or -8, as a monomial

as well. Because a number such as 3 can be written in the form 3x°, it seems
reasonable to say that its degree is 0. The same reasoning applies to every
number. So we will consider the degree of any number except zero to be 0.
If two or more monomials in the same variable have the same degree, their
sum or difference can be written as a monomial. For example,

3x + 4x = 7x
6x2 - x2 = 5x2
2x3 - 2x3 = 0

Notice that the sum or difference is either a monomial of the same degree or the
number zero.
Monomials having different degrees cannot be added or subtracted in this
way. For example, the sum of x2 and x3 cannot be written as a monomial: there
is no way to write x2 + x3 without using an addition sign.
Although the sum or difference of two monomials cannot always be written as
another monomial, their product can. For example, using the first law of
exponents, we can write x2 • x3 = x2+3 = x5. In general, the product of two or
more monomials is a monomial whose degree is the sum of the degrees of the
monomials being multiplied.
Here are more examples of how monomials are added, subtracted, and
multiplied.

EXAMPLE 1
If possible, write the sum 3x5 + x5 as a monomial.
SOLUTION
Because 3x5 and x5 have the same degree, 5, their sum can be written as 4x5.
(Note that 3x5 = x5 + x5 + x5; 3x5 + Xs = (x5 + x5 + x5) + x5 = 4x5.)

Lesson 1: Monomials 395

 EXAMPLE 2
If possible, write the difference 2x6 — x2 as a monomial.
SOLUTION
Because 2x6 and x2 do not have the same degree (their degrees are 6 and 2),
their difference cannot be written as a monomial.

EXAMPLE 3
Write the product 4x3 • 6x7 as a monomial.

4x3-6x7 = 4-x3-6-x7
= 4-6-x3-x7

= 24x10
EXAMPLE 4
Write the power (-2x4)3 as a monomial.

(-2x4)3 = (-2)3(x4)3

= -8x12

Exercises

Set I
1. Show how the following number trick works 2. Solve the following simultaneous equations.
by representing each step by an expression
in terms of x. a) y3y— - 2x8x — = 1 1
Think of a number. b) Ix - 3y = 45
Add one. 2x + 9y = 3
Multiply by three. 3. A mosquito beats its wings about 500 times
Subtract nine. each second as it flies through the air. At
Divide by three. this rate, how long does it take a mosquito
Subtract the number first thought of. to beat its wings once? Express your answer
The result is negative two. in scientific notation.

396 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

Set II
4. What are the coefficients and degrees of the 9. If possible, write each of the following
following monomials? expressions as a monomial.
a) 7x2 c) -4x
b) x* d) 5 a) 13x2 + 2x2
h) 8x5(-x)
5. Tell whether or not each of the following b)
c) 13x2-2x2
13x2 + 2x g) 8x^ _ x
i) 4x4 + 4x4 + 4x4
expressions is a monomial.
d) 13x2-2x
j) 4x4 • 4x4 • 4x4
a> 2* d)"2 e)
f) 8x5 - x5
8x5(-x5)
a,'- X 10. Find the perimeter andk) area
5(2x10)
of each of these
\ 2 rectangles, simplifying your answers where
c)b)-2xx-2 e) - possible. (Remember that the10) perimeter of a
1) (2x 5
If possible, write each of the following rectangle is the sum of the lengths of its
b )
expressions f) 2-
as a monomial. sides and the area of a rectangle is the
c) product of its length and width.)
a) 2x + 7x , , ,
d)
i) 2x2 + 3x2 + 4x2
+ 7x
e) j) 2x2 + 2x3 + 2x4
f) 4x 3 + 2x3 5x
11 I" —+X Xx' k) 3x7 - x7 3x
X2
1) 3x7 - 3
h)11 c - 11 m) 4x - 8x
5x + 5x + 5x
g) n) x4 — x8
a) + X5 + X5 o) 4x4 - 8x4
•7x
Multiply as indie
•7x X5
b) 2x
c)
d)
i) 2x2 • 3x2 • 4x2
e)
j) 2x2-2x3-2x4
) 5-x3
f4x • X'
X2 k) 8x3-3x8
1 lx(-x) 1) -x5-5x
X2
h)llx(-ll) m) (-6x)(x6)
5x • 5x • 5x
g)
n) (4x5)2
x5-x5 o) (-5x4)3
The following questions refer to the
X5
monomials 5x3 and 20x3. What is the
coefficient of the monomial that results from
a) adding them?
b) multiplying them?
What is the degree of the monomial that
results from
c) adding them?
d) multiplying them? 4x6x'

Lesson 1: Monomials 397

 Set III
11. What are the coefficients and degrees of the 16. If possible, express each of the following
following monomials? general sums or products as a single
monomial.
a) 4.v3 c) -6.v
b) -x-7 d) 1
12. Tell whether or not each of the following a) axh • cxd
b) axb + cxd
expressions is a monomial.
a) 0.5.v c) axb • cxb
d) axb + cxb
b) x + 5 . _ 17 Find the perimeter and area of each of these
rectangles. Simplify your answers where
e) 3
c) .v5 possible.
f) 5*
13. d)-
If possible, write each of the following i) 7x
expressions as a monomial,
a) 3.v + 5.v
- x i) 2.v3 + 3x3 + 4.v3
b) X3 + D.Y
i)
j) 3.v2 + 3.v3 + 3.v4 7x
c) -V3 + .V5
d) 2.x k) 5.v6 - 5
e) 9.v - x 1)
1) 5.v6 - .v6
m) 2.v - lO.v
f) 9.v - 9
g) 4.v + 4. n) x2 - .v10
h) X* + .V o) lO.v2 - 2.v10
14. Multiply as indicated.
n)
a) 3.v • 5.v o) 4.v
k)
b) .v3 • 5.x- 0 3.v
-.V3)
c) x'-x* -8xs
-x •
e)
d) 9.v(-.v)
2.v: • x~
f) 9.v(-9) m) (3.v) 2x3
V3x3
g) Ax ■ Ax • ,-4, 3.v27)3
3x3
5.v5
4x2

h)x*-x*-
15. If possible, write each of the following
6x«
expressions as a monomial. (7.v4
a) 4.v3 + 7.r3
b) 4.v3 • 7.v3 h) 10.v6(-x)
g) 10.v6 -
c) 4.v: - 7x3 i) 9.v9 + 9.v9 + 9.v9
3\
d) 4.v2 • 7.v3 j) 9x9 • 9.r9 • 9.v9
e) lO.v6 - x6 k) 4(5.vs)
f) 10.v6(-.v6)
1) (5.v8)4
398 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS
Set IV
1. Find the value of each monomial if
When asked to make up an example of a
a) x = 0 b) x = 1 c) x = 2 d) x = -1
monomial, Acute Alice wrote 10x2 and Obtuse
Ollie wrote 2x10. Ollie thought his monomial e) x = -2
was larger because it had a larger exponent. 2. Can you draw any conclusion about the
Alice thought hers was larger because it had a relative values of the two monomials for
larger coefficient. other values of x?

Lesson 1: Monomials 399

 LESSON 2
Polynomials

This photograph shows a litter of 13 kittens. The usual number of kittens in a

litter is between 5 and 9. Suppose that a cat had a litter of 5 female kittens and
each kitten later produced a litter of 5 kittens. How many cats and kittens would
there be altogether?
There would be the original cat (1), her kittens (5), and the kittens' kittens
(25). There would be

1 + 5 + 25 = 31

cats and kittens in all.

Now let's reconsider this problem in terms of a variable. Suppose that a cat
had a litter of x female kittens and each kitten later produced a litter of x kittens.
How many cats and kittens would there be in all?
There would be the original cat (1), her kittens (x), and the kittens' kittens
(x2). There would be 1 + x + x2 cats and kittens in all.
The expression 1 + x + x2 is an example of a polynomial.
► A polynomial is either a monomial or an expression indicating the addition
and or subtraction of two or more monomials. The monomials are called terms
of the polynomial.

The expression 1 + x + x2 is a polynomial because it is the sum of three

monomials: 1, x, and x2. Although each term of this polynomial is of a differ-
ent degree (0, 1, and 2 respectively), the degree of the polynomial itself is said
to be 2.

The degree of a polynomial is that of the term having the highest degree.

Other examples of polynomials and their degrees are:

x3 + 8, a polynomial of two terms whose degree is 3,

2x5 — x4 — 1, a polynomial of three terms whose degree is 5,

-9, a polynomial of one term whose degree is 0.

It is often useful to write polynomials in one variable so that the term having
the highest degree is first, the term having the next highest degree is second, and
so on. Such a polynomial is said to be written in descending powers of the
variable. Here are a couple of examples of how this is done.

EXAMPLE 1
Rewrite the polynomial 6x - ?>x2 — 1 + x3 in descending powers of x and state its
degree.
SOLUTION
The degrees of the terms of the polynomial 6x - 3.v2 - 1 + x3 are 1, 2, 0, and 3,
respectively. Written in descending powers of x, it becomes x3 — 3x2 + 6x — 1.
The degree of this polynomial is 3.

Lesson 2: Polynomials 401

 EXAMPLE 2
Simplify the polynomial lOx + 4x4 — 2x — x2 + x4 by combining terms of the
same degree. Write the result in descending powers of x.
SOLUTION
The degrees of the terms of this polynomial are 1, 4, 1, 2, and 4, respectively.
Combining the terms of the same degree,

\0x + 4x4- 2x - x2 +^x4

we get 8x + 5x4 — x2. Written in descending powers of x, this becomes

5x4 - x2 + 8x.

Exercises

Set I
1 . Write each of the following numbers in
scientific notation. 3. This diagram represents two weights
balanced on a seesaw.
a) 0.000004 c) 125 x 10"7
b) 9 d) 0.32 x 10-5
2. The following table of numbers represents 18 x y 24
experimental data.

2 5 7
10
11 7sr
1.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 5.5 Write a pair of simultaneous equations for
x and y
the diagram and solve the equations to find
a) Draw a graph for this table.
b) One value of y seems to be incorrect. a) if the weights are 35 centimeters apart.
Which one do you think it is? b) if the weights are 70 centimeters apart.
c) What seems to be its correct value? c) How does your answer to part b compare
d) Find a formula for the table. with your answer to part a?

402 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

Set II c) b)
the value of the d)polynomial 5.v2 — 9 is
i)
4. Tell whether or not each of the following
e)
expressions is a polynomial. 5(-3)2 - 9 = 5(9) - 9 = 45 - 9 = 36
a) 5.v- + lO.v . , , f)
Find the values of each of the following
b)x*-*« e)l,- + f,--| a)
polynomials for the values of the variables
C) X-3 +1
d) -8.v 0 10' - 5 a2 + 7.v - 1
5. Write each of the following polynomials as a given.
A = 0
sum of monomials.
A = 1
a) .v3 - 4 A = 2
h) 1 + 2.x - x2 h)
c) -5.v - 10 1) A = -1
A = -2
6. Rewrite each of the following polynomials in
descending powers of the variable. A15= - 0 3.v2
k) A = 1
a) x + x5
b) 3 - 7v + 5v2 J) A = -1
c) 3.v3 - x + 2.v4 + 4x2
g)
d) 1 -v6 -15 + 3.v
e) 5x* + 20 - .v6 - 2.Y8 X = ~>
A- = 1
A = 0
f ) 25 + v
7. Use the distributive rule to write each of the
following as a sum of monomials. A = -1
A = 5
a) 2(3.v + 8)
m) A4 + A3 + A2 + A + 1
b) -5( v-7 - 1)
c) x(a3 + 7x2 - 6a)
n) a = 0
d) 3a(x2 - 2a + 5)
o) a = 1
e) a3(a-2 - 2a- + 5)
f) -4y\y* - 2)
P) x = -l
8. Like the opposite of a number, the opposite q) x = 2
r) a = -2
of a polynomial is the polynomial that S) A = 10
results from multiplying it by -1. For t) A- = -10
example, the opposite of .v3 — 2x is 10. Simplify each of the following polynomials
by combining terms of the same degree.
-1(a-3 - 2x) = -a3 + 2.v Write each answer in descending powers of
the variable.
Write the opposite of each of the following
polynomials. a) 4a + 6a-2 + 2.v
b) 2a3 - 2a + 3a2 - 3.x-
a) a2 + 5.x- + 10 c) -6a-2 + 11
b)j'5 - ly d) 1 -2y+ 3v2 - 4v3 c) 7a2 - 7a - a2
d) 1 + 8.v + a3 - a - 8
9. The value of a polynomial in x depends on e) a4 - 4a2 + 4 - 4a2
the value of x. For example, if x = -3, then f) a7 + 7a + a7 + 7a

Lesson 2: Polynomials
 a)
b)
Set III c)
d)

11. Tell whether or not each of the following e)

expressions is a polynomial.
2(5)3 - 10 = 2(125) - f10
) = 250 - 10 = 240
a) 2x" ~* e) 10,000,000
Find the values of each of the following
b> f + \ f) 3x~2 + 7x* + 1 i) the variables
polynomials for the values of
1 h)
x5 + - x2 _ 4.r + 6
given.
12. Write each of the following polynomials as a x = 0

)*)
sum of monomials. x = 1 1)
x = 2 k)
a) 3x2 - 5
c) -2.v - 8
b) 4 - 4.v + x2 x = -1
13. Rewrite each of the following polynomials in x = -2
descending powers of the variable and state m)
its degree. o) x20 = - 0 2x2 n)
x = 1
a) 4x + x4
b) 2 - 9y2 + 3y5 g)
s) X = -1
r) X = D
c) 6x2 - 5x + x3 - 7 -20 + 2x
d) 10 - 3y2 t)
e) 47 + x x = 0
f ) 3y5 + 24 - 30^ - j-6 x = 1
14. Use the distributive rule to write each of the
xX = -1
5
following as a sum of monomials.
x3 — x2 4
a) 4(2* + 5) e) x2(x2 - x + 6)
b) -3(y2 - 4) f) -5y\y- - 3) x = 0
c) x(x3 - 8x2 + 3x) x = 1
d) 2x(x2 -x + 6) P)
15. Like the opposite of a number, the opposite q) xX == -1
4
of a polynomial is the polynomial that
results from multiplying it bv -1. For x = -4
10
example, the opposite of 3x2 — x is x = -10
17. Simplify each of the following polynomials
-1(3jc2 :-3x: by combining terms of the same degree.
Write the opposite of each of the following Write each answer in descending powers of
polynomials. the variable.
2 + 10.x
a) x3 + 4x + 6 c) -5. a) x3 + 3x + 3x3
b) y* - 8 d) 4 - 3y + 2y b) 2x4 + 4x - 2x3 - 3x

16. The value of a polynomial in x depends on c) 8x + x2 - lOx

d) 7x2 - 6x - 5x2 - x
the value of x. For example, if x = 5, then e) 6x — 6 + x2 - x + 1
the value of the polynomial 2x 3 — 10 is f) x5 — 5x4 + 4x5 + x4

404 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

Set IV
As an elevator travels from one floor of a building to another, it does not move
at a constant speed.* A certain elevator takes four seconds to get from one stop to
another. Its speed in feet per second is given by the polynomial

-0.5.v4 + 4a:3 - 12.v2 + 16.v

in which x represents the number of seconds after it starts.

1. Use the polynomial to find the speed of the elevator when .v = 0, 1,2, 3,
and 4.
2. Do your answers make sense in comparison with the way that you think an
elevator moves? Explain.

* Adapted from an example in Calculus by Gerald Freilich and Frederick P. Greenleaf (W. H.
Freeman and Company, 1976), p. 136.

Lesson 2: Polynomials 405

 uJEVE BEEN 5TUDVIN6 PlNT^
/WE LEARNED
SCHOOL JODM INTHAT\ AND QUARTS AND FEET AND
THERE ARE 51 XTEEN/
INCHES AND OZZES AND LIBS...
^ 0ZZE5 IN A Ll&y

I 6ETKIND0F CONFUTED ON
DID VOU KNOk) | I NEVER KNOnJ Hft)
THERE ARE 5IXTEEN TO ANStJER A Q0E5
QUARTS
6000 OHAND FEET,AND
OZZES &[)TLI05..
\'AA
OZZBINALIB?/ TlON LIKE THAT.

N-^-P
LESSON

Adding and Subtracting

Polynomials

In the sixteenth century, King Henry VIII of England decreed that a pound was
to be equal to 16 ounces. Since then it has been customary to express many
weights in combinations of the two units. For example, if Charlie Brown
stepped onto a very precise scale, he might read his weight as "80 pounds, 12
ounces."
If the scale gives Snoopy's weight as "11 pounds, 3 ounces," what would the
scale read if both Charlie Brown and Snoopy stepped on it at the same time? We
can answer this question by adding the two weights like this:

80 lb + 12 oz
~ 1 1 lb + 3 oz
911b + 15 oz

Together, Charlie Brown and Snoopy would weigh "91 pounds, 15 ounces."
406
 Two or more polynomials can be added in the same way. They can be written
in a column so that like terms (those of the same degree and variable) are in line.
Each set of like terms is then added. For example, suppose that we want to add
two polynomials such as 4.v2 + x + 5 and .v2 — 7.v + 3. Lining up like terms
and adding, we get

4.Y2 + -v + 5
- .v2 + -7x + 3
5.v2 + -6.Y + 8

The sum is 5.v2 — 6.v + 8.

The same method can be used to subtract one polynomial from another. Here
are more examples of how polynomials are added and subtracted.

EXAMPLE 1

Add .v3 - 7.v2 - 1 and 3.v2 + 8.v.

SOLUTION

Before adding, we write each polynomial as a sum and line up like terms.
A-3 + _7.V2 + _!
+ 3.v2 + 8.Y
i + _4.x-7 + 8.y + -1, or .v3 - 4.v2 + 8v - 1

EXAMPLE 2

Add 2x + 9y and x - 5 v.
SOLUTION

These polynomials contain two variables. \\"e have practiced adding and subtracting
polynomials in two variables in our work with 9vsimultaneous equations.

3.v + Ay

Lesson 3: Adding and Subtracting Pol\ normals 407

 EXAMPLE 3
Add x5 + 3x, 4x2 - 2, and x2 - Ix.
SOLUTION
In this example, we will do the problem "horizontally" instead of vertically as we
did above.

(X5 + 2>X) + (4x2 - 2) + (x2 - Ix) =

x5 + 3x + 4x2 - 2 + x2 - 7x =
x5 + Ax2 + x2 + 3x - Ix - 2 =
x5 + 5x2 - 4x - 2

EXAMPLE 4
Subtract 3x + 10 from 5x + 4.

5x + 4
3x + 10
2x + -6, or 2x - 6

EXAMPLE 5
Subtract Ix2 — 9 from 10x2 + x + 2.

\0x2 + x + 2
Ix2 +-9
3x2 + x + 1 1

EXAMPLE 6
Subtract x2 - 6 from 2x3 - 5x
SOLUTION
Doing this problem horizontally and using the fact that subtracting a polynomial is
equivalent to adding its opposite, we get

(2*3 _ 5x) _ {X2 _ 6) :

(2x3 - 5x) + (-x2 + 6) =
2.v3 - 5x - X2 + 6 :
2x3 - x2 - 5x + 6

408 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

 d)

Exercises -13
-13
-13
Set I --9
\dd or subtract as indicated.
) -13 b) 13 c) - -9
13 0
+ -9 + -9 9
+ 9
2. What are the slope and v-intercept of each of the following lines?
a) y = 2.v - 1 b) v = x c) x + y = 1
3. The time that it takes a stopped car to
accelerate to a given speed depends on the
rate of acceleration. Here is a table of times
for a car accelerating to a speed of 60 feet
per second.
Rate of acceleration
in feet per second 10 20 30 40 50 a) What kind of variation is this?
per second, x b) Write a formula for y in terms of x.
Time in seconds, y 6 3 2 1.5 1.2 c) Find y when x = 80.
d)

Set II e)
Add as indicated
. This exercise is about the following
a) 5x + 9
-+ 7x
6.v +
- 1
x -8 polynomials: x2 _ 4x + 3
b) x - 3y - 4x2 +11 polynomial A: 3*2 + x _ 2
* ~ v polynomial B:
+ 4x - 7
2x2 a) Find their sum and label it
c) 3x2 - 2 -x3 X2
b) polynomial C.
x2 + 10 5x3 Find their difference by subtracting
Subtract the second polynomial from the polynomial B from polynomial A. Label
first as indicated. it polynomial D.
- 1 -2 c) Find the values of the four polynomials if
11* + 9x + 6
- x + 7 x — 4 and if x = 5. Use your answers to
Ax +-l3y
complete the following table.
-7V
2x - Sx2 + 4x
X
5x2x2 — 5x -
- 3x
3x2
polynomial A
+ 3x polynomial B
polynomial C
2x2 X2 X* polynomial D
Lesson 3: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials 409
 - 12.
- X. - 1)

d) What do you observe about the values of b) 7x + 12 from 4x

the polynomials in your table? + 5y)
c) 6x + 4 from 6x2
7. Add. d) x2 — 1 from x3 - + 4x. -X3)
Simplify.
a) x + y + 3 and x — y — 4.
b) 7.x - 19, 2x + 7, and llx- 1. a) (7x + 3.y) + (8x -y)-
- (x2 + 3x
c) x3 — 3, x2 + 2, and x + 1. b) (4x2 - 9x + 2) -
-5y.
d) -y - 5_y, jy + 60, 2 + 7x, and x — 82. + (5x2 + llx +
8. Subtract, c)(l-x3)-(x-
d) X3)-
a) 2x2 - y from 8x2

e)
Set IIIa)
10. Add as indicated. (6x polynomials if
c) Find the values of the four
-y
- 7-y 3x2 - 8x + 2 x = 3 and if x = 5. Use your answers to
4.v + 12 complete the following table. (X2-
x2 + 8x - 5
5
b) 6x x4 + 9x2 — 3x
2x
polynomial A ill 1111
- llx d) polynomial B 111 111!
c) x- polynomial C 111 11
a) e) polynomial D 111 111
1 1 . Subtract the second polynomial from the
first as indicated. d) What do you observe about the values of
b) the polynomials in your table?
8x + 5 4x2 + llx - 8
x + 17 5x2 + 6x + 7
13. Add.
c)x + 3y
2x3 - 9x + 1 a) x2 - 2x + 1 and x2 + 2x + 1.
*-2v x2 - 9x - 1
b) 5x - 12^, x — y, and 8x + 3v.
7x2 - 2 c) x + 4, x2 — 3, and x3 — 2.
6x2 + 2 d) 4x3 + 3x2, 2x2 - x, x + 1, and 3 - x3.
14. Subtract.
12. This exercise is about the following
a) 4x + y2 from 9x — 4y2.
polynomials: b) x2 - 8 from x2 + 18.
c) 3x — 1 from 3x2 — x.
polynomial A: 4x2 — x + 3 d) v — 7 from x + 3y.
polynomial B: x2 + 3x — 4 15. Simplify.
a) Find their sum and label it polynomial C. a) (5x - 2y) + (x + 9v) - (4x - 2>y)
b) Find their difference by subtracting
b) (8x2 + 3x - 4) - (2x2 - 6x - 3)
polynomial B from polynomial A. Label + (X2 + X + 1)
it polynomial D. c) (x5 - 1) - (x4 - x) - (x3 - X2)

410 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

Set IV A Number Trick
1 . Think of a two-digit number in which the units digit is more than the tens
digit. Multiply the difference between the digits by nine and add the result to
your original number.
2. What do you notice about the result?
3. Can you explain why it happened? (Hint: If x and y represent the tens digit
and units digit of the original number, respectively, then the original number
can be written as lO.v + y.)

Lesson 3: Adding and Subtracting Polynomials 411

 LESSON 4
Multiplying Polynomials

In the nineteenth century, a book titled Marmaduke Multiply was used in many
elementary schools to help children learn the multiplication table. The book
illustrated each multiplication fact with a picture and a rhyme, beginning with 2
times 1 and ending with 12 times 12.
Even today, most people do not learn the multiplication table beyond this
point. To find the product of numbers of which one or both of the numbers is
larger than 12, we learn the method illustrated here.

53
27
371
106
1431

In multiplying 53 by 27, we are, in effect, multiplying the sums 50 + 3 and

20 + 7. The steps that we do to find this product are shown in the expanded
version of the problem at the top of the next page.
 Short version Expanded version
53 50 + 3
27 20+7
371 350 + 21 371
106 1000 + 60 1060
1431 1431

Notice that four multiplications have been done in this example

and that the answer is the sum of the four products.
Because the area of a rectangle is found by multiplying its 50 3
length and width, a rectangle whose length and width are 1000
20 60
50 + 3 and 20 + 7 can be used to illustrate what is happening.
Each of the four multiplications corresponds to finding the area
of one of the smaller rectangles in the figure. The answer is the 7 350
sum of the four areas. 21
These procedures can be used to multiply polynomials. Ex-
amples are shown below.

EXAMPLE 1
Multiply x + 3 and x + 4.
SOLUTION X 4
x + 4 (Notice that it is helpful to 4x
. x + 3 line up like terms because
3x + 12 they must be added later.)
1 + 4x 12 -7
3x

EXAMPLE 2
Multiply 2x — 7 and 5x
SOLUTION -7 + 1 -35x 1
5x 2x
5x + -71 x2
2x +
- 35* +
IOjc2 + 2x
10*2 + -33x + -7, or 10x2 - 33* - 10x2

Lesson 4: Multiplying Polynomials 413

 -20x
EXAMPLE 3
Multiply 4.v and x2 + 6x — 5.
2+
SOLUTION
x2 + 6x — 5
6x
- 20.v
4x3 + 24x2
4x
EXAMPLE 4 10.
Multiply x + 7 and 2x3 + x 24x2
SOLUTION
4x3
Oxx ++
+ X + 10 10
X Ox + 7 2x3 + x2 + 10
(Because
+ Ix + 70 is missing a first- X
2.V4 + X3
+ Ox +
lOx degree term, it 10x
helps to write one
10
15x3 +2x37x2 + 10x + 70
14x3 in before multiply- 7
ing to keep the like
terms lined up.)

2x^
2x^
Although diagrams are helpful in illustrating how two polynomials are
3
14xwithout
multiplied, it is important to be able to carry out the procedure them.

7x2

Exercises

Set I
1. Simplify each expression if possible. for all values of x? If none of them will
a) 2 + 5x3 work for all values of x, explain why not.
b) 2(5x3)
c) 2(5 + x3) a) x3.illx5
b) x2 III (-x)2
d) 2(5x)3 c) 2x - 1 llll 2x
2. Which symbol, >, =, or <, should replace
11111 in each of the following to make it true
d)f||||||x
414 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS
 3. If a rumor spreads through a large crowd of rumor began and y is the number of people
people, the number of people who have who have heard it.
heard it is a function of the time since the a) What kind of function is this?
rumor began. A typical formula for this b) According to this formula, how many
function is people will have heard the rumor 5
minutes after it began?
c) How many will have heard it 10 minutes
after it began?
y = 3*
in which x is the time in minutes since the d) Does the rumor spread at a constant rate?
h)
i)

Set II
b)
4. When asked to multiply 24 by 15, Obtuse 7. Make a diagram to illustrate each of these
c
Ollie wrote multiplication problems.) Then use the
diagrams to find the products.
24 k)
a) (x + 4)(x+ 11) c)a\a2 + A)
XJ5
120 b) (5y + 2)(3y - 1) d) (b + l){b2 +76-1)
d )
8. Multiply as indicated.
1)
e
144 a) x + 12 g)) x + 4
X x + 2 )) 4 - x
a) What is wrong with his method? x - 8
b) Draw a diagram like the _24one on page 413 x + 9 f)
to illustrate the correct way to do the - 9x + 1
problem. 3x + 4
c) *3 + x + 5
5. Do each of the following multiplication 2x - 5
problems by arithmetic. Then draw a 6x + 1 X2 + X - 1
diagram to illustrate each problem and 6x + 1 2x2 -
compare it with your solution by arithmetic, c)
x2 +
x3 -
x+ 1
■b
6x + 1 d)
a) b 37 5x - 8
)
206
x-4
X52 6x - 1
-7 -6 2x + 3
: 93 7x - 3-2
X419 2x + 3
3x - 7
6. What multiplication problem and what3y X2 -

answer are illustrated by each of these 3 -ab

a) diagrams? 6y -8a
-42y 4a
X 5 a b
b 6d 18a
2x 10x a ab

/ X2x
2
5

18y2 24a2
a^ 4a3 4: Multiplying
Lesson 2 Polynomials
3a -b2
415
 a)

h)
Set III
9. When asked to multiply 22 by 14, Acute 1)
12. Make a diagram to illustrate each of these
Alice wrote c)
multiplication b)problems. Then use the
22 diagrams to find the products.
Xl4_
a) (x + 6)(x + 5)
88 b) (2y + 3)(7y - 10) k)
c) 3a2(2a3 - a)
902 d) (b - 5)(b2 + 5b + R)2)
d)
13. Multiply as indicated.
x + 10 e) x + 1
a) What is wrong with her method?
x + 4
b) Draw a diagram like the _22one on page 413 x2
x2 -9
+ 4
1 -X
to illustrate the correct way to do the f)
x - 6
problem. x + 7
10. Do each of the following multiplication 4.x + 5 x2 + 6x - 5
problems by arithmetic. Then draw a
diagram to illustrate each problem and 2x- 3 x+ 1
compare it with your solution by arithmetic, 8x + 1 X3 + X2 + X + 1
b)
a) 63 c) 8x + 1 X - 1

X24 8.v + 1
x3 + 2x2 - 6
8x - 1 x + 3
x2 — 4x + 5
409 5x - 2
2x - 5 x2 + 4x - 5
X 38

-49
1 1 . What multiplication problem and what
answer are illustrated by each of these -14b
diagrams?
-4a
4
-16a
5y 30y

24x 2bd) 2b ■-
76 -5y2 -4a3
3x* 9 14b
36
416 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS
5y3

4a3
Set IV
Although he knows he shouldn't, Obtuse Ollie can't resist looking up the answers to
his algebra homework before trying to do the problems. Some of the answers to the
lesson on multiplying polynomials are shown below. Can you figure out what the
problems were? (Hint: Draw some diagrams.)

1. 9x2 + 12x + 4
2. x2 - 16
3. lO.v2 + 37 x + 7

Lesson 4: Multiplying Polynomials 417

 LESSO n5
More on
Multiplying Polynomials
When multiplying two numbers in arithmetic, we usually write
one below the other. It is also possible, however, to write them
in a row.
Consider, for example, the problem 15 x 48. Writing 15 and
48 as the sums 10 + 5 and 40 + 8, and illustrating the problem
with a diagram showing area, we get the figure at the left. The
figure reminds us that the answer is obtained by multiplying
8 each term of the sum 10 + 5 by each term of the sum 40 + 8
40
and adding the four numbers that result.
10 400
80 (10 + 5)(40 +j • 5 • 40 + 5 •
40 10-40 + 10-
5 200
Any two sums can be multiplied in the same way. For exam-
ple, to multiply x + 5 and 2x + 6, we can write
2x 6

X 6x
(x + 5)(2x + 6) = x(2x) + x(6) + 5(2x) + 5(6)
30 = 2x2 + 6.r + 10x + 30
5 10 x 2 = 2x2 + 16.r + 30
Zx

In these examples, we are multiplying polynomials by exactly the same

method that we used in Lesson 4. The only difference is in the way everything is
written down. Instead of writing one polynomial below the other and doing the
 multiplication as we would in arithmetic, we write everything in rows. The
principle either way is the same:

► To multiply two polynomials, multiply each term of one polynomial by each

term of the other and then add the terms produced.

Here are more examples of how polynomials are multiplied by this method.

EXAMPLE 1

Multiply 2.v + 7 and x2 - 3.v + 2.

7)(.v2 - 3.v + 2) = 2x(x2) - 2x(3x)

(2.v + 7)(.v- 2.v(3.v) +-+ 2.v(2) + 7(.v2) - 7(3.v) + 7(2)
= 2.v3 - 6.v2 + 4.v: +- 7x2 - 21.v + 14
: 2x3 + .V2 - 17.V + 14
-21x

The diagram at the right illustrates the six 2\

products that come from multiplying the two 4x
14
terms of 2x + 7 by the three terms of
.v2 - 3.v + 2. 7 -ex2

EXAMPLE 2
*2

Multiply .v2 - 7 and 6.v — 1.

2x3
7x2
(x2 - 7)(£x - 1) = x2(6x) - .v2(l) - 7(6.v) - 7(- 1)
= 6.v3 - x2 - 42x + 7

EXAMPLE 3

Multiply .v2 - 5.x- + 25 and x + 5.

(x2 -5x + 25Xi>5) = x\x) + x2(5) - 5.v(.v) - 5.v(5) + 25(x) + 25(5)

= .v3 + 5.v2 - 5.v2 - 25.v + 25.v + 125
= x3 + 125

Lesson 5: More on Multiplying Polynomials 419

 Exercises

Set I
1. Write each of the following numbers as a
power of 12.
3. A ribbon is wrapped around a box as shown
a) 1,728 b) 12 c) 1 d) - in this picture. The box is i inches long, w
inches wide, and h inches high.
2. Simplify. a) Write a formula for the total length of
a) (2.v - 5v + 10) + (3.v + 4y - 12) the ribbon, a, in terms of i, zc, and h.
b) (a2 + 8x - 1) + (6 - 6.v) b) Given that I = 3/z and iv = 2h, write a
formula for the total length of the ribbon,
c) (x + 7y)-(7x-jy)
-v, in terms of h onlv.
d) (.v4 - 2a2 + 1) - (,v2 + 4a)

Set II
4. Find each of the following products.
a) (a- + 6)(.v + 2)
b) (.v + 6)(.v - 2)
c) (x - 3)(a - 8) polynomial A
d) (.v _ 4)(* + 5) polynomial B
e) (.v + 7)(a + 7) polynomial C
f) (.v + 7)(.v - 7) c) What do you observe about the values of
g) (2a + 8)(3.v + 1) the polynomials in your table?
h) (2.v - 8)(3.v - 1) . Find each of the following products.
i) (6.v + 5)(5a - 2)
j) (.v - 10)(4a + 9) a) (a2 + 5)(a2 - 1)
k)(.v- y)(x-y) b) (a - 9)(a3 + a)
1) (x-y)(x+y) c) (a + 2)(a2 - 2a + 4)
d) (a2 + 3a - l)(.v2 - a + 3)
5. This exercise is about the following e) 2a(a + 6)(a - 4)
polynomials: f) (A - 1)(A - 2)(A - 3)
. Multiply each of the following polynomials
polynomial A: 5x — 3
polynomial B: 2x + 1 bv a - 1.
aj a + 1
a) Find their product and label it b) A2 + A + 1
polynomial C. C) A3 + A2 + A + 1
b) Find the values of the three polynomials d) A4 + A3 + A2 + X + 1
if .v = 1, if .v = 3, and if a = 10. Use e) What do you think the product of a - 1
your answers to complete the following and a10 + a9 + a8 + a7 + a6 + a5 +
table. A4 + A3 + A2 + A + 1 iS?

420 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

Set IN
8. Find each of the following products.
a) (.v + 5)(x + 3) 1 10

b) (.v + 5)(x - 3) polynomial A llllll Hill! Ill

c) (x - 9)(x - 4) polynomial B ill 1111 11
d) (.v - 6)(.v + 7) polynomial C 11111 llllll III
e) (.v - 8)(x - 8)
f) (x - 8)(x + 8) c) What do you observe about the values of
g) (4x + 6)(2.v + 1) the polynomials in your table?
h) (4* - 6)(2x - 1) 10. Find each of the following products.
i) (5x + 3)(3x - 4)
a) (x2 - 2)(x2 + 6)
j) (8* + 2)(.v - 9)
k) (x + y)(x + y) b) (x + 4)(x4 - x)
c) (x - 3)(x2 + 3x + 9)
1) {x+y){x-y)
d) (x2 + 2x + l)(x2 - x - 2)
9. This exercise is about the following e) 3x(x - 7)(x + 2)
polynomials: f) (x + l)(x + 3)(x + 5)
11. Multiply each of the following polynomials
polynomial A: 2x + 3
polynomial B: 5x — 1 by x + 1.

a) Find their product and label it a)

b) xx2 -- 1x + 1
polynomial C. c) x3 - x2 + x - 1
b) Find the values of the three polynomials d) x4 - x3 + x2 — x + 1
if x = 1, if .v = 2, and if x = 10. Use e) What do you think the product of x + 1
your answers to complete the following and x10 — x9 + x8 — x" + x6 —
table. x5 + x4 — x3 + x2 — x + 1 is?

Set IV
Professor Pythagoras is telling his students about
an interesting discovery that he made.
1. To find out what it is, write down three
consecutive integers. Square the second
number and multiply the first number by
the last.
Do this with several other sets of
consecutive integers.
2. What do you notice?
3. Can you explain why this will always
happen? (Hint: Let x represent the first
number.)

Lesson 5: More on Multiplying Polynomials

A photograph of human chromosomes.
One of these chromosomes contains
the gene for eye color.

LESSON 6

Squaring Binomials

The color of a person's eyes is determined by a pair of genes inherited from his
or her parents. For simplicity, we will assume that these genes are of two types,
one corresponding to blue eyes and the other to brown. The gene for brown eyes
is dominant, and so a person who inherits one of each type has brown eyes.
If 60 percent of the eye-color genes in a human population are for blue eyes
and 40 percent are for brown eyes, what percentage of the population will have
eyes of each color? One way to solve this problem is with a diagram. If 60
percent of the genes are for blue eyes, 6 out of every 10 mothers will pass on a
gene for blue eyes, as will 6 out of every 10 fathers. The diagram at the top of
the next page shows the outcome for 100 births: 36 children (each indicated by
O) will inherit a gene for blue eyes from each parent and will, as a result, have
blue eyes. Because the gene for brown eyes is dominant, the 48 children (each
indicated by O) who inherit a gene for blue eyes from one parent and a gene
for brown eyes from the other will have brown eyes. The 16 children (each
 Color gene from father
o blue • brown
6 4
o o o o 9 9 9 9
o o
o o o o o o 9 9 9 Q
5i <?6-4=24
r* n rf

o o o o o
§ O
o o o o o Q 9 O 9
J J J J J J

c • • ^
Q Q 9 Q Q 9

indicated by •) who receive a gene for brown eyes from each parent will also
have brown eyes. So 36 percent of the population will have blue eyes and 64
percent will have brown eyes.
It is evident from the diagram that

(6 + 4)2 = 62 + 2(6 • 4) + 42

If 6 and 4 are replaced by variables, say x and v, then the diagram looks like the
one at the right and the equation looks like this:

(.v + y)2 = x2 + 2.vv + y2

A polynomial that contains two terms is called a binomial and one that contains
three terms is called a trinomial. The preceding equation shows that the square
of the binomial x + y is a trinomial: .v2 + 2xy + y2. Here are two more
examples of this pattern. y

EXAMPLE 1 20
Find the square of 25 by squaring the sum 20 + 5. 5

20

(20 + 5)2 = (20)2 + 2(20)(5) + (5)2 20 -5

= 400 + 200 + 25
= 625 5

(Check this by squaring 25.) 20-5

20 2

Lesson 6: Squaring Binomials 423

 EXAMPLE 2 X 7x7
What is the square of x + 7?

7x
(x + 7)2 = x2 + 2(7x) + 72 -y
= x2 + 14x + 49

Each of these examples concerns squaring a binomial that is the sum of two
terms. The diagram below illustrates what happens when a binomial that is the
difference of two terms is squared.

x2 -xy

X2
(.v — y)2 — x1 — 2xy + y2
-xy y2

EXAMPLE 3
Find the square of 99 by squaring the difference 100 - 1.
SOLUTION
According to the panern above,

(100 - l)2 = (100)2 - 2(100)(1) + (l)2

= 10,000 -200+1
= 9,801

(Check this by squaring 99.)

EXAMPLE 4
What is the square of 3x — 5?
SOLUTION

(3.v - 5)2 = (3x)2 - 2(3x)(5) + (5)2

= 9x2 - 30x + 25

424 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

 -y
The patterns

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
and
-xy
(x — y)2 = x2 — 2xy + y2

concern multiplying the sum or difference of two terms by itself. The

xy of two
diagram below illustrates what happens if we multiply the sum
terms by their difference.

(x + y)(x - y) = x2 - y2
-y2

The product of the sum and difference of two terms is equal to the
difference of the squares of the terms.

X2
EXAMPLE 5
Find the product of \x + 9 and Ax — 9.
SOLUTION
According to the pattern above,

(4x + 9)(4x - 9) = (4x)2 - (9)2

= 16a:2 - 81

We have considered the following three patterns in this lesson:

1. The square of the sum of two terms:

y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2

2. The square of the difference of two terms:

. ): = x2 - 2xy + y2

Lesson 6: Squaring Binomials 425

 3. The product of the sum and difference of two terms:

(x + y)(x — y) = x2 - y2

Although these patterns are merely special cases of multiplication, they

are frequentiy found in algebra and should be remembered.

Exercises

Set I
1 . Is each of the following statements about . Solve the following equations for x:
monomials true or false?
a) 3(x + 5) = 7 + Ax
a) The sum of two third-degree monomials
b) 3(x - 5) = 7 - 4x
is a sixth-degree monomial. c) (8* + 15) - (3jc + 8) = \x - 1
b) The product of two fourth-degree d) 8(x+ 15) _3(x + 8) = 4(x- 1)
monomials is an eighth-degree monomial.
c) The difference of a third-degree
monomial and a second-degree monomial
is a first-degree monomial.
d) The square of a monomial of zero-degree
is another monomial of zero-degree.
3. Match the graphs below with the following
equations.
4 y y
a) y = - 10 h / 10

b)y =
c)y =

Graph A Graph B Graph C

426 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

Set II
4. Several diagrams are given in this lesson illustrating special multiplication patterns.
For example, this diagram illustrates the equation
4 X
4x -76
4 76
(4 + .v)2 = 16 + 8.v + 3
4x
X 3y -6a
-1
3y
-6a
V.Tiat equation is illustrated by each -of the following diagrams?
3y -/4Z?
-7
5 b) 3y , 7 c) a -6 2
5x 4
746
25
5x x^ 36 '49b2
x^
9y 2 8. Use the patterns in this lesson to find each
5. Make a diagram to illustrate each of the
following expressions. Then use the diagram of the following. Check your answers by
to write each expression as a polynomial. multiplying the long way.
a*
a) (40 + 3)2 c) (50 - 7)2
a)
b) (x
(5.v+ + 9)2
2v)2 c)
d) (4a
(6a -+ 3)'2
b)(6a - b) b) (40 + 3)(40 - 3) d) (50 - 7)(50 + 7)
9. Write each of the following expressions as a
6. Vi'hen a binomial is squared, the result is a polynomial in descending powers of the
trinomial. The first term of the trinomial is
variable.
found by squaring the first term of the
binomial.
a) How is the last term of the trinomial
found? a) (3 + a-2)2
b) How is the middle term of the trinomial c) (4y5
(4>-5 - l)2
b) (3.v2)+2 l)(4v5 - 1)
d)
found?
e) (aW)2
7. Find the following without making any 10. f)
Copy(a3 each
- £3)2
of the following trinomials,
diagrams. replacing so that the trinomial is the
a) (x + 8y square of a binomial. Then write the
b) (x + 8)(x - 8) binomial of which it is the square.
c) (12a + l)2 a) .V2 + +16
d) (3b - 10)2 b) .v2 + 2a- +
e) (lx-y)(lX+y) c) -v2 - +81
f) (2x - 3y)2 d) .v2 - 10.v +

Lesson 6: Squaring Binomials 427

 d)

-4
c) -X 9y
9y
-x
-36y
b) -16
-x -X

Set III -3 -9
1 1 . What equation is illustrated by each of these diagrams? 36y
) a 8 lb-
6b
3 1

a 2b 6b
; 1
8a
4
8 64
8a
a*
81y2
12. Make a diagram to illustrate each of the 15. Use the patterns in this lesson to find each
4b2
following expressions. Then use the diagram of the following. Check your answers by
to write each expression as a polynomial. multiplying the long way.

a) (x + ll)2
b)(6x+y)2 a) (30 + 9)(30
b) 9)2 - 9)
c) (10a - 2)2
d) (a - 5b)(a + 5b) d) (40
(40 -
- l)2
1)(40 + 1)
c)
16. Write each of the following as a polynomial.
13. When a binomial is squared, the result is a
X2
trinomial. Copy and complete the following
patterns showing how a binomial sum and
a) (2 + x3)2
binomial difference are squared.
d)
c) (5y«
(5y* -
- lX5y*
l)2 + 1)
a) (□ + A)2 = b) (2x3)2
b) (□ - A)2 = f) (a5 + Vf
14. Find the following without making any 17. Copy
e) (a5each
b6)2 of the following trinomials,
diagrams. replacing 1111 so that the trinomial is the
square of a binomial. Then write the
a) (x + 12)2
b) (x + 12)(x - 12) binomial of which it is the square.

c) (5a + 3)2 a) x2 + 1111 + 36

b) x2 + 20x + ill!
d) (2b- ll)2
e) (x - 9y)(* + 9y) c) x2 - 111 + 49
f) (4x - 5yf d) x2 - 2x + 1111

428 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

 V.

Set IV
Color gene from father
Suppose that 50 percent of the genes for eye blue brown green
color in a human population are for blue eyes, 5 3
30 percent are for brown eyes, and 20 percent
75
are for green eyes. What percentage of the
population would have eyes of each color? ? brown 7
1. To find out, copy and complete the
diagram shown here. Assume that the gene
for brown eyes is dominant over those for
blue and green eyes and that the gene for ? ? 7
blue eyes is dominant over that for green
eyes. 7
2. What percentage of the population would ? p
have eyes of each color?

Lesson 6: Squaring Binomials 429

 LESSON 7

Dividing Polynomials
Most people learn how to divide one number
into another without knowing why the method
works. For example, to divide 7 into 2,205, we
are taught to write:
315
21

7)2205
10
I UKE TWOS THE BEST...WRE
SORT OF GENTLE. THREES AMP 35
FIVES ARE MEAN, WT A FOUR IS
ALLAYS PLEASANT.. I LIKE SEVENS
35
ANP EIGHTS, TOO, BUT NINES ALWAYS 0
SCARE ME. ..TENS ARE 6REAT...

As you may recall, this method has as its

basis repeated subtraction.* Here is the same
calculation written out more completely.

_7

* See page 23.

In the first step, we subtract 300 sevens from 2,205 to leave 105. In the
next step, we subtract 10 more sevens from 105 to leave 35. In the last
step, we subtract 5 sevens from 35 to leave 0. Because we have sub-
tracted (300 +10 + 5) sevens altogether, the answer is 315.
One way of interpreting what we have done is in terms of a rectangle.
Given that one dimension is 7 and that the area is 2,205, we have found
that the other dimension is 315. To check this, we can multiply to find
out if 315 times 7 is 2,205. Compare this check with the division
problem written out in full, and you can see that one is the same as the
other in reverse.
A procedure similar to the one we use to divide one number into
another can be used to divide one polynomial into another. To see how
it works, we will begin with a multiplication problem. What is x + 2
multiplied by 3x + 5? Finding it the long way and illustrating the
procedure with a diagram, we get

X 2
x+ 2
3x + 5
3x 6x
5x + 10
+ 6x
3*2 + Ux+ 10 10
5x
3x-
Now we will consider the problem in reverse. What 3x2 is 3x2 + llx + 10
divided by x + 2? Thinking in terms of a rectangle, the problem is to find the
other dimension of a rectangle if its area is 3x2 + 1 lx + 10 and one dimension
is x + 2. Putting part of this information in a diagram, we can see that the other
dimension of the rectangle at the upper left must be 3x.

X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2
6x
6x
3x
3x2
+ - 3x
5x
3x2
Lesson 7: Dividing Polynomials 431
3x2
^ - 3x2
 This means that the area of the rectangle at the upper right must be 3x(2) = 6.x.
Subtracting the area of these two rectangles from the total area,

3.x2 + 1 l.v + 10
3x2 + 6.x-
5.v + 10

we see that the area of the rest of the figure is 5.x + 10. Writing 5.x as the area of
the rectangle at the lower left, we see that its other dimension must be 5. So the
area of the rectangle at the lower right is 10. All of the area has now been
accounted for. So the other dimension of the rectangle is 3.x + 5.
Here is the procedure written as a long division problem. It is broken into
steps to make what is being done easier to see.

The result of dividing

3.v dividing x into 3.v:. 3x + 5 x into 5.v.

x + 2)3x2 + llx + 10 ■ + 2)3.x2

3x2 ++ llx
6x + 10
-» 5x + 10

3x
x + 2) 3.x2 + ll.v + 10
3.v2 + 6.x + 5
6x + 10
+ llx
x + 2)3x2
-
5x + 10
5.x + 10
x + 2)3x2 + llx + 10
3x2 + 6x
5.x + 10 +
3x
-
of subtracting. — 6x + 10
+ llx
x 4- 2)3x2 +
35xx2 + 10
The remainder 5x + 10
is 0; so the 0
quotient is 3.v Remainder

432 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

3x2
Here are two more examples of how polynomials are divided.

EXAMPLE 1
Divide *3 + 2x2 - 8* + 35 by * + 5.
SOLUTION
X2 _ 2>x + 7

x + 5)x3 + 2x2 - 8x + 35
x3 + -3x2
5x2 - 8x
-3x2 - 15x
7x + 35
7x + 35
0

EXAMPLE 2
Divide x3 — 64 by x — 4.
SOLUTION
We see neither an x2 term nor an x term in x3 — 64. Before dividing, it helps to
insert these missing terms with zero coefficients so that we can keep like terms lined
up.
64
x2 + 4x + 16
+
-64
- 4x2
+ Ox -64
+ Ox2 Ox-
16*
4)x5

16* -
16* -
4x2
4x2 X3

Lesson 7: Dividing Polynomials 433

 Exercises
Set I
1 . Find each of the following quotients.
Express each answer in scientific notation.
0x 6 x 108 Kv 7 x 10-' . 12

4 x 105pairs of simultaneous equations are shown below.

The graphs of four different
Tell what you can about the solutions of each pair of equations.
i x io-3

--3

x+2y=-1
3x-2y=13
\.
y > c)
s
S
\ X
x=p<Yp I I\
c) \ 0
\
b) X
\
A 3*+Zy-7

X+y=4s
Set II
3y-
3. Copy each of these diagrams. Replace each question mark with an appropriate expression.
4x 5x
5 3
7x
p ? p p p p

12x2 ? ?
32x p p p 8
-10x2
7 p
5x
5x* 18xJ3x2

434 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

 - 12

Look at your diagrams for exercise 3 to find

the answers to the following problems. 8x - 4x)3x3 - 19x2 + 28x
3x3 +
12x2 + 47x + 40 _ ■> - 3)8x3 - - 19x2 +■ 38x - 21
4x + 5 16x2 - 15x + 30
_ 7x2 - x + 3 + 7)2x4 -
5x + 3 14x -
. The polynomial 2x3 + 5 is missing terms in
> + 30*2 _ 40x + 8 x2 and x. Putting these terms in with zero
3*2 + 7x _ 2 coefficients, we get: 2x3 + Ox2 + Ox + 5.
Write each of the following polynomials
5. Find each of the following quotients by in descending order, putting in any missing
drawing a diagram like those in exercise 3. terms.
X2
a)v 14x2 + 23x + 3
ttti b)
a) 8x3
6 + +x2 1
4X3 _ 3X2 _ 23x + 9 c) 6x2 + x4 - 3 + 2x X3
4x + 9
b)- . d) lOx an
Before - x5
attempt is made to divide one
6. Find each of the following quotients without
using a diagram. Then compare your work polynomial into another, it is helpful to
with the diagrams you drew for exercise 5. arrange both of them in descending order
with any missing terms inserted. Do this
a) Ix + l)l4x2 + 23x + 3 before doing each of the following divisions.
b) 4x + 9)4x3 - 3x2 - 23x + 9 a) Divide 3 + x into x3 - x + 24.
7. Find each of the following quotients. b) Divide x2 — 1 into 4x3 — 5 + 5x4 - 4x.
c) Divide 2x - 5 into 16x4 - 625.
a) 3x + 2)l5x2 + 34x + 16
b) x + 5)x3 + 9x2 + 14x - 30

Set III
-6x
10. Copy each of these diagrams. Replace each question mark
with an appropriate expression.

7x 1 4 6x 2

14x2
63x
-10x2 2x2 -6x3
2x3
6x
24x4-

Lesson 7: Dividing Polynomials 435

 11. Look at your diagrams for exercise 10 to c) s2 - 7s)s3 - 12s2 + 35s
find the answers to the following problems. - 21s2 + 23s - 24

b) 14s2c 7s+ +65s1 + 9 = ? d) 5s + 4)4s4 - 5s3 + 16s - 20

) 2s2 + 20s -
a) - + 5s - 2) 3s4 +
2.v3 - 16s2 + 34* - 20 _ ,
2s2 - 6x + 4 15. The polynomial 5s3 — 7 is missing terms in
s2 and s. Putting these terms in with zero
24s4 + 2s3 + 16s2 + 6s
6s + 2 coefficients,
f) s2 s3 we get: 5s3 + Os2 + 0s — 7.
e) each of the following polynomials
Write
12. Find each of the following quotients by
a)
drawing
b) a diagram like those in exercise 10. terms.
sJ 3"
in descending order,To^putting in any missing

12s2 + 37s + 21
3s + 7
b)
a) 23s3+ +5s24s
6.v + 13s + 3s + 20 c) 8s - s3 -(- 2s4 + 5

16. Before an attempt is made to divide one

1 3. Find each of the following quotients without d) 1 - s6
polynomial into another, it is helpful to
using a diagram. Then compare your work
arrange both of them in descending order
with the diagrams you drew for exercise 12.
with any missing terms inserted. Do this
a) 3s + 7) 12s2 + 37s + 21 before doing each of the following divisions.
b) 2s + 5)6s3 + 13s2 + 3s + 20 a) Divide 4 + s into 2s3 + 9s2 - 16.
14. Find each of the following quotients. b) Divide x2 - 2 into s3 - 2s + 3s4 - 12.
c) Divide 1 + 3s + 9s2 into 27s3 - 1.
a) 4s + 7)20s2 + 43s + 14
b) s + 6)s3 + 4s2 - 9s + 18

Set IV
Some of the digits in the division problem below have been
replaced by asterisks. Can you figure out what each one is?

436 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

 Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to identify polynomial expressions and

how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide them.

Monomials {Lesson 1) A monomial in one variable, say x, is an expression of

the form ax", in which a may be any number and n is a positive integer. The
number a is the coefficient of the monomial and the integer n is its degree.
Zero is a monomial but does not have a specific degree. Other numbers are
considered to be monomials of degree 0.

Polynomials (Lesson 2) A polynomial is either a monomial or an expression

indicating the addition and or subtraction of two or more monomials. The
monomials are called terms of the polynomial.
The degree of a polynomial is that of the term having the highest degree. A
polynomial is written in descending powers of the variable if the degrees of its
terms get smaller as it is read from left to right.

Adding and Subtracting Polynomials (Lesson 3) Two or more polynomials

can be added or subtracted by adding or subtracting like terms (those having the
same degree and variable.)

Multiplying Polynomials (Lessons 4 and 5) The multiplication of two

polynomials can be illustrated by a rectangle whose dimensions represent the
polynomials and whose area represents their product. To multiply two polyno-
mials without a diagram, multiply each term of one polynomial by each term of
the other and then add the resulting terms. 437
 Squaring Binomials (Lesson 6) A binomial is a polynomial that contains two
terms; a trinomial is one that contains three terms. The square of a binomial is
a trinomial. The pattern for the square of a binomial sum is

The pattern for the square of a binomial difference is

The pattern for the product of the sum and difference of two terms is

(a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
Dividing Polynomials (Lesson 7) Dividing polynomials is like dividing
ordinary numbers. We can consider division in terms of areas and rectangles or
simply as an algebraic process. Before the division is carried out, both polyno-
mials should be arranged in descending order with any missing terms inserted.

Exercises

Set I
1. This postage stamp from Israel contains
several formulas, one of which we have
studied in this
what does chapter. 'wTiich one is it and
it mean?
2. Read each of the following statements
carefully and tell whether it is true or false.
a) The coefficient of the monomial x4 is 4.
b) The sum of two monomials can alwavs
be written as a monomial.
c) The expression 21 + 1 is a polynomial.
d) When two binomials are multiplied, the
product may be a binomial.
e) The square of a third-degree polynomial
is a sixth-degree polynomial.

438 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

3. Find the values of the following polynomials c) Add 7x2 - x + 8 and x3 + 9x - 12.
as indicated. d) Subtract 5x - 1 fy from 4y + 20x.
e) Multiply 5x - 2 by 7x + 10.
a) for x = 4 f) x2
Find- the
x + product
4. of 2x3 — x and
b) for x = -4 *4 - 2x2 + l g) Divide x3 + 7x2 + 1 lx - 4 by x + 4.
e) for x = 1
2x3 + 3x2 f) for x = io h) Divide 2x - 7 into 2x4 - 98x + x3.
c) for x = 2 9. Find expressions for the perimeter and area
d) for x = 3 of each of these rectangles.
4. If possible, write each of the following as a
monomial. If an expression cannot be
written as a monomial, say so.
a) 3x4 - x4 e) 2(3 - x4)
b) 3x4 + 3x f ) 2(-3x)4
c) 2(-3x4) g) -3x(x4)
d) (-3x4)2 h) 3x4 - 3x3
5. Make a diagram to illustrate each of these 3x-1
products. Then use the diagrams to write 4x+2 d) 6x-5
each one as a sum of monomials. x-8 5x«
a) (3x + 5)2 6x+5
b) (7x - y)(7x + y)
c) (8x + l)(x - 4)
d)(x-9)(y- 11)
x' in each of the
10. Find the missing 5term
6. Rewrite each of the following expressions as
a polynomial in descending powers of the following, given that each is the square of a
variable. binomial.
a) 5x3 + 9x + x4 a) x2 + 1111 + 144
b) X2 _ 30x + 111
b) 6x + x6 - 6x2 + 2x6
c) x2 + 1111 + 9.y2
c) 5 - x5 d) 16x2 - 40x + 111
d) 3x(4 - x2) + 5(1 - x)
h)
1 1 . Perform the operations indicated.
7. Write each of the following as a polynomial
in descending powers of its variable. a) (5x - 3) + (4x + 7)
a) x(x -f 4) g) (x + 7)2 b) (5x - 3)(4x + 7)
b) (x + 3)(x + 4) h) (7x)2 C) (X3 + x2 _ 10x _ 6) - (x - 3)
c) 8x(x - 2) i) (2x - 3)2 ,> x3 + x2 - lOx — 6
d) (8x - l)(x - 2) j) (x - 10)(x + 10)
e) (x + 6)(x - 5) k) (x3 + 3)2 e) (x4 - 1) + (x + 1)
f) (6x - l)(5x + 1) 1) (x3 + 3)(x3 - 3) f) (x4
t-4 -- 11) - (x + 1)

8. Perform the operations indicated. g) (x4 - l)(x + 1)

a) Add x - 6y, 4x + y, and y — 5x.
b) From 3x + x4, subtract x3 + 3x — 1.
■V + 1
Summary and Review 439
 Set II
1. Read each of ±e following statements
carefully and tell whether it is true or false.
a) The expression 1 — .v2 is a polynomial. (3 + 5)2 = 32 + 2(3 • 5) + 52
b) The degree of the monomial 1 is 0. The board can also be used to illustrate
c) The square of the binomial x + y is the squares of three other binomials. Write
.v2 - y2. an equation like the one above for each.
d) The product of two monomials can Check each equation to see if it is true.
always be written as a monomial.
e) A second-degree polynomial in one 5. Make a diagram to illustrate each of these
variable that is in simplest form can have products. Then use the diagrams to write
four terms. each one as a sum of monomials.

2. Find the values of the following polynomials

as indicated. b)
a) (a
(2a + + 6y)(x
7)2 - 6y)
c) (4a - 3)(9x + 7)
.v3 + 10a d) (3a - l)(2y + 1)
a) for x = 3 6. Rewrite each of the following expressions as
x3 + 3.v2 + 3.v + 1
b) for x = -3 a polynomial in descending powers of the
e) for .v = 1 variable.
2.v4 - 4.v2
f ) for .v = 9
c) for x = 2 a) 7a3 - a5 + 10
d) for .v = 4 b) 8a - a2 + a8 - 2a
3. If possible, write each of the following as a
monomial. d) a2(3a - 1) - (a2 - a3)
a) .v5 + 5.v e) (-4.v5)2 7. c) 2 - each
Write A4 of the following as a polynomial

b) 4.v5 - a-5 f ) 2(-4.v)5 in descending powers of its variable.

c) 2(4 - .v5) g) 4.v5 + 4x4 a) x(x + 5) g) (a + 8)2
d) 2(-4.v5) h) -4a(a5) b) (a + 2)(a + 5) h) (8a)2
4. A checkerboard can be used to illustrate how c) 6a(a - 3) i) (2a + 9)(2.v - 9)
to square a binomial. For example, this d) (6a - 1)(a - 3) j) (3a - l)2
picture shows how it might illustrate the fact e) (a + 7)(.v - 4) k) (a4 + 4)2
f) (7a - l)(4.v +1) 1) (a4 - 4)(a-> + 4)
3 5 8. Perform the operations indicated.
35 a) Add 3a - v, y — 5a, and 2.v + 9v.
3 b) Subtract 1 — 3a2 from 7a3 - 3.v2 + a.
c) Add a2 + 10a - 6 and a4 - x- - 4.
d) From 6.v - 5v + 4, subtract
3v + 5.v + 7.
e) Multiply 8.v - 15 by 3.v + 8.
5 35
32 f ) Find the product of 4.v2 — a — 2 and
a + 5.

440 Chapter 9: POLYNOMIALS

52
 g) Divide x + 3 into 10. Find the missing term in each of the
2*3 + \lx2 + \\x - 12. following, given that each is the square of a
binomial.
h) Divide 16x4 - 1 by 2x - 1.
a) x2 - 11111 + 100
, Find expressions for the perimeter and area
b) x2 + 50* + 1111
for each of these rectangles.
c) 16*2-|||+y
d) 9x2 + 24* + 1111
6x+1
11. Perform the operations indicated.

2x3 a) (7x - 2) + (3* - 8)

b) (7x - 2)(3x - 8)
c) (x3 _ x2 - 30* + 50) - (x - 5)
dv xi - x2x -— 30s
5 + 50

5x-1 4x+7 e) (Ax2 - 9) + (2x + 3)

f ) (Ax2 - 9) - (2x + 3)
g) (4*2 - 9)(2x + 3)
4x-7

Summary and Review 441

Chapter
10
FACTORING
 LESSON 1

Prime and Composite Numbers

In 1978, Laura Nickel and Curr Noll, two 18-year-old srudents working ar
California State University in Hayward. discovered that the number 2::~o: — 1
is prime. This number, the result of raising 2 to the 2 1.701st power and
subtracting 1. is immense. Shown to be prime with the help of a computer, it
contains 6.533 digits in all.

u
 What made this number interesting was the fact that it was the largest prime
number known at the time.*

► A prime number is an integer larger than 1 that cannot be written as the

product of smaller positive integers.

The first integer larger than 1 is 2, and 2 is prime. The integers 3, 5, and 7
are also prime. The integers 4, 6, 8, and 9 are not prime because 4 = 2*2,
6 = 2-3, 8 = 2-2' 2, and 9 = 3-3. Because they can be written as products
composed of other integers, they are called composite.

^ A composite number is an integer larger than 1 that can be written as the

product of smaller positive integers.

When an integer is written as a product of two or more integers, it is said to

be factored and the numbers in the product are called factors of the integer. For
example, 15 can be factored as

1-15 or 3-5 or -1 - -15 or -3 • -5

Listed in order of increasing size, the factors of 15 are -15, -5, -3, -1, 1, 3, 5, ^0
and 15.
From our definition of factor it is apparent that an integer ^is a factor of a
3
number if and only if it can be divided into the number leaving zero as the
^0
remainder. Notice, for example, what happens when 15 is divided by 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5.

>
15 7 1 5 3 3
^0
1JI5 2JT5 4JI5
3jl5 5JT5

The remainders show that 1, 3, and 5 are factors of 15 and that 2 and 4 are not.
It follows from our definition of a prime number that a prime number can be

* Curt Noll has continued this work to discover 223209 — 1, the largest prime number known a
of March, 1979.

Lesson 1: Prime and Composite Numbers 445

 factored into positive factors in only one way: as the product of itself and 1.
Every composite number, on the other hand, can be factored in more than one
way. Nevertheless, there is only one way (except for order) in which a composite
number can be written as the product of primes. The method used in the following
example to find the prime factors of a number shows how to find the prime
factors of a composite number.

EXAMPLE 1
Factor 924 into primes.
SOLUTION
To find the prime factors of 924, we divide by each prime in succession starting
with 2 to see how many times that prime is a factor. First, trying factors of 2,
we get
462 231 115

924 462 230

/
J924
J462 /J23T

Next, trying factors of 3, we get

77 25
J23T /J77
231 75
/

Because the prime factors of 77 are 7 and 11, no further division is necessary.
Factored into primes, 924 = 2 • 2 • 3 • 7 • 1 1, or 22 • 3 • 7 • 1 1.

The greatest common factor of a set of numbers is, as its name indicates, the
largest integer that is a factor of all of the numbers. Two numbers whose
greatest common factor is 1 are said to be relatively prime.

446 Chapter 10: FACTORING

EXAMPLE 2
Find the greatest common factor of 30 and 75.
SOLUTION
Factoring 30 and 75 into primes, we get
30 = 2 • 3 • 5
75 = 3 ■ 5 • 5

Multiplying the common prime factors, 3 and 5, we find that the greatest common
factor of 30 and 75 is 15.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the greatest common factor of 21 and 1 10.
SOLUTION
Factoring 21 and 110 into primes, we get

21 = 3-7
110 = 2-5- 11
These numbers have no common prime factor, but 1 is a factor of every number. So the
greatest common factor of 21 and 110 is 1; this means that 21 and 110 are relatively
prime.

Exercises

Set I
1. Write each of the following numbers without
using any exponents. c) For x: y = ax + b
a) 05 ' C) (-2)' 3. Neon is an element consisting of two kinds
b) 5° d) (-7)-2 of atoms, some of which weigh 20 units and
2. Solve each of the following formulas for the some of which weigh 22 units. If a sample
variable indicated. of 100 atoms of neon weighs 2,018 units,
a) For a: p = a + b + c how many atoms are there of each kind in
b) For/ w = fd the sample?

Lesson 1: Prime and Composite Numbers 447

 Set I 11
22-3
4. Here is a list of the 12 d) Is 11 a factor of 12,321?
13 prime e) Is 46 a factor of 644?
integers from 11 to 20 in
which each number has 14 2-7 *f) Is 19 a factor of 31,350?
either been labeled 15 3-5
prime *g) Is 27 a factor of 277,277?
16 *h) Is 52 a factor of 525,252?
"prime" or written as the
product of primes. i) Is 6 a factor of 6 + 4?
17
18
Make a similar list for
19 j) Is 6 a factor of 6 • 4?
the integers from 21 prime
22-5
to 30. 20 k) Is 6 a factor of 64?
2-32 1) Is 6 a factor of 46?
prime
Factor each of the following numbers into
, List, in order from smallest to largest, all of
primes. List the prime factors in order from
the positive integer factors of each of the
smallest to largest, using exponents where
following numbers.
possible. a) 55 d) 72
a) 100 f) 3,264
b) 32 24 e) 53
b) 180 g) 152
c) 231 h) 156 c) 71 f) 35
d) 2,310 i) 23- 143 . Find the greatest common factor of each of
e) 816 j) 32-314 the following sets of numbers,
An integer is a factor of a number if and
a) 15 and 50
only if it can be divided into the number
b) 8 and 96
leaving zero as the remainder. (Do parts f h) 34 and 38
c) 20 and 21
through h if you have a calculator.) i) 43 and 83
d) 36 and 48
a) Is 5 a factor of 775?
e) 36 and 90
b) Is 3 a factor of 2,001? j) 75 and 57
f) 4, 10, and 14
c) Is 8 a factor of 500?
g) 7, 10, and 17

Set III 31
9. Here is a list of the 32 3- 11 10. Factor each of the following numbers into
integers from 31 to 40 in 33 prime
2- 17 primes. List the prime factors in order from
which each number has 34 smallest to largest, using exponents where
either been labeled 35 5-7
36 a) 75 f) 3,564
"prime" or written as the possible.
product of primes. 37 22-32
2- 19
Make a similar list for 38 b) 120 g) 212
3- 13
the integers from 41 to prime c) 182 h) 215
39 23-5 d) 1,820 i) 54 • 104
50. 40
e) 1,782 j) 45-410
448 Chapter 10: FACTORING 25
 An integer is a factor of a number if and 12. List, in order from smallest to largest, all of
only if it can be divided into the number the positive integer factors of each of the
a)
leaving zero as the remainder. (Do parts f following numbers.
through h if you have a calculator.)
c )
b) Is 2 a factor of 12,345?
a) 26
Is 9 a factor of 909? b) 81
e) Is 4 a factor of 1,776? c) 59
d) Is 12 a factor of 812? d) 60
Is 35 a factor of 735?
0
i) Is 17 a factor of 30,702? 13. Find the greatest common factor of each of
h) Is 66 a factor of 66,666?
g) the following sets of numbers.
Is 81 a factor of 818,181? a) 12 and 48 f) 8, 10, and 18
e) 72
)) Is1 7 a factor of 7 + 3?
)
Is 7 a factor of 7 • 3?
b) 12 and 33
f) 27
g) 9, 10, and 19
c) 15 and 16 h) 43 and 46
k) Is 7 a factor of 73? d) 28 and 70 i) 34 and 64
Is 7 a
factor of 37? e) 75 and 175 j) ll2 and 2"

Set IV
Although the number 1 1 is prime, the number
1 1 1 is not because 1 1 1 = 3 • 37. In fact, every
number in the following table is composite.

1 = 3 • 37 1. Judging from this table, what numbers of

1=11- 101 which all of the digits are l's have factors
of 3?
1 = 41 -271
111,1 2. What numbers of this sort have factors
1 = 3-7- 11 • 13-37
of 11?
1,111,1 1 = 239 • 4,649
11,111,1 1 = 11-73- 101- 137 3. Which one of the numbers do you think
would be the most difficult for someone to
111,111,1 1 = 3 • 3 • 37 • 333,667
,111,111,1 prove composite without having this table?
1 = 11 -41 -271-9,091

Lesson 1: Prime and Composite Numbers 449

 LESSON 2
Monomials and
Their Factors

Here is a number trick that is somewhat more impressive than the one in this
cartoon. Think of a three-digit number and write it down twice to form a
six-digit number. Regardless of what number is originally chosen, the resulting
six-digit number can be divided evenly by 7, 11, and 13. For example, begin-
ning with the number in the cartoon, 684, we get 684,684. The results of
dividing 684,684 by 7, 11, and 13 are shown here.

97,812 62,244 52,668

7)684,684 11)684,684 13)684,684
63 66 65
54 24 34
49 2226 26
56 22 78
86
56
8 48 88
7 44 78
14 44 104
14 44 104
0 0 0
 Most numbers cannot be divided evenly by even one of these numbers, let
alone all three. Why is it that, no matter what three-digit number you begin
with, the six-digit number formed can be divided evenly by these three
numbers?
The reason has to do with the way the six-digit number is produced. Writing
down a three-digit number twice is equivalent to multiplying it by 1,001; the
number 1,001 is composite, being the product of 7, 11, and 13. If we let x
represent the three-digit number first chosen, then 1,00 lx represents the six-
digit number formed. Because 1,001 is the product of 7, 11, and 13,
1,001.x = 7 • 1 1 • 13 • x. No matter what number x represents, 7 • 1 1 • 13 • x can
be divided evenly by 7, 11 and 1 3. gg4 ^34
The numbers 7, 11, and 13 are factors of the monomial l,001x because they
are factors of its coefficient. Other factors of 1,00 lx are:

1 and 1,001,
77 (because 7-11 = 77),
91 (because 7- 13 = 91),
143 (because 11-13= 143),
x, 7x, llx, 13x, 77x, 91x, 143x, and 1,001*.

To be able to recognize factors of monomial expressions is a skill needed in

solving many algebra problems. Here is another example of how it is done.

EXAMPLE 1

What are the factors of 6x2?

SOLUTION

6x2 = 2 • 3 • x • x, and so three of its factors are 2, 3, and x. Other factors are: 1, 6,
x2, 2x, 2x2, 3x, 3x2, 6x, and 6x2.

In general, the factors of the monomial ax" include the factors of the coeffi-
cient a, the factors of x" (x, x2, . . . , x"), and products of various combinations
of these factors.
In Lesson 1, we defined the greatest common factor of a set of numbers to be the
largest integer that is a factor of all of the numbers and said that two numbers
whose greatest common factor is 1 are relatively prime. We will now apply these
ideas to monomials with integer coefficients.

Lesson 2: Monomials and Their Factors

 Consider, for example, the monomials 4x5 and 6x3. The greatest common
factor of their coefficients is 2 and the highest power of x that is a factor of both
monomials is x3 because x5 is x3 • x2. It seems reasonable to consider 2x3 to be
their greatest common factor.
The greatest common factor of a set of monomials with integer coefficients is the
product of the greatest common factor of their coefficients and the highest power
of each variable that is a factor of all of the monomials. Like two numbers, two
monomials whose greatest common factor is 1 are called relatively prime.

EXAMPLE 2

Find the greatest common factor of 3x3 and 7x~' '.

3x3 = 3 •
Ix1 = 7 •

The greatest common factor is x3.

EXAMPLE 3
Find the greatest common factor of 6xy and 1 5_y4.
SOLUTION

\5y*6xy= =? -5-
2 • • -yyy
x •

The greatest common factor is 3y.

EXAMPLE 4
Find the greatest common factor of 9x2 and 4y2.

9x2 = 3-3-x-x
4>>2 = 2-2- yy

The only factor these monomials have in common is 1, and so they are
relatively prime.

452 Chapter 10: FACTORING

Exercises

Set I
1. Guess a formula for the function represented
by each of these tables. Begin each formula
with v = .
a) x 0 1 2 3 4
y -7 3 13 23 33
b) x 0 i 2 3 4
2 6 12 20
y 0
c) x 0 1 2 3 4
3 9 27 81
y i
2. Write each of the following as a polynomial
in descending powers of the variable.
a) (5.v + l)2
b) (5.v - iy
c) (5x + l)(5x - 1)
3. The largest flag in the world is an American
flag displayed each year on the side of the
J. L. Hudson store in Detroit. It is 104 feet
wide and 235 feet long.
a) What are its perimeter and area?
b) If its length and width were each
increased by 1 foot, what would its
perimeter and area become?
c) If its length and width were each
increased by x feet, what would its
perimeter and area become? Express each
of your answers as a polynomial.

Set II
4. Write each of the following products or as many different pairs of factors as you can.
powers as a monomial. a) 18 c) 25x2
a) (4)(14x2) e) (6x4)2 b) 34x d) 2x3
b) (7x)(8x) f) (2*4)6
c) (3x3)(5x5) g) (ax°)(bx>>) . Write each of the following monomials as
d) (x10)(-x10) h) (ax")2
the square of a monomial.
5. Using only positive integer coefficients, a) 16 c) 9x10
factor each of the following monomials into b) x16 d) 25x2j-2

Lesson 2: Monomials and Their Factors

 7. Allowing only positive integers as d)(-7.v)( ) = 2\xy
coefficients, list all of the factors of each of
e) (-x7)(-v3) = .;,.
the following.
f) (2x3)(3x2)( ) = 12x>2
a) 24 d) x6 9. Find the greatest common factor of each of
b) 15.v e) 3.v5 the following sets of monomials.
) 8.vv and 64xy
c) 49.v2 a) 15 and 21
8. Tell what monomial should replace Mill in
b) 10x2 and 45x h) 52x2v2 and 13xj-3
each of the following to make it true.
c) 7 and 17
i)
j) .v4
6x2,and9x,j'4and 3
a) (4)(4.v4) = k) 5.v2. 5.v, and 2
b) (2.v2)( ill) = 10x10 d)
e) .x7 and x .v17
4 and
f) 33x and 44v 1) 4x3, 12.v2, and 6x
c) I >(6.v3) = 6x<'

Set Ml
following.
10. Write each of the following products or
powers as a monomial.
a) (3)(18.v2) e) (5x3)2 a) 36
b) (9.v)(6.t) f) (2x3)5 b) lOx
c) (4x4)(2x2) g) {axb){cx*) 14. Tell what monomial should replace in
d) (x7)(-x7) h) (ax»)> each of the following to make it true.
c) 81x2
11. Using only positive integers as coefficients, 2x 4
a) (5)(5x3) = i;|| d) e)
(-4.v)( ) = 24.vv
factor each of the following monomials into d) .v8
as many different pairs of factors as you can. b) (3x3)( ) = 9.v0 e) (-x4)(-v*) =
c) ( )(8.v) = 8x8 f) (6x/(x5)( ) = 18.r10
a) 20 c) 9x2
b) 26.v d) 5.v4 15. Find the greatest common factor of each of
the following sets of monomials.
12. Write each of the following monomials as 18.vy and 36xy
the square of a monomial. a) 12 and 40
a) 36 c) 25x8 b) 14x2 and 35x h) 5x2y2 and 30x3jy
b) x36 d) 9x2v2 c) 9 and 10
i)
j) .v5
2.v2,and6x,j'5and 10
13. Using only positive integers as coefficients, d) .v9 and.v10 k) 3x4, 3.r, and 4
list all of the factors of each of the f)
e) 270.v
andand.v2 20v 1) 6.r3, 15.v2, and 9.v

Set IV
Here is a number trick similar to the one described in this lesson. Think of a two-
digit number and write it down three times to form a six -digit number. Regardless
of what number you choose at the beginning, the resulting six-digit number is
composite and can be divided evenly by 3, 7, 13, and 37.
1. Choose a two-digit number and show that this trick works as described.
2. Explain why the trick works.

454 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 V

LESSON 3

Polynomials and Their Factors

Emanuel Zacchini holds the world record for traveling the longest distance
through the air after being shot from a cannon. This photograph shows him with
his daughter, Florinda, performing their act at the circus.*
The distance of a human cannonball above the ground depends on the time
that has passed since he or she was shot upward. For someone who leaves the
cannon with an upward speed of 64 feet per second, the distance is given in feet
by the polynomial

64x - 16x2

in which x represents the number of seconds that have passed.

* Mr. Zacchini is now retired, but Florinda has proved to be a human cannonball of the same
caliber.
 Evaluating this polynomial for different values of x, we get

x 0 12 3 4
64x - \6x2 0 48 64 48 0

From this table, we see that after 1 second the distance above the ground is 48
feet, after 2 seconds it is 64 feet, after 3 seconds it is 48 feet, and after 4 seconds
the human cannonball is back on the ground. The trip evidently lasts 4 seconds.
There is a way to tell how long the trip would take without bothering to make
a table of values as we have done. The method works like this. Clearly, at the
beginning and end of the trip, the distance of the human cannonball above the
ground is zero. This means that, at these times, the value of

64.x- - 16.x2
is zero.
The values of x that will make a polynomial in x equal to zero are not usually
obvious. However, in this case, we can perform a few operations that will let us
see exactly which values of x will make it equal to zero. Notice that the two
terms 64.x and 16.v2 have a common factor of 16x. Factoring 16.x from each term
and applying the distributive rule relating multiplication and subtraction in
reverse, we can write

64.x - 16.x2 =
16.x(4) - 16.x(.x) =
16.x(4 - .x)

(Check this by looking at these steps in reverse order.)

We have written 64.x — 16.x2 as the product 16x(4 — x). We know that a
product is zero if one of its factors is zero. So the product 16.x(4 — x) is zero
only if either x or (4 — .x) is zero. Clearly, (4 — x) is zero if x is 4. These
numbers, 0 and 4, are the times, then, when the human cannonball is 0 feet
above the ground: at the beginning of the trip, 0 seconds, and at the end, 4
seconds.
This is just one example of why it is useful to be able to rewrite a polynomial
as a product. In Lessons 1 and 2, we learned how to factor integers and
monomials. In this lesson and the following ones in this chapter, we will learn

456 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 how to factor polynomials in general. Throughout our work, we will restrict the
factors to integers and polynomials having coefficients and constant terms that are
integers.

EXAMPLE 1
Factor 5*2 + 10* and illustrate the result by means of the area of a rectangle.
SOLUTION * 2
The greatest common factor of 5*2 and lOx is 5.v.
10x
5*2 + 10* = 5*(*) + 5*(2) 5x
= 5*(* + 2)

The polynomial 5*2 + 10* represents the area of the rectangle as the sum of the
areas of its two parts; 5*(* + 2) represents its area as the product of its length
and width.
5x2

EXAMPLE 2
Factor *4 - 2*3 + 2*2.
SOLUTION
The greatest common factor of *4, 2*3, and 2*2 is *2.
- 2*3 + 2*2 = *2(*2) - *2(2*) + *2(2)
= *2(*2 - 2* + 2)

Because we are restricting the factors of polynomials to integers and polyno-

mials that have integer coefficients, some polynomials cannot be written as
products of polynomials of smaller degree. Positive integers that cannot be
written as products of smaller positive integers are called prime. We will define
prime polynomials in the same way.

► A prime polynomial is a polynomial that cannot be written as a product of

polynomials of lower degree.

A polynomial, like an integer, can be written as a product of prime factors in

essentially only one way.

Lesson 3: Polynomials and Their Factors 457

 EXAMPLE 3
Factor 6x — 24 into prime factors.
SOLUTION
The greatest common factor of 6x and 24 is 6.

6a: - 24 = 6(x - 4)

Factoring 6 into primes, we get 2 • 3. Can x — 4 be factored? If so, it can be

written as a product of polynomials of lower degree. Because x — 4 is of first
degree, its factors would have to be of zero degree. But polynomials of zero degree
are constants and the product of constants cannot be equal to x — 4. So x - 4 is
prime. The prime factors of 6x — 24 are 2, 3, and x — 4:
6x - 24 = (2)(3)(x - 4)

Exercises

Set I This exercise is about the polynomials

1. Factor each of the following numbers into Ax2 - 2% - 1 and 2x + 1.
primes. Use exponents where possible. a) Find their sum.
a) 56 b) Find their difference. (Subtract the second
from the first.)
b) 221
c) 1,815 c) Find their product.

3. The formula for the surface area of a box is b) Use this formula to write an expression for
the surface area of the right-hand box.
A = 2lw + 2wh + 2ih
Simplify it as much as you can.
in which A is the area and I, ws and h are c) What are the dimensions of the second
box if x = 4?
the length, width, and height of the box.
a) Use this formula to find the surface area of d) Evaluate the expression you wrote for the
surface area of the second box when
the box at the left below.
x = 4.

458 Chapter 10: FACTORING

Set II
4. Use the distributive rule to find each of the common factor of its terms.
following products.
a) 7x + 3x d) 2x3 - 5x3
a) 8(2x - 3y) c) x3(x2 - 2x) b) 5x - x e) 4x>> + 2x.y
b) 5x{x + 4) d) 4xy(x -y+ 1) c) x2 + 8x2 f) xy2 - 9xy2
5. Find the greatest common factor of the
9. When the expression 57 • 64 + 57 • 36 is
terms of the following polynomials. written in factored form, 57(64 + 36), it is
a) 14x2 + 4x c) 2x2 + 3x + 6 easy to see that it is equal to 5,700, because
b) x5 - x3 d) 16x2 - 40y2 64 + 36 = 100.
6. Factor each of the following polynomials by Find the value of each of the following
factoring out the greatest common factor of expressions by first factoring it.
its terms. Illustrate each problem by means a) 23 • 6 + 23 • 4 c) 45 • 36 - 45 • 16
of the area of a rectangle. b) 12-31 - 12 d) 992 + 99
a) 4x + 8 c) 3x3 + x2 10. What polynomial should replace 111 in each
b) x2 + 5x d) 2x4 + 12x of the following equations?
7. Factor each of the following polynomials by a) (||||||)(x2 + 2x + 4) = 3x2 + 6x + 12
factoring out the greatest common factor of b) (5x)(|||||) = 5x4 - 30x2 + 5x
its terms. c) 8x6 + 4x4 - 12x2 = 4x2(||||||)
a) 3x + 12 g) 32x - 8y d) lOxy + 2x2^ - 2x.y2 = 2x3/(111111)
b) 5x + 5 h) x2 + 6x 11. Factor each of the following polynomials by
c) 2x + 2y i) 2x3 + 2 factoring out the greatest common factor of
d) 2x + 3y j) 3x2 + 2 its terms.
e) 4x - 4 k) x4 - 8x2
a) 12x3 - 16x2 + 8x
f) lOx - 15 1) x4 +>-4
b) 6x2 + xy + 6y2
8. Write each of the following polynomials as a
monomial by first factoring out the greatest c) 10x10+ -6x6x5 + 10x10
d) 2x2

Set III
12. Use the distributive rule to find each of the
14. Factor each of the following polynomials by
following products.
factoring out the greatest common factor of
a) 9(3x + y) c) x2(x4 + 4x) its terms. Illustrate each problem by means
b) 4x(2x - 7) d) 3xj-(x +y - 1) of the area of a rectangle.
13. Find the greatest common factor of the a) 3x + 6
terms of the following polynomials.
b) x2 + 4x
a) 6x2 + 15x c) 2x3 - 6x2 + 4
b) x4 - x6 d) 9x2 + 16y2 c)
d) 2x3
5x3 ++ x2
15x

Lesson 3: Polynomials and Their Factors 459

 15. Factor each of the following polynomials by Find the value of each of the following
factoring out the greatest common factor of expressions by first factoring it.
its terms.
a) 54-3 + 54-7
a) 5x +15 g) 4x - 2\y b) 9 • 49 + 9
b) 2x + 2 h) 8x + x2 c) 15-28-15-8
c) Ix + ly i) 5x2 + 10 d) 1012 - 101
d) 3* - 18 j) 2x5 + 5 18. What polynomial should replace !lfi!l in each
e) 3.x - 16 k) x3 - 3x of the following equations?
f) x + 2y 1) x2+y2
a) (;!l!li)(x2 + x + 6) = 5x2 + 5x + 30
16. Write each of the following polynomials as a
monomial by first factoring out the greatest b) (4x)(!!ll) = 4x5 - 12x2 + 8x
c) 10x5 + 8x4 - 2x3 = 2x3( lli)
common factor of its terms. d) 2lxy - 3x2y - 3xy2 = 3xy0\\\)
a) 2x + 6x d) 3x2 - 8x2 19. Factor each of the following polynomials by
b) 4x — x e) Ixy + 5xy factoring out the greatest common factor of
c) x3 + 5x3 f) x2y - 10x2>> its terms.
17. When the expression 32 • 26 - 32 • 16 is a) 30x3 + 18x2 - 12x
written in factored form, 32(26 — 16), it is b) 2x2>' + xy + 2xy2
easy to see that it is equal to 320, because
26 - 16 = 10. c) 5x8 + 8
d) 3x3 + 6x6 + 9x9

Set IV
Here is an interesting pattern. If a number that ends in 5 is squared, the
answer ends in 25. Moreover, the rest of the answer can be found in a
simple way.
1 52 = 2 25
2 52 = 6 25
3 52 = 12 25
4 52 = 20 25
5 52 = 30 25
6 52 = 42 25
7 52 = 56 25
8 52 = 72 25
9 52 = 90 25

1. Can you explain how, using 652 = 4225 as an example?

2. Show why this is true by representing the original number as
lOx + 5, squaring it, and factoring.

460 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 LESSON 4
Factoring
Second-Degree
Polynomials
Leonhard Euler

No one has ever found a formula for prime numbers. The eighteenth-century
Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler discovered several polynomials that
produce prime numbers up to a certain point, however. One of them is

x2 + x + 17

If this polynomial is evaluated for each positive integer from 1 through 15,

l2 + 1 + 17 = 19,
22 + 2 + 17 = 23,
32 + 3 -j- 17 = 29, and so on,

each of the numbers that results is prime.

Unlike Euler's polynomial, the polynomial
x2 + 8x + 7

never produces primes when it is evaluated for the positive integers.

I2 + 8- 1 + 7 = 16,
22 + 8 • 2 + 7 = 27,
32 + 8 • 3 + 7 = 40, and so on.
 X 7 The reason is very simple. Look at the diagram at the left. It shows
7x that the polynomial x2 + 8x + 7 and the product (x + l)(x + 7) are
equivalent. This means that the polynomial x2 + 8x + 7 is not prime,
tx even though the greatest common factor of its terms is 1. It can be
7
X^ factored into the product of the polynomials x + 1 and x + 7, both of
lower degree. Evaluating this product for x = 1, x = 2, x — 3, and so
\c+8x + 7- on, we get
(x+1)(x+7)
(1 + 1)(1 + 7) = 2-8= 16,
(2+ 1X2 + 7) = 3-9 = 27,
(3 + i)(3 + 7) = 4 . 10 = 40, and so on.

Clearly, for every- positive integer x, (x + l)(x + 7) is the product of two

integers both greater than 1. So for every positive integer, (x + \)(x + 7) and,
hence, x2 + 8.x + 7 must produce a composite number.
From this example, we see that it may be possible to factor a second-degree
polynomial into a product of first-degree polynomials even though its terms
have no common factor greater than 1. In this lesson we will learn how to factor
such expressions.
The basic idea is simple. Factoring one polynomial into a product of two is
the reverse of multiplying two polynomials to get one. Compare the following
two problems.

PROBLEM 1
Multiply x + 1 and x + 5.
SOLUTION
(.v + l)(.v + 5) = x2 + 6.v + 5.

PROBLEM 2
Factor x2 + 6.v + 5.
SOLUTION
From problem 1, we see that x2 + 6x + 5 = (x + l)(x + 5).

We knew the answer to problem 2 because of the result of problem 1.

Unfortunately, reversing a multiplication problem is not always this easy.

462 Chapter 10: FACTORING

Before we consider another
example, look at the diagram
shown at the right.
It shows that the product of the
first-degree polynomials x + a
and x + b and the second-degree
polynomial x2 + (a + b)x + ab
are equivalent. Notice where
each term of the polynomial
x2 + (a + b)x + ab appears in
the figure: the first term, x2, in
the upper left corner, the last term,
ab, in the lower right corner, and
the middle term, (a + b)x, as ax
and bx, in the other two corners.
Now let's try to apply these observations to factoring the polynomial
x2 + 9x + 20 into a product of two first-degree polynomials. Putting
the first and last terms into the appropriate corners of a diagram, we get 20
the figure shown at the right. Factoring x2 as x • x, we fill in the
dimensions of the "x2" box as shown in the next figure. Filling in the
X p
dimensions of the "20" box is not as easy because 20 can be factored in
several different ways: those in which both factors are positive are 1 • 20,
2 • 10, and 4 • 5. If we look at each possibility as shown below, it is clear X
that the third one is the only one that results in the correct middle term:
9x.

20
20 x2
20
X2

( 1*
X2
So x2 + 9x + 20 = (jc + 4)(x + 5).

Lesson 4: Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials 463 X2

X2
 To arrive at this result without drawing any diagrams, we could reason as
follows.

Factor the .v2 term:

x2 + gx + 20 = (x + X* + )

Factor the constant term:

x2 _ q.v + 20 = (x + ?Xx + ?)

Try combinations of factors:

20 = 1 -20 20 = 2 • 10 20 = 4 ■ 5
(x + l){.v + 20)? (.v + 2){.v - 10)? (.v + 4){-v + 5)?

x2 + 21.v + 20 .v2 + 12x + 20 x2 + 9x + 20

So .Y2 + 9.v + 20 = (x - 4Xx - 5).

Not every second-degree polynomial can be factored like this. Judging from
the three results above, for example, we cannot factor x2 4- 1 Ox + 20 if the
factors of 20 are limited to integers.
Here are more examples of how to factor second-degree polynomials.

EXAMPLE 1

Factor x2 - 2x - 3 as the product of two binomials.

SOLUTION*
Think of x2 + 2x - 3 as x: - 2x - -3.

x2 + 2x + -3 = (x + ) (x + )

.x-2 + 2x + -3 = (x + ? ) (x + -- )
464 Chapter 10: FACTORING
One of the factors of -3 must be negative.

-3 = (1X-3) -3 = (-1X3)
(x + IX* + -3)? (x + -IX* + 3)?

x2 - 2x - 3 x2 + 2x - 3

So x2 + 2x - 3 = (.v - IX* + 3).

EXAMPLE 2

Factor x2 — 6x + 8 as the product of two binomials.

SOLUTION*
Think of x2 - 6x + 8 as x2 + -6x + 8.

x2 + -6x + 8 = (x + ){x + )

x2 + _6x + 8 = (x + )(x + )

In order to get -6x as the middle term, we have to factor 8 into two negative
factors.

8 = (-1X-8) 8 = (-2X-4)
(x - IX* - 8)? (x - 2)(x - 4)?

x2 - 9x + 8 x2 - 6x + 8

So x2 - 6x + 8 = (x - 2){x - 4).

* Most of the work written out in the solutions for Examples 1 and 2 is ordinarily done mentally.

Lesson 4: Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials 465

 EXAMPLE 3
Factor the following polynomials.

a) -v2 + 5.v + 6 c) .v2 + -v - 6

b) x2 - 5.v - 6 d) .v- - x - 6
SOLUTION
To factor these polynomials, we think of them as

a) -v2 + 5.v + 6 c) .v2 + l.v + -6

b) x2 + -5.v + 6 d) .v2 + -1.y + -6.
In all four parts, we begin by writing (x )(x ).
In parts a and b, 6 can be factored as (1)(6), (2X3), (-l)(-6), or (-2)(-3).
Because 2 + 3 = 5, x2 + 5x ^ 6 = (v + 2)(.v + 3).
Because -2 + -3 = - x2 _ 5v ^ 6 = (.v - 2)(.v - 3).

In pans c and d, -6 can be factored as (l)(-6), (2)(-3), (3)(-2), or (6)(-l).

Because 3 + -2 = 1, -v2 + x - 6 = (.v 4- 3)(.v - 2).

Because 2 + -3 = -1, -v2 - .v - 6 = (.v + 2)(.v - 3).

Exercises

Set I 3. In the country of Grand Fenwick, 13

simoleons are currently equal in value to one
1. Find the greatest common factor for each of U.S. dollar.
the following sets of monomials. a) Write a formula for the cost, d, in dollars
a) 91 and 117
of something that costs s simoleons.
b) 42.v3 and 70.v b) Write a formula for the cost. £, in
c) .v6 and 6.v simoleons of something that costs d
2. Find each of the following quotients. dollars.
■ XX ■ 15 c) How do the costs of things in one
a- - S.v-' monetary system vary with those in the
b)x 2).v3 - I other?

Set II
4. Find each of the following products.
a) (.v- IX* +15) c) (x+ 3)(a- + 5) e) (a- - l)(.v + 15) g) (.V - 3)(.v + 5)
b) (.v - l)(.v - 15 1 d) (.V - 3)(.v - 5) f) (A" + 1)(.V - 15) h) (.v - 3)(.v - 5)

466 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 Express the area of each of the following 8. Factor each of the following polynomials as
figures both as a polynomial in simplest the product of two binomials.
form and as the product of two polynomials. a) x2 + 6x + 5
b) x2 — 6x + 5
c) x2 + \2x + 27
-9 d) x2 + \2x + 32
d) e) x2 + 9x - 22
f) A-2 _ 9x _ 22
-9x g) x2 + 14.v + 49
h) x2
i) x2 -- 49
17* + 60 -5y
) X 7 X
j) .v2 - 23x + 60
-72 k) .v2 + ll.v - 60
X 7x 1) x2 - 4x - 60 xy
X
-28 8y of the
9. Use the diagrams below to factor each
-4x -40y
4 X2 following polynomials.
8 8x -7
a) x2 + 3xy + 2y2
b) x2 + 3xj> - 40j>2 Sxy
c) xy + 4x 4- 6y + 24
6. One of the steps in factoring a second- X2 d) jc4 - 217x2
degree polynomial into a product of two
xy + 70 8xy
first-degree polynomials is to factor its X y X
constant term into the product of two xy
numbers whose sum is a given number. X X
Factor each of the following numbers into
the product of two numbers having the
indicated sum. V 6y -10
a) 10; sum, 7 f) 42; sum, 17
b) 10; sum, -7 g) -36; sum, 16
c) -33; sum, 8 h) -36; sum, 0 y
d) -33; sum, -8
e) 42; sum, 13 X 4x 70
2y2
7. Tell what polynomial should replace illllli in -7x2
6 24 X2
each of the following equations to make it
true.
a) a 2+llx+18 = (x + 2X ) -10x2
b)x 2 _ 9x + 20 = (.v - 5)( ) 10. Factor each of the following polynomials. X2
c) * 2 + 6x _ 7 = (;||||i)(x _ 1}
a) x2 + Sxy + I5v2
d).x 2 _ 5.v - 24 = ( )(.v + 3)
b) x2 + Ixy - 18j'2
e) x 2 - \8x + 72 = (.v - 6)( ) c) xy + 4x + 4v + 16
t) A 2 - 25 = (i!|li!)(jc - 5) 4-
d) x* - 9x2 - "l0 X^
Lesson 4: Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials
X2 467
X*
 Set III
1 1 . Find each of the following products. d) x2 - 5x - 14 = (Hl||)(x + 2)
-2 e) x2 - 15x + 36 = (x - 3)(|||)
a) (x + l)(x + 14) e) (x - \)(x + 14)
b) (x - l)(x - 14) f) (x + l)(x - 14) u) f) x2 - 100 = (llllllllXx - 10)
c) (x + 2){x + 7) g) {x - 2){x + 7) 15. Factor each of the following polynomials as
d) (x - 2)(x - 7) h) (x + 2)(x - 7) the product of two binomials,
a)
12. Express the area of each of the following a) x2 + 4x + 3
-2x
figures both as a polynomial in simplest b) x2 - 4x + 3
form and as the product of two polynomials. c) x2 + 16x + 55 i) x2 - 14x + 48
d) x2 + 16x + 60 j) x2 - 16x + 48
X X
d) e) x2 + 4x - 21 k) x2 + 13* - 48
X
4x
X -<Sx f) x2 - 4x - 21
g) x2 - 4x + 4 5y
1) x2 - 22x - 48
■3y
c) 12
3 8 16. h)
Usex2 the
- 4diagrams below to factor each
6y of the
3x 4- -6 16
X2
following polynomials.
a) x2 + 6xy + x5y2
y
X 9 X 5-30 b) x2 + 3xjy - 5x
18>'2
y
-6x
-7 -63 x2 c) xy + lOx + 2y + 20 -3xy
X -7x 9x -9
X 5x d) x4 - 13x2 + 36 6xy

X xy X
X2 iy
X X

1 3. One of the steps in factoring a second-

y
■18y2
degree polynomial into a product of two 2
X
first-degree polynomials is to factor its
constant term into the product of two
10
numbers whose sum is a given number.
y
Factor each of the following numbers into x2 -4
the product of two numbers having the X
indicated sum. 10x -4x2
a) 6; sum, 5 e) 44; sum, 15 20
b) 6; sum, -5 f) 44; sum, 24 2 x2
5y2
c) -35; sum, 2 g) -81; sum, 0 36
-9x2
d) -35; sum, -2 h) -81; sum, 24
14. What polynomial should replace fllllli in each 17. Factor each of the following polynomials.
of the following equations to make it true?
a) x2 + 13xy + 22y2
a) x2 + 6x + 8 = (x + 4)(||||||||||) b) x2 + 5xy - 24y2
b) x2 - 12x+ 11 =(x- l)(l!ll) c) xy + 5x + 10v + 50
c) x2 + 4x - 45 = (IIIIIXx - 5)
d) x4 - 3x2 - 28
468 Chapter 10: FACTORING
X*

X2
Set IV
Another polynomial that Euler discovered for producing prime numbers was
x2 + x + 41

1. Find the value of this polynomial for each of the integers from 1 through 10.
If you don't make any mistakes, all of the numbers that you will find are
prime.
2. Can you figure out a value of x for which the polynomial x2 + x + 41 does
not produce a prime number?

Lesson 4: Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials

 LESSON 5
Factoring the Difference
of Two Squares

The solution to the factoring problem in this cartoon is based

on a fact that we became acquainted with in learning how to
multiply polynomials.* The fact is that

(a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
This equation says that the product of the sum and difference
of two numbers is equal to the difference of the squares of the
i i i i i numbers. The diagram below shows why.
i]M a
-ab b
. \M
ab

^^i_
-b*

Turned around, the equation can be used to factor polynomi-

als that are the difference of two squares. For example, what are
the factors of x2 — 25? Because 25 = 52, this polynomial is the
a*
* See page 425.
same as x2 — 52. As we have just noted, the difference of the
squares of two numbers is equal to the product of the sum and
difference of the numbers:

: (a + b)(a - b)

So x2 - 52 = (x + 5)(x - 5).
Although the difference of two squares can always be fac-
tored in this fashion, the sum of two squares cannot. There is
no way to complete the diagram at the right without adding
another term to the polynomial

a2 + b2

This means that a polynomial such as x2 + 25 cannot be fac-

tored as the product of two first-degree polynomials.
Here are examples to show how other polynomials can be
factored.

a*
EXAMPLE 1
Factor x4 — 9y2.
SOLUTION
Because x4 = (x2)2 and 9y2 = (3y)2,
b*
x4 - 9y2 = (x2)2 - (3y)2

This is the difference of two squares and so

x4 - 9y2 = (x2 + 3y)(x2 - 3y)

EXAMPLE 2
Factor x2 + 36.
SOLUTION
This polynomial cannot be factored. Although both x2 and 36 are squares, x2 + 36
is their sum and so it cannot be factored as the product of two first-degree
polynomials.

Lesson 5: Factoring the Difference of Two Squares 471

 EXAMPLE 3
Factor 2x2 - 32.
SOLUTION
Although this polynomial is not the difference of two integer squares, it can be
factored because 2 is a factor of both terms.

2x2 - 32 = 2(.v2 - 16)

Furthermore, because x2 — 16 is the difference of two squares, we can factor it to

get (x + 4)(.r - 4). So
2x2 -32 = 2(x + 4)(x - 4)

EXAMPLE 4
Factor 3x2 + 12.
SOLUTION
Because 3 is a factor of both terms, we can write

3x2 + 12 = 3(x2 + 4)

This cannot be factored further because x2 + 4 is the sum of two squares.

Exercises

Set I
1 . Factor each of the following polynomials.
a) 40.r + 5 c) .t2 - 4x
b) 9x - 12v d) 2x3 + 3.v2

2. Find an approximation in decimal form as 3. A volcanic explosion on the island of

indicated for each of the following rational Krakatoa in 1883 produced a tremendous
numbers. tidal wave. The wave reached the shore of
to the nearest tenth. South Africa in about 12 hours. If its speed
had been 90 miles per hour faster, the wave
to the nearest thousandth. would have reached South Africa in 10
hours instead.

472 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 a) Draw a figure and write an equation to b) How many miles is the shore of South
find out the speed at which the tidal wave Africa from Krakatoa?
actually traveled in miles per hour.
(Represent it by x.)

Set II
4. Find each of the following products. 7. Find the values of the following expressions
for the values of x indicated.
a) (x + 20)(x - 20) x2 -9
b) (4x - l)(4x + 1) (x + 3)(x
c) (5x + y)(5x - y)
d) (x3 + 3)(x3 - 3) a)x = 3
e) {x-y2)(x+y2) b) x = 7 h) x = 7
f)(l +xy)(l-xy) c) x = 10 g)xx == 310
i)
d) x = 0
5. If possible, write each of the following as
e) x = -2 j) x = 0
the square of a monomial. k) x = -2
f) x = -5 1) x = -5polyi
a) 64 e) 9x4 Factor each of the following
b) x8 f) 4x9 completely as
c) 36x g) 16x2y possible.
d) x36 h)
b
100x100) a) x2 - 64
b) x2 + 25 f) 8x2 - 4
6. Express the area -3of each of the following c) 16x2 - 9y g) 5x2 + 20
figures both as a polynomial in simplest h) x4 - 49
form and as the product of two binomials. i) 36x10 - 1
-7 d) 8x2
e) 81 -x2
- 8
0 X -3x 7 . Because the expressionj) 4x2
2x6 —- (x
32 + l)2 can
-9 be written as the difference of two squares,
5x -49
< d)
35x
(2x)2 — (x + l)2, it can be factored as the
product of a sum and difference:
5x -35 x
[2x + (x + l)][2x - (x + 1)]. This result
3 2
3x X can be simplified as shown here:
c) -4y 25x2
(2x + x + l)(2x - x - 1) =
(3x + l)(x - 1)
X -4xy Use the same method to factor each of the
X following expressions.
ty
4xy 2 x3y2 a) (x+^)2-9
X 2 -y b) (4x + 7)2 - 36
-16y2 -x3y2 c) 25 -(1 -x)2
-v4 X3 d) 64 - (x - 8)2
X3
X*
Yz 5: Factoring the Difference
Lesson of Two Squares 473
 Set III
10. Find each of the following products.
a) (x + 12)(x - 12)
b) (5.v - 1X5* + 1)
c) (x + 3y)(x - 3y)
d) (x4 + 6)(.x-> - 6)
e) (x>-y)(Xi+y)
f ) (xy + 2)(xy - 2)
11. If possible, write each of the following as
the square of a monomial.
a) 81 e) 25x4
b) x10 f) 4x25
c) 16.r g) a:6}-6
d) x16 h) 64x64
12. Express the area of each of the following figures both as a polynomial in
simplest form and as the product of two binomials.
b) c) d)
-10 4x i -3 x i 6y «2

13. The first two diagrams below illustrate subtracting 32 from 52. The other two
show how the circles that remain can be arranged in a rectangle. The rectangle
contains (5 — 3) rows of circles with (5 + 3) circles in each row, or
(5 - 3)(5 + 3) circles in all. So

52 - V- = (5 - 3)(5 + 3)

0 o o o o 0 52-
o o o 32
o o o 0 o o oooooooo
O 0 o o o O 0 O 0 o
OO O0 0 o o oooooooo 5-3
o o o o o 0 o
0 0
o o o o o
o o o o o o0 o

o o
Draw circles to make figures that illustrate each of the following.
a) 62 - 22 = (6 - 2)(6 + 2)
b) 42 - l2 = (4 - 1)(4 + 1)

474 Chapter 10: FACTORING

14. Factor each of the following polynomials as 15. Because the expression 9x2 - (x — 5)2 can
completely as possible. be written as the difference of two squares,
a) a-2 - 49 (3x)2 - (x - 5)2, it can be factored as the
b) .v2 + 16 product of a sum and difference:
C) 9.v2 - 4.y2 [3x + (x - 5)][3x - (x - 5)]. This result
d) 100 — x2 can be simplified as shown+ 5)
here:
e) 6x2 - 6 - x + 5) =
f) 6.x-2 - 12 (3x + x - 5)(3x -
(4x - 5)(2x
g) 4x2 + 36v2
h) x4 - 25 Use the same method to factor each of the
i) 64x12 - 1 following expressions.
j) 3x6 - 12
a) (x-y)2- 16
b) (2x + 8)2 - 49
c) 9 - (3 - x)2
d) 25 - (x - 4)2

Set IV
After trying out several examples, Obtuse Ollie has decided that the difference of
the squares of two integers is always a composite number. For example,

52 - 22 = 25 - 4 = 21 = 3-7,
102 - 62 = 100 - 36 = 64 = 4 • 16, and
122 - 72 = 144 - 49 = 95 = 5 • 19.
1. Why does his conclusion seem like a reasonable one?
2. After thinking about it for awhile, Acute Alice came up with some exceptions
to Ollie's rule. Can you?

Lesson 5: Factoring the Difference of Two Squares 475

 §3. s^s-m
4*J-43 *-*-& *>^r al, tf =£3 *-*M 7ii7> 514. :
*■« 4-r4 i43 ^-fe 4^ *4* °Jrlr<H^, ^3-§r a
-§-44 44*1 444. ^M »lel*t*-<fl-3~£|*%*4*<
^44.
"las^ i
(a-6)2 = o2-2a6 + b2
(a + b)z = a? + 2ab + bi ias4j 2 —
CD (43 «1-S-)
SI | (43 *m
= (o+6) (a + 6) = (o-6)(a-b)
S3 [1] (a-b)2
=(a a2+ b)2
+ a6 + a6 + 62
; [2] ab-ab + 62
= a2-2aft + 62
= a2 + 2ab + 62

[2]
a - 6 a - 6
x a2 + ab a2-ab |
) a + b
x)a - 6
a2-2ab + b2
a2 + 2ab + b2
ab + b2

LESSON 6 [^°|] (a + 6)2-!- a2 + 62, (a-b)2-§r

Factoring
Trinomial ^ 1. ^.-1-^ ^-^-i: ijL "?M
4*]* °1444 43 *H^*<s]
«1 <8«fl** f^4«!4.
Squares
This illustration is a page from a Korean algebra book showing how to square
a binomial. The column on the left illustrates the result of squaring a bino-
mial sum:

(a + b)2 = a2 + lab + b2
The column on the right illustrates the result of squaring a binomial difference:

(a - bf = a2 - lab + b2
In both cases, the result is a trinomial whose first and last terms are the squares
of the terms of the binomial. The middle term is twice the product of the terms
of me binomial. Because of this, it is added if the binomial is a sum and
subtracted if the binomial is a difference.
 If these equations are turned around, they can be used to factor polynomials
that are trinomial squares.

» A trinomial of the form a2 + lab + b2 is the square of the binomial a + b:

a2 + lab + b2 = (a + b)2

* A trinomial of the form a2 — lab + b2 is the square of the binomial a — b:

a2 - lab + b2 = (a - b)2

It is not always easy to see whether or not a trinomial has one of these forms.
The following examples show how to find out whether a trinomial is the square
of a binomial.

EXAMPLE 1
If possible, write 4x2 + 12.y + 9 as the square of a binomial.
SOLUTION
The first term is the square of 2x and the last term is the square of 3. The middle
term is twice the product of 2x and 3.

4.x-2 + 12x + 9 = (2x)2 + 2(2x • 3) + (3)2 = (2x + 3)2

EXAMPLE 2
If possible, write x2 + 4.v + 16 as the square of a binomial.
SOLUTION
The first and last terms are the squares of .v and 4 respectively. However, the
middle term is not twice their product. So x2 + 4x + 16 cannot be written as the
square of a binomial.

EXAMPLE 3
If possible, write 25x4 - 10x2 + 1 as the square of a binomial.
SOLUTION
The first term is the square of 5x2 and the last term is the square of 1. The middle
term is twice the product of 5x2 and 1.
25.v4 - 10x2 + 1 = (5x2)2 - 2(5x2 • 1) + (l)2 = (5x2 - l)2

Lesson 6: Factoring Trinomial Squares 477

 Exercises

Set I
1. Multiply as indicated. 3. The most expensive metal in the world is
californium, which has been sold for $100
a) 4x(2 - x3) c) 4x(-2x3)
b) x4(2 - a:3) d) x4(-2x3)
perAt10""
a) thisgram.
rate, how much would 1 gram of
2. Find the value of each of the following this metal cost?
expressions by first factoring it. b) One pound is equivalent to about 454
a) 87 • 46 + 87 • 54 grams. How much money would one
b) 92 • 29 - 82 • 29 pound of californium cost? Write your
answer in both scientific notation and in
c) 123-21 - 123 words.
d) 2352 - 352
-10
-x y
Set II
4. Express the area of each of the following figures both as a polynomial in simple;
form and as the square of a binomial. -1 4xy
0 x
a) b) -10 c) d)
X 3 X y
4x
3x 4xy 4
X X -10x
4x 4
3 9 100 y
3x
*2
5. Find the following squares.
16x2 write each of the following
8. If possible,
a) {x + 7)2 d) (5* + 2yf polynomials as the square of a binomial.
b) (x - If e) (2x + 5yf x2 a) x2 4- 12x + 36
x4 e) 9x2 - 60x + 100
c) (4x - l)2 f) (x2 + y>f b) x2 - 2xy + y2 f) 16x2 + 40x - 25
6. If possible, write each of the following as c) 4x2 + 4x + 1 g) 49x2 + 14xj- + y2
the square of a monomial. d) x2 - 9x + 81 h) 25x2 - 80xy + 64j>2
X*
a) 9x2 e) 25x36 X*
9. Find the values of the following expressions
b) jc16 f) 36* 25 for the values of x indicated.
c) 400 g) 64* V x2 + lOx
+ 25 (* + 5)
d) 121x h) 49.v4>'9
7. Find the missing term in each of the a) x = 1
f) x = 1 Y2
following trinomial squares. b) x = 3
c) x = 10 h) x = 10
a) x2 + 1111 + 64 c) 9*2 - II + 16 g)* = 3
b) x2 - 22x + II d) 36* 2 + \2x + III d) x = -5
i) x = -5
e) x = -9
478 Chapter 10: FACTORING )) x = -9
 -y
d)
c)
10. Factor each of the following polynomials.
a) x4 + 22x2 + 121 d) 2x2 - 12.v + 18
b) x< - 8x3 + 16 e) 5x4 - 50x2 + 125
c) x10 + 2x5>>5 +y° f) 16x2 - 8xv8 +y6 -7
b)

-y
Set III -X -5xy
a)
1 1 . Express the area of each of the following figures both as a polynomial in simplest
form and as the square of a binomial. -/ x5y
-x *5K
-5xy
X 8 X y
5x
X 8x X
5x
8 8x /
X * 25x2
64 -4
-1

12. Find the following squares. 16. Find the values of the following expressions
*2 for the values of x indicated.
a) (x + 5)2 d) (4.v + 3y)2
b) (x - 5)2 e) (3x + 4y)2 \2x + 36 5 *
c) (8x + l)2 f) (x3 + >-4)2 6
-1
13. If possible, write each of the following as a) x =
7 x»
-4
10
the square of a monomial.
b) x =
a) 16.v2 e) 9.r64 c) x =
b) .v100 f) 64x9 d) X =
x5
c) 900 g) 25x2y5 e) x =
d) 81x h) 36x6>'6 6 Y 2
7
14. Find the missing term in each of the f) x =
10
following trinomial squares.
a) x2 + + 100 c) Ax2 - ,+ 1 %)* =
h).v
1) x ==
b) x2 - 18* + liili'i d) 25x2 + 20* + :■;:

15. If possible, write each of the following

(*-
Factor each of the following
polvnomials
0 x = -- 4x4 + 4
polynomials as the square of a binomial. - 2x>y
30x + 49
a) x* + 14.x-7 6)2
a) x2 - 8x + 16 e) 4x2 + 28x + 49
b) x2 + 2xy + y2 f) 25x2 - 20a: + 16 - lO.v
b) x8 - c + 2
c) x2 - 4x - 4 g) 36x2 + \2xy + y2 C) X6 - + 75
e) 72x
d) 9x2 + 6x + 1 h) 16x2 - 12xy + 8ly2 + 24
d) 3x2 v + 25y2
Lesson b: Factoring Trinomial Squares 479

f) X10 + y<
 Set IV

/"V /
Now that you know how to factor a trinomial
square, see if you can figure out this problem.
The expression y
75X +
125
1 + 15x2

might be called a "polynomial cube" because it

&
is the cube of a binomial.
1. Can you figure out what the binomial is?
2. Show that your answer is correct.

X*

Chapter 10: FACTORING

 LESSON 7
More on Factoring
Second-Degree Polynomials

Leonhard Euler, the man who discovered several polynomials that produce
primes up to a certain point, once announced that the number 1,000,009 was
prime. Later he discovered that he was wrong and that 1,000,009 can be factored
into the product 293 • 3,413. Euler, who was a great mathematician, would never
have made this mistake if it were as easy to factor numbers as it is to multiply
them.
The same is true of polynomials. Multiplying the two binomials 2x + 3 and
Ix + 10, for example, is easy:

30
(2x + 3)(7x + 10) = \4x2 + 20x + 2\x +
= I4x2 + 41* + 30

Factoring the polynomial 14x2 + 41x + 30 back into the product

(2x + 3)(7x + 10), on the other hand, is much more difficult if you don't
already know the answer.
In Lesson 4 of this chapter, we learned how to factor polynomials of the form
x2 + bx + c. In this lesson, we will apply this method to factoring polynomials
of the form ax2 + bx + c, in which a is not 1.
 To illustrate the steps to be taken, we will factor the polynomial
6x2 + llx 4- 5. Putting the first and last terms into the appropriate corners of a
diagram, we get the figure at the left. Because 6x2 can be factored in several
6x2 ways, we have more possibilities to consider. We begin by factoring 6x2 as
5
6x • x. Later we may have to try factoring 6x2 as 2x • 3x.
Writing 6x2 as 6x • x is illustrated by the figure at the left below. There are

X X 1

6x 6x
30x 6x
5 * 5 5 5

6x2 5x
now two ways to put the factors of 5 into the picture. The second and third
6x2in the areas of the remaining boxes
diagrams illustrate these ways. When we fill
and add them, we get 31x and llx respectively. But the middle term of the
polynomial that we are trying to factor is llx. So neither of these6x2is what we
want.
Factoring 6x2 as 2x • 3x instead, and filling in the factors of 5 in both ways as
before, is illustrated by the next set of figures. This time when we add the areas

3x 5 3x 1
3x
2x 2x
10x 2x
5 1 5 5 5
3x 15x
6x2
of the remaining boxes, we get 13x and 17x. We have found what we were
looking for. The last figure shows that 6x2

6x2 + llx + 5 = (2x + 5)(3x + 1) 6x2

To arrive at this result without drawing any diagrams, we could reason as

follows.*

Factor the x2 term: 6x2 + 17x + 5 = (6x + )(x + )

* Most of the work written out in this solution is ordinarily done mentally.

482 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 Factor the constant term: 6.x2 + 17.\ : + 5 = (6.x +, ~')(x + ?)
Try combinations of factors:

(6.y + l)(.v + 5) = 6.x2 + 31* + 5 No.

(6.v + 5)(.v + 1) = 6x2 + 11* + 5 No.

Factor the x2 term a 6x2 + 17* + 5 = (2* + )(3* + )

different way:

Factor the constant term: 6x2 + 17.v + 5 = (2* + ?X3* + ?)

Try combinations of factors:

(2* + 1)(3* + 5) = 6x2 + 13* + 5 No.

(2* + 5X3* + 1) = 6x2 + 17* + 5 Yes.

So 6x2 + 17* + 5 = (2* + 5X3* + 1).

Here is another example.

EXAMPLE
Factor 7x2 + 12* — 4 as the product of two binomials.
SOLUTION
Think of 7.x2 + 12x — 4 as 7x2 + 12x + -4. Factoring 7x2 into 7x • x, we write

7x2 + 12x + -4 = (7x + )(x + )

7x2 + 12x + -4 = (7x + ?X* + )

The number -4 can be factored as (l)(-4), (-1)(4), or (2)(-2). In each case, either
factor can be filled in first. For example, if we try 1 and -4, we can write either

7x2 + 12x + -4 = (7x + l)(x + -4)

or
7x2 + 12x + -4 = (7x + -4)(x + 1)

Lesson 7: More on Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials 483

 All six possibilities are shown below.
-4 = (-1)(4)
-4 = (l)(-4) = (2)(-2)

(7x + l)(x - 4)? (7x - l)(x + 4)? 7^2(7x_ +12x

2)(x_ -4 2)?
No.
7x2 - 21 x - 4 No. lx2 + 21x — 4 No.

(7x - 4)(x + 1)? (7x - 2)(x + 2)?

(7*- + 3x4)(.v
7x2 - 4- 1)?
No.
7x2 + 3x - 4 No. 7x2 + 12x - 4 Yes.

So 7x2 + 12x - 4 = (7x - 2)(x + 2).

Exercises

Set I
Costs Sells for
1. If possible, factor each of the following
polynomials. Small bottle 10c SI
a) 2x - 64 c) x2 + 36 Large bottle 25c $3
b) x2 - 64 d) x2 + 6x
One week he sold x small bottles and y
2. Find x in each of the following equations.
large bottles.
a) 23 • 24 = 2* c) V- + 42 = x2 a) How much money did he pay for them
b) 32-42 = x2 d) (3 + 4)2 = x2
altogether?
3. Cuthbert J. Twillie makes a lot of money b) How much money did he sell them for
selling snake oil. This table shows how he altogether?
operates. c) How much money did he make?

-9x
Set II
- -12 in
4. Express the area of each of the following 3-figures both as a polynomial -25
5x
simplest form and as the product of two binomials.
a) b) c) d)
2x 9 -x -/ 4x -3 6x 5
3x
9x 5x -30x

2x2 36 3 30x
8x 16x
5x2 12x2
484 Chapter 10: FACTORING
36x2
 -y
-3y
-y -3xy
5. Find each of the following products. 7. Use the diagrams below to factor each of the
a) (3.v + l)(.v + 12) following polynomials.
2xy
-5
b) (3.v - l)(.v + 12) a) 6a-2 — xy — y2
c) (3.v + 2)(x + 6) b) 8a2 - llxy + 3jy2
-8xy
d) (3.v - 2)(.v + 6) c) Axy --320x + ;y - 5 8x -
e) (3x + 3)(.v + 4)
xy 5
d) 5x4 + 16a2 + 12
f) (3.v - 3)(.v + 4) y
g) (3.v + 6)(.v + 2) 3x
h) (3.v - 6)(.v + 2) X
2x
6. Factor each of the following polynomials as -Y2
the product of two binomials.
a) 2.v2 + 15.v + 7 4xy
V
b) 2.v2 + 13.v - 7
-20X
c) 25.v2 - 10a- + 1 y 2
d) 25.v2 - 1
e) 3x2 + 7x - 6 6x2 8x2
f) 3x2 - 9x + 6 4x
g) 8.v2 + 22x + 15 1 y 6
h) 8x2 - 22* + 15
i) 6x2 + 19x - 11 12
j) 6.v2 — 19a: - 11
8. Factor each of the following polynomials.
a) 5a2 + \6xy + 3y2
0x-24
c) 2xy - x1 + lOy - !
b) 8a2 - 30x>' + 7j>2 d) 3a4 + 32x2 + 20
5x2
-2
5x4 x^
-2 -166x2
Set III
-figures
2x -12x
9. Express the area of each of the following both as a polynomial in
simplest form and as the product of two polynomials. -1
-1 0
a) b) ^
4x _ c) -4x
_ 5_ d)
2x 3x
3x 21 x X -4x 5x 25x

5 5x 3x2 35 2 12 x
4x2
10x2
10. Find each of the following products.
a) (2a + l)(x + 18) e) (2x + 3)(x + 6)
b) (2x - l)(x + 18) f ) (2x - 3)(x + 6)
c) (2x + 2){x + 9) g) (2x + 6)(x + 3)
d) (2x - 2)(x + 9) h) (2x - 6)(x + 3) 9x2

Lesson 7: More on Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials 485

 11. Factor each of the following polynomials as the product of two binomials.
a) 3x2 + 16* + 5 e) 2.x2 + 3.x - 14 i) -8.x2 + 26* - 7
y 2y - 7
b) 3x2 + 14x - 5 f) 2.x2 + 27.x - 14 j) 8.x2 - 26.x -3
c) 16.x2 + 8.x + 1 g) 15.v2 + 19.v + 6
d) 16.t2 - 1 h) 15.x-2 - 19.v + 6
12. Use the diagrams below
- to factor each of the following polynomials.
y
a) 8.v2 - 2xy -y2 -xy -2y
-1
b) 5.x-2 - 11.YV + 2y2
c) 4.vv + 6.x- - 2y - 3 4xy
d) ix +
3.x-4 10.r2 + 8 -2y
2x -4xy 5x 3 4
X -10 xy 2x
2xy
6x
y 8x2 2 8
-v2
x2
52y2
13. Factor each of the following polynomials.
3x2
a) 3a:2 + 22xy + ly2 3x4
b) 10.x-2 - 17.YV + 3y2
c) 6.xy + 6.x - 5y - 5 4x2
d) 2.x4 + 17.x2 + 21
6x2
Set IV
X2
The following problem appeared in First Lessons
in Algebra by Ebenezer Bailey, published in
1842. According to the title page of the book,
the author was principal of the Young Ladies'
High School in Boston.

Express the polynomial

1
1 _ 4.v + 4x2 + 2V _ 4.vy + y2

as the square of a trinomial.

Can you solve it? If so, show vour method.

486 Chapter 10: FACTORING

 ev&f?y reA/? r take
23 CtfLUVR^CVTCFTHE
BANK, THEN IT SPEND THE
SAME AMtft>Nr<3N EACH
KID.
H0vV THE HECK DC>

^""7^~
^.. . You split AND
RX.LARS UP 23
MAK&
It COME CUT EVEN ?

LESSO N 8
Factoring Higher-Degree
Polynomials

Because 23 is a prime number, we think of its factors as being limited to 23 and

1. The ant could have had 23 children, on each of whom it spent one dollar. If
we do not limit the factors to positive integers, however, then 23 can be factored
into the product (46)(0.5). This corresponds to the ant's 46 children, on each of
whom it spends half a dollar. In fact, by allowing fractions as factors, every
number can be factored in an unlimited number of different ways. For example,
it is also true that 23 = (92)(0.25); it is possible that the ant could have had 92
children, on each of whom a quarter is spent, and so on.
By the same line of reasoning, every polynomial can be factored in infinitely
many ways. For example, 2x + 8 might be factored into expressions such as
0.5(4x + 16) or 8(0.25* + 1) as well as 2{x + 4). Although this sort of factoring
is sometimes useful, we will assume that, when we speak of factoring a polyno-
mial, we are referring to finding factors that are either integers greater than 1 or
polynomials having coefficients and constant terms that are integers. This will
permit us to continue to say that a polynomial such as x2 + 4 cannot be factored
because we are not considering factorizations such as l(x2 + 4)or2(0.5x2 + 2).
 So far in this chapter, we have learned the following ways to factor polyno-
mials.

1. Factor out the greatest factor common to every term of the polynomial.
Example: 5x3 + lOx = 5x(x2 + 2).
2. Factor a polynomial of the form x2 + bx + c by factoring c into two
numbers whose sum is b.
Example: x2 + Sx + 15 = (x + 3)(x + 5).
3. Factor the difference of two squares of two numbers as the product of the
sum and difference of the numbers.
Example: 4x2 - 9 = (2x + 3)(2x - 3).
4. Factor a trinomial square as the square of a binomial.
Example: Ax2 - \2x + 9 = (2x - 3)2.
5. Factor a polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c by factoring a and c into
factors that will produce two products whose sum is b.
Example: 6x2 + 13x + 5 = (2x + l)(3x + 5).

We have applied these methods primarily to factoring second-degree poly-

nomials. There are other methods, studied in advanced algebra, for discovering
factors of polynomials having higher degree. In this lesson, we will factor some
higher-degree polynomials by the methods we already know.
The basic procedure is to begin by factoring out the greatest common factor
of the terms of the polynomial.* Then look at the remaining factor to see if it
is either a trinomial square or the difference of two squares. If it is, factor it
accordingly. If not, look for other combinations of factors that it might have.
The following examples illustrate how this procedure is carried out.

EXAMPLE 1
Factor x3 -f \x2 + Ax.
SOLUTION
First, the greatest common factor of each term is x, and so we factor it out to get
x(x2 + Ax + A). The other factor is a trinomial square, and so we can factor it
further to get x(x + 2)2 or x(x + 2)(x + 2). Because all three factors, x, x + 2, and
x + 2, are prime, we are finished.

* This makes sure that any first-degree factors resulting from further factoring will be prime.

Chapter 10: FACTORING

EXAMPLE 2
Factor 3x3 - 21x.
SOLUTION
- 9). The
Factoring out the greatest common factor of each term, 3x, we get 3x(x2
factor x2 — 9 is the difference of two squares. Factoring it, we get
3x(x + 3)(x - 3).

EXAMPLE 3
Factor x4 + 2x3
SOLUTION
15x2.
The greatest common factor of each term here is x2. Factoring it out, we get
x2(x2 + 2x — 15). The factor x2 + 2x — 15 can be factored into (x - 3)(x + 5),
and so
x* + 2x3 - 15x2 = x2(x - 3)(x + 5)

EXAMPLE 4
Factor 2x5 + 2x3.
SOLUTION
The greatest common factor of each term is 2x3. Factoring it out gives
2x3(x2 + 1). Because x2 + 1 cannot be factored further,
2x5 + 2x3 = 2x\x2 + 1)

Exercises

Set I
1. Which symbol, >, =, or <, should replace our solar system about 2.25 x 108 times as
111 in each of the following? long to complete one orbit around the center
of our galaxy.
a) l100 II 100 d) lOO-'lllll-l Find the approximate number of seconds
b) 100° III 0 e) l-100 ill 1 that it takes our solar system to travel once
c) 0100 IIIIIIIIH0 f) (-l)100lllli-l around the center of our galaxy. Express your
2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous answer in
equations. a) scientific notation.
a) x - 9 + 5y b) 3x + 4y = 41 b) decimal form.
y = x — 1 Ix — 2y = 5
3. It takes the earth about 31,500,000 seconds
to complete one orbit around the sun and

Lesson 8: Factoring Higher-Degree Polynomials 489

 Set II
4. Find each of the following products. 7. Find the missing factor in each of the
following equations.
a) (5x - 5)(2x + 1) c) 5(2x + l)(x - 1) a) 165 = (3)(5)(||||||||!l)
b) 5(x - l)(2x + 1) d) (lOx + 5)(x - 1)
b) 3,337 = (111X71)
5. Find each of the following products.
c) 4x3 + x2 = x2(|«||||)
a) (x)(2x)(3x) d) X2 _ Bx + 36 = (x - 4)(||||||||||)
b) (x)(2x)(x + 3) e) 15x2 - x - 2 = (,:;)(5x - 2)
c) (x)(x + 2)(x + 3) f) x3 - 1 = (x - 1)(||||||||||)
d) What property do all three polynomials
have in common? 8. Factor each of the following polynomials as
completely as possible.
6. Factor each of the following polynomials as a) x3 + 2xjy
completely as possible.
a) x3 + lOx f) 2x5 + 4x4 - 70x3 b)
c) x*y
2x2 -- xy3
4xy + 2y2
b) 4x3 - 16x d) x3 + 4x2y + 3xy2
c) x4 + 10x3 + 24x2 g) 20x4
h) 5x3 +- 10x2
45x2 + x
e) 3xy - 6x + 15y - 30
d) 3x3 - 18x2 + 15*
i) x4 - 1 f) x4 - 8x2y - 9y4
e) 6x4 + 6x3 + 18x2 j) 3x5 + 10x4 + 3x3

Set III
9. Find each of the following products.
a) (3x - 3)(4x + 1) c) 3(4x + l)(x - 1)
b) 3(x - l)(4x + 1) d) (12x + 3)(x - 1) i) x4 - 16
j) 7x5 + 50x4 + 7x3
10. Find each of the following products. 12. Find the missing factor in each of the
a) (x + l)(x - l)(x2 + 1) following equations.
a) 455 = (5)(7)(l|||||||||)
b) (x + 2)(x - 2)(x2 + 4)
b) 1,411 =(|||||||)(17)
c) (x + 3)(x - 3)(x2 + 9)
d) What property do all three polynomials c) 2x4 + x3 = x3(|||||||)
have in common? d) x2 -llx + 24 = (x- 3)(|||||||«)
e) 6x2 + 5x - 4 = (,,;iii)(3x + 4)
1 1 . Factor each of the following polynomials as
f) x3 + 8 = (x + 2)(illl)
completely as possible.
a) x3 - \2x 13. Factor each of the following polynomials as
b) 5x3 + 10x2 + 5x completely as possible.
c) x4 + 13x3 + 40x2
d) 2x3 - 98x a) J'3 - 3x>>
e) 4x3 - 16x2 + 12x b) 5x2 - 5j>2
c) x3jy + 2x2jy2 + xy3
f) 7x4 + 21x3 - 35x2 d) x3 - 3x2y + 2x^2
g) 3x5 + 3x4 - 18x3 e) 2xy + 6x - 14y - 42
h) 12x4 - 75x2 f) x4 — 3x2j>2 — 4y4

490 Chapter 10: FACTORING

Set IV
Because it is impossible to factor the sum of two
squares according to the rules we have
established, it might seem as if it would also be
impossible to factor the sum of two cubes. Yet
such is not the case.
Given the clue that x3 + jy3 can be factored as
the product of a binomial and a trinomial, can
you figure out what the factors are? If you can,

"7
show your method.
Hint:

Lesson 8: Factoring Higher-Degree Polyn

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have studied the properties of prime and composite numbers
and have learned how to factor integers, monomials, and polynomials.

Prime and Composite Numbers (Lesson 1) Every integer larger than 1 is

either composite or prime. Integers that can be written as the product of smaller
positive integers are composite; those that cannot are prime.
A number is factored when it is written as a product of two or more numbers.
The numbers in the product are called factors of the number. Every positive
composite number can be written (except for order) as the product of primes in
only one way.
The greatest common factor of a set of numbers is the largest integer that is
a factor of all of the numbers. The greatest common factor can be found using
the prime factors of the numbers. Two numbers whose greatest common factor
is 1 are said to be relatively prime.

Monomials and Their Factors (Lesson 2) The factors of the monomial ax"
include the factors of the coefficient a, the factors of x" (x, x2, . . . , x"), and
products of various combinations of these factors.
The greatest common factor of a set of monomials is the product of the
greatest common factor of their coefficients and the highest power of each
variable that is a factor of all of the monomials. Two monomials whose greatest
common factor is 1 are called relatively prime.
Polynomials and Their Factors (Lesson 3) When we factor a polynomial, we
restrict the factors to integers and polynomials having coefficients and constant
terms that are integers. The first step in factoring a polynomial is to look for the
greatest common factor of its terms and apply the distributive rule in reverse:

ab + ac = a(b + c)

A prime polynomial is a polynomial that cannot be written as a product of

polynomials of lower degree.

Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials (Lessons 4 and 7) When two first-

degree binomials are multiplied, their product is usually a second-degree
trinomial. For example, (x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab. To factor a
second-degree polynomial, we figure out the factors of its first and last terms and
try different combinations of them until we find a combination that will give the
middle term of the polynomial.

Factoring the Difference of Two Squares (Lesson 5) The difference of the

squares of two numbers is equal to the product of the sum and difference of the
numbers:

a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a - b)

The sum of two squares cannot be factored algebraically.

Factoring Trinomial Squares (Lesson 6) A trinomial of the form

a2 + lab + b2 is the square of the binomial a + b:

a2 + lab + b2 = (a + b)2

A trinomial of the form a2 — lab + b 2 is the square of the binomial a — b:

a2 - lab + b2 = (a - bf

Factoring Higher-Degree Polynomials (Lesson 8) Some higher-degree

polynomials can be factored by first factoring out the greatest factor common to
every term of the polynomial. It may then be possible to factor the remaining
factor by the methods we have learned for factoring first- and second-degree
polynomials.

Summary and Review 493

 Exercises

Set I
1 . Can you easily tell whether any of the three numbers in this cartoon
are composite? If so, explain how.

2. Factor each of the following numbers into . Find the greatest common factor for each of
primes. List the prime factors in order from the following sets of monomials.
smallest to largest, using exponents where a) 4x and 6x d) 16.v2 and 100j'2
possible. b) 4x and x6 e) 7xjy2 and 7x2y
a) 112 c) 1,683 e) 34 • 64 c) x4 and x6 f) 6x3, 15x2, and 12x
b) 185 d) 143 f) 43 ■ 46
. Find the value of each of the following
3. Find the greatest common factor of each of
the following sets of numbers. expressions.
a) 45 and 54 d) 30, 45, and 60 a) 46 • 83 + 54 • 83
b) 27 and 127 e) 83 and 84
b) 1452 - 452
c) 501 and 5,001 f) 38 and 48 c) 1 1 + 79 • 1 1
d) (120 + 1)(120 - 1)
4. List the factors that are positive integers or
have positive integral coefficients for each of . Find the missing term in each of these
the following. trinomial squares.
a) 60 c) x4 a) 16x2 + 8x +
b) 14.v d) 5x3 b) 9x2 - +49

494 Chapter 10: FACTORING

8. What should replace 1111 in each of the f) x2 + 16x + 39
following equations?
g) x2 + x - 42
a) (4x2)(|||||||) = 8x8 h) x2 + 25
b) (|||||||)(-5x3) = 20x*
i) x3 - 4x
c) 14x2 - 21 = (lll!lll!)(2x2 - 3) j) 16x2 - 40x + 25
d) 12x + 6x4 = (6x)(||||||||||) k) 2x2 + 15x + 7
e) x2 + 2x - 35 = (IlilXx + 7)
1) 3*2 + x _ 10
f) X2 _ 9 = (x - 3)(|||||||) m)2x2 + 24x + 72
g) 5x2 + 23x - 10 = (UX* + 5) n) x3 + x2 - 90x
h) 16x2 + 8* + 1 = (4x + lXllllll) o) 5x3 + 5x
9. Factor each of the following polynomials as p) 3x4 + 9x3 + 6x2
completely as possible. 10. Factor each of the following polynomials as
a) 6x - 21 completely as possible.
b) x2 + lOx a) x2 + 2x.y e) 4x2 - 9^2
c) x2 - 49 b) 15x- 5.y3 f) x2 -2x.y2 +y*
d) 3x3 - 2x2 c) x2 + Sxy + ly2
e) x2 + 2x + 1 d) xy - x + 8j> - 8

Set II
1. Factor each of the following numbers into 4. If a four-digit number is written down twice
primes. List the prime factors in order from to form an eight-digit number, the resulting
smallest to largest, using exponents where number can be divided evenly by 73 and
137.
possible.
a) 143 d) 152 a) Try this with an example.
b) 675 e) 26 • 106 b) Explain why it works.
c) 1,862 f) 62 • 610
5. Find the greatest common factor for each of
2. Find the greatest common factor of each of the following sets of monomials.
the following sets of numbers.
a) 6x and 8 d) 4xj> and 2x2jy2
a) 14 and 91 e) 72 and 73 b) x6 and 8x e) 5x3 and 9^3
b) 35 and 135 f) 45 and 55 c) x6 and x8 f) 12x3, 18x2, and 30x
c) 400 and 401
d) 24, 60, and 84 6. Find the value of each of the following
3. List the factors that are positive integers or expressions.
have positive integral coefficients for each of
a) 39-56 + 56-61
the following.
b) (90 + 2X90 - 2)
a) 48 c) x5 c) 25-81 - 25
b) 33x d) 9x2
d) 1272 - 272
Summary and Review 495
 7. Find the missing term in each of these e) x2 - 20x + 100
trinomial squares. f) x2 + 13x + 22
a) 4x2 - 36x + ill!! g) x2 + x - 30
b) 25x2 + ill + 36 h) x5 - 2x2 + x
8. What should replace 111 in each of the i) x2 + 9
-^ 49x2 + 28* + 4
following equations? k) 32, ]e.x , e
a) (2x4)(||!lll) = ^ 1) 2x2 + x-t8
*»<■ K-9-5) = 18;10 2 m)3x2!l8x + 27
c) 24^- + 16 = (II! )(3x2 + 2) n)x3 + 3x2-40x
d) 40x - 4x3 = (4^11111) +
e) x2 + 5x - 14 = (IIIIIXx + 7)
f) x2 + 12x + 36 = (x + 6)(||||||||||) p) 2x4 - 6x3 + 4x2
g) 3x2 + 5x - 28 _ (IIIIIXx + 4) 1Q Factor £ach of ±e flowing polynomials as
h) 25x2 - 4 = (5x - 2)( I) completdy as possiWe
, Factor each of the following polynomials as a) Ixy + yl
completely as possible. b) 8x — 4jy2
a) 14x + 35 c) x2 - lOxy + 9y2
b) x2 - 8x d) xy + 6x - y - 6
c) x2 - 16 e) 25x2 - 4^2
d) 4x4 + 3x3 f) x4 + 2x2y + y2

496 Chapter 10: FACTORING

Chapter 11
FRACTIONS
LESSON 1
Fractions
One-half is the simplest example of a fraction. One way to picture — is shown in
this diagram: if something is divided into two equal parts, each part is called
one-half of it.
*/2
1/2
J A whole bar
J1 Ain bar
half divided

All of the fractions that we first learn about in school can be pictured in the
2
same way. The fraction — for example, can be pictured by dividing something
into five equal parts and then taking two of them.

7
~~] The whole

i r J] The
into whole
fifths divided

It is for this reason that the top number in a fraction is called its numerator and
the bottom number is called its denominator. The denominator tells what kind
of part we are taking (fifths in this example) and the numerator tells how many of
them we are taking (two in the example).
To explain what —b means, in which a and b are positive integers, we simply

thing) and then taking a of the parts. According to this interpretation, —b means

■ffl-
A more general interpretation of the fraction —b is that it is the indicated
quotient of the numbers a and b. By using this interpretation, we can represent
1 2
~- - in decimal form by carrying out the indicated division:

0.5 0.4

2jl0 so |= 0.5 5)10 so -|

1_0 _20
0 0

As we have learned from our study of rational numbers, not every fraction has a
decimal form as simple as these. The decimal forms of— and — , for example,
never come to an end; so we round them according to the accuracy tnat we want.

0.3333 . . . 0.5714...

3)1.0000... 7)4.0000 .. .
9 35
10 50
9 49
10 10
9 7
30
10
9 28
1... 2...

Lesson 1: Fractions 499

 -2

7
hundredth, 0.57; to the nearest thousandth, 0.571, and so on.
Because it does not make any sense to divide by 0, it is obvious from looking
at a fraction as a quotient that the denominator of a fraction can never be
allowed to be 0. This means that, when we write —b , it is understood that b ^ 0.
The idea of a fraction as an indicated quotient gives meaning to all fractions,
not just those consisting of positive integers. A fraction such as — — , for example,
has meaning even though we cannot divide something into -5 parts and take -2
of them: it means "the number -2 divided by-2 the 2number -5." Because the
quotient of two negative numbers is positive, —^ — — — 0.4. Reasoning in the
same way, we can show that, regardless of whether a and b represent positive or
negative numbers,

and

4
'- and — represent the same number.

t
10
4

Fractions that represent the same number are called equivalent. What fractions
other than — are equivalent to — ? Some of them are — , — , — , and — .

Also, —-5 3 —-10— , —-15— , and so on. In fact, any fraction formed bv multiplving the
numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number (other than zero)
is equivalent to it.

500 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

► In general, if n is not equal to zero,

nb b

It also follows from this equation that we can divide the numerator and
denominator of a fraction by the same number other than zero. If the number is
a factor of both the numerator and denominator of the fraction, this procedure is
called reducing the fraction to lower terms. Dividing by the greatest common
factor results in a fraction that has been reduced to lowest terms. For exam-
ple, dividing numerator and denominator of —36 by 2 results in an equivalent

fraction, — . Dividing both of them bv 12 reduces — to lowest terms: — .

18 - 36 3
Here are examples of problems about equivalent fractions.

EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION

Because 102 = 2 • 3 • 17 and 12 = 2-2-3, their greatest common factor is 2 • 3.

_102 = _
6-17 = _.17 T,The ,fraction
• -;
17 .
and denominator have no common factors other than 1.

Lesson 1: Fractions
 Exercises

Set 1
1 . Find each of the following products. Express b) Find its slope.
your answers in scientific notation. c) Does the point (100, 312) lie on the
a) (2 X 103)(3 x 102)
b) 5(2 X 103) 3. If agraph?
five-digit number is written down, of
c) (2 X 103)5 which all the digits are the same, the
2. This exercise is about the graph of the resulting number can be divided evenly by
equation 3x — y = 12. 41 and 271.
a) Find the points where it crosses each a) Show that this works with an example.
axis. b) Explain why it works.

Set II
4. Write the coordinate of each lettered point on this number line as a fraction.
C A B 1 I |
-*-+-
-
I ♦ 1
1

5. Use a ruler to draw a number line like the one below. Let 0.5 centimeter represent — .
^^T
*<
-H++-T-
-

Mark and label points on the line having f) Find the coordinate of the gpoint
)T3 midway
the following coordinates. between points A and B.
(Point A is shown as an example.) g) Find the coordinate of the point midway
Point A, % «£
between points D and A.

6. Express each of the following fractions in

decimal form, correct to the nearest
hundredth.
3
4 <
; 246
21
c) Point D, -y 28
d) Find the distance between points B and C. 1
e) Find the distance between points D and A. 6 <
502 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

*1}B5
 -4 J_

a)

7. Between which integers do the following

fractions lie?
100
11 12. If possible, express each of the following
1000 fractions as an integer.
; 3-9
11 8+4 . 3+9 9 ' -9 ' "

8. Reduce each of the following fractions to

lowest terms.
33 175 5 + 5 ' 2 - 2
303 225
13. Find the values of the following expressions
33 1075 for the values of x indicated. Express each
3003 2025 answer as an integer.

. Change the following sets of fractions to 10 )+- x

b
lOx
fractions that have the same denominator. 2 + x 2x

a, land ± d)|a„d|
a) x = 2 f) x = 2
b) x = 6
c) x = 0 h) Why
found can't
for xa =value
0? be
b) | and | e)T,T,andy
d) x = -1 g)x = 6

c>irndi f)4'8'3ndT6 e) x = -3 i) x = -1

10. a)
Arrange the following sets of fractions in 14. What number should
)) xreplace
= -3 111! in each of
order of increasing size. 3) 3following
the _ II equations to make it true?
,324
b) , 1 3 11
7' 7' 7 w' 3' 10' 30
19
7 7 7 ' 25 5 e)^ 111
2 ++ 44 _~ 15 2
3' 2' 4 8 n 2 + 2 2
w 11111 7 U 111 + 2 _ 15
d)f,ii
1 1 . Which fraction in each of the following sets g) 8 • 11111 ~ 8
is not equal to the others? ; llillll " 154 _613__6
,,2-4 2 ,,6-3 6
'lllli-4- 15 ^ 8 - llillll " 8

b)-
Set III -2

15. Write the coordinate of each lettered point on this number line as a fraction.
D C A B
-* + I
-H-

Lesson 1: Fractions 503

 16. Use a ruler to draw a number line like the one below. Let 0.5 centimeter represent -

2 3 4-5

Mark and label points on the line having the following coordinates.
(Point A is shown as an example.)
4
Point A, -

Point B, d) Find the distance between points B and C.

e) Find the distance between points D and A.
f) Find the coordinate of the point midway ' 27 points A and B.
between
b) Point C, g) Find the coordinate of the point midway e) points D gand
between
70T ) 24A. 5

17. Express each of the following fractions in 19. Reduce each of the following fractions to
decimal form, correct to the nearest lowest terms.
hundredth. 5
2_
15
4 6 ' 7007
15
_9_
36 o-y-
17
j4_ 27
72
3 6
20. Change the following sets of fractions to
34 321 fractions that have the same denominator.
51
654

321 b)
6 M °)105 15
963 d) - and
_19

*>i e)f
18. Between which integers do the following
e)2'3"'
0 2 5
fractions lie? and - 12
b)| 2 1 . Arrange the following sets of fractions in
order of increasing size.
and -

d)_i _?_ J_
ll3 11
r\ 12 ii
20 iOi
200
•»-* 3' 6'
2 3 8
11

504 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS a) ■ 0-

0
f)50
 ' 111

22. Which fraction in each of the following sets 25. What number should replace Hill in each of
is not equal to the others? the following equations to make it true?
d)
1 _1 zl
b) _9_
9 ' 9 ' -9
-7 J_ -7 _L zL 6
6 ' -6' -6'
-3' 3 ' 77
23. If possible, express each of the following
fractions as an integer. _132 2^
6+2 , 4+8 9
b)
6-2 ; 4 -8
a)-

3 + 3 ; 7 - 7
24. Find the values of the following expressions
for the values of x indicated. Express each
answer as an integer.
12 + x 12.Y
2 + x 2x

a) x = 3 f) x = 3
b) x = 8
c) x = 0 g) .v = 8
h) Why can't a value be found for x
d) .v = -1 i) x = -1
e) x = -3
)) x = -3 *M
Set IV
The English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge
J$^&-&-&~®--&
m
enjoyed mathematical puzzles. The following one
appeared in one of his notebooks.

"Go into an orchard in which there are three

gates through all of which you must pass.
3"®^-^Mihji
1
\1/0& m v
Take a certain number of apples. Give half of
them and half an apple to the man standing
by the first gate. Give half of what remain and
half an apple to the man by the second gate. What is the smallest number of apples you
Give half of what remain and half an apple to could start with and yet never cut one apple?
the man by the third gate." (Hint: The answer is less than 12.)

Lesson 1: Fraction
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ariDer brad? befd>mbra/3le v I"vj IwT Ivj 2c-
VJ fc# feirt © cd)e rtd>t«il/t>ae fern fectjetml te
VIH rta;t<»irtgrtrtf3rtiAdjcrt.
IX &i$ Jiaur besaigt aim rtewrt fiflffxaft to fart
XI IX*wiI/6cr Xlfltrt gams modern *
XX 5Di£ ^tflnr btf3fltd?et/$wen$fg£ <umirtt>r*f*
XXXf fi$ toa/to fctri swmsigfc tail ♦fcer aine^
tJrtbrcifftgfc m'rigartijmfldjert*

LESSON 2
Algebraic Fractions
It took a long time for the Hindu-Arabic numerals that we use to write numbers
to be accepted throughout the world. The author of a popular arithmetic book
published in Germany in the sixteenth century used Roman numerals because
he thought his readers would find them easier to understand. This excerpt from
the book shows how fractions were represented in it. You may recognize the four
1 6 9 o„H 20
4'8'TT'and3T -1
In Lesson 1, we reviewed two ways to interpret fractions and learned how to
-1
transform a given fraction into other fractions that represent the same number.
The table below shows, for example, how the fraction — can be-4transformed into
other fractions equivalent to it.

If the numerator and

denominator of — are
4
both multiplied by 2 3 25
2 3 10
10 25
the fraction that results is — 12 40 100
All of the fractions that result are equal. Each one has the decimal form 0.25.
The principle that we are applying is so basic to working with fractions that,
even though it was stated in Lesson 1, it is repeated in symbols here.

We have also already observed that this principle can be used to reduce a
fraction by dividing its numerator and denominator by the same number.
In this lesson, we will apply these ideas to the fractions of algebra: fractions
that contain one or more variables in their numerator and or denominator.
Examples of algebraic fractions are

x 5 , 3x
—2 , —x, and x + -1

The denominator of a fraction cannot be allowed to be zero. Thus, when we

write a fraction such as — , the x may be replaced by any number except zero.

For the same reason, in the fraction 3x , x mav be replaced bv anv number

except -1. x + 1 J V
The only difference between algebraic fractions and the fractions of arith-
metic isthat an algebraic fraction contains one or more variables. Their alge-
braic properties are identical. This means that algebraic fractions, like the
fractions of arithmetic, can be transformed into equivalent fractions by multi-
plying ordividing their numerators and denominators by the same number. For
example, the fractions and are equivalent because
F x + 1 2x + 2 4
3x 2(3x) 6x
x + 1 2(x + 1) 2x + 2

Whenever the numerator and denominator of an algebraic fraction have a

common factor other than 1, both numerator and denominator can be divided by
that factor to get a simpler fraction. Like the fractions of arithmetic, an algebraic
fraction is said to be reduced to lowest terms when its numerator and denomi-
6
„ , for example,

5x - 10 F
Lesson 2: Algebraic Fractions 507
 can be reduced to the fraction — by factoring its numerator and denominator as
shown below and dividing both by the common factor:

3x - 6 _ 3(x - 2) _ 3

5x - 10 ~~ 5(x - 2) ~ ~5
When we divide numerator and denominator by their common factor, x — 2, we
are assuming that x is not equal to 2. If it were, x — 2 would be equal to 0 and
we would be dividing by zero. The possibility that x is equal to 2 is ruled out by
the original fraction. Because its denominator, 5x — 10, cannot be zero, x
H
cannot be equal to 2. When we write —5x— -= —10 :
the two fractions are equal for all values of x except 2.
Here are more examples of problems about algebraic fractions.

EXAMPLE 1

Write a fraction that is equivalent to — and has a numerator of 8x.

SOLUTION

Because 8x = x ■ 8, we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of — by x

^ ^ x •8 8.v

EXAMPLE 2
Reduce the fractior

SOLUTION
Factoring the numerator and denominator of this fraction and dividing both by the
common factor, we get

x _ i l(x - 1) 1
(X + 1)(.V - 1) X + 1

When we divide numerator and denominator by x — 1, we assume that x is

not equal to 1. If it were, we would be dividing by zero. The possibility that x

508 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

is equal to 1 is ruled out by the original fraction. Because its denominator,
x2 — 1, cannot be zero, x cannot be equal to 1.

SOLUTION
The numerator of this fraction cannot be factored in any way other than
1(2* + 5) . This means that the numerator and denominator have no
1(2* + 5):

common factor other than 1, and so x 2x — cannot be reduced to lower terms.

Change — and -£ to equivalent fractions that have the same denominator.

3-6

x-6 '

Exercises

Set I 2. Perform the operations indicated.

1 . Write each of the following as a power of x. a) Add x2 - x - 2 and x - 2.
(Assume that x is not zero.) b) Subtract x — 2 from x2 - x - 2.
a) x b) 1 c) — c) Multiply x2 - x - 2 by x - 2.
d) Divide x2 — x — 2 by x — 2.

Lesson 2: Algebraic Fractions 509

 For a family picnic, Mrs. Klutz made 12
sandwiches.
a) Write a formula for the number of
sandwiches, y, that each person gets if
there are x people in the family and the
sandwiches are shared equally.
b) What happens to y if x decreases?
c) How does y vary with respect to x?

"All th« more for u*.n

Set II
4. The denominator of a fraction cannot be 1 „^i
6. Change the following sets of fractions to
allowed to be zero. What values of x, if any, fractions that have the same denominator.
would make the denominator of each of the
following fractions equal to zero?
e) - and
1 e)
3x x 1 + 2
b) -f- and A , 2x 5x f)
e) C) A and \
1) and -
X xl
f) - 3
d)£a„dl h^ 3 -4 3
5. Reduce each of the following fractions to 7)
x2y
lowest
■> terms. , and -
t£
'+ 7. If possible, express each of the following
2)
h) 3) fractions as an integer.
5(x 10+ 2x + 8x » 5x - 3
3 +
xyl 2x + 8

3(- x + 4
7)u 5x + 3x 5x
x(x — +
(* + 5x - 5x
5x -
510 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS g)
X2
3 -
8. What should replace 1111 in each of the 3x + 6
following equations to make it true for all
allowable values of x?
x + 4
2x + x2
' x~ llllll 45x
= Willi 10. Find the values of the following fractions
b) s*=M for the values of x indicated. Express each
answer in decimal form.
, 3 _ 6
C; x + 3 ~ 11111 x2 + 3x - 10
x + 5
5x - 10 5
9. If possible, reduce each of the following
fractions.
- 1
7x a) x = 0
d) x = 0
x + 6 7a b)x = 3 e) x = 3
c) x = 10
2x + 49 f) x = 10
4x + 8
) Compare your answers for parts a, b, and
b) 7TT e) ^5x + 10
+ 2
c with those for parts d, e, and f. Do you
x - 4 think that you would get the same results
<0 ^T 0 TZ for all other values of x? Explain.

Set III + X2
1 1 . The denominator of a fraction cannot be
X13.
2 Change the following sets of fractions to
allowed to be zero. What value of x, if any, fractions that have the same denominator.
would make the denominator- 3of each of the X3

following fractions equal to zero?

5 JN x -_6
x
b) — and -
2 1
X2 - 1
x - 4 c) -\ and
x+1 1
X2 + 1
* y d) - and ■=
12. Reduce each of the following fractions to 14. If possible, express each of the following
lowest terms. fractions as an integer.
S.Y
3x + 6x 7x + 5r, and
b)14
\0y 3x +
x +
2(x - 1) 6 7x - 5
c)17 12 7x + 2
h)- 7x - 5
^
3x 5x
2
x(x + xy3) 7x + 5x xz
6(-v - 5) 5
7x + 5
(x - 5)(x + 6) 7x -

Lesson 2: Algebraic Fraction

 - 9
- 955

15. What should replace 11111 in each of the 5x 3.v

g) 5x
following equations to make it true for all 3 + 3x
X2- 1
allowable values of x? x - 1
3.v
*\l-2± a\ 1 - JUL
} x - 111"
lili
a) 5 " 35x ^ 6x + 36
x2 + 12x + 36
M 4.v _ 11 lil , x + 1 _ 4x + 4 -X3
D> v4 - r3 CJ r _ 4 111
17. Find the values of the following fractions
for the values of x indicated. Express each
_6_
x + 2 J__
+ 3 x2 lllllll
- 9
answer in decimal form.
x2 + 5x + 6

*tx
16. If possible, reduce each of the following
fractions.
lOx + 20

a) x = 0
d) x2 = 0
b) x = 2
b)7TT c) x = 7
X
e) x = 2
d)£_^0
; 2x + 8 g) Compare your answersf) for
x = parts
7 a, b, and
c with those for parts d, e, Xand
2 f. Do you
12 think that you would get the same results
' 6x - 2 'e) 7x3* -+ 14
for all other values of x? Explain.

f) x-2

Set IV
Because the denominator of a fraction cannot be zero, the values of the following
fractions cannot be found if x = 1 .

If each fraction is reduced, however, the values of the resulting expressions can
be found if x = 1 .

1. Do this for each fraction, showing your work. (Hint: Remember that a fraction
is an indicated division.)
2. If the fraction - - were reduced, what do you think the value of the
resulting expression would be if a

512 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

 **1*1*t>*.>* ******
ic
"}"o/«V^ frobably all -jsondering why I called you here today

LESSON 3
Adding and
Subtracting Fractions
If you ate two-fifths of a pie for lunch and one-fifth of it at dinner, what fraction
of the pie would you have eaten altogether? The answer is clearly three-fifths of
the pie, as the diagram below illustrates.

Lunch Dinner

This example illustrates the principle that, to add two fractions that have the
same denominator, we add the numerators and write the sum over the denomi-
nator:
 Now suppose instead that you ate half of the pie for lunch and a third of it
at dinner. What fraction of the pie would you have eaten in this case? The next
two diagrams illustrate the problem and how it is solved.

Lunch Dinner

From this example, we see that, to add two fractions that have different
denominators, we first replace one or both of the fractions with equivalent ones
so that the new fractions have the same denominator. Then we proceed as
before:
a_ , c_ _ ad_ bc_ _ ad + be
b d~ bd bd ~ bd
Here are examples illustrating how these principles are used to add fractions.

EXAMPLE 1

Add —8and —8 .

SOLUTION
Because these fractions have the same denominator,

1 3 1+ 3 4 = 1
8 8 8 8 2

514 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

SOLUTION
Because these fractions have the same denominator,

8x
12

EXAMPLE 3

SOLUTION
Because these fractions do not have the same denominator, we first replace them
with equivalent fractions that
9-2do. , '
12

9-5 45

J8 .JO =

45 45'

JO

3-x
3-4

3x 4x _ 3x + 4x _ lx_

12 12 ~ 12 ~ 12
4-3 '

Fractions are subtracted by the same

method that they are added. These dia-
grams show, for example, that the
problem — — — can be solved by
3 2
changing it to the problem —6 — —6 .
A couple of examples of how frac-
tions are subtracted are given on the
next page.
 EXAMPLE 5
2 1
Subtract — from — .
SOLUTION

3-2 6 j 7- 1 7
TT7 = 2T ^ 7TT=2T
and so

1 2 _ 7 6 _ i
3 7 21 21 21

EXAMPLE 6

From —2 , subtract — —4 — .

SOLUTION
2 • x _ 2x
2-2 4 -x+ 1

x x-l 2x x - 1 2x - (x - 1) 2.v
4 4
2 4 ~ 4 4 4
_ x+ 1
Although the main purpose of this lesson has been to learn how to add and
subtract fractions written as quotients, it is important to realize that arithmetical
fractions can also be added and subtracted by changing them to decimal form
and adding or subtracting their decimal forms. For example, the problem

written in decimal form is

0.4 + 0.2 = 0.6

This is the form in which problems with fractions are done on a calculator.

516 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

Exercises

Set I
1. If possible, factor each of the following
numbers into primes.
a) 275 b) 331 c) 5,022
2. Find every pair of positive integers that can
replace x and y in each of the following
equations to make it true.
a) 3.v + 5y = 27
b) xy + 1 = 40

3. The world's fastest regularly scheduled train

travels between the cities of Osaka and
Okayama in Japan, a distance of 112 miles,
in just one hour.
Traveling at this rate, how long would it
take it to catch up with another train 8 miles
ahead of it if the other train is traveling 80
miles per hour?

Set II
4. Find the following sums and differences,
simplifying
a) your answers as much as
possible.
7x +1 , 3.v - 1 a)
8 8 5. Find the following sums and differences,
7x + 1
X
+ 3.v - 1
X
simplifying your answers as much as

x - 10 x --+ 10 possible.
6 6
+ 10
10
10
6 , 6
x - 10
+ x -10 10 6 2
v J_
x-10 x -10 10 Ax 2.v+ + 4 6
X " 10 ,; 2 5
x - 10 x - 10 n x+ 3 2x + 6
3.v X
x + 2 x + 2
x _ x + 3 x - 4
x + 2 x + 2 x + 4

Lesson 3: Adding and Subtracting Fractions 517

 6. Write each of the following as an integer or
as a single fraction in simplest form.

x y x + y x -y y _ x y _ x
y__ ' x y
y - x y - x

d)

Set III
7. Find the following sums and differences,

»M
simplifying your answers as much as
possible.

k)i^4+i^4
' 10 10 "TTT + TTT ■»7-¥
C,
s 8x , X
+ 8 x x 4 x - 1
m) x + 47" + x + 47 h,^ 2
*' 3x + 12+
3
X X n) x +- 4 x +4 4 x + 4
. 2x , 5x 3x + 12
' x+7 x + 7 10
5+ x n 10
D*f±-
X
7 F x + 7 x + 7 x + 2
0^
N 13x
+x - x2 - 1 1
X — 1

i) ^4+
x + 5
x + 5
x - 5
X
6 r)7TT + 7TT 9. Write each of the following as an integer or
h)i3^_
• ^ 3x - 1
as a single fraction in simplest form.
10 ^ x ,y
3x- 1 x — v x + y
i)5*+' +

8. Find the following sums and differences, b) ± + -^LZ

simplifying your answers as much as c) — 1 —
possible. X-y X+y

; 4 + -L
a)l 12 c)A + _L
;x2x d)-^
x-y *—
x -y
m 8 5 a\ x x *\ x - y x ~y
b)9~6 d)T-7 e)"^ —
518 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS
Set IV
Obtuse Ollie forgot how to add fractions. When
asked to find the sum

3. How does — compare in size with each

he added the numerators and added the fraction being added?
4. Make up another problem in which the two
denominators, getting — -.
fractions to be added are equal to each
other. Show what Ollie would get by his
method and also show the correct answer.
1 . \\That is the correct sum of these fractions?
2. How does the correct answer compare in 5. How do the correct answer and the answer
size with each of the fractions being given by Ollie's method compare in size
added? with each of the fractions in your problem?

Lesson 3: Adding and Subtracting Fractions 519

 Alfred Tenny

LESSON 4
More on Addition Charles Babbage
and Subtraction

The nineteenth-century English poet Alfred Tennyson once wrote

Every minute dies a man.

Every minute one is born.

When Charles Babbage. a mathematician of the time, read these words, he wrote
to Tennyson saying that, if this were true, the world's population would remain
constant. In fact, however, it was increasing. With tongue in cheek. Babbage
suggested that the lines be corrected to read:

Even- minute dies a man,.

And one and a sixth is born.

Although this sounds strange and is not very poetic, it does make sense. If the

number 1 —6
is written as a fraction, it is —6 . This means that for even- six people
that die, seven are born. (This is illustrated by the figure below.)

Time in minutes
0 7 2 3 4 »5 1 6

Deaths Q | 5 11 1 1
Births [^
1
When we write a number such as 1—,
6 we do not mean 1 times —6 , but rather

lH 6 .A number written as the sum of an integer and a fraction is called a

1 i 61 = 66 I 6
l = 6+1
6 = 76

This method can be applied to expressing the sum or difference of any integer
and fraction as a fraction. First, the integer is written as a fraction having the
same denominator as the given fraction. Then the two fractions are added. Here
is another example.

2 _4 , 3_20 , 3_20 + 3 = 23
5 5

By reasoning in the same way that we have in this example, we can express
the sum (or difference) of any polynomial and a fraction as a single fraction.

Lesson 4: More on Addition and Subtraction 521

 EXAMPLE 2
Write x x as a fraction.
SOLUTION

1=
X
*._±=
I X
*L_±.
X X

EXAMPLE 3
1

SOLUTION
First, we change the polynomial x + 2 to a fraction having the denominator x + 1.

1 '" (x + 1)(1) x + 1
Now, because x + 2 . * + 3x + 2 • , ,, . 1

x + 1 x + 1

The procedure can be reversed, as the next example illustrates.

EXAMPLE 4

522 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

Exercises

Set I
1. Factor each of the following polynomials as 3. Cauliflower McPugg won more fights during
completely as possible. his career than he lost. If Cauliflower won
a) 39.v + 45 v 60 fights and lost 36 fights,
b) 2.v2 - 14x + 24 a) what fraction of the fights did he win?
C) X\V - XV3 b) what fraction of the fights did he lose?
2. Solve the following equations for x. If he won x fights and lost y fights,
a) ax + b = 0 c) what fraction of the fights did he win?
b) a(x + b) = l c) ax - bx -- d) what fraction of the fights did he lose?

Set II
4. Write each of the following as a fraction in 6. Find the values of the following expressions
simplest terms. for the values of x indicated. Express each
answer as an integer.
a)5+-
x+2+A+|
x — 3 x -3
b) 8 +1 e) 6-
a) x = 4
0 2| f) 1 ■ b) x = 6
a)
d) x = 4
e)x = 6 ~
c) x = 0 f) x = 0 5
d) 34 g) Compare your answers for parts a, b, and
c with those for parts d, e, and f. Do you
5. Write each of the following as a fraction in think that you would get the same results
simplest terms. for all other values of .v? Explain.
. What should replace in each of the
a) 4 + -x
following equations to make it true for all
X 2 - 10
+rb
allowable values of x? Express each answer
b) x in simplest =form.
7 +

c)*+ir X X
h) g) + 47~2xy
~ x
+y
/x + 0 X2
X Ml!
i) X + y X
d) 5x - 1 + 3 2x - 5 1111
+ 1 = 11 +
x +10 1 1
e) 1 +^^- )) x 9x
X 9v
x +l—
6 9x
f) 2

Lesson 4: More on Addition and Subtraction 523

 c)

* + 3,
■v3 -61
- 6
3.v3 3
f>7^
d) Write — as the sum of an integer
x2 - x and a fraction.
x - 3 '
e) Write as the sum of an integer
x — v
and a fraction.
h) * x^ —* J/ ' = _^
x — 7 +
as the difference of a
Change each of the following to the form x + 3
described. More than one correct answer is
fraction and an integer.
possible. x — y
9. Simplify each of the following.
a) Write ■ — — as the sum of two fractions. a"2
, f)5x Wr+it6e -2
b) Write "A 6~ — as the difference of two
4.v + 9 4.v + 9 2.v - 5 2x - 5

Set III
10. Write each of the following as a fraction in -3 values
12. Find the + of the following expressions
simplest terms. d)4^ for the values of x indicated. Express each
answer as an integer.
3 + - :4 2.v3
:0 12 - x x2
x - 4 x + 4
: 12
a) x d) x = 4
b)x e) x = 12
f) 1 •
f) x = 0
1 1 . Write each of the following as a fraction in C) X
g) Compare your answers for parts a, b, and
simplest terms. c with those for parts d. e. and f. Do you
think that you would get the same results
for all other values of x? Explain.
13. What should replace in each of the
b)2-^ following equations to make it true for all
c) 3.v + | allowable values of x? Express each answer
h) X
g)-v in simplest form.

**•-■! i) x 4.v - 9
: 4 -

e) 9 + *+± )) x
a, -
524 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS
 c)
x -y
d) 2-=^- = 111 - - c) Write as the sum of two fractions.

5.v 3.x- 5x - 9 > the difference of an

x - 3 .v - 3
d) Write - x + y
1 integer and a fraction.
+ 111
x + ^ + 1
e)- e) write as the sum of an integer
0 - + 11111
x- + 8 x* + I and a fraction.

g)h x3 + x — 9 _ x3 -f .v x + 4
- as the difference of a
) f) Write
x - 9 ~ x - 9 " fraction and an integer.
X3 + x - 9 _ x3
15. Simplify each of the following.
14. Change each of the following to the form llx + 12 3x
described. 4 4
• + 4,
^- + -^ d^
a) Write y"*" ** as the sum of two fractions. '+ y x + y
3x - 1 3x - 1
3x - 2 ,
I x2 + 10* 25
fractions. x + 5 x + 5

Set IV
If a cat and a half eat a fish and a half in a day
and a half, how many fish would seven cats eat
in a week and a half?

Lesson 4: More on Addition and Subtraction 525

 LESSON 5
Multiplying Fractions
The only fish that Mr. Jones caught on his fishing trip wasn't big enough to
impress anybody. So he decided to stretch the truth by taking a photograph of
it and having the picture enlarged. He began by having a picture the actual size

of the fish enlarged 1— times, but this didn't suit him and so he had the

enlargement enlarged 1 — times again. How many times the size of the actual
fish was the second enlargement?
The answer can be seen in the figures at the top of the next page. The first
enlargement multiplied the original length by — and the second enlargement
3 3
multiplied it by — • — . Measuring the original and final lengths in fourths of the
o
original length, we see that the final length is — of the original length.
 Actual size of fish
Length x

First enlargement

Length 2.x
l"i 1 i 1 iH 2

Second enlargement

1*1 I i 1 I I i 1-1

3 3 9
From this example, we see that = — . Notice that we could have gotten
this result without the diagram by simply multiplying 3 by 3 to get 9 and 2 by
2 to get 4.
What if the fractions being multiplied have different denominators? The next
diagram shows that — • — = — — - = — . Even though the fractions in this

multiplication problem have different denominators, the same method works.

Because of this, it is usually easier to multiply two fractions than it is to add
them. Compare the general cases worked out below.

Addition: Multiplication:
a c_ = ad be ad + be
ab'm d~
c bd
ac
b d bd

bd~~ Lesson 5: Multiplying Fractions 527

bd
 Although the product of two fractions can be expressed as a fraction by
multiplying numerators and multiplying denominators, it is usually desirable to
express the result in lowest terms. Many times, the easiest way to accomplish
this is to merely indicate the multiplications at first and remove any common
factors in the numerator and denominator of the product by dividing both
numerator and denominator by them.
Here is an example of how this is done.

77

SOLUTION

36 , 7 = 36 - 7 = 36 • 7 = 3-12-7 = 3 = 3
77 24 77-24 24-77 2 • 12 • 7 • 1 1 2-11 22

Here are two more examples of how fractions are multiplied.

EXAMPLE 2

Multiply #5and —^—

x + 1.

x 10 _ 10x _ 5(2.v) _ 2x
~5 ' x + 1 _ 5(x + 1) ~ 5(x + 1) ~ x + 1

Multiply and .
* 2y 3.x - 6y
SOLUTION

*-2y 3x _ (x - 2y)(3x) _ (3)(.v)(* - 2y)

2y 3x-6y (2y)(3x - 6y) (2)(y)(3)(x - 2y) 2v

Although the main purpose of this lesson has been to learn how to multiply
fractions written as quotients, it is important to realize that arithmetical frac-

528 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

tions can also be multiplied by changing them to decimal form and multiplying
their decimal forms. For example, the problem

1.1
2 2
written in decimal form is
1.5- 1.5 = 2.25

This is the form in which problems with fractions are done on a calculator.

Exercises

Set I
1. What numbers can replace 1111 in the 3. This exercise is about the formula
polynomial x2 + llllllx + 18 so that it can be
factored? For each number, write the ya) =Use
2*-l.
this formula to complete the
corresponding factors. following table.

2. Where possible, reduce the following a: 3 4 5 6 7 8

fractions. v 7 1111 1111 1111 Hill llll
d)
2x - 8
x - 2 b) Which numbersa) in the second line ofe)the
table are prime?
2x2 -8
c) Do you notice a pattern?
b)
c)
Set II
4. Express the following products as integers c 5. Write each of the following as an integer or
fractions in simplest terms. fraction in simplest terms.

a)ff «H M 1.1
X X

1 ,5 2x
3
8 '8 2x . x
i +^ 0
X X
3 6

Lesson 5: Multiplying Fractions 529

 a)

x —+ yy _ x +- y - xx _ x + 1 . x + 2
10 x : + y1 x + 2 x + 3
x + y x + y
_*_,
10 JO* x — y x — y

X + 1 X + 1 6 6 6
7. Find the following products, expressing your
1 . 1 6 6 6 answers in simplest terms. (Look for
X + 1 X + 1 common factors first.)
+ 2y
- lOx
6 6 6 2x - 12 1
x2 +
- 16 5x 2
6. Find the following products, expressing your
answers in simplest terms. 25 X 165x _
N 7 9 x x x 3x
xy - + 25 8x 16
+ Ixl
4x +
Z)r~x C)VT2'Y^2 5x - + 5 .
+ 6x +
_L.*L x2 + 7x + 10 x2 + 4x + 3
5x' 6

d)-
Set III y-
8. Express the following products as integers or 3 3 3
fractions in simplest terms. x2
c) 3 3 3

J_.J0
10 ' 3 X2
3 3 3
5'4
8_._15 X2

22 # 26 10. Find the following products, expressing your

answers in simplest terms. X2
39 ' 99
Write each of the following as an integer or i.li
fraction in simplest terms. 7 x
x . 2x
10 ' 5 4 ' 5
1.1
9 9
£.1 x +_y x — y
7 'x
6 , 8
a)-
f +! - 2
2 x b—)-4 . x + 4
x - 2
x + 4 x - 4
x 2x 2 2 x — 4 #x — 4
10 5 x + 4 x + 4

530 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

2 '"
x-
 - 25
' + 4x + 1
!- 3 . Ax2 + 2x
- 10 x

2x +10 x2 - 1C
xi + 3x , x - 3
Find the following products, expressing your
answers in simplest terms. (Look for
common factors first.)
+ 3
(.V + V)2 (.v_3,)2 2x2

Set IV
This picture is a photograph of a Mercedes Benz
230 SL sports car. Similar in nature to an x-ray.
the picture was made with gamma rays from a
radioactive element, cobalt-60. The gamma rays
were produced as atoms of the cobalt broke
apart into atoms of other elements. The cobalt
was suspended over the car and five large
photographic plates were placed under the car
and exposed to the rays for 50 hours.
During that time about 3 out of every 4,000
of the 1026 cobalt-60 atoms used broke apart.
How many atoms disintegrated while the picture
was being taken? Express your answer in
scientific notation.

Lesson 5: Multiplying Fractions 531

 LESSON 6
More on Multiplication

The dollar bill isn't as large as it used to be. In 1929, the dimensions of United
States currency notes were reduced from 3 inches by 7— inches to 2— inches by

6—8 inches. This cartoon was one of many that appeared on the editorial pages of

the nation's newspapers at the time.

An obvious advantage of the smaller size is that less paper is needed to
produce each bill. Because the dimensions of the larger bill were 3 inches by 7— -
inches, it required

3.7J

square inches of paper. Another way to make this calculation is to write 3 and
7— as fractions before multiplying.
 3 ?1 = 2.J5 = 45 = 22j_
2 l' 2 2 2
The two methods that we have just used can also be applied to finding the
amount of paper in the smaller bill. Treating each dimension as a binomial, we
have

4-Ha + f)(. + I)-* + a.i + .-{ + i- 2 , 30 , _5_

= 12 + ^ + ^ +
64

» +? +£

Or, changing each dimension to a fraction before multiplying, we have

05 , 1 /0 , 5\/A , 1\ 21 49 1029 ., 5 . .
2— • 6— = I 2 H )(6h )= = =16 — square inches
8 8 V 8/ V 8/ 8 8 64 64 H

In making calculations that include both integers and fractions, it is helpful to

think of the integers as fractions whose denominators are 1. The product of a
'
polynomial and a fraction can be found by the same procedure: the polynomial64
is first written as a fraction whose denominator is 1.
Here are more examples.

EXAMPLE 1

Find the product of x + 2 and — .

SOLUTION
x2 + 2x
x(x + 2)
<-2>-i^-r 3 3

c , to 1leave an expression
ror many purposes, it is more useiul . suchu as x(x + 2) in.

factored form rather than to carry out the multiplication.

Lesson 6: More on Multiplication 533

 EXAMPLE 2

x - 4'

The next pair of examples show how a product such as Ix -\ J [x

can be found in two different wavs.

EXAMPLE 3
1
Find the product of x -\ x and x -\ x bv using the pattern
(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + be + bd.
SOLUTION

\ x/\ xl XX XX

X X XL
= x2 + 5 + 1 + — r

EXAMPLE 4

Find the product of x -\ xand x + —x bv first changing each to a fractioi

SOLUTION

(*4)(-!Hf4)(f+!)^-^
_ (x2 + !)(.%- 2 + 5) _ x4 + 6.v2 + 5

534 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

 Although the answer in Example 4 looks different from that in Example 3, the
two are equivalent because

+ 6.v2 + 5

+ 6 + -

Exercises

Set I
1. Find each of the following differences, The mathematics section of the Scholastic
simplifying your answers as much as Aptitude Test contains 60 questions. Anyone
possible. who takes it automatically gets 200 points,
with 10 points added for each correct answer
a)' 44 - -
x c)'3 - ^-+|
x + 2 and 2.5 points subtracted for each incorrect
answer.
5
5 x - 5 Suppose that someone answers all 60
b)- questions and gets x of them correct.
2. Find the missing term in each of the a) How many questions did he or she
following, given that each is the square of a answer incorrecdy?
binomial. b) Write a formula for his or her score, y, in
terms of x.
a) x2 + III + 1 c) Simplify your formula as much as you
b) x2 - 5x + 11111 can.

Set II
4. Express the following products as integers or fractions in simplest
h) terms,
i
a) 4 •4 c) -6 • -5-
12 e) 3 • 4 10x • 2x
g) t^
o-4 6
3
b) 9

d)- Lesson 6: More on Multiplicatic

 x2 + 49
x + 7
5. Write each of the following as an integer or
fraction in simplest terms. e) (x - 7) •(2x-l)
1 ..3
d) - • (6x4 - x) f) -

7. Find each of the following products by first

g)
b) | + 12 c) x>
multiplying and then simplifying the result.

x
c) 2x--

d) 2x - -x i) (*-!) + 4 b>(f+l)(f-l)
■»(«-!)(-3
n 1 (x + 7)
1
+ 7 + (* + 7)
f) 6 + — ^ d)(3,_j)(4* + ±)
6. Find the following products, expressing 8. Find each of the products in exercise 7 by
your answers in simplest terms. first changing each expression to a fraction.

a) (x-5)-^ ,x + 1

b) 8x-

Set III
9. Express the following products as integers or
fractions in simplest terms. -11
9^ i) (x + 2) •
2
2 h) )) (x + 2) +•(x-10)
^
a) 5-
e) 3-
8 e) 6-
b) -8 f) 3-
d) 1 - + (x - 10)
•18
c) 10 4
_3 Ox-
2
11. Find the following products, expressing your
12
answers in simplest terms.
10. Write each of the following as an integer or
fraction in simplest terms. d) -x • (5x3 + x)
'
14 x a) (x + 3) •

a)f- c)x-A
' e) (x + 5)--^=-
b)^+5 d)x-A
3x2 0 (7x + 6)
b) 6x- '
6x
536 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

c) x4
12. Find each of the following products by first
multiplying and then simplifying the result.
4)
13. Find each of the products in exercise 12 by
i)(f-i) first changing each expression to a fraction.

Set IV
Can you simplify each of these expressions?
The three dots indicate that the patterns
continue in the same way, ending as shown.

0(' -!)(-#3/V 4)
1\/, l\/i l\/i 1\ /i 1
l' I1 ' l/V
2/V* 4/ V 100/

2('4)('4)('4)('-})-('

Lesson 6: More on Multiplicatk

 LESSON 7
Dividing Fractions

A pioneer in motion picture photogra-

phy was Thomas Edison. He produced
the first film to be copyrighted in the
United States. Several frames of the
film, made in 1894 and showing a man
'4
sneezing, are reproduced here.
The frames were taken at the rate of
16 per second, and so each frame lasted
J_T second and the 12 frames shown ran
for onlv

1 12 _ 3
.1
16 "
How many frames would be required

onds? One way to figure out the answer

2!by-L,
J_
16 4 " 16'
Dividing" 2—4 by" —16 means finding
The figure below shows that

2- 1

— = 36 fcrffujojuuuajii^^ 4=36

So 36 frames would be required to film a9 sneeze lasting 2— seconds.

' 16 ,

9 • 16
16
4 4 36
1 1 1 1
16 2± 16 16

The same procedure can be used to divide any fraction into another. Here it

is applied to dividing -^
b by —.
a 4'

T T'bd

-d rbd
Because the result, —bc
, can be written as the product of the fractions —band —c ,
we have shown that

9l ^ S- — — . —

b ' d~ b' c
This says that dividing by the fraction —a is equivalent to multiplying by the

fraction —c. The fractions —dand —c are called reciprocals of each other because
their product is 1.

Lesson 7: Dividing Fractions 539

 The reciprocal of a number is the number that must be multiplied by it to

get 1.

The reciprocal of x is —xx

, because x -— = 1. The reciprocal of —y is —x ,

The idea of the reciprocal of a number is useful because it gives us another

y x
way to look at division. Dividing by a fraction (or any number) is equivalent to
multiplying by its reciprocal.
Here are more examples of division problems that include fractions.

EXAMPLE 1

r\:,™^„ 2 . 4

2 . 4 = 2.9 = 2-3-3 = 3
3 " 9 3 4 3-2-2 2

EXAMPLE 2

Divide -I by 2.

-v x + 1 *(.v + 1) _ x + 1
6 x 6 -* 6

540 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

EXAMPLE 4

Divide x2 — y2 by -

SOLUTION

(x2-y2)-
-y2) . 9 = 9(x2 -y2) = 9(x + ,y)(* - 3;)
— y x — y = 9x + x9y— y

Exercises

Set I
1. Arrange the fractions in each of these sets in 2. Find the value of each of the following
order from smallest to largest. Assume for
each set that x represents a positive number. 0 Hy
expressions by first writing it as the square
of a binomial.
For part c, assume that x is not 1. a) 452 (Write 45 as 40 + 5.)

a)' -,
2' -,
3' -
4 c)
' 1,
x' x +l 1', x-1 1
,x234 « x x + 1 x — 1
b) 542

3. The largest check ever

written was paid to India by
the United States in 1974. It
was for 16,640,000,000
DATED. T*. IBjl ...19 74 Indian rupees.
a) Write this number in
scientific notation.
Pciy tos-er*Ul7. Oapartnant of Economic Affair*.
llinirtry of Fiaaaca, Haw l»lhi*»* b) In 1974, one rupee was
Rupees Sljctaan billion six hundred forty
equal to approximately
IMSo.M,pW..0W,C<»..0o| 12.3 U.S. cents. Find the
and charge the tame against tr : Transition Account,
U.S. Disbursing Off lcar, approximate value of the
Aa*rle*a &*••(,,!„, D^ni check in U.S. dollars at
that time.

,HE MONTH ft^pl-t'-l.

A- Lesson 7: Dividing Fractions 541

 b)

d)
Set II
4. Write the reciprocals of riie following 7. Express each of the following quotients as <
monomial or fraction in simplest terms.
a) 4

o4 e) 2.v + 1
V V ...
bj 1 ..7 1

V2 X2
3 6
5. Express the following quotients as integers c)
a)
or fractions in simplest terms.
6 3 -x 1 x35x +■ 10X6 5x
3
r2 d)
8. Express each of the
e) following quotients as i
b) 6 -h monomial or fraction in simplest terms.
-6y
o4 -4
5x2 (5xf
c) 8^

6. Write each of the following as a monomial 2x + 1

or fraction x - 6x + 2x
xA x_ in simplest terms. x2 - 9
6 4 x - 4
+ 1 x + 1 9 ++x 12
6y
+ 4
+ 6
2 '4 ' 9 6a -4x +
6 , 4
b)f^f g)' x + U " x + 1 - 16 6x
-y)2
6 . 4 3
c) 4- - T
4
h)"' .v + 1 ' .v + 1 x+ 1 (x - 3)
a
3
d) 15.v- ;x 5.v - 30 ^ 5x
i) n )
-y? ' ^
+ 2x2)

Set III 10. Express the following quotients as integers

X2

9. Write the reciprocals of the following, or fractions in simplest terms.

(x
x-
a) 6 2.4 ,,7

x - 1 1 X4
2x + 5 9 12

e) 2
JL_ A (*3
3 ' 9
b)5 f) 5
542 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS -
c) 6-
11. Write each of the following as a monomial
4
or fraction in simplest terms. x2 - 4
x + 2
, x - 4
2x
a)- x + 4 .
8
' 6
x + 4 1 3. Express each of the following quotients as i
0- monomial or fraction in simplest terms.

x 3x
14
lv
- 7

d)2*.i< 7 + 21 14
(3x)2 3x2
IOjc - 2 5x - 1
e) 2x -r- - * _ 5 5x - 25
12. Express each of the following quotients as + 8x" + 2*1"
r2(2x)3 16 . x + 4
x2 _ 16 x _ 4
a monomial or fraction in simplest terms.

, 1 (* + y)3 x + y
a) x -. x 3x + 3y 3
x2 + 3x + 2 - (x + 2)

y y

Set IV What isjxj of j of 10?

This problem once appeared in Ripley's Believe
It Or Not! The answer given by Ripley, 5, is
wrong.
1. What do you think the correct answer to
the problem is?
Ripley got the wrong answer because he was
confused about the meaning of the word "of."
2. Can you change the problem as restated
below by replacing each ill with an
appropriate symbol of operation so that the
answer Ripley gave is correct?
Ixllll 10

Lesson 7: Dividing Fractions 543

 LESSON 8
Complex Fractions

One of the great scientists of the seventeenth century was a Dutch mathemati-
cian named Christiaan Huygens. Among his many projects was a model of the
solar system in which the planets were driven by wheels in their orbits around
the sun.
Designing the model took a lot of planning because the time that it takes to
complete one orbit is different for every planet. For example, the earth goes
around the sun almost 30 times in the time that Saturn goes around it once.
More exacdv, the earth goes around the sun about

times in the time that Saturn makes one trip. This complicated number, used by
 Huygens in designing the gears in his model, is the sum of an integer, 29, and a

complex fraction, .

24
► A complex fraction is a fraction that has one or more fractions in its numerator
or denominator.

Every complex fraction can be written in a simpler form. For example,

1 _l-3
o , 1 7 7

written as 29 —11
or . We will refer to a fraction such as 1 as a simple

fraction.
2+ i
^ A simple fraction is a fraction that does not have any fractions in its numerator
or denominator.

Every complex fraction can be transformed into a simple fraction. Although

it was helpful to Huygens to write numbers in forms such as 29 + 1 •

planning his model of the solar system, simple fractions are usually preferred.
Here are examples of how complex fractions can be simplified.

EXAMPLE 1

Simplify 2+ i.

Lesson 8: Complex Fractions 545

 SOLUTION
First we can write the numerator and denominator as single fractions.

1 20 , 1 21

1 6 1 7
3 3 3 3
2 + -
21_.3

21 . 3 = 3-7-3 = 9
5 7 5-7 5

5 7'

write it as 1— or in decimal form, 1.8.

-v2 - 9
Simplify — — , given that .r is not zero.

T~7
SOLUTION
Changing the denominator to a single fraction, we get

x2 _ 9 x2 _ 9 _ x-2 _ 9

3 .r 3a:
^c 3.r
3_ x-3.r 3
1_ J_

_ ^x_
x — 3= 3^-9)
x — 3 = 3-v(x-3X.
x — 3 + 3) = 3%.2 + ,

The result is a second-degree polynomial.

546 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

Exercises

Set I
1. Find the perimeter and area of each of these rectangles.

2. Change each of the following to an

expression without parentheses. Assume that
x is not -1.
a) (x + l)2
b) (x + 1)'
c) (x + 1)°
d) (x + I)"1
3. The length of the steps taken by a person
on stilts is a function of the height of the
stilts. A typical table for this function is
shown here.
Height of stilts
in feet, x 5 7 9 11
Length of steps
in feet, y 4 5 6 7
a) Graph this function.
b) What kind of function is it?
c) Write a formula for it.
d) According to your formula, how long
would each step taken by someone on
21 -foot stilts (the highest ever mastered)
be?

Lesson 8: Complex Fractions 547

 Set II
4. Write each of the following as a simple 14
fraction in lowest terms.
1 1
4 6
^ 5

i+>
b) -^ e) 4 +
!
1
4 3
J__ J_ 3 4
2 7 —4 3
6. Write each of the following as a polynomial
or simple fraction in lowest terms.
3 4
1
X
±_±
xy
5. Simplify. a) 7 c) xf
■v + 2
1

d) 1 -

Set III
7. Write each of the following as a simple
fraction in lowest terms. Simplify.
4

3 6
7
3+^

e) 3-

3 .v
■1
548 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS j_ _ #1_ +
 xy

9. Write each of the following as a monomial

or simple fraction in lowest terms.

d) x -

Set IV
In 1770, a Swiss-German mathematician, Johann
Lambert, discovered an interesting expression
containing a complex fraction that never ends. 1 . Change the part of the expression shown
Part of it is shown below. here to a simple fraction.
*2. Write that simple fraction in decimal
form, correct to the nearest ten millionth.
3+ L,
3. Lambert's expression represents a number
so important in mathematics that it has a
15 +- special name. Do you know what it is?

Lesson 8: Complex Fractions 549

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to simplify fractions and how to add,
subtract, multiply, and divide both fractions and polynomials and fractions.

Fractions (Lessons 1 and 2) A fraction is the indicated quotient of two

numbers or algebraic expressions called its numerator and denominator. The
denominator of a fraction cannot be allowed to be zero.
Fractions consisting of integers can be changed to decimal form by dividing
the numerator by the denominator.
Fractions that represent the same number are equivalent. Whenever the
numerator and denominator of a fraction are multiplied or divided by the same
number other than zero, the result is an equivalent fraction: in general, if n is not

equal to zero, ^-
b = ^-
nband ^-
no = ^-b . To reduce a fraction consisting of integers
or polynomials to lowest terms, divide its numerator and denominator by their
common factors.

Adding and Subtracting Fractions (Lessons 3 and 4) It is often useful to

express the sum or difference of two fractions as a single fraction. To do this
when the fractions have the same denominator, we add or subtract the numera-
tors and write the result over the denominator.

a_ c_ _ a + c a_ c_ _ a — c
b b ~ b b ~ b ~ b
If the fractions have different denominators, we first replace one or both of the
fractions with equivalent ones so that the new fractions have the same denomi-
nator. Then we proceed as before.

jZ c_ _ ad_ bc_ _ ad + be a_ _ c_ _ ad_ _ bc_ _ ad — be

b d~ bd bd ~ bd b d~ bd bd~ bd

To express the sum or difference of a polynomial and a fraction as a fraction,

write the polynomial as a fraction having the same denominator as the fraction.
Then add or subtract the two fractions.

Multiplying Fractions {Lessons 5 and 6) The product of two fractions may be

expressed as a single fraction by writing the product of their numerators over
the product of their denominators.

b d bd

To find the product of a polynomial and a fraction, think of the polynomial as

a fraction having 1 as its denominator. Then multiply the two fractions.

Dividing Fractions (Lesson 7) Dividing by a fraction (or any number) is

equivalent to multiplying by its reciprocal:

9l _l. — — — . — — —
b ' d~ b' c ~ be
The reciprocal of a number is the number that must be multiplied by it to get
1 x . y
1. The reciprocal of x is — ; the reciprocal of — is — .

Complex Fractions (Lesson 8) A complex fraction is a fraction that has one or

more fractions in its numerator or denominator. A simple fraction is a fraction
that does not have any fractions in either. Every complex fraction can be
transformed into a simple fraction.

Summary and Review

 Exercises

Set I
1. Although there seem to be six people in the
lifeboat in this cartoon, one of them is a
dummy.
a) What fraction of the food and water does
the man with the dummy actually
deserve?
b) What fraction of the food and water is he
actually getting?
c) How much more food and water is the
man getting than he actually deserves?
(Express your answer as a fraction.)

SoAvWOdt atfYC*-
"I just don't understand it, Captain. Equal shares
of food and water to all, yet those two thrive
while we wither away."

2. Tell whether or not each of the following equations is true for all allowable values of
the variables. If an equation is not true for all such values, give an example in which
it is not true.
x + 4

4x x ' 2.v
y - * x + 2
'
y + 4 I 2x + 5

552 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

 c)
3. If the denominator of a fraction is zero, the
fraction is meaningless. What value(s) of x
would make the denominator of each of
a) 8. Write each of the following products as a
these fractions equal to zero?
monomial or fraction in simplest terms.
x + y
6 M x v 1
x - 2
2 3
x + 5 4
*>#
' x(x - 3)
4. If possible, reduce each of these fractions. d) 7x
14

b); c) -
18 x x + 7
108 "' x2 + 2x x - 4 4 2x 3x - 15
— 5x + y -49 4 - x ' 4x - 20 6x
4x £)5x-^ 9. Find each of the following products by first
x + 2y fx x2 + 14x + 49 !)
multiplying and then simplifying the result.

5. Which fraction in each pair is larger? «(-!)(-

v 4 4
0— »('+*)(»-*)
10. Find each of the products in exercise 9 by
' 4 4 '95 94 first writing each factor as a single fraction.
6. Write each of the following sums or 11. Write each of the following quotients as a
differences as a monomial or fraction in 0-
polynomial or fraction in simplest terms.
simplest terms. x y 8x x

3x 3x
x + 3 x + 1 y * M x + 714 ■ x 14+ 7
d)- x2 — y2 x — y
e) x2 + '-

7. Change each of the following to the form

described.

a) Write — ^— as the sum of two fractions. e) (3x3 + 1) - -

n 2x2 + 5x + 2 . 2x + 1
3x - 7
b) Write 3x + 7 as the difference of two
12. Simplify. x x
fractions.
x + 2 as the sum of an
c) Write
x_ _x
integer and a fraction y 3 4
10x2 - 10 as the difference of a Y2 - 1 1
d) Write - 5x b) * i d) X + -
i 1 i . 4
monomial and a fraction. 6"
v 2"~

Summary and Review 553

 Set II
1. The illustration below is from an Italian a) What operation seems to have been
manuscript written in 1545. The problem in performed upon the first two fractions to
the first circle is give the third one?
b) Can you tell what the problems in the
other two circles are?

«T>
<=%& /prtrfir oottG, J&in

r
^M
-ftTOm^hA-
/ft. Ot0M . *4
tTHVc^ J* cmom «/l rtu^^c
flufc&rfe (cue
(cut t"£\iu>-,(^.W
t^-co-^^nt aud?o
duc^o

!+ 4

3x - 3y
2. Tell whether or not each of the following
equations is true for all allowable values of
the variables. If an equation is not true for
all such values, give an example in which it
is not true. y
3. If the denominator of a fraction is zero, the
fraction is meaningless. What value(s) of x
a) ■ would make the denominator of each of
these fractions equal to zero?

*>—* b)— c) (, + iXx - i)

554 Chapter 11: FRACTIONS

"
+ 2
 )

2xjy
^ y
4. If possible, reduce each of these 9fractions. 8. Write each of the following products as a
16 monomial or fraction in simplest terms.
b)
25 "' 5x - 5
c) 21 , x-9y
c)
3.v
2x - 6 — e)(x+.y)2
2x 1 -4 ^ 3
6x - 3
d) -x 8 - 3\
5. Which fraction in each pair is larger?
9. Find each of the following products by first
3 _ 3 _N 4 _ 7
»>-ffOTlf multiplying and then simplifying the result.

b)fOTf
Tor9
iiori^ D 8x -
60 61
?(■3-f
b)( + *)(■
)(2
b)

6. Write each of the following sums or c)

differences as a polj nomial or fraction in 10. Find each of the products in exercise 9 by

«M
simplest terms.

e) .v2 - -\
first writing each factor as a single fraction.
d)
e)
1 1 . Write each of the following quotients as a
polynomial
f) or fraction in simplest terms.
v2 J
X — 1 X — 1 f) x - 3 + -^L

♦1+7*5 x - 10
10
x — 5
5
a) x2 - 16
x — x + 4
d) 6 x_ x 6 y~y 4 16

7. Change each of the following to the form DX

described. x +
4- + *? - 11
- as the sum of two
a) Write - x2 + lOx
11
X — X x
c)
b) Write - -Ay as the difference of two
12 Simplify.
fractions. X
X _ J_
y
x3 + x — 6 as the sum of an
c) Write
integer and a fraction.
3x2 - 21 2__2
d) Write the difference of a
monomial and a fraction.
X2 555

d) 1 Summary
■ and Revie
 Chapter 12
SQUARE ROOTS
 I MATE BEIN6 A 1 KNOW WHAT kOU
UJWATUJOULPH'OULIKE

an
NOTHING! I REFUSE TO TO BE, CHARLIE BROWN, COULD BE, CHARLIE BROWN.
GO THROUGH THE RE5T OF A FIVE ?ORHOU) ABOUT A SQUARE ROOT !
AW LIFE AS A ZERO.' ATU)ENTY-5IX?0R A
PAR SEVENTH-TWO ?

\ i I- II

LESSON 1

Squares and
77 Square Roots

The idea of a "square root" of a number comes from

the idea of numbers as squares. The number 121, for
example, is the square of 1 1 because it is the area of a
square each of whose sides is 1 1 units long. Eleven, on
the other hand, is a square root of 121. These ideas are
This figure shows
that ll2 = 121 and expressed in the following definition.
that 11 = \ 121.
► root
If y —of x2,
y. Xheny is the square of x and x is a square

It follows from this definition that the number 121 has two square roots
because both 1 12 and (-1 1)2 are equal to 121. Every positive number, in fact, has
two square roots, each of which is the opposite of the other. The positive root of
121 is represented by the symbol \f\2\. The symbol V~ is called a radical
sign. The negative root of 121 is represented by the symbol -\f\2\. To repre-
sent the two square roots of a positive number, a, we write yfa and - \/a. The
radical sign gets its name from the Latin word radix, which means "root."
Although every positive number has two square roots, many cannot be
expressed exactiy in decimal form. For example, the positive square root of 50
is a number between 7 and 8 because 72 = 49 and 82 = 64. Furthermore,
because 50 is much closer to 49 than it is to 64, it would seem that \/50 is closer
to 7 than it is to 8. The calculations below show that \/50 is larger than 7.071
but less than 7.072.

72 = 49 82 = 64
7.02 = 49.00 7.12 = 50.41
7.072 = 49.9849 7.082 = 50.1264
7.07 12 = 49.999041 7.0722 = 50.013184

No matter how far this table is continued, we will never come to a number in
decimal form whose square is exactly 50. For this reason, we have to settle for
approximate square roots for most numbers. Approximate square roots can be
found in tables, such as the one on page 563, or with a calculator that has a
square-root key, or by other methods.
Although positive numbers have two square roots, the number zero has only
one, itself. Because there is no positive or negative number whose square is
negative, negative numbers do not seem to have any at all. For this reason,
mathematicians felt for a long time that negative numbers did not have square
roots. Eventually, they devised a new set of numbers, called "imaginary"
numbers, that are square roots of negative numbers. Although imaginary num-
bers have turned out to be much more useful than their name suggests, we will
not study them in this course. For our purposes, negative numbers will not have
square roots.

Exercises

Set I
1. Solve each of the following equations for x.
a) 8x + 3 = 3(x + 8)
6x + x* - 5
b) 2(3x - 5) - 7x = 1 1 a) in descending powers of x.
c) 6(x + 4) - 4(x - 6) = 64
x2 + xy + _y3 + x3_y2
2. Rewrite each of the following polynomials b) in descending powers of x.
in the form indicated. c) in descending powers of v.

Lesson 1: Squares and Square Roots 559

 -'"T-i"-t i V"-" I
3. The sign in this photograph doesn't make
any sense.
a) According to the sign, how many
minutes are you allowed to wait between
9:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m.?
b) Write a formula for the number of
minutes, y, that you are allowed to wait
during a period of x hours.
c) How does y in your formula vary with
respect to x?

Set II
4. List all of the square roots of each of the numbers, each correct to the nearest
following numbers. integer.
a) 49 d) 900
b) 4 e) 0 e) 36 g) 3,600
c) -4 f) -25 f) 360 h) 36,000
5. Use the table of squares and square roots *8. The following table lists some
on page 563 to express, where possible, approximations of Vl26.
each of the following as either an integer or
a number in decimal form. Round answers To the nearest tenth: 11.2
in decimal form to the nearest hundredth. To the nearest hundredth: 1 1 .22
To the nearest thousandth: 11.225
a) (45)2 g) (7.2)2
b) (-54)2 h) V5129 a) Square each of these numbers.
c) v^5 b) Which approximations are smaller and
d) \^54 which are larger than y426?
e) V6,084
9. Express each of the following as an integer.
f) (6.083)2
6. Between what two consecutive integers are a) ^144 e) (V7)2
each of the following square roots?
b) -V8T f) \/V
c) (^/16)2 g) VPF
a) ViO d) -\/33
b) \/20 e) \/l24 d) VW
c) -V3 f) \/T^40 10. What symbol, >, =, or <, should replace
1111 in each of the following? (Remember
7. Find the squares of the following numbers.
that the square roots listed in the table are
a) 8 c) 800
b) 80 d) 8,000 approximate.)
a) 16 -9 ill 144
Find the square roots of the following
b) 162-92|||||||1442

560 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 c) \ 16- \9 \ 144 . Find an integer equal to each of the
following.
d) 16 + 9 25
e) 162 + 92 252
0 \ 16 +9 \S a) \/l00 - 36
1) 7 b) \/100 - \/36
r) 16 -
\25
hi 92 72
162- - \9 c) \/4-
d) \/4^9\/9
i) \ 16 -- \4
\4 e) V52 + 122
ki \20 >/7 f) \/5T+ \122
\/20 \24
1) \/20- V4III V§0
\ 16

Set III
12. List all of the square roots of each of the
following numbers.
a) 16 d) -16 *16. The following table lists some
b) 9 e) 1 approximations of \ 172.
c) 169 f) -100
To the nearest tenth: 13.1
1 3. Use the table of squares and square roots To the nearest hundredth: 13.11
on page 563 to express, where possible, To the nearest thousandth: 13.115
each of the following as either an integer
or a number in decimal form. Round a) Square each of these numbers.
answers in decimal form to the nearest b) Which approximations are smaller and
hundredth. which are larger than \ 172?
a) (38)2 e) \^476 17. Express each of the following as an integer,
b) (-83)2 f) (5.477)2
a) A 64 e) ( \ T5)2
c) V38 g)(1.9)2
d) \^83 h) \fS2A b)-\fU\ f) yls2"
14. Between what two consecutive integers are c) (\5)2 g) \ (-15)2
each of the following square roots?
18. What symbol, >, =, or <, should replace
a) y/Yf d) - \/88 11 in each of the following? (Remember
b) \ 34 e) \ 300 d) \92
that the square roots listed in the table are
c) -\ 8 f) \/3,000
approximate.)
15. Find the squares of the following numbers. a) 25-4 100
a) 11 c) 1,100
b) 25^42 _ 1002
b) 110 d) 11,000
c) \/25- \1 ' \l00
Find the square roots of the following d) 25 + 4 29
numbers, each correct to the nearest e) 25^ 42 _ 292 _
integer. f) \ 25 + \ 4 \ 29
g) 25 - 4 21
e) 4 h) 252_- 42 _ 212 _
f) 40 h) 4,000 i) \^5- \4 \ 21
g)400

Lesson 1: Squares and Square Roots

 j) Vn + V9IIIII V20 19. following.
Find an integer equal to each of the
k) Vn- V9IIIIII V2
i) vrr-v^iiiiiV99 a) \/9 + 16 d) VXV - V81
b) Vl72
c) V9 + -y^lo"
82 fe)) V4
V^^lo"
• V36

Set IV
Augustus De Morgan, an English mathematician of the nineteenth century, once

"I was x years old in the year x2."

Can you figure out in what year he was born? (Remember that you are living i
the twentieth century.)

562 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

Table of Squares and Approximate Square Roots
Number root
Square Number root Number root
Square Square
1 1 1 ll Square
1681 6.403 81 6561 Square
9
Square
2 4 1.414 42 1764 6.481 82 6724 9.055
3 9 1.732 43 1849 83 6889 9.110
6.557
4 16 2 44 1936 6.633 84 7056 9.165
7225 9.220
5 25 2.236 45 2025 6.708 85
2116 7396
6 36 2.449 46 6.782 86 9.274
7 49 2.646 47 6.856 87 7569 9.327
2209
8 64 2.828 48 2304 6.928 88
90 7744 9.381
9 81 3 49 2401 7 89 7921 9.434
50 2500 7.071 8100
10 100 3.162 91 9.487
7.141
11 121 3.317 51 2601 9.539
144 3.464 52 2704 7.211 92 8281
8464 9.592
12
13 169 3.606 53 2809 7.280 93 8649 9.644
14 196 3.742 54 2916 7.348 94 8836 9.695
15 225 3.873 55 3025 7.416 95 9025 9.747
96
16 256 4 56 3136 7.483 9216 9.798
7.550 98
17 289 4.123 58 3249 97 9409 9.849
18 324 4.243 57 3364 7.616 9604 9.899
7.681
19 361 4.359 59 3481
99 9801 9.950
20 400 4.472 60 3600 7.746 100 10000 10

21 441 4.583 61 3721 7.810

22 484 4.690 62 3844 7.874
23 529 4.796 63 3969 7.937
24 576 4.899 64 4096 8
25 625 5 65 4225 8.062

26 676 5.099 66 4356 8.124

27 729 5.196 67 4489 8.185
28 784 5.292 68 4624 8.246
29 841 5.385 69 4761 8.307
30 900 5.477 70 4900 8.367

31 961 5.568 71 5041 8.426

32 1024 5.657 72 5184 8.485
33 1089 5.745 73 5329 8.544
34 1156 5.831 74 5476 8.602
35 1225 5.916 75 5625 8.660

36 1296 6 76 5776 8.718

37 1369 6.083 77 5929 8.775
38 1444 6.164 78 6084 8.832
39 1521 6.245 79
80 6241 8.888
1600 6.325 6400 8.944
40

Lesson 1: Squares and Square Roots 563

 LESSON

Square Roots
of Products

&9 e9 z/9 V9 91/2 Sir Isaac Newton

Although our symbol for "the positive square root of nine" is \/9, it has not
always been written that way. Some of the symbols that have been used in the
past to mean the same thing are shown above. The last of these was used by Sir
Isaac Newton, who is famous not only as a scientist, but also as one of the
inventors of calculus.

Why did Newton use the exponent — to represent square root? To find out,
look at the following pattern, which has as its basis the law of exponents.

93.93
92.92
91.91
:Q3-3
-.92-2
If $ fits this pattern, then

:9i+i
#-# = 9H = 9'
This means that

(9^ = 9
 It follows that 9i must be a square root of 9. For consistency, 9^ is defined as
the positive square root of 9:

9i = V9 = 3

► In general, if x is a nonnegative number,

x^ means Vx

When square roots are considered to be powers, the laws of exponents that we
lready know
already know continue to be true. For example, letting a — — in the power of a
product law,

we get {xyf = xaya

(xyfi = xty
or
Vxy = VxVy

This is a very useful result.

► For any two nonnegative numbers x and y,

Vxy = Vx- Vy

This law makes it possible to "simplify" the square roots of many numbers by
expressing them in terms of the square roots of smaller ones. Consider, for
example, \/200. Although this number is not included in the table on page 563,
we can find its approximate value by doing the following:

\/200 = VlOO-2 = VYOO • \[2 = 10\/2

Because \^ ~ 1.414, \/2^0 ~ 10(1.414) = 14.14.

When \/200 is written as 10 V2, it is said to be expressed in simple radical form.

Lesson 2: Square Roots of Products 565

 > The square root of an integer is in simple radical form if the integer has no
factors that are squares of integers other than 1 and -1.

Here is another example of how to express a square root in simple radical

form.

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify \/48.
SOLUTION
The largest factor of 48 that is the square of an integer is 16:

V48 = \716-3 = \/l6- y/3 = 4\/3

Because 3 has no factors that are squares of integers other than 1 and -1, 4\ 3 is in
simple radical form.

The same procedure can be applied to the square roots of monomials that
have one or more factors that are squares. In such cases, we will assume that the
variables represent nonnegative numbers.

► The square root of a monomial is in simple radical form if the monomial has
no factors that are squares of monomials other than 1 and - 1 .

Here are examples of how square roots of monomials can be simplified.

EXAMPLE 2

Simplify y/x*.

/(x3)2 = x3
EXAMPLE 3

Simplify \J15x1.
SOLUTION

\/75xT= V3 • 25 • x • x6 = V25x6 • 3x = \f25x~* '• \/lx~ = 5x3\/3x~

566 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

Exercises
c)
Set 1
1. If possible, reduce each of these fractions
x2 + 7x
lO.vv2 x2 + 3.x + 6
+ 2
M ' ***
4.v ++ 11
2. Find each of these products.
a) .v • 2x2 • 3.v3 • 4.v4
b) x(2x2 + 3.v3 + 4.v4)
c) {x + 2.y2)(3a-3 + 4.v4)
3. The graph at the right is a rectangle.
a) Find the slope of each of its sides.
b) What do you notice about the slopes?

Set II
4 . Write each of the following in radical form.
a) 1$ e) 3x2y 6. Write each of the following in simple radical
form.
b) (6x)i f) 3xyi
c) 6X1? g) 3(*y)^ a) Vl2 e) \ 125
d) (x^
b) \/63 f) V396
Write each of the following in exponential c) V32 g) n/747
form.
d) \/90 h) \/5400
7. Find the approximate value of each of the
i)
h) 5y/x
Y^ m) xy/ly
1) yjx~y following square roots by first simplifying
j) \f5x n) lOxy/y and then using the table on page 563.
k) \/xy a) \207 c) \/700

. What number should replace in each of b) \rM d) \77000

the following equations to make it true? 8. What expression should replace in each
a) \^TT = \TT of the following equations to make it true?
b) \/7-25 = \ 7 Assume that x > 0.
c) V16-36• 5 = 111 a) \/49x= My/x
f)
d) V81-81 = lllllll
O b) \bx2 = \ 6
13 = =
•17
• 100 c) \/2.v3-2.v3
= lllllll =
Vl72-15 \ 13 d) Vx*
B) V 2- == 3, \ 15
3-31 17. e) \^=!llv^
f) V*^ =11111
V4-
h) v/3-
Lesson 2: Square Roots of Products 567
3-
 . Where possible, express each of the 10. Write each of the following either as a
following as a monomial. Assume that monomial or in simple radical form. Assume
x>0. that x > 0.
a) \/9x2 c) \ 36x a) \/64Jc d) \/40x2
b) V** d) ( \/36x)2 b) v^1 e) Vm^
c) VF f) V18jc18

Set III
11. Write each of the following in radical form.
14. Find the approximate value of each of the
following square roots by first simplifying
a) 3*
b) (14x)2 e) 7(xy)2 and then using the table on page 563.
c) 14x4 f) 7xfy
a) \/l47 c) y/300
d) (x5)^ g) 7*yi b) \/l48 d) V3000
Write each of the following in exponential
form. 15. What expression should replace l!ii! in each
of the following equations to make it true?
h) VS Assume that x > 0.
i) 11 Vx a) \/36J=«|||||\/x
b) \ lO.v2 = \ 10
c) \/5x3 • 5x3 = Hill!
j) Vnx~ d) \^=|||||||fl|
m) xV3y
\Zx~i
1) k) 4x\/y~
n) V2xy e)f) V^=M
\/9x^ =1111111
12. What number should replace 111 in each of 16. Where possible, express each of the
the following equations to make it true? following as a monomial. Assume that
a) V4^l3 = «IBiVl3 x>0.
b) \/5T8l =1111111 V5
c) A ^49 = 11111
d) \/64^64 = ffl!l
a) \/81x2
e) v^T3^7 = IHV7
f) V15- 11 - 15 = 15VHIir 1 7. c)
Write " of the following either as a
V*each
b)y7!^
g) V16-5- 100 = 11111 \/5 monomial or in simple radical form. Assume
h) V2-2.2-23 = 2VU d)(\/r6x"0.)2
that x >
13. Write each of the following in s mple radical
form.
a) VlOOx
a) \/l8 e) \600
b) V20 f) \/284
c) V48 g) V343
d) V99 h) V825 b) Vx™
c) Vx^
568 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS
*
d) \f2Ax~
x1"
e) \Z8l
~*
f) \/%x bl
Set IV
Orbiting the earth are a large number of
communication and weather satellites. In order
for a satellite to stay in orbit, it must have a
speed given by the formula

/4 x 10"
in which v represents the speed in meters per
second and d represents the satellite's distance
from the center of the earth in meters.
Can you figure out the approximate speed of
these satellites, given that they are 4.2 x 107
meters from the center of the earth? If so, show
your method.

Lesson 2: Square Roots of Products 569

 LESSON 3
Square Roots
of Quotients

If the earth were flat, the distance a person could see in each direction might
depend on how good a telescope he or she had. Because the earth is curved,
however, it is impossible to see beyond a circle called the horizon. The size of
this circle depends on the observer's height above the ground: the greater the
height, the larger the circle becomes.

-V
horizon
A formula for the distance to the horizon circle, d, is

d:
in which d is measured in miles and h, the
V observer's
2 height above the ground, is
measured in feet. According to this formula, if the bug in this cartoon were one
foot above the ground, it could not see any farther than

3 /I
(1) = /— miles

How far is that? To answer this question, we have to find the square root of
a fraction. This is usually not very easy to do. Fortunately, however, the square
root of a fraction can be found from the square roots of the numerator and
denominator. The method has as its basis the power of a quotient law:

©
Letting a ■.

This law lets us express the square roots of many fractions as the quotients of
square roots of integers. For example,

[J _ V3
(f)!
V 2 ~ ~V2
According to the table on page 563, \/3 ~ 1-732 and \fl ~ 1.414, and so

^
\[2 = ^=,.225
1.414

If you are working with pencil and paper, there is an easier way to get this
answer than by dividing 1.414 into 1.732. Before changing the square root of the
fraction into a quotient, first rewrite the fraction so that its denominator is a
square. Because — = — - — = — ,
4 2 2-2 4'

[J _ [6 _ V6 _ V6 _ 2.449 _
V ~2 ~ V 7 ~ ^4 ~ ~Y ^' 2 ~~

So a distance of /— miles is approximately 1.225 miles.

Lesson 3: Square Roots of Quotients 571

 The square root of any fraction can be simplified in the same way. If the
denominator of the fraction is not a square, we begin by transforming the
fraction into one whose denominator is a square:

fa fab

The square root of the fraction can then be rewritten as the quotient of two
square roots:
fab \fab

\ 71 ~ \/¥
Because the denominator of this quotient is the square root of a square, it can be
rewritten as an integer or monomial:

\fab \fab

~Vbany
Finally, if the numerator contains ~b~ that are squares of monomials
^ =factors
other than 1, it can be changed to simple radical form.
Remember that we do not consider negative numbers to have square roots.
Because of this, we will assume that any variable or expression under a radical
sign represents a nonnegative number.
Here are more examples of how to simplify square roots of fractions.

EXAMPLE 1

ify H*
- and find its approximate value.
SOLUTION
Because the denominator of the fraction is already a square, we can write
/— = — — — . According to the table on page 563, y/fzz 2.646, and so
V 9 \/9 3
V7 2.646 n nnn
Ar- = — r— ~ 0.882.

572 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION
Although we could make the denominator of this fraction into a square by
multiplying it by 12, 12 • 12 = 144, multiplying it by 3 is simpler: 12 • 3 = 36.
~ 0.646
3.873

EXAMPLE 3

/3

/3x~ \/3x y/3x

Exercises

Set I
1. Write each of the following sums or 3. The amount of heat lost through a
products as a single fraction. windowpane depends on several things,
including the thickness of the glass. Here is
a> -xx
+- C> I + I8
d). 2 a table showing the heat loss through several
windows of equal size under identical
conditions.

b)- Thickness
2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous of glass 2 4 6 8 10
equations. in mm, x
a) x = ly + 3 b) 2x + 5v = 23 Heat loss
in calories, 300 150 100 75 60
y = 3x - 7 5x - 2y = 14

Lesson 3: Square Roots of Quotients 573

 a) How does the heat lost. y3 vary with c) How much heat would be lost through a
respect to the thickness of the window 5 millimeters thick under the
windowpane, x? same conditions?
b) \X rite a formula for y in terms of x.

Set II d):
4. Write fractions whose denominators are 8. What expression should replace , ; in each
squares, equivalent to the following. of the following equations to make it true?
1 Assume that x > 0.
IT Vx d)A^ =
3) \ 64 ~
e) ^ = ^

b A '—.v- =—x
% fii ■ ' A /x 20+ ■1"'•". a'5x■ + 5

*G 5
■

.
r*~
5. What number should replace in each of m
Ax x
the following equations to make it true? c) 3) =
A
9. Express 81each of the following as a quotient
Hl~ V3 c)w
, /2 = \T4 without a square root in the denominator.
a)Vl6= — Assume that x > 0. A x'

b) /J =111 C)
b)a) f±.
l\
A^5

. Write each of the following radicals as a e) A &

x
quotient without a square root in the
denominator. A 3

\ 9
4 ^
10. Whenever a variable is written under a
\ 8 x4 we assume that it represents a
radical A sign,
nonnegative number. To see why, do the
A 12
following exercises.

it \ 50
7. Find the approximate value of each of the
Find the values of \ 25x2 and 5x if
a) x = 2 d) x = -1
following square roots by first simplifying b) x = 6 e) x = -4
c) .
[x^
and then using the table on page 563. c) x = 0
b)[3
d) /5
A 4
\ 3 f) x = 5
A 10
A 20 g) x = 10
h) x = -5
574 /-I
Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS
 ^ x x .„
D°CSV25=T'f
Does \l25x1 = 5x if
i) x is a nonnegative number? k) x is a nonnegative number?
j) x is a negative number? 1) x is a negative number?

Set III
Write
a) fractions whose denominators are 15. What expression should replace III' in each
squares, equivalent to the following. of the following equations to make it true?
1 a\ x _ vi
Assume that x > 0.

3 d)2
144 _ 111
nr 1111
, 9
0|

12. What number should replace 1111 in each of

the following equations to make it true?

0-
rjr_Vi
'49 " iiiiii
C) f±- v^~
C) Vi^ ~TT
T2T . /I 1111
10

1 3. Write each of the following radicals as 1

quotient without a square root in the 16. Express each of the following as a quotient
denominator.
without a square root in the denominator.
Assume that x > 0.
32
fn
VJ-r I2
I1
72

14. Find the approximate value of each of the

following square roots by first simplifying
and then using the table on page 563.

Lesson 3: Square Roots of Quotients 575

 17. Whenever a variable is written under a Find the values of
y 16 4
radical sign, we assume that it represents i
nonnegative number. To see why, do the T7 and T rf
following exercises.

0* =
h) x = -4
Does \/l6x2 = ix if
Find the values of \/16.v2 and 4x if i) x is a nonnegative number?
a) x = 3 j) x is a negative number?
b) x = 10
c) x = 0 Does V /—16 = -4 if
d) x = -2
e) x = -5 k) x is a nonnegative number?
1) .v is a negative number?

Set IV

In 1966, Nicholas Piantanida took off in a

balloon from Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and
reached an altitude of about 123,800 feet before
landing in a corn field in Iowa.
Can you use the formula given at the
beginning of this lesson and the table on page
563 to estimate the greatest distance in each
direction on the earth that he was able to see
while taking this trip?

576 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 LESSON 4
Adding and
Subtracting
Square Roots
This figure consists of a set of triangles winding around a point. The outer sides
of the triangles look very much like a spiral, a curve that appears in nature in the
horns of a ram. Each triangle was drawn so that it contains a right angle (marked
by a small square) and so that its outer side is 1 unit long. It is possible to prove,
by means of the Pythagorean Theorem, that the inner sides of the triangles are
equal in length to the square roots of the consecutive integers from 1 through 17.
As a result, this figure might be called a "spiral of square roots."
If you take a good look at the segments in the figure whose lengths are \[l,
\/3j and \/5, you will see that

V2+ V3> V5

In fact, for every pair of positive numbers, x and y,

Vx + Vy > V* + y
 There is no general equation relating \ x, \ v, and \ x + y, so nothing can be
done to "simplify" an expression such as \ 2 + \ 3.
On the other hand, an expression such as \ 1 + \ 4 can be simplified
because \ 1 + \ 4 = 1 + 2 = 3. Furthermore, it is often possible to simplify
the sum (or difference) of two square roots by the procedure illustrated by the
following examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Simplify \ 8 + \ 18.
SOLUTION
Both 8 and 18 have factors that are squares, and so we can write

V8 + Vl8 = 5^
\/4^2 + V^2
= V5V2+ \9\2
= 2V2 + 3\ 2

EXAMPLE 2
Simplify \ 75 — \ 3.

\3= \25-3_- \3_

= \ 25\ 3 -_\ 3
= 4\3
5\3- \3

EXAMPLE 3
Simplify \/x + \ 9.v.

\ x + \ 9.v = \ .V + \ 9\ x
== 4\x
\ A_+ 3 \ X

Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

Exercises

Set I
1 . Change each of the following to the form 3. This figure is called an isosceles trapezoid.
described.

. 6* ,

and a fraction.
a) Its perimeter, like that of a rectangle, is
- as the difference of two the sum of the lengths of its four sides.
c) Write -
Write a formula for the perimeter, p, of
this figure.
b) The area of a trapezoid is equal to the
product of half its altitude, h, and the
fractions. sum of its bases, a and b. Write a formula
for the area, A, of this figure.
2. Find x in each of the following equations.
a) 25 • 212 = 2* c) 52 + 122 = x2
b) 52 • 122 = x2 d) (5 + 12)2 = x2

Set I 5. If possible, simplify each of the following

4 Write a multiplication problem equivalent to sums and differences as shown in the
each of the following addition problems. examples of this lesson.
a) \/5 + V5 + V5 a) 6V2 + 5\/2 /T2 + 3\/3
b) 6 \/2 - 5 \/2 h) V20 + \/5
b)\/3+V3+\/3+\/3+\/3 c) 6V2+ \/2 i) 8 V2 - V8
c) Vx+Vx+Vx+Vx+Vx+Vx+y/x d) 6V2 - \/2
j) VU+ \/99
e) ^6+ \/7 k) V54- v^4
f ) V7 - \/6 1) V24- V54
d) Vl\x~ + Vl\x~ + VTlx~ + VlYx Use the table on page 563 as necessary to
Write an addition problem equivalent to
find the value of each of the following
each of the following multiplication
expressions. Round any approximate answers
problems. to the nearest tenth.
e) 2\/l0 a) V4 + \/36 c) vTT+ \/5
b) V4 + 36 d) \/ll + 5
f) 5Vx~
Lesson 4: Adding and Subtracting Square Roots 579
 -- 9V9
h) 2\/3 + 1 d)
e) \/lO-
i) 2V^TT e) 64y/25i
\/xy -+ y£
\/64xy
f) Vio -
g)2V3 )') V2(3 + 1) 0 V^-y/y
7. Simplify. g) V28^+ \/7*
a\
a)
11 _L 0
(7 + . 1 -U l"v/^ h) \/72Jc- v^2x
b) (3 + V3) + (6 + \/6) 9. Solve each of the following equations for x.
c) (18+ v/18) + (2+ V2) Leave your answers in radical form but
d) (1 + \/lO) + (1 - \ZiO) simplify them as much as possible.
e) (5 + 5\/2)-(4 + 4\/2)
f) (75 + V75) - (27 + V27j b) x + V9 = yf\9
a) a: + \/8 = v7!^"
8. If possible, simplify. Assume that the c) x - \/TT = \/l 100
variables represent positive numbers. d) yT44 + * = V64
e) 3x + \/32 = \/200
a) 4V* + 16 V*
f ) \/5x - V45 = \/l25
b) x\/4 + a:\/16
c) x + Vx

Set III
10. Write a multiplication problem equivalent to
each of the following addition problems. Use the table on page 563 as necessary to
find the value of each of the following
a) \2 +V2+\/2+\/2+\/2+v/2
b) \/6+ V6 expressions. Round any approximate answers
c) \/x + Vjc+ V* + V* + V* to the nearest tenth.
d) \/5x + y/5x + V5x + y/5x + \^5x + a) \/l6 + \/64
y/5x + y/5x
b) \/l6 + 64 f) Vl5 - 12
Write an addition problem equivalent to c) \/40 + V9
each of the following multiplication d) V40 + 9 h) 3\/2 - 1
g)3V2
i) 3\/2 - 1
problems. e) \/T5 - \ffi
13. Simplify.
e) 3^7 j) V3(2 - 1)
f) 4V7 a) (1 +4v/6) + 10
(4 + 2V6)
b) (5 + \/5) + ( + \/l0)
1 i. If possible, simplify each of the following 8 - \/2)
sums and differences as shown in the c) (12 + \fU) + (3 + y/3)
examples of this lesson. d) (8 + \/2) +
a) 5 V3 + 4 \/3 e) (4 + 4V7)- -(3(20+ +3\/7)
\ 20)
b) 5\/3-4V3 i) 9Y5- \20 f) (80 + \/80) -
c) 5^3+ V3 j) Vl3+ V52 14. If possible, simplify. Assume that the
d) 5 v3 - \/3 k) \/63- \/28 variables represent positive numbers.
e) \/io+ vTT 1) V28- \/63 a) 25 V* + 9 V* e) 81 \fxy - \/81xy
f) vTT- \/io b) xy/25 + x\/9 f) Vx+ y/y
g) \Zl8 + 7V/2 c) x - \/x g) \/44x + yTEc
h) \/24 + x 6 d) \ 49.t + y/4x h) \/147jc - \/27lc

580 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

15. Solve each of the following equations for x.
Leave your answers in radical form but c) x — \fl = a/700
simplify them as much as possible. d) Vl21 + x = \/8T
a) x + VY2 = a/27 e) 2x + a/5 = a/505
b) x + a/10 = V25 f) \/3x - a/L? = \/75

Set IV
Even though he is repeating algebra for the seventeenth time, Reckless Rex still
thinks that

1. Do you think this is ever true? Explain your answer.

2. Which side of this "equation" is usually larger?

Lesson 4: Adding and Subtracting Square Roots 581

 LESSON 5 "// only he could think in abstract t,

Multiplying
Square Roots

The calculation written on the blackboard by the man in this cartoon contains
several operations, including addition, multiplication, and finding a square root.
We have already learned how to add and subtract expressions containing square
roots. In this lesson we will learn how to multiply them.
Although \fl + \/3 is not equal to V5> it is true that \fl • y/3 = y/6. This
follows from the fact that, if neither x nor y are negative numbers,

VxVy = Vxy
This principle is used in simplifying expressions containing products of square
roots. It is often combined with one or more of the following patterns, which
you have already used many times.

a(b + c) — ab + ac
(a + b)(c 4- d) — ac + ad + be + bd
(a + b)2 = a2 + lab + b2
(a - b)2 = a2 - lab + b2
(a + b)(a - b) = a2 - b2
 Here are examples of how expressions containing square roots are multiplied.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the product of \/3 and yf<

( \/3)( V48) = v7^7^" = \/l44 = 12

EXAMPLE 2

Find the product of 4\/x and 5 V**- Assume that x > 0.

(4\/xj(5 V*3) = 20 Vx* = 20x2

EXAMPLE 3

Multiply \/2 and V§ - \/6.

SOLUTION
Using the distributive rule, we write

V2(V5- \'6)== \^V8-

\/l6 - Vl2V2V6
= 4 - V4^3
= 4 - 2\/3

EXAMPLE 4

Find ( \/x + y7?)2- Assume that .r > 0.

SOLUTION

Treating (y/x + \^1)2 as the square of a binomial, we write

(V^+ v/7)2 = (v^)2 + 2(vW7) + (\/7)2
= x + 2y/lx + 7

Lesson 5: Multiplying Square Roots 583

 EXAMPLE 5
Find the product of \/l6 + y/3x and \/l0 — \/3x.
SOLUTION
Because the product of the sum and difference of two numbers is equal to the
difference of their squares, we write

( \/T0 + \/3^)( \/T0 - V5*j == (10\/T0)2

- 3x - ( \/3^)2

EXAMPLE 6

Multiply 3 - \ ^ and 8 + 5 \r2.

SOLUTION
Treating 3 — \ ^ and 8 + 5 y/l as binomials, we write
(3 - v5)(8 + 5V2) = 24 + 3(5 \/2) - 8\/2 - V2(5v/2)
= 24 + 15 V2- 8v^- 10
= 14 + 7\/2.

The first line of this solution shows the four terms that are products of the terms of
3 - \/2 and 8 + 5 \fl.

Exercises

Set I
1. If possible, factor each of these polynomials. You may want to refer to the table of square
a) 4.v — lx2 roots on page 563.
b) 2.v2 - 15.v + 7 a) 10
c) x2 + 2x + 17 b) 100
d) 9xy - xY c) 1,000
2. Find the square roots of the following d) 10,000
numbers, each correct to the nearest integer. e) 100,000

584 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 3. The Great Wall of China, built about 300
B.C., is the longest wall in the world. Spaced
along it were 40,000 watchtowers. If these
towers had been built 10 meters closer
together and the wall had remained the same
length, there would have been 48,000 of
them instead.
a) Write an equation for this problem,
letting x represent the distance in meters
between each pair of watchtowers.
(Assume that the towers were evenly
spaced along the wall.)
b) How many meters long is the wall?

Set II
. Multiply and simplify, 7. Multiply and simplify. Assume that the
a) (V3)(V27) g)(10V2)(10x/T8) variables represent positive numbers.
b)(V2Q)(V2) h)(V3)(\/T4)(V42) a) (\/13 + 2)(aA3-2)
c) (vTT)(v^9) i) 2(8 + V8)
b) (13 + V2)(13 - V2)
d)(V5X12V5) j) V2(V8 + 8) c) (VT3+ V2)(V^3- V2)
e) (V5)(5\/l2) k) ^7(V7- 1) d)(V^-4)(V^+4)
f) (2\/i0)(18\/T0) 1) V3(V27+ v/3) e) (x - x/T0)(x + >/l0)
5. Multiply and simplify. Assume that x > 0. 0 (Vw+ Vb)(Vxy- V6)
8. Multiply and simplify,
a) ( v^)(9 V^) d) (5 v^)(7 v^7)
b)(\^)(V^) e)4(4+V^) a) (5+ V2)(l +3^)
c) ( VSx~)( V/18^) f ) V^(4 + >A) b)(v/8-4)(V/8-3)
6. Square each of the following expressions as c) (1 + V5)(l + \/6)
indicated. d) (12 - V3)(3 + v^2)
a) (\/3T5)2 e) (3+ V$)2
b) ( V^5)2 f ) (5 + V3)2
c) (3V5)2 g)(V3+^/5)2
d) (5 V3)2 h) ( V50 - v^)2

Lesson 5: Multiplying Square Roots 585

 Set III 1 1 . Square each of the following expressions as
indicated.
9. Multiply and simplify.
a) (V2)(V32) a) (\/2~TT)2 e)(2+V7)2
b)(\/!0)(\/5) bMv^)2 f)(7+V^)2
c) (V7XV28) c) (2\/7)2 g)(v/2+V7)2
d)(V8)(6V8) d) (7V2)2 h) (V60 - Vl5)2
e) (V8)(8V6) 12. Multiply and simplify. Assume that the
f) (3V5)(27V5) variables represent positive numbers.
g)(5V3)(5V27) a) (11 + V3X11 - V3)
h)(V6)(vTT)(V66) b)(vff+3)(vTT-3)
i) 12(3 + V3) c) (VIT+ V3)(Vn- V3)
j) Vl2(V3 + 3) d) (2 - v^)(2 + V^)
k) V2(l - V2) e) (V5-*XV5 + X)
1) V5(V20- V5) f) (v^- v$j(\^ + VJO
10. Multiply and simplify. Assume that x > 0. 13. Multiply and simplify,
a) (6+ V5X2 + 2V5)
a) (25v£"X^0 e)6(v^+6)
b)(Vl3-3XVl3-2)
c) (^j(V&0 c) (4 - V3)(4 + V3)
d)(3V^)(9V^) d) (8 - V2X2 + V8)

Set IV
Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, should 5. Is that pattern true for
replace 111 in each of the following? VT+V2+\/3+v/4+ V5IMI
i. vr+ V21111111 Vi- V2 VT • \/2 • \/3 • V4 • V5?
2. Vl+ V2+ v^llllllvT. V2-\/3 The relation that holds for the sums and
3. V~\ + V2+ \/3+ V4IIIII1 products of square roots in part 5 works for
VT • \/2 • V3 • V4 all larger numbers.
4. What general pattern does this suggest?

586 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 LESSON 6
Dividing Square Roots
One of the most beautiful temples of ancient Greece was the Parthenon. Built in
Athens in the fifth century B.C., its design is thought to be based on a figure
called the golden rectangle. A golden rectangle can be constructed by first
drawing a square and then marking the midpoint of its base as shown in the first
figure at the right. With this point as center, part of a circle is drawn that goes
through the upper right corner of the square as shown in the second figure. The
rectangle is completed as shown in the third figure.
The front of the Parthenon fits almost exactly into a golden rectangle, as the i \
figure below illustrates. It can be shown that the length of a golden rectangle is
/
1- times as long as its width. How many times is that? //
/
/

587
 Because of the square root in its denominator, this fraction is not easy to
evaluate. To make the work easier, we can use the fact that

(a + b){a - b) = a2 - b2
If we multiply the denominator of the fraction, \/5 — 1, by \/5 + 1, we get

(V5 + l)(\/5 - 1) = (\/5)2 - I2 - 5 - 1 = 4

As you may have guessed from the exercises in Lesson 5, this always happens. If
an expression of the form \fx — y is multiplied by an expression of the form
Vx+y,
(v* - y)( v* +y) = (Vx)2 - y2 = x - y2
the result does not contain a square root.
Expressions such as x - Vy
x + Vy
and vy
Vx+y
/x + \/y and
Vx - y
and
Vx- \
are conjugates of each other. The result of multiplying two conjugates is an
expression that does not contain any square roots. This means that, if the
denominator of a fraction has one of these forms, the fraction can be trans-
formed into one whose denominator does not contain any square roots by
multiplying its numerator and denominator by the appropriate conjugate. The
procedure of removing square roots from the denominator of a fraction is called
rationalizing the denominator.
We can rationalize the denominator of the fraction comparing the length and
width of a golden rectangle in the following way:

2 2(V5+ 1)
1 (V5-1XV5 + 1)
2(\/5+ 1)
5 - 1
V5- 2(\/5+ 1)
4

\3 + 1

Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

Because y/5 =r 2.236, \/5 + 1 ~ 3.236 and + ~ 1.618. The length of a
golden rectangle is approximately 1.618 times as long as its width.
Here are more examples of how to rationalize the denominator of a fraction.

EXAMPLE 1
2
Rationalize the denominator of — — .

SOLUTION
We can remove the \/3 from the denominator by multiplying numerator and
denominator by \/3. V3

2 2\/3 2\/3
\/3 V3\/3 3

EXAMPLE 2

Rationalize the denominator of

SOLUTION
Multiplying numerator and denominator by
' the conjugate of 3 + \/6, we get
3+ V6
1 1(3 - V6) _ 3 - V6 _ 3 - \/6
3 + V6 (3 + V6)(3 - V6) 9-6

EXAMPLE 3

Rationalize the denominator of -

SOLUTION

V7- V3
Multiplying numerator and denominator by' the conjugate of \fl — y/3, we get
4 4(\/7 + V3) 4(\/7+ \/3)
V7-V3 (V7- V3)(\/7+ V3) 7-3

Lesson 6: Dividing Square Roots 589

 Exercises

Set I
1 . Write each of the following differences or 2. What symbol, >, =, or <, should replace
quotients as a single fraction in simplest in each of the following?
a) 9 + 9 18
b) 92_+ 92 _ 182
c) \ 9~ + \ 9 \ 18
d)9-9 81
e) 92^92 _ 812 _
f) \/9'\9 \ 81
3. Mr. Orlock has been teaching mathematics
at Transylvania High for eighty years. In
eight more years, he will be five times as old
as he was when he started teaching at the
school.
a) If he is x years old now, what expression
represents
teaching? his age when he started
b) What expression represents his age eight
years from now?
c) Use the information given in the problem
to write an equation.
d) Solve the equation to find Mr. Orlock's
present age.
«Tf
b)Ti
Set II
4. Divide and simplify. page 563. Round each answer to the nearest
hundredth.
C,TH?
^
\'
> \60
e) — — ^
C) — 7= \ 5 6. Divide and simplify.
\84
\ io
. \25.v
5. Find the approximate value of each of the
following expressions by first rationalizing —
the denominator and then using the table on a) > \3.v5

590 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS « ^

 a)

7. Write the conjugate of each of the following b)

expressions.
\/l2 - y/2
a) 8 + y/2 c) x - y/y
b) vT5 - 6 d) y/i + Vy 10. Rationalize the denominator of each of the
/ll
8. Rationalize the denominator of each of the following fractions. Assume that the
following fractions. variables represent positive numbers.
x - V\2
Vy
d)
a) c)- i **-y
b) 3+ l
\/5 c) VU 9-
+ V2 Vx - Vy
Vx + Vy
V7+ 1
V6 2
y/6- \fl - 1 Vx+ 1
11. Solve each of the following equations for >
9. Find the approximate value of each of the
Leave your answers in radical form but
following expressionsb) by first rationalizing
the denominator and then using the table on v£ them as much as possible.
simplify
page 563. Round each answer to the nearest a) V7x = V^ d) -£= = \/l5 d)
a)
hundredth.
b) 2x
- = \/44
r- V5 = x/18
e) 3x
2 ., 10
c) J = V 15 f) ^ = 18
V3-1
V6+ V5

v^_
Set III *% b)

12. Divide and simplify.

a)Vl44
^r e) V
14. Divide and simplify. Assume that x > 0.

b' 5
^ x \fcx~ V2x^

0^
VI08
V50jc
vTo 15. Write the conjugate of each of the following
c) "
- 1
1 3. Find the approximate value of each of the expressions.
^14 a) 6 + V5 c) Vx + y
following expressions by first rationalizing
b) \/l4 - 3 d) Vx - Vy
the denominator and then using the table on
page 563. Round each answer to the nearest 16. Rationalize the denominator of each of the
hundredth. following fractions.
2 „\ 4 V^1
a)75 c)I7f
v*-

d)_ "V6 Vn + i
b)^ 6V11 \Ao + 3
v*~

V2 Lesson 6: Dividing Square Roots 591

a)-
Ao \/7-
V2
 c)

1 7. Find the approximate value of each of the 19. Solve each of the following equations for x.
following expressions by first rationalizing Leave your answers in radical form but
the denominator and then using the table on simplify them as much as possible.
page 563. Round each answer to the nearest a) \ bx = \\2
hundredth. b) 3.r = \ 54
JO 3 1
2+ \3
al -
c) - \ 14 \ 10
b.
\ 5 - .2 \ 15 - \ 5
18. Rationalize the denominator
J.i- of each of the e) 5x = \ 75
following fractions. Assume that the f) y/5x = 75
variables represent positive numbers.
■y&
a) -
\\'xx
c) —=^ -+ y\{y

Set IV
The number relating the dimensions of the golden rectangle, - -j has several

\5- 1
remarkable properties. One of them is its relationship to its reciprocal,
\5 - 1

. What
2. Compare your answer to the value derived in this lesson for -
seems to be true?
\5- 1
3. Prove your observation by writing an equation and showing that the equation
is true.

592 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 LESSON 7
Radical Equations

The first bicycle was built by a Scottish blacksmith named Kirkpatrick Mac-
millan in 1839. Early bicycles had large front wheels and, being rather unstable,
were likely to tip over when going around corners. Even modern bicycles will
tip over if they make too sharp a turn at too great a speed.
The greatest speed at which a cyclist can safely take a corner is given by the
formula

s = 4y7

in which s is the speed in miles per hour and r is the radius of the corner in feet.
What is the radius of the sharpest corner that a cyclist can safely turn if riding at
a speed of 30 miles per hour? Substituting 30 for s in the formula, we get

30 = 4\/r
 To solve this equation for r, we can divide both sides by 4, getting

Squaring both sides of this equation gives

r = (7.5)2 = 56.25

The cyclist cannot turn a corner having a radius of less than 56 feet without
being in danger of tipping over.
To get this answer, we had to solve an equation containing a square root of the
variable. An equation in which the variable appears under a radical sign is a
radical equation. One of the steps in solving such an equation is to square both
sides. Although it is always true that if a = b, a2 = b2, these equations do not
necessarily have the same solutions. Consider, for example, the equation, x = 4.
It obviously has just one solution: 4. The equation that results from squaring
both sides, on the other hand, jc2 = 16, has tzco solutions: 4 and -4. For this
reason, whenever one of the steps in solving an equation consists of squaring
both sides, the solutions that result should be checked to see if they are also
solutions of the original equation.
Here are examples of how to solve radical equations.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation \ x — 1 =7.
SOLUTION
Squaring both sides, we get
x - 1 = 49
x = 50

Because V50 — 1 = \^ = 7, 50 is a solution to the original equation.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation \ x + 9 = 4.

594 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

SOLUTION
Before squaring both sides of the equation, we must get the square root by itself on
one side of the equation. So we subtract 9 from each side:
Vx~ = -5,
x = (-5)2 = 25
But the number 25 is not a solution to the original equation because \f75 + 9 is
not equal to 4. So the equation \fx + 9 = 4 has no solutions.

EXAMPLE 3
Solve the equation \/2x — 5 — 3 = 8.
SOLUTION
Adding 3 to each side, we get

V2x - 5 = 11
Squaring,
2x - 5 = 121
2x = 126
x = 63

Because \/2(63) - 5 - 3 = Vl26 - 5 - 3 = \/l2T - 3 = 1 1 - 3 = 8, 63 is a

solution to the original equation.

EXAMPLE 4
Solve the equation \/2* = 6.
SOLUTION
This is not a radical equation because the variable does not appear under the radical
sign. It can be solved without squaring.
V2 _*V2_^2
V2 V2V2 2

Lesson 7: Radical Equations 595

 Exercises

Set I
1. Guess a formula for the function represented 3. In 1908 something from the sky fell on
by each of these tables. Begin each formula Siberia, causing a tremendous explosion that
with v =. was heard more than 600 miles away. The
1 2 3 4 5 object is thought to have weighed about 107
a) x kilograms and to have been traveling at a
1 1 1 2 5
y 6 3 2 3 6 speed of 4 x 104 meters per second.

0 1 2 3 4 a) Use the formula e = — mv2 to find the

b) x 1 5 25 125 625
y energy, e, in calories released when it hit.
0 1 4 9 16 The letters m and v stand for the mass of
c) X
y 0 1 2 3 4 the object in kilograms and its velocity in
meters per second.
2. Write each of the following as a simple b) A Mars bar contains about 200 calories.
fraction in lowest terms.

4
How many Mars bars would contain the
energy released in this explosion?
X
X

a) -

Set II 5. Find the values of y/x2 + 4x + 4 for the

values of x indicated.
4. If possible, find the value of each of the
following expressions for the value of x
indicated. a) x = 1
b) x = 5
c) jc = 8
d) x = 10
e) How does \/x2 + Ax + 4 compare in
value with x?
f ) Explain why.
/12 + x, if x = 4
g) Does the relation that you found work if
d) 12 + \/x,if x = 4 x = -10? Explain why.
e) V3jc - 2, if x = 9
6. Check the numbers given in the following
f) 3y£- 2, if x = 9
g) V2 - 3*, if x = 9 exercises to see if they are solutions of the
h) 2 - 3 Vx, if x = 9 given equations.
a) Is 32 a solution of \/jc + 4 = 6?
b) Is 1 a solution of 5 y/x = x + 5?

c) Is 4 a solution of Vx — 1 = v'x - 3?
d) Is -9 a solution of \"7 - x = 13 + x?

596 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 7. Solve the following radical equations. Check . Although the following equations contain
each solution. square roots, they can be solved without
a) y/5x = 15 squaring because the variable does not
b)e 5y£= 15 appear under a radical sign. Solve each
) equation. Leave your answers in radical
c) \/5~T7= = 150
d) 5 + V* = 15 form but simplify them as much as possible.
2\^+4 = 0
n
i) 2y* + 4 = 0
a) x - \ TO = 10

g) V2x + 4 = 0 b) -^= = 10
hi
V2jc + 4
i) i)V2x - 7
= Y-V + ^ c) x + y/3 = \/27
k, V2x + 7 == 3x2 9 d) \ 3.v = _\ 27
Y-V -
V* + 8 = -- 11 e) 2x - \ 8_= 0
n) f ) 2(.v - V8) = 0
mi V§x~ = 3
\ 6 - x =
6 - \ x = :kH11

Set III
9. If possible, find the value of each of the 11. Check the numbers given in the following
following expressions for the value of x exercises to see if they are solutions of the
indicated.
given equations.
a) \ 20.v, if x = 5 a) Is 7 a solution of \ x + 9 = 4?
b) Is 25 a solution of 2\ x - 10 = 0?
wb) /20 ._ x = 5
— , if
\ x c) Is 0 a solution of \ 1 — x = x — 1?
1) Is
d) 14 a solution of \ 2x -f 8 = x — 8?
c) \ x - 20, if x = 36
12. Solve the following radical equations. Check
d) Vx"-20, if x = 36 each solution.
e) \/20 - x, if .v = 36
f) 20 - \ x, if x = 36
a) \ 3x = 6
g) VlOx + 9, if x = 4 b) 3\x = 6
h) 10 \x + 9, if x = 4
10. Find the values of \ x + 6x + 9 for the
c) V3~+7=6
d) 3+_\x n=) 6
values of x indicated. e) 4 \ x - 2 = 0
j)
a) x = 1 fk)) 4 yx - 2 = 0
b) x = 3
g)
h) V5x"-2
\ 4x -2 == 00
d) x = 10 i) \78x - 1 = \ 5x + 11
\ 8x + 1 = \ 5x - 1 1
e) How does \ x2 + 6x + 9 compare in mi \ x + 7 = 2 \?J
value with x?
f) Explain why. \/7x"= 2\/7
\ 9 - x = 10
g) Does the relationship that you found hold 9 - \ x = 10
for x = -12? Explain why.

Lesson 7: Radical Equations

 13. Although the following equations contain
square roots, they can be solved without a) x + \ 5 = 50
b) \ 5.x- =_50 e) 3.v + \ 18 = 0
squar'ng because the variable does not
appear under a radical sign. Solve each
c) x - V2 = V32 f) 3(.v + \ 18) = 0
equation. Leave your answers in radical <j) -v_ _ ^ ^
form but simplify them as much as possible. \ 2

Set IV
The water near the bottom of a river does not move at the same speed as the water
at the surface. A formula relating the two speeds is

\ b= \7- 1
in which b is the speed near the bottom and 5 is the speed at the surface, each
measured in miles per hour.

1. Find the speed near the bottom of a river if the speed at the surface is 9 miles

per hour.
2. Find the speed at the surface if the speed near the bottom of a river is 7 miles
per hour.

598 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

 Summary
and Review

In this chapter, we have learned what square roots are, how to simplify square
roots, how to add, subtract, multiply and divide them, and how to solve equa-
tions that contain them.

Square Roots (Lesson 1) If y = x2, then y is the square of x and x is a square

root of y. Every positive number has two square roots, one of which is the
opposite of the other: the symbol y^ is used to indicate the positive root and the
symbol - \T~ to indicate the negative root. Zero has just one square root: itself.
Square Roots of Products (Lesson 2) For any two nonnegative numbers, x
and y,

Vxy = VxVy

This fact can be used to simplify the square root of any monomial that has one
or more factors that are squares. For example,

V^b = aVb
 The square root of a monomial is in simple radical form if the monomial has no
factors that are squares of monomials other than 1 and -1.

Square Roots of Quotients (Lesson 3) For any two nonnegative numbers, x

andjy,

y Vy
This fact can be used to change the square root of a fraction into the quotient of
a square root and an integer or polynomial. \f x example,
For
yx
fa fab \/ab

Adding and Subtracting Square Roots (Lesson 4) There is no general

equation relating \ x, \ y, and \/x + y or V* — y. However, square roots can
be added or subtracted if they are roots of the same number. For example,

a y/c + b\ c = (a + b) \fc

Multiplying Square Roots (Lesson 5) Because y/xy/y = \/xy, square roots

of nonnegative numbers can always be multiplied. For example,

(a\ c)(b\ d) — ab\ cd

Dividing Square Roots (Lesson 6) Because — — = — , square roots of

vy ^ y
nonnegative numbers can always be divided. Square roots can be removed from
the denominator of a fraction by multiplying its numerator and denominator by
an appropriate expression. For example,

a a\ c ^
b\ c by/c\/c

Removing square roots from the denominator of a fraction is called rationalising

the denominator. If the denominator is a sum or difference, it can be rationalized

600 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS

by multiplying the numerator and denominator of the fraction by the conjugate
of the denominator. For example,

a a(b — \fc) ab — a\fc

b + V~c (b + VcW - Vc) '

Radical Equations (Lesson 7) An equation in which the variable appears
under a radical sign is a radical equation. One step in solving such an equation is
to square both sides. The equation that results does not necessarily have the
same solutions as the original equation. For this reason, the solutions obtained
should always be checked to see if they are also solutions of the original
equation.

Exercises
d)
Set I
. List all of the square roots of these 4. Write each of the following expressions in
numbers, simple radical form.
a) 36 a) V50 c) V80T
b) 1 b) VT08 d) \/l,100
c) -9 5. Write each of the following expressions in
2. Find an integer equal to each of the simple radical form. Assume that x > 0.
following.
a) V47 150
a) (\/42)2 d) Vlf' b) v^
• 16:
b) Vp2j* e) V291
c) V122 + 162 f) V292 - 212 c) \/6^
3. What symbol, >, =, or <, should replace 6. d) ^25^
Write each of the following expressions as a
111 in each of the following? quotient without a square root in the
a) 10 + 611116 denominator.
/5
b) 10 -6 lllll 60 21:
c) 102 + 62 11 162 76
Pb
d) 102 • 62 lllll 602
e) V10+ V6 lllll >/l6
f) \/!o- Velilll V60
Summary and Review
 b)

7. Find the value of each of the following 12. Rationalize the denominator of each of the
following.
expressions. Round any approximate answers
to the nearest tenth. (Refer to the table of
square roots on page 563.)
a) \/40 - 4 b)
60 X/6-1
b) y/40- \/4 V63
c) 3\/7 + 2 V5+ V2
13. Find the approximate value of each of the
d) 3V7~+2
8. If possible, simplify the following sums and following expressions. Round each answer to
differences. the nearest hundredth. (Refer to the table of
N/6 roots on page 563.)
square
a) 5\/3 + 5V3 d) \/33+ \/l7
b) 4\/7 - \/7 e) \/20x - \/57
c) y/32+ a 18 f) \10 - \/5 2 V2
9. Simplify. 2 vTT- v io
a) (1 + 2\/3) + (2 + 4\/3)
b) (54 + \^>) + (6 + y/54)
c) (1 + \/80)-(l - \/20) a) ■
14. Solve the following equations. Simplify
, To where possible.
radicals
10. Square as indicated.
a) x + y/2 = 4
a) (5x2)2_ c) (V5-2)2
b)(5+\2)-' d)(\12+y/3)2 b) 3(x - \/5) = 0
11. Multiply and simplify. c) \flx = 21
a) (^Xa/18) e) \x(V^+5) d) 7V^~+*
e) = 21 _
+ yfc=21
b) (\ 6)(4\/6) f) (4 + a/3)(2 + \/T2)
c) 5(7^_+ v^ g) (1 - \^)(1 + V^) g)
f) Vx
y/x -8 \A +^T1
+ 8 == 22y/x~
dHvxXY*1) h)(^+5XV^-2) h) y x = v7^ + 4

Set II
1 . List all of the square roots of these 3. What symbol, >, =, or <, should replace
numbers. in each of the following?
a) 64 I
a) 4 + 5 9
b) 4-5 111 20 e) y/i + \/5||||!ll y/§
b) -4 Q; 9
c) 0 c) 42 + 52 !Ill 92 f) y/t- v/5lll\/20
d) 42 • 52 liiiii 202
2. Find an integer equal to each of the
following expressions. 4. Write each of the following expressions in
a) ( \ /25)2 d) \82-62 simple radical form.
b) \^257 e) V342 - \ 162 a) \/45 c) \f\Q4
c) V82 + 62 f) v'342 - 162 b) \ 98 d) y'60,000
602 Chapter 12: SQUARE ROOTS
5. Write each of the following expressions in 11. Multiply and simplify,
simple radical form. Assume that x > 0. a) (V5)(V20)
a) \/36* c) VlOpo b)(V3)(HV3)
b) Vx" d) V9F c) 4(6 - V6)
6. Write each of the following expressions as i d)(^XV^)
quotient without a square a)
a) c) , root in the
denominator. f)
e) (2 + V2)(3 + V8)
V*(V*~+7)
6
b) 25 g)(Vx~ + 12)(V*"-12)
h) (4 - V*~)(l - v^)
4)JT 12. Rationalize the denominator of each of the
18 following expressions.

Find the value of each of the following

expressions. Round any approximate answers \/80
to the nearest tenth. (Refer to the table of 12
square roots on page 563.) VTT- V6
a) V13 + 17 12
b) VI3+ V^ 2+ V3
c) 2 \/6 - 1
13. Find V5the approximate value of each of the
d) 2\/6~^T b)7Texpressions.
following ? Round each answer to
8. If possible, simplify the following sums and
differences. vs
the nearest hundredth. (Refer to the table of
square roots on page 563.)
a) 4 \/5 + 4 \/5
b) 9\/2 - \/2
c) V^8 + V75
d) V55+ vTT 1 VI5 - v/13
e) \/l5 - V6
f) 25 Vx - 16 v^c , Vis
14. Solve the following equations. Simplify
9. Simplify. radicals where possible.
a) (4 + 3\/7) + (3 + 4\/7)
b) (32 + V2) + (2 + V32) a) \/2(x
V3x =- 6y/7) = Vl4
b)
c) (1 - V27j-(1 + VI2)
c) \/l07 = 40
10. Square as indicated. d) VlO + x = 40
e) 10 + V* = 40
a) (4\/3)2
b) (4 + V3)2 f) 3 V* - 1 = V* + 7
c) (V4- \/3)2 g) 3v^TT= V* - 7
d)(V8+ V^)2 h) Vx = \/4x - 8

ary and Review 603

Chapter 13
QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
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LESSON 1

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A goal in the study of algebra is to learn how to solve equations of various types.
Although many equations are simple enough to be solved by intelligent guess-
ing, there are others that can only be solved by algebraic methods. In this
chapter we will review some of the methods that we have used in the past and
become acquainted with new ones that can be used to solve more difficult
equations.
Look at the equations below.
■ 4.v
2x 10 x3 = 6-

1 :
These are examples of polynomial equations because both sides of each equation
are polynomials. (Remember that a polynomial is either a monomial or an
expression built by adding or subtracting monomials.) Furthermore, they are all
polynomial equations in one variable. Every polynomial equation in one variable
can be written so that one side is a polynomial in descending powers of the
variable and the other side is zero. For example, our three equations can be
written as

2x - 7 = 0 5x2-4x+l=0 x3 + x-6 = 0

A polynomial equation written in this way is said to be in standard form.

Polynomial equations written in standard form are classified according to the
degree of the polynomial on the left side. The equation

5X2 _ 4x + ! = 0

for example, is called a second-degree equation because the degree of its

polynomial, 5x2 — 4x + 1, is 2.
Polynomial equations are named according to their degree as shown in the
following table. (The letters a, b, c, d, e, and /may stand for any number, except
that a can never be zero.)

Degree Standard form of equation Name

1 ax + b — 0 Linear
2 ax2 + bx + c = 0 Quadratic
3 ax3 + bx2 + ex + d = 0 Cubic
4 ax4 + bx1 + ex2 + dx + e = 0 Quartic
5 ax5 + bxA + ex3 + dx2 + ex + f = 0 Quintic

We have already learned how to solve linear equations. In this chapter, we

will develop some methods for finding solutions to quadratic equations. The
methods include graphing, factoring, taking square roots, and using the quad-
ratic formula. In the final lesson of the chapter, we will consider examples of
higher-degree equations.

Lesson 1: Polynomial Equations 607

 Exercises

Set I
1. Change each of the following to the form
described.

b) Write — as the product of two fractions.

d) Write x as the difference of a

monomial and a fraction.
2. Find each of the following quotients. c)
a) 2x2)8x8 - 2x2
b) x + 2)2x3 - x2 -4x + 12
d)
c) x2 - 3x + 9)x3 + 27
3. The figure at the right represents a race b) If they continue to run at the same rate,
between two porcupines. -4
when will the faster porcupine be 50 feet
f) one?
e) ahead of the slower
a) How fast is each porcupine running?

Set II - 12* = 0
h)
4. Write each of the following equations in
standard form and tell the degree of the
1) 4
equation. -V5
a) 4x = 1 1
b) x3 = 6x2 - 8 x4 = 25
-1
c) (x - l)(x + 3) = 2 -2
1+ -2 = 0
d) 3x5 = x5 + 1 k)
e) x2 + 7x - 10 = x2 + 10
f) x2(2x2 + 9) = x 2x3
5. Tell whether each of the following numbers J) x2 -
is a solution of the equation given by
checking to see if it makes the equation true. V5 2x- + 4 = (
- 4x = 21 R) X4 -
2
a) 7 1 - V3
b)-3 V3
608 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

5x2
 , Tell whether or not zero is a solution of Solve each of the following equations for x.
each of the following equations.
a) 4x + 9 = 3x - 1
a) 5x2 - x = 0 b) 7(x - 10) = 2* + 25
b) .v4 + 3x3 - 2x2 + 1 = 0 c) x2 + 12 = x(x + 3)
c) 2x3 - lx2 + lOx = 0 d) 2(x - 5) = 5(x - 2)
d) x5 - x4 + x3 - x2 + x - 1 = 0 e) x(x2 - 10) = x3 + 6
e) How can you tell from looking at a f) x2 + 5x + 8 = x(x + 4)
polynomial equation in standard form
whether zero is one of its solutions? g) (x + 9)(x - 3) = x2 + 15
h) {x + l)2 = (x - 7)(x + 7)
h) 1)
-1 - 2
Set III
8. Write each of the following equations in -3 0
standard form and tell the degree of the
equation. x2 -
k)
j)
R) 1 =
a)
b)
5x2 = 6
3(x - 2) = x - 13
4x - =
c) x4 - 8x = 2 - x5 0 + 2
d) 9x3 + x - 5 = 2x3 + x
x<-
3
e) (x3 + l)(x - 4) = 12 Vs + 9
f) x4 + 3x = x2(x2 - 3) V5
9. Tell whether or not each of the following 10x2 or not the number 1 is a
10. Tell whether
numbers is a solution of the equation given solution of each of the following equations.
by checking to see if it makes that equation
true. a) 4X3 _ 4 = 0
= 0 b) x2 + 9x - 10 = 0
2x2 - 9x + 4 -. c) 6x4 - 5x2 - 2 = 0
d) x5 — x4 + x3 — x2 + x — 1 = 0
a) 4
1 1 . Solve each of the following equations for x.
a) 6x - 1 = 5x + 2
bx4)i- 4 = 0 b) 3(x + 7) = x - 1 1
c) x2 - 8 = x(x + 4)
c) V2
d) 9(x - 1) = 2(x - 1)
d)-V2
e) x(x2 + 5) = x3 + 27
2x3 = 250 f) x2 _ 4x + 9 = X(X + 6)
e) 5 g) (x - 2)(x + 4) = x2 - 18
f)-5 h) (x - 5)2 = (x + 6)(x - 6)

Lesson 1: Polynomial Equations 609

 Set IV
Some polynomial equations can be factored in such a way that their solutions are
easy to figure out. An example of such an equation is
x* _ 15*2 _ 10x + 24 = 0

The left side of this equation can be factored as (x — l)(x + 2)(x + 3)(x — 4).

1. Can you use this fact to figure out what the solutions of this equation are?
2. Explain your reasoning.

610 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 7

n2
Polynomial Functions

The average distance between cars on a crowded highway depends on the speed
at which the traffic is moving. If the cars are moving very slowly, this distance is
relatively small, as anyone who has ever ridden in a car trying to get on a busy
freeway knows. The faster the traffic is moving, the greater the average distance
between cars becomes.
An approximate formula relating this distance, v, and the

"S
speed, x, is
/
v = 0.03.x2 + x 18
. it it/:
in which y is in feet and x is in feet per second. This is the
$ t
!
equation of a second-degree polynomial function.
shown at the right.
Its graph is 1
Earlier in the course you learned how to graph first- o 7_/ _
degree polynomial functions.* Such functions have equa- t5 t .
tions of the form

> /.
y - ax + b •2 mn /
fc f
and, because their graphs are always straight lines, they are
called linear. Second-degree polynomial functions, also ^^
called quadratic functions, have equations of the form
■ + bx + c i

*See pages 90-91.

O Speed 50
of traffic 100"
y z
 Like the graph for the distance between cars on a highway, the graph of even-
quadratic function is a curved line. The graphs of higher-degree polynomial
functions such as

v = a.v3 + bx2 + ex + d
and
y = ax4 + bx3 + ex2 + dx + e
-3
are also curved. -1 -4
To graph a polynomial-3 function, we_2 first-3make a table from its equation. For
example, to graph-4the function

v = -v2 — 2.v — 3

we first make a table such as the one below.

0 1 2 3
21 12 5 0 0

To make this table, we first choose some numbers for x. A set of consecutive
integers including several negative integers, zero, and several positive integers is
usually the most convenient. For our table, we have chosen the integers from -4
to 4 inclusive.
Next, we use the formula for the function to find the corresponding _y-num-
bers. If x = -4, for example,

y = (-4)2 - 2(-4) - 3
= 2116 + 8 - 3

After we have made a table by this method, we draw axes on graph paper
before plotting the graph. The graphs at the top of the next page show the
function plotted with three choices of scale for the y-axis. For each graph, we
plot the points having the ordered pairs of numbers in the table as their
coordinates, (-4, 21), (-3, 12), and so on. Then we connect the points with a
smooth curve. All three graphs that we have drawn are correct, but only the
third has room for all the points in the table. For this reason, the third graph is
preferred.

612 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Exercises

"a
Set I
.5
Write each of the following expressions in 15

1
simple radical form.
a) yT24
b) ^125
c) VI26 10
Express each of the following polynomials as
the square of a binomial.
a) x2 + 10x + 25
b) 4x2 - 4x + 1
c) x2 + 16xy + 64jy2
d) 9x2 - 24xy + \6y2 5 -
3. The temperature of the water in a lake
depends on the depth. A typical graph
showing the temperatures near the surface of
a deep lake is shown at the right.
a) What kind of function does this seem to
be? O 5 108*
Depth in meters
b) What is the jy-intercept of the line in this
graph?
8*
c) What does the j>-intercept mean in terms e) What does the slope mean in terms of
of the temperature of the lake? how the temperature changes as the depth
increases?
d) What is the slope of the line in the
graph? f ) Write an equation for the line.

Lesson 2: Polynomial Functions 613

 Set II
4. This exercise is about the function whose e) Graph the function. Choose a suitable
equation is scale for the j'-axis so that you have room
for all of the points in your table.
y = 2.v + 5
6. Graph the following functions, all on one
a) What is its degree? pair of axes. Let one unit on the v-axis
first.)
b) What kind of function is it? represent 2. (Make a table for each function
c) What sort of-1graph does it have?
d) Copy and complete the following table
for this function.
b) y = x2 + 6
d) vy == x2x2do- you
c)a) What 4 notice about the three

e) Graph the function. Choose a suitable graphs?

7. Graph the following functions, each on a
scale for the j'-axis so that you have room separate pair of axes. Let one unit on each
for all of the points in your table. jy-axis represent 10.
5. This exercise is about the function whose
equation is
a) y = .r5
b)j' 2.v5
y = x2 — x
a) What is its degree? Graph the following functions, each on a
-1
b) What kind of function is it? separate pair of axes.
c)y--
c) What sort -2of graph does it have? 8. y = x2 + Ax + 4
d)
-4 Copy and complete the following table 9. y = 2x2 - x - 1
for this function.
10. y = .v3 - lQx
11. v = .v4 + 2
1 4
20 ■ ■III

Set III
12. This exercise is about the function whose d) Copy and complete the following table
equation is for this function.

c -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y = 3.v - 4
v -13
a) What is its degree? e) Graph the function. Choose a suitable
b) What kind of function is it? scale for the j'-axis so that you have room
c) What sort of graph does it have? for all of the points in your table.

614 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

13. This exercise is about the function whose 15. Graph the following functions, each on a
equation is separate pair of axes. Let one unit on each
jy-axis represent 10.
y = x2 + 2x
a) What is its degree?
b) What kind of function is it? b)a)yyy === x3
c) xix3 ++ x2
x2 + x
c) What sort of graph does it have? Graph the following functions, each on a
d) Copy and complete the following table separate pair of axes.
for this function.
16. y = x2 + 2x + 1
-3 -2 o 2 4 17. y = 3x2 - x + 3
111 Nil
■III
ill 111 18. y = x3 + 6x
e) Graph the function. Choose a suitable
scale for the jy-axis so that you have 19. y = x4
room for all of the points in your table.
14. Graph the following functions, all on one
pair of axes. Let one unit on the _y-axis
represent 5.

a) y = 2x2
b) y = 2x2 + 5
c) y = 2x2 - 10

Set IV
Suppose that a flea stands in front of the
origin of a graph as shown in this picture. It
jumps through part of the first quadrant, its path
having the equation

1. Draw its path.

12 r
2. Where does the flea take off from the x-
axis?
3. Where does it land on the x-axis?
4. How far does the flea jump?
5. How high does it jump?

Lesson 2: Polynomial Functions 615

 LESSON 3

bf
Solving Polynomial
Equations by Graphing

)f One of the songs in 77^ Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert

and Sullivan is titled "The Modern Major-General. " In
/ it, the Major-General brags of knowing just about every-
//
-7.5 thing, including mathematics. The lines of the song shown
above boast of his mastery7 of algebra.
1 V 5- To understand equations "both the simple and quad-
-5 7° ratical," it is helpful to know what the graphs of their
I y =2x+3
corresponding functions look like. For example, consider
/ the linear equation
- 2x + 3 = 0

/ "5- and the graph of the corresponding linear function

y = 2x + 3
Solving the equation for x,

2x + 3 = 0, 2x = -3, x = -1.5

we find that it has one solution: -1.5. This number is the x-coordinate of the
point in which the line y = 2x + 3 intersects the x-axis. This is a significant
result because it is true for all polynomial equations written in standard form.

The solutions of a polynomial equation in standard form are the x-coordinates

of the points in which the graph of the corresponding polynomial function
intersects the x-axis.

Here is another example illustrating this fact.

EXAMPLE
Find the solutions of
the quadratic equation
x2 _ 2x - 3 =

from the graph of the function

-2x-3
y = x
SOLUTION

The graph of y = x2 — 2x — 3
is a curved line. It intersects the
x-axis in two points and so the
equation x2 — 2x — 3 = 0 has
two solutions: -1 and 3.
CHECK

- 2(-l) -3=1+2-3 = 0
(-1)2 - 2(3) -3 = 9-6-3 = 0

(3)2

Lesson 3: Solving Polynomial Equations by Graphing 617

 Exercises
■Si 7
Set 1
1. Replace by a number that will make each s
of the following the square of a binomial. c
a) X2 _ 10* + ■
b) X2 + lx + in
C) Ax2 + Ax + ■ Q
d) 9x2 - 24.t + ;
2. Express each of the following as either an
integer or a radical in simple radical form.
a) y^8\/7 c) \^8 - \1
b) \28 + \1 d) \/28 -=- >/7
3. A method used by scientists to determine Time in years
the age of very old objects is carbon- 14 2
dating. The basis for this method is the fact b) How old is an2object if one-eighth of its
that exactly half of any given quantity of carbon-14 atoms remain?
carbon-14 remains after 5,700 years.
c) How old is an object if — of its carbon-
a) How old is an object if one-fourth of its
carbon-14 atoms remain? 14 atoms remain?

Set II
4. Use the graphs below to find solutions of the following equations.
Check your answers by seeing if they make the equations true.

y=3x+3 y = xJ-2x*+ x-2

y=2x*-9x
618 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
 5. Graph the following functions, each on ;
separate pair of axes,
a) y = 2x - 5
b) y = x2 + x - d)y. 1*4
c) y = xi - Ax
6. Use the graphs that you drew for exercise 5
to find solutions to the following equations.
Check your answers.
a) 2x - 5 = 0
b) x2 + x - 12 = 0 d) I*4 _ o
C) x3 _ 4v = 0 tell that the yequation
= xJ-2x-2
7. Graph the following quadratic functions, x2 _ 2x - 2 = 0
each on a separate pair of axes.
a) y = x2 - 6x + 7 c) y = x2 + 3x + 6 has two solutions: one between -1 and 0 and
b) y = x2 + Ax + 1 d) y = 2x2 + Sx + 1 the other between 2 and 3. Between what
integers are the solutions of the following
8. From the graph of the function
equations? Refer to your graphs for exercise
7 to find out.
y = x2 - 2x - 2
a) x2 - 6x + 7 = 0 c) x2 + 3x + 6 = 0
shown in the next column, it is possible to b) x2 + Ax + 1 = 0 d) 2x2 + 8x + 7 = 0

Set III
9. Use the graphs below to find solutions of the following equations.
Check your answers by seeing if they make the equations true.

a)-
r3
• 3:
- 5x --
\9x + 30 =

b) ■
c) xi

y=-x'+5x y = x3-19x+30
Lesson 3: Solving Polynomial Equations by Graphing 619
 10. Graph the following functions, each on a
separate pair of axes.
a) y = 3x + 12 c) y = x3 + 8
b)y = 2x2 -Ix d) y = x4 + x2 - 90
11. Use the graphs that you drew for exercise
10 to find solutions to the following
equations. Check your answers.
a) 3x + 12 = 0
b) 2x2 - Ix = 0
c) x3 + 8 = 0
d) x* + x2 - 90 = 0
y -x2-8x+10
12. Graph the following quadratic functions,
tell that the equation
each on a separate pair of axes.
x2 - 8x + 10 = 0
a) y = x2 - 4x - 2
b) y = x2 + x - 5 has two solutions: one between 1 and 2 and
c) y = x2 + 2x + 8
the other between 6 and 7.
d)y = 2x2 - \2x + 17
Between what integers are the solutions of
13. From the graph of the function
the following equations? Refer to your
graphs for exercise 12 to find out.
y = x2 - Sx + 10
a) x2 - Ax - 2 = 0 c) x2 + 2x + 8 = 0
shown in the next column, it is possible to b) x2 + x - 5 = 0 d) 2x2 - 12x + 17 = 0

Set IV
From the graph of the function Can you explain why and tell what the
solutions are?
y = X2 _ 2x + 5

shown at the right, it seems that the equation

x2 - 2x + 5 = 0

has no solutions.
It also seems from this graph that the
equation
x2 - 2x + 5 = 4

has one solution and that the equation

x2 - 2x + 5 = 8

has two solutions.

620 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 ()()(H)I

oooc i

OOOOOO

LESSON 4
Solving Quadratic Equations
by Factoring

When parentheses are written in algebra as they have been in this cartoon, it is
understood that the numbers inside them are to be multiplied. If one of the
numbers happens to be zero, we can tell what the product is without knowing
any of the other numbers. It must be zero.

( )( )( )(0)( )( X ) = o
The only way, in fact, that the product of two or more numbers can be equal
to zero is that at least one of the numbers is equal to zero. This is such an
important fact that we will refer to it as the zero-product property.

The Zero-Product Property

If ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.

This property gives us a way to solve quadratic equations without graphing.

To see how it works, we will use the equation

621
 which was used as an example in the last lesson. We learned
there that the solutions to this equation can be found by looking
at the points in which the graph of the function
■ 2.x ■

intersects the x-axis. The solutions are -1 and 3.

To find these solutions algebraically, we factor the polyno-
mial x2 — 2x — 3:
x2 _ 2x - 3 = 0

(x + l)(x - 3) = 0
We have changed the left side of the equation into a product and this product is
■-
equal to zero. From the zero-product property, we knowy that at least one of the
factors in the product must be equal to zero. If (x + l)(x — 3) = 0, then either

x + 1 = 0 x - 3 = 0
If x + 1 = 0, If x - 3 = 0,
then x — -1. then x = 3.

So both the x values, x = - 1 and x = 3, make the product equal to zero. This
tells us that the solutions to the equation are -1 and 3.
This example illustrates the general method for solving a quadratic equation
by factoring. The steps are given below.

To solve a quadratic equation by factoring:

1. Write the equation in standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0.
2. Factor the polynomial on the left side: ( )( ) = 0.
3. Set each factor equal to zero: ( ) — 0 or ( ) = 0.
4. Solve the resulting equations.

622 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 Here is another example.

EXAMPLE
Solve the equation 3.x2 + 20.v + 3 = 10.
SOLUTION

3x2 + 20* + 3 = 10
3x2 + 20* - 7 = 0
(3jc - IX* + 7) = 0
3* -1=0 or x + 7 = 0
3.v =1 x = -7
1

Exercises

Set I
1 . Write each of the following numbers in
decimal form. 3. A field goal in basketball counts two
points and a successful free throw counts
a) 2.1 x 105 one point.
b) 18 x lO"3 a) Write a formula for the score, s, of a
c)
c) 0.004 x 104 team that makes x field goals and y free
2. Simplify each of the following by writing it throws.
either as a quotient without a square root in b) Solve the formula for y.
the denominator or as a product in simple c) Solve the formula for x.
a)
radical form. "
77 d) Can anything be concluded from the fact
10 that a basketball team scores an odd
number of points in a game?
e) Can anything be concluded from the fact
4.v that a basketball team scores an even
number of points in a game?
(9 V5
Lesson 4: Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring 623
V*
 Set II
4. What values of x will make each of the e) x2 - 10* + 25 = 0
following products equal to zero?
f) x2 + 5* _ 14 _ o
a) (x - 4)(x - 5) g) x2 + 12x = 0
b) x(x + 8) h) x2 - 64 = 0
c) 3(2* - 1) i) x2 + \2x - 64 = 0
d) 5x(10 - x)
j) 9x2 - 1 = 0
e) (6x + 6)(4x - 12) k) 9x2 - 8x = 0
f) 8(x - 4)(8x + 2) 1) 9x2 - 8x - 1 = 0
g) (x + a)(x + b) 6. Write each of the following equations in
h) (ax - l)(bx - c) standard form and then solve it by factoring.
5. Solve each of the following quadratic
a) x2 - 16 = 9
equations by the factoring method. b) x(x + 9) = 22
a) x2 - 9 = 0
b) x2 - 9x = 0 c) (x - 5)2 = 25
d) (x + 2)(x + 6) = 5
c) 2x2 + 2x = 0 e) (4x - 3)(x + 1) = 1 - 5x
d) x2 + Ix + 12 = 0 f) 3(x2 - 8) = jc(jc + 2)

Set III
7. What values of x will make each of the
e) x2 - 16* + 64 = 0
following products equal to zero? f) x2 _ 2x - 15 = 0
a) x(x - 2)
b) (x + l)(x + 9) g) x2 + 5x = 0
h) x2 - 36 = 0
c) 2(5* - 3) i) x2 + 5x - 36 = 0
d) 7x(4 - x)
j) 4x2 - 1 = 0
e) {2x + 8)(3x - 15) k) 4x2 - 3x = 0
f) 4(x + 3)(4x - 1) 1) 4x2 - 3x - 1 = 0
g) (x - a)(x - b) 9. Write each of the following equations in
h) (ax + b){cx + 1)
standard form and then solve it by factoring.
8. Solve each of the following quadratic
a) x2 - 36 = 64
equations by the factoring method.
b) x(x - 4) = 21
a) x2 - 4 = 0
b) x2 - Ax = 0 c)
d) (x
(x +- 9)2
3)(x =- 814) = 2
c) 3x2 + 3x = 0
d) .v2 + 9x + 14 = 0 e) (2x + 5)(x - 1) = 1 - x2
f) 3(x2 - 10) = x(x - 4)

624 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Set IV
After finishing his algebra assignment, Obtuse correctly are listed below. Given that each
Ollie asked Acute Alice to check his answers. equation was in standard form, can you figure
Instead, she started with the answers and figured out what the equations were? If you can, show
out what the problems were! your method for finding them.
The assignment was to solve quadratic 1. 7 and -7
equations like those in this lesson. The answers 2. 0 and 2
to three of the problems that Ollie solved 3. 4 and -5

Lesson 4: Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring 625

 "DID YOU KNOW THAT IF YOUR BELT SNAPPED YOU'D
FALL AT THE RATE OF 32 FEET PER

LESSON SECOND PER SECOND?"

Solving Quadratic Equations

by Taking Square Roots

As an object falls toward the ground, it moves faster and faster.* The distance
that the object has fallen after any given time is given by the formula
16.r2 = y

in which .v is the time in seconds that it has been falling and y is the distance in
feet.
According to this formula, how long would it take an object to fall 400 feet?
Substituting 400 for y, we get

16x2 = 400

This is a quadratic equation in one variable. It can be simplified by dividing

both sides by 16:

,2 _ 400 _ oc

* See page 394.

 Evidently, x = 5, and so it takes the object 5 seconds to fall 400 feet.
When we recognize that 5 is a solution of this equation, we have, in effect,
taken the square root of each side. But every positive number has two square
roots, each of which is the opposite of the other. The equation
x2 = 25

has a second solution: -5. Although this solution does not have meaning for the
falling-object problem, it is a solution to the original equation.

► In general, if .v2 = a, then either x = \fa or x — - \fa. More briefly, if x2 = a,

then x = ± Va. If a is a number greater than 0, the symbol ± \fa represents
two numbers: the positive square root of a and the negative square root of a.

The most obvious way, then, to solve the equation

x2 = 25

is to take the square root of each side,

x = ±V25 = =5

The square-root method is often more convenient than solving by factoring.

Moreover, it can be used to develop a method that will solve any quadratic
equation.
Here are more examples of how it works.

EXAMPLE 1

Solve the equation (x + 4)2 = 9.

SOLUTION

(Xx ++ 4)2
4 == 9^3
x = -4 ± 3

Figuring out these values, we get

_4 + 3 = _1 and -4 - 3 = -7
The solutions are -1 and -7.

Lesson 5: Solving Quadratic Equations by Taking Square Roots 627

 EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation x2 — 4.v

■2 - 4.v + 4 = 5
(.vx -— iy-
2 == ±5 V§
X = 2 ± \ D

The solutions are 2 + \ 5 and \

\ 5.

Exercises

Set I
1. Multiply and simplify,
a) (2\x)(5\x) _
b)(2\.v)(5_- \.v) _
c) (2+ \ x)(5 - \ x) a) Write an equation for line a.
2. This exercise is about the graph below. b) Write an equation for curve b.
c) What are the solutions to the pair of
y simultaneous equations that you have
written?
3. The sum of the squares of three
consecutive integers is 110.
a) If x2 represents the square of the
smallest integer, how would the squares
of the other two numbers be
represented?
b) Write an equation expressing the fact
that the sum of the squares of the three
numbers is 110.
c) Solve the equation by writing it in
standard form and factoring.
d) What are the three integers?

628 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Set II
4. Express the square roots of the following a) Solve it by the square-root method,
numbers either as integers or in simple simplifying your answers as much as
radical form.
a) 144 b) possible.
Express your answers in decimal form,
b) 30 correct
563.) to the nearest thousandth. (Refer
c) 12 to the table of square roots on page
d) 150
5. Express the two numbers represented by c) Substitute your answers in decimal form
for x in the equation to see if they seem
each of the following expressions in reasonable.
simplest form.
a) 3 ±6 9. Solve the following quadratic equations by
b) -11 ±7 the square-root method.
a) x2 = 48

10!±«V3
d) «
e) b) (x - 5)2 = 4
c) (x + 2)2 = 25
3± 12\/5 d) (x + l)2 = 10
f) 3 e) (2x - 3)2 = 81
4± \/8 f) (3* + 4)2 = 49
10. Solve the following quadratic equations by
expressing the left sides as squares of
6. This exercise is about the equation binomials and using the square-root
method.
(x - 3)2 = 36 a) x2 - 6x + 9 = 16
b) x2 + 16x + 64 = 45
a) Solve this equation by writing it in
c) 4.r2 + 20* + 25 = 25
standard form and using the factoring
method. d) 25x2 - lOx + 1 = 5

b) Solve it by the square-root method. *11. Solve the following quadratic equations.
c) Which method for solving this equation Express each answer in decimal form,
is easier? correct to the nearest thousandth. (Refer to
the table of square roots on page 563.)
7. This exercise is about the equation Check each answer in the original equation
to see if it seems reasonable.
{x + 4)2 = 15
a) (x - 7)2 = 5
a) Solve it by the square-root method.
b) Write the equation in standard form and b) (*+ l)2 = 11
try to solve it by the factoring method. c) (6x - 5)2 = 0
d) (8x + 3)2 = 10
*8. This exercise is about the equation

(3jc - 6)2 = 45

Lesson 5: Solving Quadratic Equations by Taking Square Roots 629

 Set III *16. This exercise is about the equation
12. Express the square roots of the following
numbers either as integers or in simple (2x - 8)2 = 12
radical form.
a) Solve it by the square-root method,
a) 121 simplifying your answers as much as
b) 42
c) 18 b) Express your answers in decimal form,
563.) to the nearest thousandth. (Refer
correct
d) 80
13. Express the two numbers represented by to the table of square roots on page
each of the following expressions in
simplest form. c) Substitute your answers in decimal form
a) 2 ± 10 for x in the equation to see if they seem
reasonable.
b) -4 ± 9
17. Solve the following quadratic equations by
the square-root method.
d) 6 ± \/6
a) x2 = 50
5± 10\/l0
b) (x - l)2 = 16
c) (x + 6)2 = 0
e)- 8± \/l2 d) (x - 2)2 = 15
e) (2x + l)2 = 49
f) (5* - 3)2 = 64
14. This exercise is about the equation 18. Solve the following quadratic equations by
expressing the left sides as squares of
(x + l)2 = 100 binomials and using the square-root
method.
a) Solve this equation by writing it in
standard form and using the factoring a) x2 + Sx + 16 = 25
method. b) x2 - 14.v + 49 = 10
b) Solve it by the square-root method. C) Ax2 + Ax + 1 = 81
c) Which method for solving this equation d) 9x2 - 12x + 4 = 3
is easier?
*19. Solve the following quadratic equations.
Express each answer in decimal form,
15. This exercise is about the equation
correct to the nearest thousandth. (Refer to
the table of square roots on page 563.)
(x - 2)2 = 3 Check each answer in the original equation
a) Solve it by the square-root method. to see if it seems reasonable.
b) Write the equation in standard form and a) [x - 5)2 = 6 c) (3.r - 8)2 = 10
try to solve it bv the factoring method.
b) (.v + 4)2 = 17 d) (7.v + l)2 = 0

630 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Set IV

This picture of George Washington was

produced on a typewriter! The picture is square,
measuring 4 centimeters on each side and is
surrounded by a square frame.
Can you figure out the exact width of the
frame, given that it has the same area as the
picture? Hint: (length of one side of the
frame)2 = total area of frame and picture.

Lesson ">: Solving Quadratic Equations by Taking Square Roots 631

 LESSON 6
Completing
the Square

Algebra got its name from the title of a book, Al-jabr zva'l Muqabalah, by a
ninth-century Arab mathematician named al-Khowarizmi. The book explained
how to solve various types of linear and quadratic equations. One of the
equations solved by al-Khowarizmi was
x2 + 10% = 39

The method that he used is illustrated below.

x2 5x

25
5x

5x 5x

First, picture the left side of the equation, x2 + lOx, as a figure consisting of
a square of area x2 and two rectangles each having an area of 5x. By adding a
square having an area of 25 to the lower right corner, the figure can be made into
a large square. This is called completing the square.
The area of the large square is x2 + lOx + 25. Completing the square in the
x2
equation

x2 + lOx = 39

we get

x2 + lOx + 25 = 39 + 25 = 64 or
(x + 5)2 = 64

At this point, al-Khowarizmi took the square root of each side of the equation,
but ignored the possibility of a negative root. He concluded that

x + 5 = 8

so that x = 3.
It is easy to verify that 3 is a solution to the original equation

x2 + lOx = 39
because
(3)2 + 10(3) = 9 + 30 = 39

The equation

is also true if (x + 5)2 = 64

x + 5 = -8

which means that x = -13 also is a solution. Checking -13 in the original
equation, we get

(-13)2 + 10(-13) = 169 - 130 = 39

The equation has two solutions: 3 and -13.

To solve a quadratic equation by completing the square:

1. Write the equation in the form: ax2 + bx = -c.

2. Add a number to each side of the equation that will make the left side the
square of a binomial:*
ax2 + bx + ( ) = -c + ( )
* Binomial squares are explained on pages 422-425.

Lesson 6: Completing the Square 633

 3. Take the square root of each side.
4. Solve the resulting equations.

Here are more examples of how the completing-the-square method works.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation x2 — 6x — 16 = 0 by completing the square.
SOLUTION

x2 _ 6.x- - 16 = 0
x2 - 6.v = 16
x2 _ 6x + 9 =16 + 9
[xx -- 3)2
3 == 25
±5
x = 3±5

Figuring out these values, we get

3 + 5 = 8 and 3-5 = -2
The solutions are 8 and -2.

EXAMPLE 2 -39
Solve the equation x2 + 14x = -39.

X = -39 + 49
X + 14x +
49 = 10
x + 7 = -7=
(x +X 7)2 ±Vio vlo.
io
and -7 —
a/io.
634 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
 a)

Exercises

Set I
1. The following questions are about the 2. Find the approximate value of each of the
graphs of these functions. following expressions. Let \/5 = 2.236 and
round each answer to the nearest
Function A: hundredth.
Function B: y = 3 1
Function C: y = 3x
y = x + 3
a) Which line has the steepest slope?
b) Which line has a slope of 0?
c) Which lines have a _y-intercept of 3? V5H

V5

V5-

6oWU)'Jn<*)

"Miss, that person is making a fool of you!"

A birdseed manufacturer wants to mix a) Use this information to write a pair of

millet worth 28 cents a kilogram and grain simultaneous equations.
worth 18 cents a kilogram to make 500 b) Solve the equations to find out how
kilograms of birdseed worth 24 cents a many kilograms of each seed should be
kilogram. used.

Lesson 6: Completing the Squai

 Set II
4. Add a term to each of the following *7. This exercise is about the equation
x2 - lOx = 36
binomials to change it into a trinomial
square. (Draw diagrams if you need them.)
a) Solve it by completing the square.
a) x2 + 8x b) Express your answers in decimal form,
b) x2 - 30x 563.)
correct to the nearest hundredth. (Refer
c) Ax2 - \2x to the table of square roots on page
d) 25x2 + 70x
e) x2 + lax c) Substitute your answers in decimal form
f) a2x2 - \ax for x in the equation to see if they seem
reasonable.
5. Here is another example of how to solve a
quadratic equation by completing the 8. This exercise is about the equation
square. Tell what was done in each lettered
step. x2 _ 2x - 4 = 0

9x2 + \2x - 7 = 0 a) Graph the function y = x2 — 2x — 4.

b) Between what integers are the solutions
3x of x2 — 2x - 4 = 0? Use your graph to
find out.
6x c) Solve the equation by completing the
3x 9xl
d) square.
Express your answers in decimal form,
563.)
correct to the nearest hundredth. (Refer
to the table of square roots on page

a) 9x2 + \2x =7
b) 9x2 + \2x + 4 = 7 + 4 9. Solve each of the following quadratic
(3x + 2)2 =11 equations by completing the square.
c) 3x + 2 = ± VTT a) x2 + 4x = 77
d) 3x -2±vn
= -2 ± vTT b) x2 - \2x + 35 = 0
c) x2 + 18x = -81
e) - =^^ d) x2 - 2x - 10 = 0
6. This exercise is about the equation e) x2 + 16x = 1
f) x2 _ 6x - 9 = 0
x2 + 6x = 40
g) 9x2 - 6x = 35
h) 16x2 + 40x + 11 =0
a) Solve this equation by writing it in
10. Solve the following equations.
standard form and using the factoring
method. a) (x - 2)(x + 6) = 10
b) x(x + 8) = 8(x + 3)
b) Solve it by completing the square.
c) x(x - 5) = 3(x + 2)
d) 3x(x + 4) = 2(x2 - 1)

636 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Set III
1 1 . Add a term to each of the following
a) Solve it by completing the square.
binomials to change it into a trinomial
b) Express your answers in decimal form,
square. (Draw diagrams if you need them.) 563.) to the nearest hundredth. (Refer
correct
a) .v2 - 6* to the table of square roots on page
b) .t2 + 22* e) x2 - lax
c) 9.v2 + 30* f) a2x2 + 8ax c) Substitute your answers in decimal form
d) 4.v2 - 44* for x in the equation to see if they seem
reasonable.
12. Here is another example of how to solve a
quadratic equation by completing the 15. The following questions are about the
square. Tell what was done in each lettered
equation
x2 _ 4X + i _ o

a) Graph the function y = x2 — Ax + 1 •

b) Between what integers are the solutions
10x of x2 — 4x + 1 =0? Use your graph to
find out.
c) Solve the equation by completing the
Wx
4x2
d) square.
Express your answers in decimal form,
563.) to the nearest hundredth. (Refer
correct
a) 4x2 + 20* = -19 to the table of square roots on page
b) 4x2 + 20* + 25 = -19 + 25
(2x + 5)2 =6
c) 2x + 5 = ± \/6 16. Solve each of the following quadratic
d) 2x = -5 ± \/6 equations by completing the square.
-5±V6
a) x2 + 10x = -9
e) x =—1_ b) x2 - 2x - 48 = 0
c) x2 + \2x + 36 = 0
13. This exercise is about the equation d) x2 - 8.v + 3 = 0
e) .v2 + 18* = 4
x2 + \2x = 45
f) x2 _ 4x _ i6 _ o
a) Solve this equation by writing it in g) 4*2 _ 4x = 63
standard form and using the factoring h) 25x2 + 30* - 6 = 0
method. 17. Solve the following equations.
b) Solve it by completing the square.
a) (x + 9)(x - 1) = 15
b) x(x + 3) = 3(x + 5)
* 14. This exercise is about the equation
c) x(x - 7) = 5(.v - 1)
x2 - 2x = 29 d) 4(x2 + 2) = 3x(x - 6)

Lesson 6: Completing the Square 637

 Set IV
Although this equation looks simple enough, if
you try to solve it by completing the square
something peculiar happens.
1. What is it and what do you think it means?
2. Does the graph of y = x2 + 2.x + 4 show
why you might have trouble in solving this
equation?

638 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 LESSON 7
The Quadratic Formula
A famous equation in mathematics is the quadratic formula. It can be used to
find the solutions to a quadratic equation that has been written in standard form.
The quadratic formula is the result of solving the general quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

for x. We will do it by completing the square. Subtracting c from each side,

we get

ax2 + bx = -c

To make the first term of the equation a simple square and to prevent having
to work with fractions, we next multiply each side of the equation by 4a:

4a(ax2 + bx) = 4a(-c)

4a2x2 + 4abx — -4ac

The first term of this equation is the square of lax, which is illustrated by the
left-hand figure below. Dividing the second term of the equation, 4abx, by 2, we
get 2abx, which is shown as the area of each of the two equal rectangles in the
middle figure. To find the other dimension of each rectangle, we divide 2abx by
lax, getting b. This means that we must add b2, as shown in the right-hand
figure, to complete the square.
2ax 2ax lax
2abx
4a2x2 2abx
4a2 x2
2abx 4a2x2
2abx
 Doing this to the equation

Aa2x2 + Aabx = — Aac

we get
4a2x2 + Aabx + b2 = b2 — Aac
or
{lax + bf = b2 - Aac
Taking the square root of each side,

lax + b = ± \Jb2 - Aac

and solving for x,

lax = -b ± \/b2 - Aac

-b± Vb2 - Aac
x = la

This is the quadratic formula. It is so useful that it should be memorized.

The Quadratic Formula

la
If„ ax2„ + bx
, + c — 0, then x — -b ± Vb2 - Aac .

Here are examples of how this formula can be used to solve quadratic
equations.

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the equation 5x2 + 9x — 2 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
SOLUTION
In this equation, a = 5, b = 9, and c = -2. The solutions of the equation are
-b± Vb2 - Aac
2a

Replacing a, b, and c by their values, we get

2(5)

-(9) ± V(9)2 - 4(5)(-2)

640 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

m
Simplifying, we get

-9 ± V81 + 40 -9 ± y/\2\ -9 ± 1 1
10 10 10
-9-11 -20

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the equation x2 + 4 = 6.x.
SOLUTION
To find a, b, and c, the equation must be written in standard form:
x2 — 6x + 4 = 0. Because a = 1, b = -6, and c = 4,
2(1)
-(-6)± V(-6)2 - 4(1)(4)

6 ± V36 - 16 6±\/20 6±2\/5 2(3 ± \/5) , «

X= 2 = -^ = ^2— = ^^=3±V*
The solutions of the equation are 3 + \/5 and 3 — \/5-

Exercises

Set
1. Factor each of the following polynomials as 2. Solve the following equations.
completely as you can.
a) \/2x - 5 = 7
a) 4x3 + 36x b) x + 1 = \/x2 + 4
b) 8x2 - 80x + 200 c) 3\/l4 + x = V6 - x
c) x3 + 9x2 - 10*
d) x4 - 40x2 + 144

Lesson 7: The Quadratic Formula 641

 3. The figure at the right consists of 13
squares, each of whose sides is x units long.
a) Write a formula for its perimeter, p.
b) Write a formula for its area, a. I I i

Set II
4. Write each of the following quadratic *7. Solve the following quadratic equations.
equations in standard form Express each answer either as an integer or
in decimal form, correct to the nearest
ax2 + bx + c = 0 tenth.

and give the values of a, b, and c. a) x2 - 5x - 14 = 0

b) x2 - 5x - 15 = 0
a) x2 - 5x + 5 = 2
C) x2 - 5x - 16 = 0
b) 4x2 - 9 = x
d) x2 - lx + 3 = 0
c) lx2 = x(x - 3)
e) x2 - 8x + 3 = 0
d) (3x - l)(x + 5) = x2 + 6
f) x2 - 9x + 3 = 0
5. This exercise is about the equation
8. Solve the following quadratic equations by
x2 - 6x = 12 using the quadratic formula. Leave answers
in radical form but simplify as much as
a) Solve this equation by completing the
square. possible.
b) Solve it by using the quadratic formula. a) x2 - 6x - 16 = 0
c) Express your answers in decimal form, b) 4x2 + 9x + 2 = 0
correct to the nearest hundredth. (Refer c) 2x2 - 5x + 1 = 0
to the table of square
563.) roots on page d) 8x2 - 5 = 0
e) 3x2 + x = 0
d) Substitute your answers in decimal form f) x2 + lOx + 25 = 0
for x in the equation to see if they seem 9. Write each of the following quadratic
reasonable. equations in standard form and solve it by
using the quadratic formula. Simplify each
6. This exercise is about the equation
solution as much as you can.
x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 a) x(x + 1) = 15
b) 4(x2 - 2) = x
a) Solve this equation by completing the
c) (x + 5)2 = x + 17
square. d) (x - 7)(x + 3) = -5
b) Solve it by using the quadratic formula.
c) Which method for solving this equation
is easier?

642 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 10. Use the quadratic formula to solve the
following equations for x in terms of the
other variables.
a) a-1 + bx + c = 0
b) dx2 -x-e = 0
c) ax2 -1=0
d) fie2 + gx = 0

Set 111
1 1. Write each of the following quadratic *14. Solve the following quadratic equations.
equations in standard form Express each answer either as an integer or
in decimal form, correct to the nearest
ax2 + bx + c = 0 tenth.

and give the values of a, b, and c. a) x2 + 2.v - 15 = 0

a) 3.v2 + .v + 4 = 6 b) .v2 + 2x - 16 = 0
c) .v2 + 2.y - 17 = 0
b) x2 + 8 = 7.v
d) .v2 + 8.v + 5 = 0
c) x(2x - 1) = 3.v + 1
e) x2 + 9x + 5 = 0
d) (5.v + 3)(.v - 1) = x2 - 3
f) x2 + lO.v + 5 = 0
12. This exercise is about the equation
15. Solve the following quadratic equations by
x2 _ 4.v = 15 using the quadratic formula. Leave answers
in radical form but simplify them as much
a) Solve this equation by completing the as possible.
square. a) a-2 + 7.v - 18 = 0
b) Solve it by using the quadratic formula.
b) 3.v2 + 5a- + 2 = 0
c) Express your answers in decimal form, c) a-2 + 3.v + 1 = 0
correct to the nearest hundredth. (Refer
d) 6.v2 -4 = 0
to the table of square roots on page e) 2.x-2 + 8.v = 0
563.)
f) a-2 - 12a- + 36 = 0
d) Substitute your answers in decimal form
16. Write each of the following quadratic
for x in the equation to see if they seem
reasonable. equations in standard form and solve by
using the quadratic formula. Simplify each
13. This exercise is about the equation solution as much as you can.

x2 + 7.v - 2 = 0 a) .v(.v - 3) = 12 c) (a- - 4)2 = a- + 2

- 1) = 2.v d) (a- + 2)(.v - 8) = -4
a) Solve this equation by completing the
square. 17. Use the quadratic formula to solve the
b) Solve it by using the quadratic formula. b) 5(.v2
following equations for x in terms of the
c) Which method for solving this equation other variables.
is easier?
a) ax2 + x + c = 0 c) x2 - /= 0
b) a-2 - dx - e = 0 d) ax2 - bx = 0

Lesson 7: The Quadratic Formula 643

 Set IV Solving Quadratic Equations by Stretching a Thread*
The figure below can be used to find the which it crosses the curved scale are
positive solutions to quadratic solutions to the equation.
equations having the form 1. Do this to find them.
: 0 2. Also find them by the quadratic
- bx - formula.
3. Solve the equation
in which b and c are positive. The
horizontal scales at the top and bottom x2 _ 8x + 4 _ 0
represent b and c.
An equation such as by stretching a thread across the

»2 _ 7x + 6 = 0 figure.
4. Compare your solutions with
those found by the quadratic
can be solved by stretching a thread
formula. (Let y/3 = 1.73.)
from 7 on the 6-scale to 6 on the c-
scale. The numbers of the points in

* After More Fun with Mathematics bv Jerome S. Meyer (Fawcett Publications, 1963), pp.
25-26.

644 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 LESSON 8
The Discriminant

The unusual design of the Federal Reserve Bank building in Minneapolis is the
work of the architect Gunnar Birkerts. Two opposite sides of the building have
the curve that is shown in the photograph above. This curve is part of a
mathematical curve called a parabola.
It is easy to write an equation whose graph is a parabola. In fact, any
quadratic function will do.

► The graph of every quadratic function (that is, every function having an
equation of the form y = ax2 + bx + c in which a is not zero) is a parabola.

Compare, for example, the graph of the quadratic function

y — 0.2x2, shown here, with the curve in the photograph.
In Lesson 3, we learned that the solutions of a polyno-
mial equation in standard form are the x-coordinates of
the points in which the graph of the corresponding poly-
nomial function intersects the x-axis. Because the graph of
the function v = 0.2.Y2 intersects the x-axis in just one
point, the origin, it follows that the equation 0.2x2 = 0
has one solution, zero.
y=0.2x
 The shape of the graph of a polynomial function depends on its degree. The
graph of every first-degree function is a line (which, as you already know, is why
such functions are called linear.) Because the line always intersects the .v-axis in
exactly one point, every first-degree equation has exacdy one soludon. Examples
are shown below.

5+ / 5
-3
/
5-
/
3 3

Function: y-5x Function: y=x+3

x=2
Function: y--2x+4
x =0
Equation: 5xzO x--3 -2x=-4
Equation: x+3-O Equation: -2x+4--0

The graph of even- sew^-degree (quadratic) funcdon is a parabola. Unlike a

line, a parabola can intersect the .v-axis in either two points, one point, or no
points at all. So a quadratic equation can have either two solutions, one solution,
or no solutions. Examples are shown below.

\
i

V/
-3 O
3
r~o— i

Function: Function: Function:

y=x2+2x-3 y=x2-4x+4 y-xz+3x+5

646 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 The following table lists the three quadratic equations, together with their
solutions, corresponding to the graphs at the bottom of the preceding page.

Equation Solutions
x2 + 2x - 3 = 0 -3 and 1
.x-2 - Ax + 4 = 0 2
x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 None

What would happen if we tried solving each of these equations by the quadratic
formula?

x2 + 2x - 3 = 0 x2 — Ax + 4 = 0 x2 + 3x +2(1)5 = 0
a = 1, b = 2, c = -3 a = 1, b = 2(1)
-4, c = 4 a = l,b = 3,c = 5

-(2) ± V(2)2
2(1) - 4(l)(-3) -(3) ± V(3)2 - 4(1X5)
r -(-4) ± V(-4)2 - 4(1X4)

-2 ± \74 + 12 4± V16 - 16 -3 ± V9 - 20

The number of solutions that each equation has becomes clear at this point: it
is determined by the number under the radical sign. The first equation has two
solutions because the number under the radical sign is positive.
-2± Vl6
2

2
= -2±4
-2 + 4 _ 2 —_ 1. and . -2 - 4 _ -6
2 2 2 2

The second equation has one solution because the number under the radical sign
is zero.

4± V0
2
4±0

Lesson 8: The Discriminant

 The third equation has no solutions because the number under the radical sign is
negative and negative numbers do not have square roots in the number system
that we are using.

-3= \^TT

There is no solution because -11 does not have a square root.

Because the nature of the number under the radical sign in the quadratic
formula determines the number of solutions that a quadratic equation has, it is
called the discriminant of the equation.

► The discriminant of the equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0

is b2 — 4ac.

-b±Vt?2-43C
2a

is the discriminant
of the equation
ax2+bx+c=0

If the discriminant is a positive number, the equation has two solutions. If it

is equal to zero, the equation has one solution. If it is negative, the equation has
no solutions.

648 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Exercises

Set I e)
1 . Write each of the following as a single
power.

a) x3 • x~3
b) (x3)-3 d) jc3j>3

c)-
2. Solve the quadratic equation
x2 + Ax — 45 = 0 by each of the following
methods.
Solve it by doing the following.
a) By factoring.
b) By completing the square. a) Letting x represent Fido's present age
c) By the quadratic formula. and y represent sister's present age, write
an equation relating x and y.
3. The following puzzle is from a collection
b) Write an equation for the relationship of
of puzzles published in 1914.* their ages five years ago.
"Five years ago sister was four times c) Solve the pair of simultaneous equations
older than Fido. Now she is only three that you have written for x and y.
times as old. How old is Fido?" d) How old is Fido?

* Cyclopedia of Puzzles by Sam Loyd (Morningside

Press, 1914). Reprinted by Pinnacle Books, 1976.

Set II
4. Find the value of the discriminant for each
e) x2 + Ax + A = 0
of the following equations and use it to tell f) x2 + Ax + 6 = 0
how many solutions the equation has.
a) x2 + Ax + 3 = 0 . Find solutions to each of the following
b) x2 + Ax + A = 0 quadratic equations by completing the
c) x2 + Ax + 6 = 0
square.
5. Graph the following functions, each on a a) x2 + Ax + 3 = 0
separate pair of axes. b) x2 + Ax + A = 0
c) x2 + Ax + 6 = 0
a) y = x2 + Ax + 3
b) y = x2 + Ax + 4 . Find solutions to each of the following
c) y = x2 + Ax + 6 quadratic equations by using the quadratic
formula.
Use your graphs to find solutions to
each of the following equations. a) x2 + Ax + 3 = 0
b) x2 + Ax + A = 0
d) x2 + Ax + 3 = 0 c) x2 + Ax + 6 = 0

Lesson 8: The Discriminant 649

 8. Find the value of the discriminant for each
of the following quadratic equations and
use it to tell how many solutions the
equation has.
a) x2 - 6x + 7 = 0 c) 4x2 + Ax + 1 = 0
b) x2 + 3x + 6 = 0 d) -x2 + 5 = 0
9. Use the graphs of the functions given below to estimate the solutions
to the following equations.
a) x2 - 6x + 7 = 0
b) x2 + 3x + 6 = 0
c) 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
d) -x2 + 5 = 0

I 10+ I

+3x+6 =4x2+4x+l ,=-x2+5

*10. Use the quadratic formula to find solutions

to the following equations. Express each
answer in decimal form, correct to the
nearest hundredth.
a) x2 - 6x + 7 = 0 c) 4x2 + 4x + 1 = 0
b) x2 + 3x + 6 = 0 d) -x2 + 5 = 0

Set III
1 1 . Find the value of the discriminant for each 12. Graph the following functions, each on a
of the following equations and use it to tell separate pair of axes.
how many solutions the equation has.
a) x2 - 2x - 3 = 0 a) y = x2 — 2x — 3
b) v = x2 - 2x + 1
b) x2 - 2x + 1 = 0 c) y = x2 - 2x + 2
c) x2 - 2x + 2 = 0

650 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 Use your graphs to find solutions to 14. Find solutions to each of the following
each of the following equations. quadratic equations by using the quadratic
formula.
d) x2 - 2x - 3 = 0
e) .v2 - 2x + 1 = 0 a) x2 - 2x - 3 = 0
f) x2 _ 2x + 2 = 0 b) x2 - 2x + 1 = 0
1 3. Find solutions to each of the following c) x2 - 2x + 2 = 0
quadratic equations by completing the 15. Find the value of the discriminant for each
square. of the following quadratic equations and
a) x2 - 2x - 3 = 0 use it to tell how many solutions the
b) x2 - 2.v +1=0 equation has.
C) .v2 - 2x + 2 = 0 a) X2 - 8.v + 10 = 0 c) 2a-2 + 8x + 2 = 0
b) x2 + 2x + 7 = 0 d) Ax2 - 20* + 25 = 0

16. Use the graphs of the functions given below to estimate the solutions
to the following equations.
a) a2 - 8.v + 10 = 0
b) x2 + 2x + 7 = 0
c) 2x2 + 8.x + 2 = 0
d) 4.x2 - 20x + 25 = 0

>
f

1
y=4x2-20x+25
y-2x2 + 8x+2

* 1 7. Use the quadratic formula to find solutions

to the following equations. Express each
answer in decimal form, correct to the
nearest hundredth.
a) x2 - 8.x- + 10 = 0 c) 2.x-2 + 8.v + 2 = 0
b) a2 + 2a + 7 = 0 d) 4a2 - 20a + 25 = 0

Lesson 8: The Discriminant

 Set IV A Paper-Folding Experiment
Take a sheet of graph paper that is ruled 4 units per inch and cut out a rectangular
piece 6 inches long and 4 inches wide. Draw a pair of axes on it as shown in the
figure at the left below, labeling the origin and marking scales on the axes as

JO

-10 -5

Fold the paper as shown in the second figure so that the lower edge falls along
the origin. Make a sharp crease in the paper.
Open the paper flat and fold again at-2 a different angle, being careful that the
lower edge again comes to the origin. Repeat this about 20 times, folding the paper
at a different angle each time.

1. What do you notice?

2. Trace the curve with your pencil.
-10
3. Copy and complete the following table for the function y =

6 8 10
10.5 III III III!

4. Plot the points having the pairs of numbers in this table as their coordinates
on the graph.

652 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 HieHONYMI Cardani
icliiKiuiturprimatfm:8r)of,haeautem quantitates proportionate*
in
fimt,&; quadratum fccundx eft xquaJe duplo producli fecundx
prmiam.cum quadruplo primx.ut proponebatur.
Decubock' rebus xqualibus numcro. Cap. XI.

LESSON
IBS ''*ri Cipio Fcrreus Bononienfis /am anni's ab hinc m'ginta fer
Rv ?SijwlI me capitulmn hoc inuenit , nadidit uero Anthonio Ma* Solving 9
K&^jf'S r\x Flondo Vcneto,qui cu in ccrramcn cu Nicolno Tar*
l&^^iralcaHrixcllcnfcaliciuandoiicniflet.occanoncmdcdic.ut
Nicolaus inuencrit & ipfc.qui cum nobis rogantibus tradidifTei, fup

Higher-Degree
prcffa demonftratione, freti hocauxilio, deinonftrationcm quxliui*
mus.eanicp in modos. quod difficillimuiri fuit, rcdactam fie fubicci*
mus. Demonstrate.
Sit igitur exempli caufacubus g h & fcxcuplum laten's g h xqua
ie 20, S.' ponam duos cubes a e & c l, quorum ditf crania lie zo , ica Equations
quod productum a c lateris, in c K latus,
fin, tenia f'cilicet ntimcri rcrum pars,5V
abfeindam c B.xqualcm c K,ckco, quod fi 1
ira fucrir.lineam ab rcfiduum , cflc xqua*
km G h,& ideo rci xftimadonein, nam de □
g h 1.1m fupponcbatur.quod ita cfTct, per*
hciam igitur per modum piimi fuppofiti
6y capiruti huius libri, corpora da,d c,d e
d F,ut per d c intclligamus cubum b c.pcr
d f cubttm a E.pcr d a rriplum c b in quadratum a B,per D E triplum
Aiiincjuadratu bc. quia igirurrxAC in c Kht 2,cxachic k tcr hct
^ numerus rcrum, igitur ex a b in triplum a c in c K fiunt 6 res a b,
feu fcxcuplum a B.quarc rriplum produdi ex a b, b c,a c, eftfexcu*
plum a B.at uero differentia cubi a c , a cubo ck,& exiftenri a aibo
B c a xqle ex fuppofito,eft 20,8c ex fuppofito pnmo d' capituh , eft
aggregarum corporum d a,d e,d F.tria igitur hxc corpora funt 20,
pofua uero b c m:cubus a B.xqualis eft cubo Af,& tnplo a c in qua
diatumcB,SccuboB cm:cVrriplo scin quadratum a c m: perde*
monftrata lllicdifTcrenria autem tripli B c in quadratum a c, a triplo
a c in quadratum b c eft produclum a b,b c,a c.quarccum hoc.ut de
inonltratumcft.xqualefitfcxcuplo a B, igitur addito fexcuplo a e,
ad id quod fit ex a c in quadratum b c tcr,fict triplum b c in quadra*
turn a c,cum igitur b c Gt m.iam oftenfum eft.quod productum c b

Although the Babylonians had figured out how to solve certain quadratic
equations more than four thousand years ago, general methods for solving cubic
equations were not discovered until the sixteenth century. They appeared in
print for the first time in a book written by Jerome Cardan, a man who had a
remarkable career not only as a mathematician, but also as a doctor and astrol-
oger. One of the pages of Cardan's book is shown here.
Soon after mathematicians learned how to solve cubic equations, they found
ways to deal with quartic equations as well. It was discovered that a polynomial
equation of degree n can have as many as n different solutions. This means that
 a cubic equation, being of third degree, can have as many as three solutions.
A quartic equation can have four solutions, a quintic equation can have five, and

so After
on.* formulas for solving quadratic, cubic, and quartic equations had been
discovered, it was assumed that similar formulas for solving quintic equations
and those of even higher degree would also eventually be found. In the nine-
teenth century, however, a young Norwegian mathematician named Niels Abel
proved that it is impossible to solve most polynomial equations of more than the
fourth degree by means of ordinary algebraic operations.
Here are examples of how the solutions to equations of degree higher than 2
can be found.

EXAMPLE 1
How many solutions can
the equation x3 - 3x2 - 12x + 18 = 0
have? Use the graph of the function
y = x3 — 3x2 — 12x + 18, shown at the
right, to estimate their values.
SOLUTION
Because the degree of the equation
x3 - 3x2 - 12x + 18 = 0 is 3, it can
have as many as 3 solutions. The
graph of the function
18

crosses the x-axis at -3, at12xabout

- 1.3,
and at about 4.7. So the solutions are -3
and, approximately, 1.3 and 4.7.
By using a calculator, 3xa2 solution such as 1.3 can be checked by substituting 1.2,
1.3, and 1.4 for x in the polynomial on the left side of the equation and seeing how
close the results come to 0.

(1.2)3 - 3(1.2)2 - 12(1.2) + 18 = 1.008

(1.3)3 - 3(1. 3)2 - 12(1.3) + 18 = -0.473
(1.4)3 - 3(1.4)2 - 12(1.4) + 18 = -1.936

From the results shown here, 1.3 seems to be closer than either 1.2 or 1.4 to being
correct.

* Although an nth-degree equation can have as many as n solutions, it may have fewer. The
second-degree equation x2 + 1 — 0, for example, has no solutions.

654 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 2

Solve the equation x4 + 2xi — 3x2 = 0 by the factoring method.

SOLUTION

Factoring x2 from each term of the left side, we get

x2(x2 + 2x - 3) = 0

Factoring x2 + 2x — 3, we get
x2(x - l)(x + 3) = 0

So either x2 = 0, x - 1 = 0, or x + 3 = 0. The solutions to the original equation

are 0, 1, and -3. If the function y = x4 + 2x3 — 3x2 were graphed, it would cross
the x-axis in these three points.

EXAMPLE 3

Solve the equation 3x3 — 24x2 + 15x = 0 by the factoring method.

SOLUTION
Factoring 3x from each term of the left side, we get

3x(x2 - 8x + 5) = 0
Although there is no obvious way to factor x2 — 8x + 5, we know at this point
that either

x = 0 or x2 - 8x + 5 = 0

Solving x2 — 8x + 5 = 0 by the quadratic formula, we can find the other solutions

to the original equation. We know that

2a au"u"" "
- 4(1X5)
2(1)
-(-8) ± V(-8)2

8 ± V64 - 20
2
8± V44
2
8±2^lT

Lesson 9: Solving Higher-Degree Equations 655

 2(4- y 11)
2

The solutions to the original equation are 0, 4 -

Exercises

Set I
1. Graph the following functions, each on a Divide the result by the number that is
separate pair of axes. Let one unit on each two more than your original number.
jy-axis represent 10. Add nine.
Subtract the number first thought of.
a) y = 6x The result is seven.
b) y = 2>x2
c) v = 2.v} a) Choose a number and carry- out the steps
described.
2. This exercise is about the following number
trick. b) Show how the trick works by letting x
represent the number first thought of and
Think of a number. carrying out the steps described.
Square it. c) The trick will not work if you begin with
Subtract four. -2. Explain why not.

Set II
3. Write a polynomial equation in standard 4. Tell whether or not each of the following
form equivalent to each of the following numbers is a solution of the equation
equations. On the basis of its degree alone,
5x
what is the largest number of solutions that
it might have? 30 :
by checking to see if the number makes it
a) x5 = Sx true. llx2 -
b) x(x2 + 4) = 10
a) 2 c) -3
c) x2 + 3x = x2 - 1
b) 3 d) \/5
d) (.v3 + 2){x - 7) = 0

656 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

5. Use the graphs of the functions given below to estimate the solutions
to the following equations.
a) 3x3 + 4.v- - 48.v - 64 = 0
b) x5 - -v4 - 31.v3 + 25.v2 + 150.x- = 0

y = x5-x4-31x3+2Sx2+150x

y = 3x3+4x2-48x-64
6. In exercise 5, you estimated the solutions of the resulting equations.
polynomial equations by looking at the a) x3 _ x2 _ 2x = 0
graphs of the corresponding functions. b) x3 - x2 - 3x = 0
a) Graph the function y = x4 — 4x2 — 5, c) x4 - 10x2 + 9 = 0
from x = -3 to .v = 3. d) x4 - 25 = 0
b) Use your graph to estimate the solutions . Solve the following equations.
of the equation x4 — 4x2 — 5 = 0.
a) 5(x3 + x2) = 3(x3 + x)
7. Solve the following equations by factoring, b) x2(l - x2) = x(6 - x3) - 4
setting each factor equal to zero, and solving c) (x2 + 2)2 = 4(x2 + 5)

Set III
9. Write a polynomial equation in standard
10. Tell whether or not each of the following
form equivalent to each of the following
numbers is a solution of the equation
equations. On the basis of its degree alone,
what is the largest number of solutions that
1 + x3
■ 3x + 6 :
it might have?
a) 4x2 = 11 by checking to see if the number makes it
true.
b) 5x + 9 = x - 1
c) x3(x4 + 1) = x3 + x4 a) 1 c) -2
d) (x3 - 5)2 = 7 b) -1 d) \/3

Lesson 9: Solving Higher-Degree Equations

 11. Use the graphs of the functions given below to estimate the solutions
to the following equations.
a) 3x3 - 8x2 + 3x - 8 = 0
b) x4 - ll.*2 + 10 = 0

y=3x3-8x2+3x-8 y=x*-11x2+10
12. In exercise 11, you estimated the solutions
of polynomial equations by looking at the the resulting equations.
graphs of the corresponding functions. a) x3 + 2x2 + x = 0
a) Graph the function b) a;3 + 2x2 - x = 0
y = 4x3 + 8x2 — x — 2, from x = -3 to c) x4 - 5x2 + 4 = 0
x = 2.
d) x4 - 10x2 = 0
b) Use your graph to estimate the solutions
14. Solve the following equations.
of the equation 4x3 + 8x2 — x — 2 = 0.
a) 2x2(x - 5) = x(5 - x)
13. Solve the following equations by factoring, b) x2(x2 + 1) + 2 = x4 + 4x
setting each factor equal to zero, and solving c) (x2 + l)2 = 2(x2 + 41)

Set IV
Although a quartic equation can have as many as four solutions, this quartic
equation doesn't have any.

x4 + x2 + I _ 0

Can you explain why not? (Hint: Can the square of a number be negative?)

658 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 So ™ cm
KH
O O © © o

0© «

"Nope; no chess problems until you've

finished your quadratic equations!"

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have studied the properties of polynomial equations in one

variable and have learned several different methods for solving quadratic
equations.

Polynomial Equations (Lesson 1) A polynomial equation is one in which

both sides of the equation are polynomials. It is written in standard form if the
left side is a polynomial in descending powers of the variable and the right side
 Polynomial equations written in standard form are named according to then-
degree:
Name
1 Linear
2 Quadratic
3 Cubic
4 Quartic
5 Quintic

Polynomial Functions (Lesson 2) Functions having equations of the form

y = ax — b are called linear because their graphs are straight lines. Quadratic
functions have equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c and graphs that are
parabolas. The graphs of higher-degree polynomial functions are more compli-
cated curves.
To graph a polynomial function, make a table from its equation, plot the
points in the table, and connect them with a smooth line or curve.

Solving Polynomial Equations by Graphing (Lesson 3) The solutions of a

polynomial equation such as ax2 + bx -\- c = 0 are the .v-coordinates of the
points in which the graph of the polynomial function v = ax2 + bx + c inter-
sects the x-axis.

Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring (Lesson 4) If the product of two

or more numbers is zero, then at least one of the numbers must be equal to zero.
This fact, called the zero-product property, can be used to solve certain quad-
ratic equations in the following way.

1. Write the equation in standard form: ax2 + bx + c = 0.

2. Factor the polynomial on the left side: ( X ) = 0.
3. Set each factor equal to zero: ( ) = 0 or ( ) = 0.
4. Solve the resulting equations.

Solving Quadratic Equations by Taking Square Roots (Lesson 5) If

.V2 = a, then either x = \ a or x = -\ a. This fact can be used to solve
quadratic equations written in the form (.v + a)2 = bs by taking the square root
of each side.

660 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Completing the Square (Lesson 6) To solve a quadratic equation by com-
pleting the square:

1. Write the equation in the form ax2 + bx = -c.

2. Add a number to each side of the equation that will make the left side
the square of a binomial: ax2 + bx + ( ) = -c + ( ).
3. Take the square root of each side.
4. Solve the resulting equations.

The Quadratic Formula (Lesson 7) If the general quadratic equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0 is solved for x by completing the square, the result is the
quadratic formula:

-b± y/b2 - 4ac

The solutions to a quadratic equation can be found by substituting its values for
a, b, and c in this formula and simplifying the result.

The Discriminant (Lesson 8) A quadratic equation has either two solutions,

one solution, or no solutions, depending on whether the parabola that is the
graph of the corresponding quadratic function intersects the x-axis in two
points, one point, or no points.
The discriminant of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the expres-
sion b2 — 4ac. If it is a positive number, the equation has two solutions. If it is
equal to zero, the equation has one solution. If it is a negative number, the
equation has no solutions.

Solving Higher-Degree Equations (Lesson 9) A polynomial equation can

have as many different solutions as its degree; so cubic and quartic equations can
have as many as three and four solutions respectively.
There is no general algebraic method for solving quintic equations and those
of higher degree. However, some polynomial equations of higher degree can be
solved by factoring.

Summary and Review 661

 Exercises

Set I
1 . Write each of the following equations in 5. Use your graphs in exercise 4 to estimate
standard form. What type of polynomial the solutions of the following equations.
equation is it and what is the largest number a) x2 + x - 5 = 0
of solutions it might have? b) x4 + 4 = 0
a) x3 + 5.v = 2 6. Solve each of the following quadratic
b) (x - 2)(x + 1) = 6 equations by the factoring method. Show all
c) x\x* - 1) = (3 + .v)(3 - x) work.
2. Tell whether or not each of the following a) 6x2 - 5x = 0
numbers is a solution of the equation given. b) .v2 - 36 = 0
a) Is -3 a solution of .v3 - lOx = 3? c) x2 + 8x = 33
b) Is \ 7 a solution of 2.v4 = 98? d) (x + 5)(x + 6) = 2
3. The graph of the function 7. Solve the following quadratic equations by
v = 4x3 + 8x2 — 21* is shown here. the square-root method. Show all work.
a) x2 = 60 c) (2x + 5)2 = 25
> b) {x - 4)2 = 7 d) 9x2 + 6x + 1 = 16
8. Solve the following quadratic equations by
r\ i completing the square. Show all work.
a) x2 + lOx = 11
b) x2 - 6x + 4 = 0
9. Find the value of the discriminant for each
of the following quadratic equations and use
a! — hx it to tell how many solutions the equation
has.
a) 4x2 + 20x + 25 = 0
b) x2 - 9x + 21=0
c) 5x2 + 2x - 1 = 0
10. Solve the following quadratic equations by
a) Write an equation whose solutions can be using the quadratic formula. Show all work.
estimated from this graph. a) 2x2 - llx + 15 = 0
b) How many solutions does the equation b) x2 + 4x - 20 = 0
have?
c) 6x2 - 4x = 1
c) Estimate each of their values to the d) 3x2 + 5x = 12
nearest tenth.
11. Solve the following cubic and quartic
4. Graph the following functions. equations by factoring.
a) y — .V2 + -v — 5 from x = -5 to x = 5.
b) v = .v4 + 4 from x = -3 to x = 3. a) x3
b) 2x4 + - x210x2
"= 12x
= 0
662 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
12. Solve the following equations by any
method.
a) x2 + 8x + 7 = 0 d) x(x + 6) = 27
b) (x + 2)2 = 36 e) x2 + x - 5 = 0
C) x2 - 4x = 1 f) .v4 - 16x2 = 0

Set II
1 . Write each of the following equations in 5. Use your graphs in exercise 4 to estimate
standard form. What type of polynomial the solutions of the following equations.
equation is it and what is the largest number a) x2 - 3x - 1 = 0
of solutions it might have? b) xi - 4 = 0
a) 6x5 + 3 = 2x 6. Solve each of the following quadratic
b) (x + ll)(x - 4) = x2 equations by the factoring method. Show all
c) x(x - 9)(x + 9) = 0 work.
2. Tell whether or not each of the following a) x2 - 64 = 0
numbers is a solution of the equation given. b) x2 + 2x - 35 = 0
a) Is 1 a solution of 4x3 - 64 = 0? c) 3x2 - 1 = 2x
b) Is -\/3 a solution of .v4 + x2 = 12? d) (x - 4)(x - 7) = 10
3. The graph of the function 7. Solve the following quadratic equations by
y — x4 — 2x3 — 12 is shown here. the square-root method. Show all work.
a) x2 = 18 c) (3x - 2)2 = 49
b) (x + l)2 = 10 d) 4x2 - 12x + 9 = 25
8. Solve the following quadratic equations by
completing the square. Show all work.
a) x2 - 2x = 80
b) x2 + 8x - 6 = 0
9. Find the value of the discriminant for each
of the following quadratic equations and use
it to tell how many solutions the equation
has.
a) Write an equation whose solutions can be a) 6x2 - x + 3 = 0
estimated from this graph. b) 3x2 + 8x + 5 = 0
b) How many solutions does the equation c) x2 - 12* + 36 = 0
have?
10. Solve the following quadratic equations by
c) Estimate each of their values to the
nearest tenth. using the quadratic formula. Show all work.
a) 5x2 - 4x - 1 = 0
4. Graph the following functions. b) x2 - 8x + 5 = 0
a) y = x2 — 3x — 1 from x = -3 to x = 6. c) 9x2 - 6x + 1 = 0
b) y = x3 — 4 from x = -3 to x = 3. d) 3x2 + 2x = 4

Summary and Review 663

 1 1 . Solve the following cubic and quartic 12. Solve the following equations by any
equations by factoring. method.

a) 4x3 - 24* = 0 a) x2 - Ix + 10 = 0 d) x(x - 4) = 21

b) x4 - 16 = 0 b) (jc - 3)2 = 49 e) x2 - x - 7 = 0
c) x2 + 2x = 5 f) x3 - 25* = 0

664 Chapter 13: QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

 Chapter 14
THE REAL NUMBERS
 LESSON 1
Rational Numbers

A popular toy in the nineteenth century gave the illusion of moving pictures by
whirling a disc such as the one shown here in front of a mirror. When viewed
through the slots around the rim, it shows a woman hitting a man on the head
with a stick.
As the disc whirled around, the pictures appeared over and over again in an
unchanging sequence. Many rational numbers have decimal forms that behave
in the same way.
As we have already learned, a rational number is a number that can be written
as the quotient of two integers. A rational number written in this form can be
changed to decimal form by carrying out the indicated division. Compare the
following examples of how this is done.
EXAMPLE 1 EXAMPLE 2

Change —37
16 ■ to decimal form. Change — — to decimal form.

SOLUTION SOLUTION
2.312500... 0.432432 . . .
16)37.000000 37)16.000000
32 0
50 0
48 14 8
20 0
16 1 11
40 90
32 74
80 0
80 148
0
120
111
00 90
74
0... _0
16...

_0

In Example 1, we eventually get a remainder of zero. At this point, the

decimal form of the number begins repeating zeros. We can indicate this by
writing it as 2.31250; the bar over the zero means that it keeps repeating. The
repeating digit, 0, is called the period of the number. It is simpler, however, to
write the number as 2.3125 and say that the division "ends."
In Example 2, the division will never end because we never get a remainder
of zero. After first getting a remainder of 16, followed by remainders of 12 and
9, we get a remainder of 16 again. This, in effect, puts us back to where we
started. The result is that the decimal form of — repeats the three digits 432
over and over again. As in Example 1, the digits that repeat are called the period
» „«. n a i^ n we can write it as 0.432,

the bar indicating the repetition of the digits 432.

These examples illustrate the fact that, if a rational number is changed to
decimal form, it always begins repeating digits. The reverse is also true: every

Lesson 1: Rational Numbers 667

 number in decimal form that repeats digits is rational because it can always be
expressed as the quotient of two integers. The following examples show how to
do this.

EXAMPLE 3
Write 2.08 as the quotient of two integers.
SOLUTION

Because 2.08 means 2 + -r^u^, we can wr*te

or, reducing to lowest terms.

EXAMPLE 4
Write 1 .4 as the quotient of two integers.
SOLUTION
To do this, we begin by letting x = 1.4. If x = 1.44444 . . . , then
10* = 14.44444 .... Subtracting the first of these equations from the second, we

IOjc = 14.44444 . . .
x= 1.44444...
get

or, more briefly,

lOx = 14.4
x = 1.4

EXAMPLE^
Write 0.409 as the quotient of two integers.

668 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

SOLUTION
Let x = 0.4090909 .... Multiplying by 100 (there are two repeating digits to get
rid of this time rather than one), we get 100* = 40.90909 .... Subtracting,
lOO.v = 40.90909 . . .
x = 0.40909 . . .

40.D
99 = t^t- Reducing to lowest terms,
990 5
405 9-45 9-5-9 9
990 9-110 9-5-22 22

Examples 4 and 5 illustrate a method that can be used to write any decimal
number that repeats digits as the quotient of two integers. The steps are:

1. Write an equation by letting x equal the number.

2. Write a second equation by multiplying both sides of the first equation
by 10", n being the number of digits in the period of the number.
3. Subtract the first equation from the second.
4. Solve the resulting equation for x.

Exercises

Set I
1. Write expressions for the exact perimeter 2. The world's longest conveyor belt extends
and area of each of these rectangles. across the Spanish Sahara and is used to
carry material from a phosphate mine to a
h"V6 seaport. Material put on the belt at one end
arrives at the other end in 6 hours and 15
-V6 minutes. If the belt moved 4 kilometers per
Vj
hour faster, the trip would take 5 hours
instead.
V7

Lesson 1: Rational Numbers 669

 a) Draw a figure and write an equation to
find out the speed in kilometers per hour
at which the belt actually travels.
(Represent it by x.)
b) How many kilometers long is the belt?

3. Guess a formula for the function

represented by each of these tables. Begin
each formula with y = .
1 2 3 4 5
a) yx 5 4 3 2 1
1 2 3 4 5
y 6 3 2 1.5 1.2
b) a:
0 1 2 3 4
y 4 9 16 25 36
C) X
4 9 16 25 36
d)x 2
y 0 1 3 4

Set II
*4. Copy and complete the following table by *5. Change each of the following rational
numbers to decimal form.
writing — to the first five decimal places in
the second column and using a bar as °)T> *>)± c)± d)Jj
necessary to write —x in exact decimal form
in the third column. Look at your results for parts a through
d before answering the following questions
1 1

is a positive integer.
1 1.00000 1
2
3
0.50000
0.33333
., ,
0.5
0.3
e) Do you think that it "ends" or does it
start repeating digits?
4 11 1111
5 f ) What type of digit do you think is its
6
■II
11111 Ill
last nonzero digit before the period?

7 11111 g) How many digits do you think it has

8 111 ■ before the period?

670 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

 ■)
Change these numbers to decimal form. 9. The following questions refer to the
h)i 2
rational number — — .
2,
a) How many different numbers, including
j) Do the results agree with your answers zero, can there be as remainders if 19 is
to parts e through g? divided into 2?
Change each of the following rational b) If zero were one of the remainders, what
numbers to decimal form. would you know about the decimal form
1 of
1,111
c) What is the greatest number of digits
Look at your answers for parts a through
that could repeat if zero is not a
c before answering the following questions remainder?
about the decimal form of .
1,111,111,111 10. If x is replaced by an integer, the
d) Do you think that it "ends" or does it - represents a rational
start repeating digits?
expression -
e) How many digits do you think are in its number. For example, if x = 7,
period?
f ) What do you think is the last digit in its
2x + 1 2(7) + 1 15
period?
. Write each of the following as the quotient 19' by
Find the rational number represented
of two integers in lowest terms. —
a) 3.3 c) 0.004 2x + 1 both as a common fraction and as

b) 2.72 d) 0.4375 a decimal number if

. Use the method explained in this lesson to a) x = 1 c) x = 5

b) -v = 2 d) x = 50
write each of the following as the quotient
of two integers in lowest terms.
e) What happens to the value of as
a) 0.6 d) 0.083
x increases?
b) 2.5_ e) 0.590
c) 0.45 f) 0.2037

Set III
9 0.11111 0.1
* 1 1 . Copy and complete the table at the right
10 0.10000 0.1
by writing — to the first five decimal places 11
in the second column and using a bar as 12 III
111 Hill
13 11111 ■II
llllll
necessary to write —x in exact decimal form 111 111
in the third column. 15
14 111 11

Lesson 1: Rational Numbers

 *12. Change each of the following rational 15. Use the method explained in this lesson to
numbers to decimal form. write each of the following as the quotient
of two integers in lowest terms.
b) 7.2_
c) 0.3
a) 0.1 8_
b) f2 d) £
Look at your results for parts a through d) 0.138
d before answering the following questions e) 1.472
f) 0.0405
16. The following questions refer to the
4
is a positive integer. rational number

e) Do you think that it "ends" or does it a) How many different numbers, including
start repeating digits? zero, can there be as remainders if 23 is
f) What do you think is its last nonzero divided into 4?
digit before the period? b) If zero were one of the remainders, what
g) How many digits do you think it has would you know about the decimal form
h) before the period?
Change these numbers to decimal form. 23
c) What is the greatest number of digits
0 that could repeat if zero is not a
remainder?
j) Do the results agree with your answers
to parts e through g? 17. If x is replaced by an integer other than 0,
the expression —x —4-—3 represents a rational
number. For example, if x = 8, 23'
* 1 3. Change each of the following rational x + 3 .
numbers to decimal form. i + 3 _ 11

Find the rational number represented by

x "^x both as a common fraction and as a
o4 o decimal number if

g) What do you notice about the results?

14. Write each of the following as the quotient
tXxZ\ d)x=100
of two integers in lowest terms.
*=10 e),= 10,000
a) 1.7 c) 0.625 fc)
) What happens to the value of ^—^ — as
b) 4.16 d) 0.0008 x increases?

672 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

Set IV

0.05882352941 1764705882352941 1764705882352941 1764705

88235294 1 1 76470588235294 1 1 76470588235294 1 1 76470588
1. How many digits are in the period of this number?
2. Write the digits of the period down in order and draw a line at the halfway
point to separate them into two equal groups.
3. The digits in the second group are related in a simple way to those in the first
group. What is it?

Lesson 1: Rational Numbers 673

WI = 1.4142135623 7309504880 1688724209 6980785696 7187537694 8073176679 7379907324 7846210703 8850387534 3276415727
3501384623 0912297024 9248360558 5073721264 4121497099 9358314132 2266592750 5592755799 9505011527 8206057147
0109559971 6059702745 3459686201 4728517418 6408891986 0955232923 0484308714 3214508397 6260362799 5251407989
6872533965 4633180882 9640620615 2583523950 5474575028 7759961729 8355752203 3753185701 1354374603 4084988471
6038689997 0699004815 0305440277 9031645424 7823068492 9369186215 8057846311 1596668713 0130156185 6898723723
5288509264 8612494977 1542183342 0428568606 0146824720 7714358548 7415565706 9677653720 2264854470 1585880162
0758474922 6572260020 8558446652 1458398893 9443709265 9180031138 8246468157 0826301005 9485870400 3186480342
1948972782 9064104507 2636881313 7398552561 1732204024 5091227700 2269411275 7362728049 5738108967 5040183698
6836845072 5799364729 0607629969 4138047565 4823728997 1803268024 7442062926 9124859052 1810044598 4215059112
0249441341 7285314781 0580360337 1077309182 8693147101 7111168391 6581726889 4197587165 8215212822 9518488472
0896946338 6289156288 2765952635 1405422676 5323969461 7511291602 4087155101 3515045538 1287560052 6314680171
2740265396 9470240300 5174953188 6292563138 5188163478 0015693691 7688185237 8684052287 8376293892 1430065586
9568685964 5951555016 4472450983 6896036887 3231143894 1557665104 0883914292 3381132060 5243362948 5317049915
7717562285 4974143899 9188021762 4309652065 6421182731 6726257539 5947172559 3463723863 2261482742 6222086711
5583959992 6521176252 6989175409 8815934864 0083457085 1814722318 1420407042 6509056532 3333984364 5786579679
6519267292 3998753666 1721598257 8860263363 6178274959 9421940377 7753681426 2177387991 9455139723 1274066898
3299898953 8672882285 6378697749 6625199665 8352577619 8939322845 3447356947 9496295216 8891485492 5389047558
2883452609 6524096542 8893945386 4662574492 7556381964 4103169798 3306185201 9379384940 0571563337 2054806854
0575867999 6701213722 3947582142 6306585132 2174088323 8294728761 7393647467 8374319600 0159218880 7347857617
2522118674 9042497736 6929207311 0963697216 0893370866 1156734585 3348332952 5467585164 4710757848 6024636008
3444911481 8587655554 2864551233 1421992631 1332517970 6084365597 0435285641 0087918500 7603610091 5946567067
6883605571 7400767569 0509613671 9401324935 6052401859 9910506210 8163597726 4313806054 6701029356 9971042425
1057817495 3105725593 4984451126 9227803449 1350663756 8747760283 1628296055 3242242695 7534529028 8387684464
2917328277 0888318087 0253398523 3812274999 0812371892 5407264753 6785030482 1591801886 1671089728 6922920119
7599880703 8185433325 3646021108 2299279293 0728717807 9988809917 6741774108 9830608003 2631181642 7988231171
5436386966 1702999934 1616148786 8601804550 5553986913 1 151860103 8637532500 4558186044

LESSON 2
Irrational Numbers

We know that, when rational numbers are changed to decimal form, they
eventually begin a repeating pattern of digits. The first thousand digits of \/2
shown above have no such pattern. In fact, when 1,000,082 digits of \/2 were
calculated by a computer at Columbia University in 1971, no simple pattern of
any sort was found.
If there is a pattern to the decimal form of \/2, it cannot be one of repeating
digits because y/2 is not a rational number. The Greek mathematician Hippasus
is credited with having proved that the \fl is not a rational number in the fifth
century B.C. by showing that it cannot be written as the quotient of two integers.

► An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as the quotient of

two integers.

The number \/2, then, is an irrational number. Other square roots that are
irrational are \/3, VI, \/6, V7> V&. and y/l6. The square roots yT, V4, and
V9, on the other hand, are rational because \/T = 1, \/4 = 2, and y/§ = 3. In
general, if an integer is not the square of an integer, its square roots are
irrational.
The same is true for the square roots of rational numbers that are not integers.
Compare the numbers in the following lists.

Irrational square roots: /— , /— , /— , /— , /—,...

V /*"2 V f13 V /23 V /34 V /4
7

Rational square roots: /— ,

If a rational number is written as a fraction in lowest terms, the numerator and

denominator of the fraction must be squares of integers in order for its square
roots to be rational.
To find the decimal form of an irrational number such as \/2 is not easy.
There are, however, numbers whose decimal forms are easily described that are
irrational. For example, the number

0.123456789101112131415...

whose digits are formed by writing the counting numbers in succession must be
irrational. This follows from the fact that it is not a repeating decimal.

c -3Some -2-1.5-1
rational numbers
0*1 2 2.63 4

st-vs -vj j/i vi-i vi ynvw

3 2vi
Some irrational numbers

Irrational numbers, like rational numbers, can be assigned to points on a

number line. A number line showing some examples of both types of numbers is
shown above. Numbers such as 2 \/3 and \/2 — 1 are irrational because, if they
could be expressed as the quotient of two integers, then so could \/3 and \/2.

Lesson 2: Irrational Numbers 675

 Exercises
-2
Set I
1. This exercise is about the number line shown here.

B
I I 1» I I 1 i I I I|i I I I I |I I 1 I I1♦ l I l I 1

a) Write the coordinate of point A as a fraction in lowest terms.

b) Write the coordinate of point B as a fraction in lowest terms.
c) Find the distance between points A and B.
d) Find the coordinate of the point midway between points A and B.
2. Tell whether or not each of the following
equations is true for all values of x and v.
If an equation is not always true, give an
example for which it is false.
a) 2(.v2 + y2) = 2x2 + 2y2
b) (x2 + y2)2 = x4 + y*
c) y/x2 + y2 = x + y
3. The graph of one of the following
polynomial functions is shown here.
A. y = .v3 + 5x2 - 20*
B. y = x3 + 5x2 - Ax - 20
C. y = x4 + 5.v3 - 4x - 20
D. v = x4 + 5x3 - 4x2 - 20x
a) Which function is it?
b) Explain how you decided which
function is shown.
~
3

Set II
4. Draw an accurate number line and mark k) Which of the numbers in parts a
the points corresponding to the following through j are irrational?
numbers on it.
5. Is each of the following square roots
rational or irrational?
a) -4 a) \9_
b) 2.5
c) -1.6
d)V9 h)0.3 e) V250
b) \90 f) V25
6 c) \ 900
e>4 ., * d) \ 9,000
f) \3 V 4 h) \/025
)) -\To g) V25
676 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS
 f)

6. If possible, find the answers to each of the

following problems in exact decimal form.
Tell whether each answer is rational or
irrational. *8. Each of the following decimal numbers
might be used as an approximation of
a) \/4 + \/5 \/3- 12
g) \/35. Find the square of each number, each
b) \/2 • \/8 1 correct to the nearest thousandth.
111

V3 a) 6
b) 5.9
9 5- 25
V V2 c) 5.92

e) 3 • \/12
II. V9
IL d)
e)
f)
5.916
5.9161
Each number in parts a through e is
V 9 V 25
rational. Explain why.
7. Two rational numbers close to \/2 are g) Use your answers to parts a through e
17 to tell which of the numbers are smaller
and
than \/35~ and which are larger.
h) Is it possible that a decimal number
a) Change — to decimal form. carried out to a larger number of
decimal places could be exactly equal to
b) Is — smaller or larger than \/2? (Refer \/35? Explain.
9. Solve each of the following equations by
to the decimal form of \/2 given at the
using the quadratic formula. Simplify your
beginning of this lesson.)
answers as much as possible but do not
round them.
c) Express ( — J as a rational number.
a) Ax2 - 5x + 1 = 0
b) Ax2 - 6x + 1 = 0
d) Is I — J smaller or larger than 2?
C) Ax2 - Ax + 1 = 0
d) Ax2 - 8x + 1 = 0
e) What must be true about the
discriminant, b2 — Aac, of a quadratic
f) Is — smaller or larger than \/2? equation in order for the solutions to the
equation to be rational? (Assume that a,
as a rational number. b, and c are integers.)
g) Express

Set III
10. Draw an accurate number line and mark the points corresponding
e) ■ j
to the following numbers on it.
2
a) 3 i)
i) -Vj5
-0.6
b) -1.5
c) 2.8 k) Which of the numbers in parts a
f) V5
d) >/l6 through j are irrational?

Lesson 2: Irrational Numbers

 11. Is each of the following square roots
rational or irrational?

a) \]0_ e) \64_
b) \ 100 f) \/6\4
c) \X000 g) \/064
d) \ 10,000 h) V0.064
12. If possible, find the answers to each of the
following problems in exact decimal form.
Tell whether each answer is rational or
irrational.
c) *14. Each of the following decimal numbers
a) \ 3- ^3 might be used as an approximation of
b) \ 5 - \1 \ 42 . Find the square of each number, each
d) correct to the nearest thousandth.
\24

\6 a) 6
\ 375 b) 6.5
c) 6.48
d) 6.481
e) x/2^8 e) 6.4807
f ) 2 -_\ 8 f) Each number in pans a through e is
g) \8-\4 rational. Explain why.
g) Use your answers to parts a through e
h) \ _* to tell which of the numbers are smaller
25 - \ _16
than \ 42 and which are larger.
h) Is it possible that a decimal number
l} \ T6 ~ \ 25 carried out to a larger number of
J)
/J 1_ decimal places could be exactly equal to
\ 16 25 V42? Explain.
13. Two rational numbers close to \ 3 are - 15. Solve each of the following equations by
using the quadratic formula. Simplify your
and 19
answers as much as possible but do not
round them off.
a) 9.x2 - lO.v +1=0
b) 9x2 _ 8.v + 1 = 0
c) 9x2 - 6x + 1 = 0
d) 9.v2 - 9.v + 1 = 0
(\ 3 = 1.73205080...) e) What must be true about the
discriminant, b2 — Aac, of a quadratic
c) Express I — J as a rational number. equation in order for the solutions to the
equation to be rational? (Assume that a,
b, and c are integers.)

678 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

Set IV

The figures at the right represent two marching

bands as seen from overhead. Each band is
arranged in a square formation.
Notice that the first band has almost twice as
many people in it as the second. If the first band
had exactly twice as many people, then it would
follow that \fl is a rational number.
Can you explain why?
(Hint: Suppose that there are x people in the
first row of the larger band and y people in the
first row of the smaller band. Then x2 represents
the number of people in the larger band and y2
represents the number of people in the smaller
band. If

then to what number would — be equal?)

Lesson 2: Irrational Numbers 679

 LESSON 3
More Irrational Numbers

There are many other types of irrational numbers besides square roots. One of
them can be used to solve the problem illustrated in this cartoon.
Although it doesn't seem possible that someone could figure out the distance
of the sun from the earth from simply knowing that there are 365 days in a year,
the two ideas are connected. The great seventeenth-century astronomer Jo-
hannes Kepler discovered that the distance of a planet from the sun is a function
of the length of its year. An approximate formula for this function is

y = \^6x2
in which j' represents the distance of the planet from the sun in millions of miles
and x represents the number of earth-days that it takes the planet to travel once
around the sun.
This function contains the cube root of a number. In the same way that the
idea of "square root" comes from the idea of numbers as squares, the idea of
"cube root" comes from the idea of numbers as cubes.
► If j
: x3, then y is called the cube of x and x is called a cube root of v.

The number 2, for example, is a cube root of 8 because 23 = 8. The number -5

is a cube root of -125 because (-5)3 = -125.
 You know that positive numbers have two square roots, zero has one square
root, and negative numbers do not have square roots. Every number, on the
other hand, has exactly one cube root, represented by the symbol

V
To use Kepler's formula to find the distance from the earth to the sun,

y = ifdx2
we substitute 365 for x, getting

y = V6(365)2 = </6( 133,225) = \/799,350

The approximate cube root of 799,350 can be found by either using a calculator
or looking through a table of cubes similar to the table of squares on page 563.*
From part of such a table, shown at the right, we see that, because 799,350 is Number Cube
closest to 804,357, \/799,350 is approximately 93. Soy, the distance of the earth 91
from the sun, is about 93 million miles. 753,571
92 778,688
The idea of a root of a number can be extended beyond square roots and cube
804,357
roots to fourth roots, fifth roots, and so on. 94
93 830,584

► In general, if y = xn, then y is called the nth power of x and x is called an nth
root of y.

For example, the number 3 is a fourth root of 81 because 34 = 81. The number
-2 is a fifth root of -32 because (-2)5 = -32.
The symbol i/x is used to represent the largest nth root of x. Although, for
example, both 3 and -3 are fourth roots of 81,

</S\ = 3

because 3 is larger than -3.

* If an integer is not the nth power of an integer, its «th roots are irrational. The number
799,350 is not the cube of an integer; so the cube root of 799,350 is irrational.

Lesson 3: More Irrational Numbers

 We noted in Lesson 2 that, if a rational number is written as a fraction in
lowest terms, the numerator and denominator of the fraction must be squares of
integers in order for its square roots to be rational. This is true of wth roots in

general:

► If a rational number is written as a fraction in lowest terms, the numerator and

denominator of the fraction must be Azth powers of integers in order for its nxh
roots to be rational.

Exercises

Set I
1. If possible, reduce each of these fractions. its path is a function of time. A typical
bx) — 2v formula for this function is
a) 3*^v
y = _5.V2 - 30.Y
X - V
C)"
*-5 " in which y is the distance above the ground
in meters and x is the time in seconds that
2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous the ball has been in the air.
equations. a) How far above the ground is the ball 3
a) 5x - 6v = 2 b) x2 +y = 0 seconds after it was shot?
3.v - 6v = 2 y = x - 2 b) When is the ball 25 feet above the
3. If a cannonball is shot into the air, its
distance above the ground at any point along ground?

9* ~ '
**
•* 1

• . .-. - T**
1 1 V
s
*V
lGmr ' 1 1 1 1
1 1
1

682 Chapter 14: THE REAL \t SOBERS M^

/
Set II
4. Copy and complete the following table of 7. The graph of the function
powers.

can be used to estimate square roots of

■III numbers. For example, from the graph
1111 111 shown here, we see that x2the square roots of
111 y =
11111 Ill
1111
\ 10\ 1
y
111!

5. Use your table to tell whether each of the

following numbers is rational or irrational. \ /
Express each of the rational numbers in
simplest form.
t\ / .
a) \/8 -3 O 3
b) i/8 -2.4 2.4
c) V25
d) 1/Q5
e) V8l 6 are approximately -2.4 and 2.4.
f) <M a) Some of the points used to graph this
function include (1, 1), (3,9), and (-2,4).
v oz3 What is the relationship of the y-
g) ^27
6. A table listing some of the roots of 5 and coordinate of each point to the x-
0.5 is shown below. Each root is rounded to coordinate of the point?
the nearest thousandth. b) What is the relationship of the x-
coordinate of each point to the y-
coordinate of the point?
n \/5 y/05
c) Use the scales shown in the figure above.
2 2.236 0.707 Plot points extending from x = -5 to
3 1.710 0.794 x = 5 to enlarge the graph of y = x2.
4 1.495 0.841
5 1.380 0.871 Use your graph to estimate the square
10 1.175 0.933 roots of the following numbers, each to
the nearest tenth.
100 1.016 0.993
1,000 1.002
1.002 0.999
1,000
d) 10
a) What happens to \/5 as n gets larger? e) 18
b) What number does \/5 get very close to f)
g) 22
Judging from your graph, how many
when n is very large? square roots does a positive number have?
c) What happens to \/0.5 as n gets larger? h) Judging from your graph, how many
d) What number does -\/0.5 get very close square roots does a negative number
to when n is very large? have?
683
Lesson 3: More Irrational Numbers
 8. The graph of the function 9. List as many of the roots indicated for
each of the following numbers as you can.
If you think that a number has no such
f)
can be used to estimate fifth roots of roots,
numbers. a) Cubewrite
roots"none."
of 1,000.
a) Graph this function, letting 1 unit on b) Cube roots of -8.
c) Fourth roots of 625.
the v-axis represent 20 and plotting
points extending from x = -3 to x = 3. d) Fourth roots of -16.
e) Fifth roots of 1.
Use your graph to estimate the fifth roots f ) Fifth roots of -243.
of the following numbers, each to the
nearest tenth. 10. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
should replace in each of the following?
b) 20 a) \3/10 | \T0
c) 80 g).
d) -10 b) i/3 l■! ■,! \2 4 4
e) Judging from your graph, how many fifth c) \0 \0
roots does a positive number have?
d) \/8 Hlli.it 2
f ) Judging from your graph, how many fifth
roots does a negative number have? e) </=8 ■ -1

Set III
11. Copy and complete the following table of 13. A table listing some of the roots of 2 and
0.2 is shown below. Each root is rounded to
powers. the nearest thousandth.
X X2 X3 X4 X5
n \2 {02
2 1.414 0.447
3 1.260 0.585
4 1.189 0.669
5 1.149 0.725
1.072 0.851
Use your table to tell whether 1.007 0.984
2~5 each of the 10
100 0.998
following numbers is rational or irrational. 1,000 1.001
Express each of the rational numbers in
simplest form. a) What happens to \ 2 as n gets larger?

■»**_ f) \ 16
g)_ 1
\ 243
b) What
when nnumber
is very does
large?\n/2 get very close to

a) \9~ h,
c) What happens to \^02 as n gets larger?
c) \727
d) \'27
e) VY6
i
nr i) i T25
d) What number does \^02 get very close
to when n is very large?

684 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

14. The graph of the function 15. The graph of the function

y = x3cube roots of
can be used to estimate can be used to estimate fourth roots of
numbers. For example, from the graph numbers.
a) Graph this function, letting 1 unit on the
_y-axis represent 10 and plotting points
extending from x = -3 to x — 3.
Use your graph to estimate the fourth
roots of the following numbers, each to the
nearest tenth.

b) 10
c) 40
e)
d) Judging
50 from your graph, how many
fourth roots does a positive number have?
f ) Judging from your graph, how many
fourth roots does a negative number
have?
shown here, we see that the cube root of 20
16. List as many of the roots indicated for each
is approximately 2.7.
of the following numbers as you can. If you
a) Some of the points used to graph this think that there are no such roots, write
function include (1, 1), (3, 27), and
"none."
(-2, -8). What is the relationship of the
j>-coordinate of each point to the x- a) Cube roots of -27.
b) Cube roots of 0.
coordinate of the point?
c) Fourth roots of 10,000.
b) What is the relationship of the x-
d) Fourth roots of - 1 .
coordinate of each point to the y-
coordinate of the point? e) Fifth roots of -1.
f) Fifth roots of 1,024.
c) Use the scales shown in the figure above.
Plot points extending from x = -5 to 17. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
x = 5 to enlarge the graph of y = xi. should replace 1111 in each of the following?
Use your graph to estimate the square a) V2 111 </2
roots of the following numbers, each to the b) </Io 111 1/n
nearest tenth.
C) i/iim v^
d) 40 -32
d) \/6 lllllll 2
e) -80
f) 110
e) #=61111-2 -llllllh
g) Judging from your graph, how many
cube roots does a positive number have?
h) Judging from your graph, how many
cube roots does a negative number have?

Lesson 3: More Irrational Numbers

 Set IV
Mercury, the planet closest to the sun, travels
once around it in 88 earth-days. Use the formula
given on page 680 to find out how many million
miles from the sun Mercury is.

Number Cube

31 29,791
32 32,768
33
35,937
34 39,304
35 42,875
36 46,656
37 50,653
38
54,872
39 59,319
40 64,000

686 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

 LESSON 4
Pi

This photograph shows eighty people seated in a circle in an unusual

way. Instead of sitting on chairs or on the ground, each person is sitting
on the knees of the person behind him!
Although a circle is a very simple geometric figure, the relationship of
the circumference of a circle (the distance around it) to its diameter (the
distance across it) is very complex. The figure at the right shows that the
circumference is a little more than 3 times as long as the diameter. More
accurately, it is about 3.14 times as long but even this number is not
quite correct. The exact number of times that the diameter of a circle
will go into its circumference is usually represented by the symbol tt, a
letter of the Greek alphabet. Called "pi," this number has been proved
to be irrational, which means that it cannot be written out completely in
decimal form. Nevertheless, it has been calculated, like \^2, to more
than one million decimal places.
 The fact that the circumference of a circle is w times as long as its
diameter can be written as the formula

in which c represents the circumference and d the diameter. As the

figures below illustrate., the diameter of a circle is 2 times as long

as its radius. Because d = 2r, we can also write the circumference

formula as

c = w(2r) = 2-r
The formula for the area of a circle also contains the number jr. The
formula is

in which a represents the area and r the radius.

For practical use in finding the circumference and area of a circle, rr
is often approximated by 3.14.* Here are examples of how the circum-
ference and area formulas are used.

EXAMPLE 1
Find the exact circumference of a circle whose radius is 14 centimeters.
SOLLTIOS
Using the circumference formula, c — 2nrs we get
c = 2rr(14) = 28v

The exact circumference is 28t centimeters.

*The decimal form of s to ten places is 3.1415926535.

Chapter 14: THE REAL M MBERS

EXAMPLE 2
Find the approximate area of a circle whose radius is 30 meters.
SOLUTION
Using the area formula, a = irr2, we get

a s (3.14)(30)2 = (3.14)(900) = 2,826 square meters

EXAMPLE 3
Find the exact radius of a circle whose area is 2477.
SOLUTION
Substituting 24tt for a in the area formula, a = ttt2, we get

24tt = 77r2
Dividing both sides of this equation by w,

24 = r2
and taking square roots, we get

r= ±\/24 = ±2\/6

Because the radius of a circle is a positive number, the answer is 2 y/6.

Exercises

Set I
1 . Write each of the following sums or 2. Write each of the following as the quotient
products as a single fraction. of two integers in lowest terms.
1 „x 2 , 4
a) 3- a) 0.2

b)3
1
c) ■ b)
c)
0.2
0.27
d) 0.27

Lesson 4: Pi
 3. The following problem is from a collection a) Write an equation for this problem,
written in the eighth century called letting x represent the number of leaps
Problems for the Quickening of the Mind. made by each animal.
b) Solve the equation to find the number of
"A dog chasing a rabbit jumps 9 feet leaps in which the dog catches up with
every time the rabbit jumps 7. If the rabbit the rabbit.
has a headstart of 150 feet, in how many
leaps does the dog overtake the rabbit?"

Set II
7. Find the exact radius of a circle whose
4. The ancient Egyptians used the number I-
a) circumference is 9t:.
as an approximation of i
b) circumference is 14.
c) area is 9tt.
integers. d) area is 20tt.
b) Change the result to decimal form, 8. The diameter of each circle in this figure is
correct to 4 decimal places. equal to half the side of the square.
c) Is it smaller or larger than vr?
d) How is it possible to know that c? is not

equal to I\3f
— ) without doing any
dividing!

5. The following questions concern the

relationship of the circumference of a circle
to its radius.
a) Copy and complete the following table.

Radius 12 3 4 5
Circumference 2tt 111 1111 1111 111 Find the area of the square if the radius
of each circle is
b) Is the circumference of a circle doubled
if its radius is doubled?
a) 10.
c) How do the circumference and radius of
Find the green area (in terms of tt) if the
a circle vary with respect to each other? b)x.
radius of each circle is
6. Find the exact circumference and area of a
circle whose radius is
a) 0.5 cm. c) 10.
b) \/2cm. d) x.
c) w cm.

Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

d)-
 The diameter of the larger circle in this *10. In each of the following problems, let
figure is twice the diameter of the smaller <n = 3.14 and round your answer to the
circle. nearest integer.

a) Find the approximate circumference of a

Hula Hoop if its radius is 18 inches.
b) Find the approximate radius of a
person's neck if its circumference is 14
inches.
c) Find the approximate area of a circular
sand dollar whose radius is 4.1
centimeters.
d) Find the approximate diameter of a
circular radar screen if its area is 1,260
Find the green area (in terms of it) if the square centimeters.
radius of the smaller circle is
a) 3.
b) x.
c) What fraction of the area of the larger
circle is in green?

Set III
a) Copy and complete the following table.
1 1 . Claudius Ptolemy, an astronomer who lived

in the second century, used the number 3-— Radius 1 2 3 4 5

as an approximation of it.
Area 77 ill 111 ill 111!
a) Write 3 — — as the quotient of two b) Is the area of a circle doubled if its
radius is doubled?
integers. c) Does the area of a circle vary directly
b) Change the result to decimal form. with its radius?
c) Is it smaller or larger than tt? 1 3. Find the exact circumference and area of a
d) How is it possible to know that m is not circle whose radius is
17
a) 0.1 cm.
dividing?

12. The following questions concern the

relationship of the area of a circle to its c) v3cm.
radius.

Lesson 4: Pi
 14. Find the exact radius of a circle whose 16. The diameter of the larger circle in this
a) circumference is 25t. figure is twice the diameter of each of the
b) circumference is 8. smaller circles.
c) area is 25::.
d) area is 12tt.

15. The diameter of the circle in this figure is

equal to the side of the square.

Find the green area (in terms of t) if the

radius of one of the smaller circles is

a) 4.
Find the green area (in terms of n) if the c) What fraction of the area of the large
radius of the circle is circle is in green?
b)x.

a) 5. . In each of the following problems, let

b) x. jt = 3.14 and round your answer to the
Find the difference between the nearest integer.
perimeter of the square and the a) Find the approximate circumference of a
circumference of the circle (in terms of it) bicycle wheel if its radius is 13.5 inches.
if the radius of the circle is b) Find the approximate diameter of a rope
whose circumference is 20 centimeters.
c) 5.
c) Find the approximate area of a pizza
d) x. whose radius is 18 centimeters.
d) Find the approximate diameter of a
circular swimming pool if its area is 320

square feet.

Set IV
Can you figure out what the following sentences have to do with the number j
"May I have a large container of coffee?"
"How I want a drink, alcoholic of course."

692 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

 "Nine and three-quarters... nine and seven-eighths../

LESSON 5
The Real Numbers

The first set of numbers that everyone becomes familiar with consists of the
counting numbers:

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .

The counting numbers are part of a larger set of numbers called the integers:

...,_5,-4,-3,-2,-l,0, 1,2,3,4,5,...

and the integers are part of yet a larger set of numbers called the rational
numbers. The referee in this cartoon is "counting" with rational numbers.
The rational numbers, together with the irrational numbers, make up an even
larger set of numbers called the real numbers. As you have already learned, the
rational numbers can be distinguished from the irrational numbers by their
decimal forms. The decimal forms of rational numbers repeat endlessly. The
 The real numbers
Rational numbers Irrational
numbers
Integers
Counting
numbers

decimal forms of irrational numbers do not repeat.

An important property of the real numbers is closure.

^ A set of numbers is said to be closed with respect to an operation if, whenever

the operation is performed on numbers in the set, the result is also a number in
the set.

Whenever two real numbers are added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided

(except for division by zero, which is meaningless), the result is a real number.
For this reason, the real numbers are closed with respect to these operations.
Another important property of the real numbers is order.

► A set of numbers is said to be ordered if for any two numbers a and b in the set
either a < b, a = b, or a > b.

We have used this property of numbers throughout the course. To picture the
order of numbers, we identify them with the points on a line. It is possible to set
up a correspondence between the real numbers and the points on a line so that to
every number there corresponds a point and to every point there corresponds a
number. An example of a correspondence between some real numbers and some
points on a line is shown by the figure below.

Some real numbers

trr r t ft rrtrrr 2 2.45
-3 Vis -2 Jl -1-0.7

oyr ;
One way to tell which of two real numbers is larger is to compare their
decimal forms. Here is an example.

694 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

EXAMPLE
Arrange the following rational numbers in order from smallest to largest: 3.14, 3.14,
and 3.14.
SOLUTION
Writing each number to four decimal places, we get 3.1400, 3.1444, and 3.1414.
Clearly, 3.1400 is the smallest and 3.1444 is the largest. So the numbers arranged in
increasing order are: 3.14, 3.14, and 3.14.

Exercises

Set I
1. Change each of the following to the form 2. Solve the following equations.
described. (Each pan has many possible a) 5.v = 2(.v + 1)
answers.) b) 5x = 2(x2 + 1)
c) 5x2 = 2(.v + 1)
a) Write *
x ++ 2„ as the sum of two fractions. 3. While traveling in Africa, Captain Spaulding
caught 37 animals, of which some were
xy monkeys and the rest were weasels. If he
integer and a fraction. sold each monkey for S20 and each weasel
for S5, making S425 altogether, how many
c) Write — as a product of two fractions. animals of each type did he catch?

Set II
The counting numbers are closed with
4. The following questions are about these
numbers: respect to addition because the sum of any
two counting numbers is also a counting
number.
8, 0.8, 0.8, 08, V8, V8, -8, Tell whether or not the counting numbers
are closed with respect to each of the
a) Which ones are counting numbers? following operations. If an answer is no,
b) Which ones are integers but not counting give an example to show why.
numbers? a) Subtraction. (Is the difference of two
c) Which ones are rational numbers but not counting
number?) numbers always a counting
integers?
d) Which ones are real numbers but not b) Multiplication.
8'

rational? c) Division.

Lesson 5: The Real Numbers

 d) Cubing. 9. Use the table below to find the rational
e) Taking square roots. number, to the nearest hundredth, closest to
the irrational numbers in parts a through e. d)
6. Tell whether or not the even integers are
closed with respect to each of the following
operations. If an answer is no, give an e)
example to show why. 1 1 1 a 1 1
)
2 1.414 1.260 1.189
a) Addition. 1.149
3 1.246
b) Subtraction. 1.732 1.442
b) 1.316
c) Multiplication. 4 2 1.587 c 1.414 1.320
d) Division (excluding zero). 5 2.236 1.710 )
1.495 1.380
e) Cubing. 6 2.449 1.817 1.565 1.431
7. Tell whether or not the rational numbers are 7 2.646 1.913 y* 1.476
1.627
closed with respect to each of the following 8 2.828 2 1.682 1.516
operations. If an answer is no, give an 9 3 2.080 1.732 1.552
example to show why. 10 3.162 2.154 1.778 1.585
a) Addition.
b) Subtraction. 1
-3 - V2
c) Multiplication.

V~x
d) Division (excluding zero).
4
e) Squaring. 2
f) Taking square roots. \/7 - V8
8. Arrange each of the following sets of yTo for x and tell
10. Solve the following equations
numbers in order from smallest to largest. whatV6kind of numbers the solutions are.
a) 0.6, 0.009, 0.07, 0.0008
b) 0.183,0.183,0.183,0.183 a) IxV3- 22 = 0
c) yTO, tJ/To, V\0 b) \/3x = VT2 -
c) x + V2 = VS
d) i/i, ifA, i/2, <pi
d) 2x2 - 10 = 0
e) *,£,-*,-? e) x(x - 4) = 5
f) Vx + 9 = 16

V3
Set III
11. The following questions are about these
numbers: c) Which ones are rational numbers but not
integers?
d) Which ones are real numbers but not
25, ^-, -25, 2.5, V25, rational?
12. The integers are closed with respect to
2.5, y/75t 25t7, -|, 25 addition because the sum of any two integers
a) Which ones are counting numbers? is also an integer.
b) Which ones are integers but not counting Tell whether or not the integers are closed
numbers? with respect to each of the following

696 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

 15. Arrange each of the following sets of
operations. If an answer is no, give an
numbers in order from smallest to largest.
example to show why.
a) 0.002, 0.3, 0.0005, 0.04
a) Subtraction. (Is the difference of two
integers always an integer?)
b) 0.719,0.719,0.719,0.719
h) Multiplication.
2 6 4 8
c) Division (excluding zero). 3' 7' 5'b)9
d) Cubing. d) \/5, -\/5, \/53-y/5
e) Taking square roots. e) w, V^, Ifc
13. Tell whether or not the odd integers are 16. Use the table in exercise 9 on page 696 to
closed with respect to each of the following find the rational number, to the nearest
operations. If an answer is no, give an hundredth, closest to each of the following
example to show why. irrational numbers.
a) Addition.
b) Subtraction. a) \/3
c) Multiplication.
d) Division. \/l0
e) Squaring.
14. Tell whether or not the irrational numbers c) \/6
are closed with respect to each of the
following operations. If an answer is no, i/5
17. Solve the following equations for x and tell
give an example to show why. what kind of numbers the solutions are.
a) Addition. a) 3.r + 14 = 0 __
b) Subtraction. b) x + \/5 = \/20
c) Multiplication.
c) V2x = \/32 - \J2
d) Division (excluding zero).
d) 4.v2 - 15 = 0
e) Squaring. e) x(x + 4) = 21
f) Taking square roots.
f ) ^/x -1=8

Set IV
Can you arrange, without using a calculator, the numbers in each of the following
sets in order from smallest to largest? Explain your reasoning. (The expression abC
is evaluated by first finding bc and then raising a to that power.)

V\ 2X\ 23', 3'2

1. I2' 2*\ 32\ 342, 42'
4
2. 23

'
32
2
43

Lesson 5: The Real Numbers 697

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have become acquainted with the properties of the real
numbers, both rational and irrational.
Rational Numbers {Lesson 1) A rational number is a number that can be
written as the quotient of two integers. When a rational number is changed to
decimal form by carrying out the indicated division, it always falls into a
repeating pattern of digits. Moreover, every number in decimal form that has a
repeating decimal pattern is rational because it can always be expressed as the
quotient of two integers.

Irrational Numbers (Lessons 2 and 3) An irrational number is a number that

cannot be written as the quotient of two integers. The decimal form of an
irrational number does not have a repeating pattern of digits.
If v = x", then .r is an nxh root of v. The largest nxh root of y is represented
by the symbol y/y. If an integer is not the nxh power of an integer, its nxh roots
are irrational. If a rational number is written as a fraction in lowest terms, the
numerator and denominator of the fraction must be nxh powers of integers in
order for its nxh roots to be rational.

Pi (Lesson 4) If the circumference of a circle is divided by its diameter, the

result is the irrational number it.
The circumference of a circle is given by the formula c = 2rrr, in which r
represents the radius of the circle. The area of a circle is given by the formula
a = Tr2. A useful approximation for u is 3.14.

The Real Numbers (Lesson 5) The rational numbers together with the
irrational numbers make up the set of numbers called the real numbers. The real
numbers are closed with respect to addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. The real numbers have a definite order and can be put in a one-to-one
correspondence with the points on a line.
Exercises

Set I
1. Tell whether each of the following If possible, find the rational number
statements is true or false. represented by
a) Every fraction is a rational number.
5x
h) The square roots of every positive integer
are irrational. x - 2
c) To every point on a number line, there
corresponds a real number.
d) Every number has exactly one cube root.
e) Pi is an irrational number. C) X

6. Arrange the following numbers in order

2. Change the following rational numbers to from smallest to largest.
decimal form.
0.345, 0.345, 0.345, 0.345

7. List as many of the roots indicated for each

of the following numbers as you can. If you
think that there are no such roots, write
b)-
3. Write each of the following as the quotient "none."
of two integers in lowest
d)- terms. a) Cube roots of 125.
a) 10.3 b) Fourth roots of -16.
b) 10.3 c) Fifth roots of -100,000.
c) 0.85 d) Tenth roots of 1.
d) 0.85
4. The following questions are about the number in the cartoon.
a) What kind of number is it?
b) What do you think the "next number" after it is?
Explain your answer.

Summary and Review

 8. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, 12. The length of the rectangle in this figure is
should replace 1111 in each of the following? twice its width and twice the diameter of
a) V5 11111 </5 each circle.
b) \P) 11111 ip7
c) ^100 11111 3

9. A table listing some of the roots of 0.9 and

1.1 is shown below. Each root is rounded to Find the area of the rectangle if the radius
the nearest thousandth. of each circle is

n \ U9 \/U
a) Find
2. the green area (in terms of 77) if the
2 0.949 1.049 b) x. of each circle is
radius
3 0.965 1.032
4 0.974 1.024
5 0.979 1.019 c) 2.
10 0.990 1.010 1 3. d)x.
In each of the following problems, let
LOO 0.999 1.001 77 = 3.14 and round your answer to the
nearest integer.
a) What happens to \/0^9 as n gets larger? a) Find the approximate circumference of
b) What number does \/0i9 get very close the earth if its radius is 4,000 miles.
to when n is very large? b) Find the approximate area of a circular
c) What happens to \f\X as n gets larger? putting green whose diameter is 6 meters.
d) What number does \/TT get very close
14. The following questions are about these
to when n is very large? numbers:
10. The third-century Chinese mathematician
Liu Hui used the number 3 — - as an
2.7, 2.7, \/27, ^27, -27, -|, 27, 27t7
approximation of it.
a) Which ones are counting numbers?
a) Write this number as the quotient of two
b) Which ones are integers but not counting
integers. numbers?
b) Change the result to decimal form.
c) Which ones are rational numbers but not
c) Is it smaller or larger than 77?
integers?
(tt = 3.14159265...)
d) Which ones are real numbers but not
11. Find exact answers to each of the following. rational?
a) The circumference of a circle whose 15. Tell whether or not you think the negative
radius is 0.8. integers are closed with respect to each of
b) The area of a circle whose radius is 2 \/3. the following operations. If an answer is no,
c) The radius of a circle whose give an example to show why.
circumference is 30.
a) Addition.
d) The radius of a circle whose area is Yl-n. b) Subtraction.

700 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

 c) Multiplication.
d) Squaring.
e) Cubing.
16. Solve the following equations for x and tell
what kind of numbers the solutions are.

a) 4.v +19 = 0 c) 36.x2 -7 = 0

b) x - \ 3 = \^8 d) y/x + 6 = 2

Set II
1 . Tell whether each of the following b) If zero were one of the remainders, what
statements is true or false. would vou know about the decimal form
a) Even- integer is a rational number.
b) The square root of a number can be a
repeating decimal. c) What is the greatest number of digits that
c) Even- positive number has two fourth
roots.
d) To even* point on a number line, there
corresponds a rational number. 5. If possible, find the rational number
e) The circumference of a circle is more represented by
than six times as long as its radius.

2. Change the following rational numbers to

decimal form.
if
44
9 a) x = 0
b) x = 1
13 c) x = 2
d) x = 3
3. Write each of the following as the quotient 6. Arrange the following numbers in order from
of two integers in lowest terms. smallest to largest.
a) 0.06 0.027, 0.027, 0.027, 0.027
b) 0.06
c) 1.125 7. List as many of the roots indicated for each
d) 1.125 of the following numbers as you can. If you
think that there are no such roots, write
4. The following questions refer to the rational
"none."
number — .
1/ a) Cube roots of -64.
b) Fourth roots of 81.
a) How many different numbers, including
zero, can there be as remainders if 17 is c) Fifth roots of 0.
divided into 6? d) Seventh roots of 128.
 8. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, 12. The diameter of the larger circle in this
should replace 1111 in each of the following? figure is twice the diameter of the smaller
circle.
a) </l2 fl! i/12
b) ^T ill! Vl
c) 1/80 illlll 3

d>/So« IK/Im
9. Solve each of the following equations by
using the quadratic formula. Simplify your
answers as much as possible but do not
round them.
a) x2 — 6x + 5 = 0
Find the green area (in terms of 77) if the
b) x2 - 6x + 6 = 0 radius of the smaller circle is
C) x2 - 6.v + 7 = 0
d) x2 - 6x + 9 = 0
e) What must be true about the a) 5.
c) What fraction of the area of the larger
discriminant, b2 — Aac, of a quadratic b)x.circle is shaded?
equation in order for the solutions to the
equation to be rational? (Assume that a, 1 3. In each of the following problems, let
b, and c are integers.) 77 = 3.14 and round your answer to the
nearest integer.
10. The Italian mathematician Leonardo
a) Find the approximate circumference of a
Fibonacci used - phonograph record if its radius is 6
inches.
Of ir.
b) Find the approximate area of a circular
a) Change this fraction to decimal form. card table whose radius is 50 centimeters.
b) Is it smaller or larger than it?
14. The following questions are about these
(77 = 3.14159265...) numbers:
c) How is it possible to know that 77 is not
equal to this fraction without doing any
dividing?

11. Find exact answers to each of the following. a) Which ones are counting numbers?
a) The circumference of a circle whose b) Which ones are integers but not counting
radius is \/5. numbers?
b) The area of a circle whose radius is 0.3. c) Which ones are rational numbers but not
c) The radius of a circle whose integers?
circumference is 14. d) Which ones are real numbers but not
d) The radius of a circle whose area is 20077. rational?

702 Chapter 14: THE REAL NUMBERS

15. Tell whether or not you think the odd 16. Solve the following equations for x and tell
counting numbers are closed with respect to what kind of numbers the solutions are.
each of the following operations. If an a) 5x — 12 = 0
answer is no, give an example to show why. b) x + \/6 = \/96
a) Addition. c) 3x2 - 18 = 0
b) Subtraction. d) \^x + 2 = 13
c) Multiplication.
d) Division.
e) Squaring.

Summary and Re'

Chapter 15
FRACTIONAL
EQUATIONS
 LESSON

Ratio and Proportion

Although King Kong seemed to be an ape of tremendous size on the movie
screen, some of the models of him used in the film were less than two feet tall.
To disguise this fact, these models were filmed on sets that had been built at a
very small scale.

The dimensions of a model and building for a set built at a scale of — are
given in the following table:

Height of model Actual height

King Kong 2 feet 50 feet
Building 8 feet 200 feet
The scale number, — — , is the ratio of the numbers 1 to 25.

For such a set to be convincing, the ratios of the dimensions of the objects on it
to the corresponding dimensions of the objects they represent must be the same.
In other words, the corresponding dimensions must be proportional.

A proportion is an equation stating that two ratios are equal.

For the King Kong set, we can write the proportion — = . In general, a

proportion is an equation of the form —b = —d , in which a, b, c, and d are the

first, second, third, and fourth terms of the proportion, respectively. The second
and third terms, b and c, are the means, and the first and fourth terms, a and d,
are the extremes of the proportion.
In the proportion for the King Kong set, the means are 50 and 8 and the
extremes are 2 and 200. Notice that 50-8 = 2 • 200. It is easy to show that this
is true, not just for this proportion, but for any proportion:

In a proportion, the product of the means is equal to the product of the

extremes.

This gives us a convenient way to solve equations that are proportions. Here
are examples.

EXAMPLE 1
7

Lesson 1: Ratio and Proportic

 SOLUTION
Multiplying means and extremes, we get

3.v = 42

Dividing both sides by 3.

x = 14

Checking our answer by substituting it into the original equation.

we see that it is correct because the fractions are equivalent.

EXAMPLE 2
1 _ v

SOLUTIOS
Multiplying means and extremes, we get the quadratic equation.
2.v- = 10

Dividing both sides by 2,

x2 = 5

and taking square roots.

The equation has two solutions: \ 5 and -\ 5.

Checking the first solution. \ 5. we get

1 1- \5
2 2\ 5 • \ 5 10

The second solution can be checked in the same way.

"08 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

EXAMPLE 3

Solve for x: ±L±±

2x — 3 = *5
SOLUTION
Multiplying means and extremes,

3(2x - 3) = 5(4x + 1)
6x - 9 = 20x + 5
-14* -9 = 5
-14x = 14

x = -1
Checking, we get
4( 1) + 1

2( 1) - 3

Exercises

Set I
1. Arrange the following numbers in order
from smallest to largest, (tt = 3.14159 . . .
a) Find the exact area of the field in square
b)3j c) 3.14
d) 3.1416 b) Find the approximate area of the field,
yards.
giving your answer to the nearest
2. Find the following quotients. thousand square yards.
fflx 3x3 + 2x2 - 7x + 2
x + 2
' + 64x
- 4x + 16
b)-
3. This is an aerial photograph of a large
cornfield in Colorado. Water from a well in
the center of the field is pumped into a pipe gI
440 yards long. The pipe slowly rotates
about the center, giving the field its circular 83
shape.

Lesson 1: Ratio and Proportion 709

 Set II
4. An American roulette wheel contains 38
compartments, of which 18 are red (white in
this illustration), 18 are black, and 2 are
green. Give each of the following ratios in
simplest terms.
a) The ratio of red to the total number of
compartments.
b) The ratio of green to the total number of
compartments.
c) The ratio of red to green.
d) The ratio of black to red.
5. If possible, simplify the following ratios.
b)
6.v x + 6
4.vc)
6.v + 1
d) 4.v + 1
6x +- 24 b) Find the ratio in decimal form of Ethel's
age to Lucy's age for each pair of ages
4.v + 2 listed in the table.

c) Write a formula for the ratio of Ethel's

age to Lucy's age when Lucy is n years
6. Solve the following equations. Check your old.
answers.
d) As Ethel and Lucy grow older, what
happens to the ratio of their ages?
e) Will the ratio of their ages ever become
equal to 1? Explain.
n 8. The amount of gas used by an idling car is
2 = 5 proportional to the time,
- 1 x 2.x- + 1 4 -
4jc a) Copy and complete the following table.
x + 7 ,
+ 5 Ax - 3
2 7 3
= 9^ Time in minutes 1 111
2 = 6
■v + 2 , Amount of gas in ounces I! 10 20

+ 1 3x + 3
b) What is the ratio of the amount in ounces
7. Ethel is exacdy six years older than Lucy, of gas used to the time in minutes?
a) Copy and complete the following table of c) How does the amount of gas used vary
their ages. with respect to the time?
d) Write a formula for the amount in ounces
6 10 20 30 of gas used, g, in terms of the time in
Lucy's age 1 2 1111 minutes, t.
Ethel's age 7 fill

710 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

Set III A 8 4 A A 9 7 6 4 J 4 10
9. This exercise refers to the cards at the right.
Give each of the following ratios in
44 ♦♦♦♦ 4
simplest terms.
a) The ratio of spades to the total number
of cards.
b) The ratio of hearts to the total number of
cards.
e)
c) The ratio of diamonds to clubs.
* *!
d) The ratio of nines to fours.
f)
10. If possible, simplify the following ratios.
Find the ratio of the frequencies of the
x - 6
; lOx x- 10 following notes in simplest terms.
h) a) E to C
' lOx - 1l b) G to E
b) 6x ~ c) G to C
6x
Find the frequency of
C) 10*
c) 6x~2
-2 g)
4
10 + x
d) F, if its ratio to the frequency of C is — .
' lOx - 610 lOx X10
x~ X6
d) 6
e) A, if its ratio to the frequency of B is
1. Solve the follow ing equations. Check your
answers. X6
f)f=! 13. The speed of a train is proportional to the

*>!=! number of clicks per minute made by its

•M
wheels on the rails,

3x + 1 = 1 a) Copy and complete the following table.

hl 3x - 1 8
Number of clicks
9_

X- 90 120 225
^ 5 1
C) 3x- = 7T 2 h)2x^4=73T
~2 per minute
Speed of train in „ 111! IIIIIII
5
2x 10-10
a' x-310 x +4 3
miles per hour
d)
+ •v X — 1 X b) What is the ratio of the speed of the train
, 3x - 8
,J x + 5 ~ x + 8 in miles per hour to the number of clicks
e) 5 =
per minute?
12. The table below lists the frequencies in c) How does the speed of the train vary
cycles per second of some of the notes in a with respect to the number of clicks per
musical scale. minute?
d) Write a formula for the speed of the train
Note C D E F G A B in miles per hour, s, in terms of the
Frequency 264 297 330 111!! 396 111 495 number of clicks per minute, n.

Lesson 1: Ratio and Proportion 711

 Set IV

The natural scale of a map is the ratio of

1 unit of length on the map to the number
of identical units of length that it represents.
1

would mean that 1 inch

,<XX on a map represents
an actual distance of 1,000 inches.
Can you figure out the natural scale of
this map, given that the distance between
Oxnard Street and Burbank Boulevard is 0.5
mile and that 1 mile = 5,280 feet?

-j r—j ii i 1 1

712 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

 LESSON 2

Equations
Containing Fractions

One of the first people to use symbols to write and solve equations was a Greek
mathematician named Diophantus. Although historians do not know when
Diophantus was born or when he died, we do know exacdy how long he lived!
The reason for this is that one of his admirers made up a riddle about his life.
According to the riddle, one-sixth of Diophantus' life was spent in childhood.
He grew a beard after one-twelfth more and married after one-seventh more.
Five years later a son was born who lived to be half as old as his father.
Diophantus died four years after his son. How many years did Diophantus live?
Letting x represent the answer to this equation, we can write the equation,

A convenient way to solve this equation, or any equation that contains fractions,
is to begin by multiplying both sides by a number or expression that will clear it
of all of the fractions. The simplest number that can be used for this purpose is
the least common denominator of the fractions. In this case, it is 12-7 = 84.
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 84, we get

84*

*«)■= S4x
8|i + 2* + 84x + 84(5) + 8|x + !84(4)
 Simplifying the result, we get

14x + Ix + 12x + 420 + 42x + 336 = 84x

75x + 756 = 84x
756 = 9x

* = f>=84
This method can be applied to solving any equation containing fractions, as
the following examples illustrate.

SOLUTION
The least common denominator of the fractions is 12. Multiplying both sides of the
equation by 12, we get

I2(f)+I2(iyi)=12R)

4 3

3x + 4(.v - 1) = 24
3x- +1 Ax - 4 = 24
7x = 28
x = 4

Checking this result in the original equation, we get

EXAMPLE 2

J_^ JO _ j_

714 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

SOLUTION ■Mi
The least common denominator of the fractions is 6x. Multiplying both sides by 6x,
we get

60.v

x = 60 - 3*
Ax = 60
x = 15

Show that this result is correct by checking it in the original equation.

Exercises

Set I
1. Find the following sums and products, 2. Write each of the following in decimal form.
giving each answer in scientific notation. ,27 ,1
a) (3 x 104) + (5 x 104) 1000 37
b) (3 x 104)(5 x 104) 36 3
c) (4 x 103) + (5 x 104) 110
d) (4 x 103)(5 x 104)

3. Suppose that Mr. Dithers is now 42 years older than Dagwood and that nine
years ago he was three times as old as Dagwood was at the time.

a) Use this information to write a pair of simultaneous equations, letting x

represent Mr. Dithers's present age and y represent Dagwood's present age.
b) Solve the equations to find out each one's present age.

Lesson 2: Equations Containing Fractions 715

 Set II
4. Express each of the following products as a
polynomial in simplest form.
b)-°-
x — 1 = 4

0 4(j+i) c)!iX + 2=IX

b,6(f-I)
d)j = j-7
c)x(l + 2) 3 x x

«*(f-l) f>!+i=° = X
- 2

-7T3-I-'
h 7* - 2 + , + 2 :
AT X

5. Write the equation that results from

x ~ir
i)^ + ^ = 10
multiplying both sides of the equation
•x 3x + 1 x
y _

7. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous

a) by 6. equations.y Check
_ your answers.
b) by 8.
c) by 24.
+ 2 —9 +
d) Which one of the three equations that
you have written would be the easiest to - 4
1 = 3
solve?
e) Why? + l = 0
6. Solve the following equations. Check your
y
answers. 3
y + 5
T 8

y - i

Set III
8. Express each of the following products as a polynomial in simplest form.

a)3(f+7) c),(3 + i) e)8(^l + it!)

b)10(i-f) ,fc(f_l) 0^(1-2- A)

716 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS
 10 6_
9. Write the equation that results from
-= 0
multiplying both sides of the equation
x - 3 x - 3 :

A^T 5+ i = 2
a) by 4. x + 4 3
b) by 6. x - 1 , 6.v + 1
c) by 12.
d) Which one of the three equations that
you have written would be the easiest to
solve?
e) Why? 1 1 . Solve the following pairs of simultaneous
10 Solve the following equations. Check your equations. Check your answers.
answers. '
: 1 5x

a) - = 12

b>7TT = 7
3
c)»-4=! x + I y+ i
3 9

y-2
*f-i
Set IV

of a pound, how many pounds does it weigh?

Lesson 2: Equations Containing Fractions 717

 -f&tf^
But I digrt

LESSON 3
More on
Fractional Equations

The topic of discussion in this class seems somehow to have changed from
mathematics to football. Before the professor began diagramming the play, he
had written a number of equations containing fractions on the board. One of
them, the quadratic formula, is often needed in the solution of such equations.
Here is an example illustrating how it is used.
SOLUTION
Multiplying both sides of the equation by 2.v to clear it of fractions, we get

v(f) + 2,(l) =
6 + 2.v = x2
This is a quadratic equation. Writing it in standard form, we get
a-2 - 2.v - 6 = 0

Because the polynomial on the left side of this equation has no simple factors, we
use the quadratic formula: - \<n

-b ± \ 2ab2 a 1 b
-(-2)
_ 2(1)
-4(l)(-6)

(-2Y- -
2 ±
\4 +
24 2^ ,
2
2 =

\28
The solutions of the equation are 1 + \ 7 and 1 — \ 7. Because \ 7 is irrational
( \ 7 = 2.645 . . .), the solutions are irrational and. for practical purposes, the best
that we can do is approximate them. To the nearest hundredth,
2-
1 + A 7 = i + 2.645 ... - 3.65
1 - \ 7 = 1 - 2.645... — -1.65
One way to check approximate solutions such as these is to substitute them into
the original equation and evaluate each side with a calculator to see if the two sides
are approximately equal. Checking 3.65 in this way, we get

-5— + 1 = 1.82 and = 1.83

Although a fractional equation may lead to a polynomial equation having

more than one solution, the solutions may not be solutions of the original
equation. The next example shows how this can happen.

Lesson 3: More on Fractional Equations

 EXAMPLE 2

Solve for x: x x ^—
+ 2 = —x ^—
+ 2.
SOLUTION
Multiplying both sides by x + 2, we get

(x + 2)x - 12 = 6x
x2 + 2x - 12 = 6jc
x2 _ 4x _ 12 _ o
Factoring the left side,

(x - 6)(x + 2) -.
Either x-6 = 0or.v + 2 = 0so either x — 6 or x = -2. But -2 cannot be a
solution of the original equation because it would make the denominators of the
fractions equal to zero. The number 6, on the other hand, is a solution because

Because the steps in solving a fractional equation may lead to numbers that
are not solutions of the equation, it is always important to check each one.

Exercises

Set I
1. Write each of the following numbers without 2. Solve the following equations,
using any exponents. a) 4x + 5 = 3
a) (-1)100 c) 100° b) \/4* + 5 = 3
b) -l100 d) 100-! c) (Ax + 5)2 = 3

720 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

 in which d is the depth of the punch in
centimeters and v is the volume of the
3. The amount of punch in a bowl is a punch in liters.
function of its depth. A typical formula is a) Find the exact volume of the punch in
the bowl if its depth is 10 centimeters.
77rf2(100 - d) b) Find the approximate volume to the
nearest tenth of a liter.
3,000

Set II
4. Solve the following equations. Check your working together by answering each of the
following.
answers.
a) What fraction of the job can Ollie do in
a) *lbl = 7 one minute? What fraction of the job can
; 3 x - 2
Alice do in one minute?
3 -+ 1 :
Suppose that x represents the number of
2x - 1 minutes that it takes them to wax the car if
they work together.
b) Write expressions representing the
fraction of the job that Ollie does in the
d): x minutes and the fraction of the job that
Alice does in the x minutes.
. Solve the following equations. Express each
answer in decimal form correct to the c) Write an equation expressing the fact that
the sum of the two fractions of the job
nearest hundredth. Use a calculator or refer
done by Ollie and Alice during the x
to the table on page 563. minutes is 1.
4 = x d) Solve the equation to find how long it
•- 4 x + 1 would take them working together to wax
: 1 the car.
3 , 1
7. Miss Marple rode her bicycle from her
1 x +' 1
x + 2 house to Inspector Craddock's at an average
3 ' 9 7 speed of 15 kilometers per hour and back
J5x 1__ home again at an average speed of 10
kilometers per hour. Find her average speed
c- 1 x2 - 1 ' for the roundtrip by doing each of the
6. It takes Obtuse Ollie, working at a steady following.
rate, 80 minutes to wax his car. Acute Alice
can wax the car in 60 minutes. Find how a) Letting x represent the distance one way
long it would take them to do the job in kilometers, write expressions

Lesson 3: More on Fractional Equations 721

 representing the time that Miss Marple c) Find her average speed by using the fact
spent going each way. Use the fact that
,;_ _ distance
distance
that average rate = total
b) Write an expression for the total time
spent on the roundtrip.

Set III
8. Solve the following equations. Check your Suppose that x represents the number of
answers. minutes that it takes them to mow the lawn
•+ 1 if they work together.
.v - 1 _ 7
b) Write expressions representing the
1 fraction of the lawn that Mr. Gildersleeve
3x + 2 3 mows in the x minutes and the fraction

!_*.8 = !4
x
of the lawn that Leroy mows in the x
minutes.
c) Write an equation based upon the fact
4x = 12 that the sum of the two fractions of the
x + 3 x + 3
lawn mowed by Mr. Gildersleeve and
9. Solve the following equations. Express each Leroy during the x minutes is 1.
answer in decimal form correct to the d) Solve the equation to find how long it
a
nearest) hundredth. Use a calculator or refer would take them working together to
to the table on page 563. mow the lawn.
b) 3
x + 3 X - 1 11. It took Obtuse Ollie 1 hour to paddle a
c) 1 = 2 canoe 8 kilometers up a river and back
tV again. If Ollie can go 18 kilometers per hour
in still water, find the speed of the current
d) 2x 3
i by answering each of the following.
x + 5 x - 2
a) Letting x represent the speed of the
3 current, write expressions representing the
x1^! + rate of the canoe with the current and
10. It takes Mr. Gildersleeve, working at a
7TT =
against it.
steady rate, 20 minutes to mow his front
lawn. His nephew Leroy can mow the lawn rate
the fact that time = distance ,
Using expressions
b) write
in 15 minutes. Find how long it would take representing the time
them to do the job working together by that Ollie spent going with the current
answering each of the following, and against it.
a) What fraction of the lawn can Mr. c) Use the fact that the total time is 1 hour
Gildersleeve mow in one minute? What to write an equation.
fraction of the lawn can Leroy mow in d) Solve the equation to find the speed of
one minute? the current.

722 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

Set IV
The following problem appears in the Rhind papyrus, thought to have been written
about 1650 B.C.

"If a certain number, two-thirds of it, half of it, and a seventh

of it are added together, the result is 97. What is the number?"

Can you write an equation for this problem and solve it to find the number?

Lesson 3: More on Fractional Equations 723

 DtU> YOU KNOW IF YOV CDUAF
IE CRICKET CHIRRS is CNE f is There such a Thing* |
7
N\lNUT£, DIVIDE B/ ft?UR, THEN<JS I AS METRIC CRICKETS ?
APD PORT/ IT6IV6£*?U THE
OUTSIDE TfeWPERAtORE?

[k^4

LESSON 4
Solving Formulas

The warmer it is, the faster crickets chirp. The Fahrenheit temperature can be
found fairly accurately, in fact, by the method described by B.C. in the cartoon
above. Written as a formula, it is
■ + 40

in which F represents the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and n represents

the number of chirps per minute.
Now that the United States is changing over to the metric system, tempera-
tures will be measured on the Celsius scale instead. How can the temperature in
degrees Celsius be found by counting cricket chirps? A formula relating the two
temperature scales is

C = 1{F- 32)

in which C represents the temperature in degrees Celsius and F represents the

temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.
To find a formula for the Celsius temperature in terms of cricket chirps, we
can use the fact that F = h 40 to substitute —4 + 40 for F in the Celsius-
4
Fahrenheit formula:

C = |(/-32)

c = l( -»)
c=i(f+8)
rC = — 5— « +, —40

Unfortunately, this formula is much more complicated than the one for the

Fahrenheit temperature. We can simplify it by observing that —36 ~ —7 and

40_„.

C^| + 4
The Fahrenheit temperature formula is not exact to begin with; so the Celsius
formula is about as accurate.
Although there is no such thing as "metric crickets," we can use the Celsius
formula to find the Celsius temperature from the number of chirps per minute.
For example, if a cricket chirps 140 times per minute, we have

= 20 + 4
= 24

The temperature is about 24 °C.

Many formulas, like the ones in this lesson, contain fractions. More examples
are given on the next page.

Lesson 4: Solving Formulas 725

 EXAMPLE 1

Solve for x in terms of a and b: — = —. Assume mat a and b are positive

x b
numbers.

SOLUTION
Because this is a proportion, we can multiply means and extremes, getting
x2 = ab

If a and b are positive numbers, then so is ab. So we can take square roots, getting

EXAMPLE 2

Solve for x in terms of a and b: x \- —b = —.

x

SOLUTION
Multiplying both sides by bx to get rid of the fractions, we get

bxa bxa _ bxb

x b x

ba + xa = b2
Subtracting ba (which is the same as ab) from both sides,

xa = b2 — ab

and dividing by a, we find that

_ b2 - ab

726 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

Exercises

Set I

°>i <>7^
1 . Write each of the following as a single
fraction.
1
b>i 1
<>^7

2 Solve he following
X2 equations

H 1
X2

H •* = ° 3. The planet Saturn is surrounded by three

X2
rings, the largest of which has a diameter of
2.7 x 105 kilometers. Find the approximate
circumference of this ring, expressing your
answer in scientific notation.

Set II
4. The batting average of a baseball player is 5. The figure below shows that the graph of
given by the formula the function y = 2x + 6 crosses the x-axis
a b at -3.

=A
in which a represents the average, h
represents the number of hits, and b
represents the number of times at bat.
a) Solve this formula for h in terms of the
other variables.
b) Ty Cobb went to bat 11,400 times,
making a batting average of 0.367. How
many hits did he make? (Because the
batting average is approximate, the
number of hits given by the formula is
also approximate. Round this number to a) Find a formula for the coordinate of the
the nearest integer.) point in which the function y = ax + b

Lesson 4: Solving Formulas 727

 crosses the .v-axis by solving the equation ' 2x - b
ax + b = 0 for x in terms of a and b.
b) Check your formula by seeing if it gives
the correct number for the line in the
graph above. d)
c) Use your formula to find the coordinate 1
of the point in which the function .0+1
y — 5.v — 3 crosses the .v-axis. h) a2 + b2 = c2x -40
6. Solve the following equations The formula for the Fahrenheit temperature,
:0
f) for x.
F, as a function of the number of chirps, n,
■i-
-= 0 made by a cricket in a minute is

b) 4r + 3 = 0 9-= 0
1
g)-
c) ^ + b = 0 e) - a) What is the F Fahrenheit
= - temperature when
a cricket makes 60 chirps per minute?
. Solve the following equations for x in terms b) Solve the formula for n in terms of F.
of the other variables. Simplify your answers c) How many chirps per minute does a
as much as possible. cricket make when the temperature is
72 = F?
a)-x = b d) The formula does not work for
b = 1 temperatures below a certain number.
b) ax - What is it?

Set III
9. A person's I.Q. is given by the formula

-_ lOOw
P

in which i represents the I.Q., m represents

the mental age, and p represents the physical
age.
a) Solve this formula for m in terms of the
other variables.
b) Mozart is thought to have had an I.Q. of
165. What was his mental age when he
was 12 years old?
a) Find a formula for the coordinate of the
10. The figure at the right shows that the graph point in which the function y = ax — b
of the function y = 3.v - 6 crosses the crosses the .v-axis by solving the equation
.v-axis at 2. ax — b = 0 for x in terms of a and b.

728 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

 b) Check your formula by seeing if it gives
the correct number for the line in the
graph above. d) h) a2 - b2 = abx
c) Use your formula to find the coordinate
of the point in which the function
y = 2x — 9 crosses the x-axis.
13. The formula for the Celsius temperature, C,
11. Solve the following equations for x. as a function of the number of chirps, n,
1 L . 1 n made by a cricket in -a +minute
4 is

a)- 1
■ 10 =

■ b= 1 a) What is the Cz
Celsius temperature when a
cricket makes 84 chirps per minute?
c)- b) Solve the formula for n in terms of C.
12. Solve the following equations for x in terms
c) How many chirps per minute does a
of the other variables. Simplify your answers
cricket make when the temperature is
as much as possible. 20°C?
d) The formula does not work for

J-ab
temperatures below a certain number.
a)- J J_b What is it?
b) ax + b z

d)-
Set IV
In giving the temperature forecast for Little
America, the radio announcer forgot to tell
whether it was in degrees Fahrenheit or degrees
Celsius. Strange as it may seem, it didn't matter
Can you figure out why not and what the
temperature was as well?

;?n

Lesson 4: Solving Formulas 729

 LESSON 5
More on
Solving Formulas
The largest movable camera ever built was nine feet high and twenty feet long.
Pictured in this photograph, it was made in Chicago in 1900 and required fifteen
people to operate. It had a lens with a focal length of ten feet, which is sixty
times the focal length of an ordinary camera lens.

Lens

Focal length

The focal length of a lens can be determined by focusing the light of a distant
object, such as a star. The distance between the lens and the image of the star,
illustrated in the diagram above, is the focal length, f, of the lens.
 In taking a picture of a closer object, such as a person, the lens bends the light
rays to form an image, as shown in the diagram below. A simple equation relates
the distance from the lens of the object being photographed, a, the distance from
the lens of the image, b, and the focal length, /:
Lens

H+
Object \J Image

This equation is used in designing cameras and optical equipment and in

determining the magnification of lenses.
Before using this equation, it is convenient to solve for one of the three
variables,/, a, and b, in terms of the other two. For example, to solve for/ we
might first clear the equation of fractions by multiplying both sides by fab:

fab fab fab

~T = ~a~ + ~b~
ab = fb + fa

Notice that /is now in two terms of the equation. At this point, we can factor it
from both of them to get

ab=f(b + a)

Dividing both sides of the equation by b + a, we get

b + a or /=-£-
-£-=/ a + b

To solve an equation for one of its variables, it is frequently necessary at some

point in the solution to factor the variable from the terms containing it. Here are
more examples.

Lesson 5: More on Solving Formulas 731

 EXAMPLE 1
Solve for x in terms of a, b, and c: ax — bx + c.
SOLUTION
Subtracting bx from both sides in order to get the terms containing .v on the left
side of the equation, we get

ax — bx = c

Factoring x from the left side, we get

x(a -b) = c

Dividing both sides by a — b,

c
x = V^~b
Checking this solution in the original equation, we get

.,( h )+<
a — b a — b
ac = be + c(a — b)
ac = be + ac — be
ac = ac

EXAMPLE 2

Solve for x in terms of a and b: J - x

b-x
SOLUTION
Because this is a proportion, we can multiply means and extremes to get

a(a + x) = b{b - x)
a2 + ax = b2 - bx

732 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

To get the terms containing x on the left side, we subtract a2

ax — b2 — bx — a2
and add bx

ax + bx = b2 — a2
Factoring x from the left side,

x(a + b) = b2 -a2
and dividing by a + b,

b2a -a2
+ b7~
x =

This result can be simplified by factoring the numerator of the fraction

(b - a)(b + a)
x a + b

and reducing it to get

x = b — a

Show that this solution is correct by checking it in the original equation.

Exercises

Set I
1. This exercise is about the function a) What is the largest number of solutions
that it might have?
y = xi — 2x.
a) What kind of function is it? b) Use your graph for exercise 1 to
estimate its solutions.
b) Graph it from x — -3 to x — 3.
c) Use algebraic methods to find its exact
2. This exercise is about the equation solutions.
x5 - 2x = 0.

Lesson 5: More on Solving Formulas 733

 3. Some world records in the hurdles are
shown in the following table.

Distance in meters 110 200 400

Time in seconds 13.1 21.9 47.8

a) Draw a pair of axes, letting the x-axis

represent distance and the jy-axis
represent time. Let 1 inch on the x-axis
represent 100 meters and 1 inch on the
v-axis represent 10 seconds. Plot the
three points corresponding to these
records as accurately as you can. Two of
the points that you have plotted should
seem to be in line with the origin. Draw
that line.
b) What kind of function does this graph
suggest?
c) The hurdles for the three distances are
of different heights. On the basis of your
graph, which distance do you think has
the lowest hurdles? "ATL^ASTKlCKlVlE^t)
*d) Find the average record speed for each
distance, each to the nearest tenth of a
ONE St£ 0£ THE OTUB? .KSTEK/1
meter per second.

Set II
4. Solve the following equations for x.
a b
x+ 1
■5 2 4 1 _ 1 f) x2 - a2 = b2

x+ 1
x - 3 10 8
6. The area of a trapezoid can be found by
x — a _ b_ x+ 1
multiplying the sum of the lengths of its
f ) ax - 1 :
x -b~ a
5. Solve the following equations for x in
terms of the other variables. Simplify your
answers as much as possible.
a) ax = 1 — x . x + 1 _ x — 1
b) x — a = bx a b

734 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

 bases, b and c, by its altitude, h, and 20 35 50 65
dividing the result by 2. Normal
Age, A blood pressure, p 112 ill ill 111
a) Find the area of a trapezoid whose bases
are 5 and 8 units and whose altitude is 6
units. b) What happens to a woman's blood
pressure as she grows older?
b) Write a formula for the area of a c) Does it change at a steady rate?
trapezoid, a, in terms of b, c, and h.
. The formula relating the focal length of a
c) Solve your formula for h in terms of a,
camera lens, /, to the distances of the object
b, and c.
and image from the lens, a and b, is
d) Find the altitude of a trapezoid whose
area is 24 square units and whose bases 1
are 3 and 7 units.

*7. A woman's blood pressure depends on her

age. The normal blood pressure in
millimeters of mercury of a woman who is a) Find
and/ the focal length of a lens for which
A years old is given by the formula b = 8 centimeters if a = 12 centimeters.
b) Solve the formula for a in terms of b
A{A + 5)
107
100
c) Find a for a lens for which b = 10

/=
centimeters and/= 6 centimeters.
l Copy and complete the following table.
Round each number to the nearest

Set III
11. The radius of the circle in this figure can
9. Solve the following equations for x.
4 -x = 1
1 +x 4 d) 3x - 1 = -
2 -x _ 7
7 + x 2
e) 9x -
a - x b

f) ax -
10. Solve the following equations for x in be found by subtracting the longest side of
terms of the other variables. Simplify your the triangle, c, from the sum of the other
answers as much as possible. two sides, a and b, and dividing the result
a) ax - b = x d) — + 4b = 1
a)
by Find
2. the radius of the circle if the sides
m x - a x + b
b) — 7 — = e) ; a2 = b2 of the triangle are 6, 8, and 10 units.
b a '
1
c) t : bx - 0 b) Write a formula for the radius of the
circle, r, in terms of a, b, and c.

Lesson 5: More on Solving Formulas 735

 c) Solve your formula for c in terms of a, b) What happens to a man's blood pressure
b, and r. as he grows older?
d) Find the longest side of the triangle if c) Does it change at a steady rate?
its other sides are 20 and 21 and the
13. The formula relating the focal length of a
radius of the circle is 6.
camera lens, /, to the distances of the object
and image from the lens a and b is
*12. A man's blood pressure depends on his
age. The normal blood pressure in
1
millimeters of mercury of a man who is A
years old is given by the formula

A(3A - 10)
500 and/ the focal length of a lens for which
a) Find
+ 120
b = 9 centimeters if a = 21 centimeters.
a) Copy and complete the following table.
Round each number to the nearest
/= -
b) Solve the formula for b in terms of a

c) Find b for a lens for which a = 20

centimeters and / = 4 centimeters.
Age, A 20 35 50
Normal blood pressure, p 122 111
lllli!

Set IV The Golden Rectangle

The golden rectangle has influenced artists as
well as architects.* In the drawing by Leonardo
da Vinci shown here, the proportions of part of
•

the face seem to be based on a system of golden

rectangles.
When a golden rectangle is divided into a
square and small rectangle as shown above, the
dimensions of the small rectangle have the same
ratio as the corresponding dimensions of the
golden rectangle.
1. Write a proportion expressing this fact.
2. Solve the proportion for x in terms of i.
* 3. Find the value of x if i = 10. Express
your answer in decimal form, correct to
the nearest hundredth.

* An example of the golden rectangle in architecture is on page 587.

736 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

 Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to solve equations that contain fractions
and how to solve formulas containing two or more variables for one of the
variables.

Ratio and Proportion (Lesson 1) The ratio of the numbers a to b is the

number, —b . A proportion is an equation stating that two ratios are equal. An
easy way to solve equations that are proportions is to use the fact that the
product of the means of a proportion is equal to the product of the extremes.

Equations Containing Fractions (Lessons 2 and 3) An equation that contains

fractions can be solved by first multiplying both sides by a number that will
clear the equation of all of the fractions. The simplest way to do this is to
multiply by the least common denominator of the fractions.
A fractional equation may have more than one solution, depending on the
degree of the equation that results when all fractions are cleared. The solutions
of the resulting equation, however, may not necessarily be solutions of the
original equation and should therefore be checked to see if they make it true.

Solving Formulas (Lessons 4 and 5) The methods used to solve fractional

equations can also be used to solve formulas containing two or more variables
for one of the variables. If the variable being solved for is in more than one term
of the equation, it should ordinarily be factored out of the terms containing it.
 Exercises

Set I

"\T'S AM UNUJUAl_Ly .Jrt1Al_L Cffowp FOR

A SATt/Rp^y NIS-HT, NN

1. There are two "large" people in this cartoon and fifteen people altogether.
a) Write the ratio of the number of large people to the number of small people.
3\
b) Suppose that later in the evening there are four "large" people in the bar
and twenty-six small ones. Write a proportion to show that the ratio of the
number of large people to the number of small people has not changed.
c) What are the means of your proportion?
d) What are the extremes of your proportion? a) 8
^
e) How does the product of the means compare with the product of the
extremes?

2. If possible, simplify the following ratios. 3. Express each of the following products as a
b5x_
) , x+ 12 polynomial in simplest form.
15* J x + 2 b) 12(
2x
a)- - 2y
3x - 3v 10

as 4x4
c)x 7-
d) 2x
738 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS
 a)
. Solve the following equations. 6. Solve the following equations for x in terms
5 x of the other variables. Simplify your answers
b) as much as possible.
6 ~ 3
1 a b
c)
-U = 2
x x - 1
3v 6.v 1 * i
d) b) ah
x - 1 2.v - 2
c) 2*
e) x _ x - 1
x + 4 x + 2 7. A temperature in degrees Fahrenheit can be
changed into degrees Celsius by using the
T-5 = f
f) formula

M=f C = |(F-32)

h 1 I 1 0 a) The normal body temperature of a human

g) )
3.v + 2 ' x + 2 " ° being is 98.6 °F. Use the formula above
i) x - 3 1
to change this temperature into degrees
15 x + 3 Celsius.
b) Solve the formula for F in terms of C.
i-^T = 5
)')

c) The melting point of sugar is about

160CC. Use your formula to change this
»-^T« temperature into degrees Fahrenheit.
The number of different connections that
5. The volume of a cone can be found by the
formula can be made through a telephone
switchboard can be found by the formula

x(x - 1)
-r2h

3
in which x represents the number of
telephones.
a) How many different connections are
possible for a switchboard containing 20
in which r represents the radius of its base telephones?
and h represents its altitude. b) Find a formula for the number of
a) Find the exact volume of a cone for telephones that a switchboard contains if
which r — 6 centimeters and h = 15 n different connections are possible by
centimeters. solving the formula above for x in terms
b) Solve the formula for // in terms of the of «. (Remember that x cannot be
other variables. negative.)
c) Find the altitude of a cone for which *c) How many telephones does a
r = 256?: cubic centimeters and r = 8 switchboard contain if 3,160 different
centimeters. connections are possible?

Summary and Revit

 Set II
1 . This is a picture of an old African game 4. Solve the following equations.
called Wari.
, 10 7

X - 1

ib>@@>o@ej:
4 8
x + 5 2x + 10

x - 3 x - 1
The board consists of a set of bowls that
contain varying numbers of stones as the
game is played.
Give each of the following ratios in
J__± = l
2x 6 x
simplest terms.
1 1
a) The ratio of the number of bowls
containing stones to the total number of 4x - 3
bowls. 2x + 1
b) The ratio of the number of bowls 13 2x - 1
1 1 , : 10
containing stones to the number of empty
bowls.
c) The ratio of the total number of bowls to
5 x - 1 = 5
the number of empty bowls.
x
x + 2 2x ' 4
2. If possible, simplify the following ratios.
5. The volume of an ostrich egg can be found
v 4
by the formula
12x - 4
2x + 10
t x2+ 1
5x + 10
x - 6
3
^a2b
3. Express each of the following products as a
polynomial in simplest form. in which a and b represent the lengths
a, 5(9 + f) shown in the figure.
a) Find the exact volume of an ostrich egg
for which a — 2 centimeters and b — 3
centimeters.
*u(|-l) b) Solve the formula for b in terms of the
other variables.
c,*(i + 6) c) Find the length of an ostrich egg (2b) for
which v = 48tt cubic centimeters and
a = 3 centimeters.

740 Chapter 15: FRACTIONAL EQUATIONS

6. Solve the following equations for x in terms c) The temperature of a campfire is
of the other variables. Simplify your answers approximately 1,075 degrees Kelvin. Use
as much as possible. your formula to change this temperature
into degrees Fahrenheit.
' a-b b2 . If three people work together on a job, the
amount of time that it takes them is less
b) ax -
(Assume that a > 0.) than the amount of time that it would take
c) rrx2 :
any one of them to do the job alone. If they
can do the job alone in a, b, and c hours
respectively, and it takes them x hours
working together, then the : times
1 are related
by the equation
A temperature in degrees Fahrenheit can be
changed into degrees Kelvin by using the
formula
460)
a) How long would it take three people

-^- working together to do a job if they can

do it alone in 3, 4, and 6 hours
a) The freezing point of water is 32 "F. Use respectively?
the formula above to change this b) Solve the equation for x in terms of a, b,
temperature into degrees Kelvin. and c.
b) Solve the formula for F in terms of K. c) Check your equation to see if it gives the
correct answer for part a.
 Chapter
16
INEQUALITIES
 LESSON 1

Inequalities . . And you haven't heard the best part. Wait till I
tell you about gas mileage . . ."

The gas mileage of a car depends on where the car is driven. A car that gets as
little as 18 miles per gallon in the city, for instance, might get as much as 34
miles per gallon on the open road. Letting x represent the car's gas mileage, this
variation can be written in symbols as

18 < x < 34

It can also be represented on a number line by shading the points from 18 to 34

inclusive.

15 i i25| i I
20 35
30
I I l»-
The symbol < means is less than or equal to and is a combination of the
symbol for equality, —, and one of the symbols for inequality, <. In like
manner, the symbol > means is greater than or equal to. When we write
18 < x < 34, we are indicating that "18 is less than or equal to x" and "x is less
than or equal to 34," or, as the number line indicates, that "x lies between 18
and 34 inclusive."
We now have five symbols for comparing numbers. Their meanings are
illustrated in the following table.

Symbol Meaning For points on a line Picture

a = b a is equal to b a and b are identical

b

a < b a is less than b a is to the left of b

a b

a > b a is greater than b a is to the right of b

b a
a < b a is less than or a is to the left of or
a b b
equal to b identical to b
-or - a
a > b a is greater than or a is to the right of or
equal to b identical to b

A mathematical sentence that contains any of the symbols <,>,<, or > is

called an inequality.

Whether an inequality containing one or more variables is true or false

generally depends on what numbers we replace the variables with. For example,
the numbers that can replace x in the inequality x > 5 to make it true are 5 and
all numbers greater than 5. These numbers can be pictured by drawing a solid
circle at 5 on a number line and shading the points to the right of 5.

-+-

The numbers that can replace x in the inequality x < 2 to make it true are all
numbers less than 2. These numbers can be pictured by drawing an open circle
at 2 on a number line (to show that 2 is not included) and shading the points to
the left of 2.

O 2
Sometimes we may combine two equations or inequalities to form a third one.
For example, if x < y and y < z, then it follows that x < z. It is easy to see

Lesson 1: Inequalities 745

 with a number line why this is true. The inequalities x < y and j> < z mean that
x is to the left of y and y is to the left of z.

If x is to the left of y and y is to the left of z, then x must be to the left of z.

You have had experience writing simple inequalities throughout your study of
algebra. In this chapter, we will explore the properties of inequalities further.
Here are more examples.

EXAMPLE 1
Write two inequalities illustrated -* •
by this figure.
SOLUTION
Because -5 is to the left of x, we can write -5 < x.
Because x is to the right of -5, we can write x > -5.
(Notice that it is also true that -5 < x and x > -5.)

EXAMPLE 2
Show by means of a number line the numbers that make
the inequality 1 < x < 6 true.
SOLUTION
This inequality allows x to be any value between
1 and 6, and so we begin by marking 1 and 6 1 < x < 6
with open circles and shading the points between
them. The inequality also allows x to be equal to 7 < x<6 \
is1, included.
and so we fill in the circle at 1 to show that 1 _, "" 79

EXAMPLE 3

If x > y and y = z, what can be concluded about x and z~>

SOLUTION
Illustrating these relationships on a number line,
we can conclude that x > z (or that z < x).

746 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

Exercises

Set I
1. Factor each of the following polynomials.
a) .v3 - Ax2 c) 4.v3 - x2
b) -v3 - Ax d) 4.v3 - x
2. Guess a formula for the function represented
by each of these tables. Begin each formula
with y = .
a) x 1 2 3 4 5
y 2 6 30
12 20
b) x 0 1 2 3 4
y 1 2 9 28 65
1 2 3 4 5
c) X
1 1 1 1
y 1
4 9 16 25
4 5 6 7 8
d) x
1 2 1 4 5
y
4 5 2 7 8

3. The longest ski lift in the world is in New

South Wales, Australia. Suppose that it
carries a skier up the mountain at a speed of
6 miles per hour and that he or she skis
down the mountain at a speed of 54 miles
per hour.
a) If the round trip takes 40 minutes not
counting the time spent at the top and b) Draw a diagram to represent the problem.
the skier spends x minutes riding up in c) Use the information in your diagram to
the lift, what represents the time spent write an equation and solve it for x.
skiing down the mountain? d) How many miles long is the run?

Set II
4. Which of these symbols, =, >, or <,
should replace 1111 in each of the following?

») 9 111 8 j) 0.5II0.3
>) -9 111 -8 e) \ ■-} k) (0.5)2|||||0.3
f) -21114
1) (-0.5)2 III -0.3
m) t/te 111 V64
g) (-2)2||||||4 n) vTiiiyr
i) -\ !-{ h) (-2)3|||||4
o) VOTI1 (0.01)2
i) (-2)4|||||4
Lesson 1: Inequalities 747
 5. Write two inequalities illustrated by each of the following figures,
a) b) c)

6. Tell which figure below matches each equation or inequality in parts a through f.
The open circles indicate that the numbers corresponding to them are not
included.

a) x > 3
b) 3 < x < 7
3
c) x<7
d) 3 < x < 7 D o-
e) x = 3 or x = '
f ) x < 3 or .v > 7

c ■*-
7. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <, £^-
should replace
a) in each of the following
to make it true?
b) F -*
9. XVhich of - symbols, =,>,<,>, or
these
c)
2x = 5v 10 2 + =x 10 5 - .v <, should replace in each of the
d) if X = 1 rr 1 following to make it true for all values of x?
if a = 0 h) if a = 0
e) 1) ifA If none will, state this.
f) if* ]) if x = -1 a) x x + 1
if X = -1 k) if X = -10 b) 3.v x
if X = -10
1) if A
i) c) x2 0
if*
m) if a d).V^_ X
g)
if A >o n) if a h)
<o
8. Which of these symbols,1) >, =, or <,>o e) \ x
f ) 6 - .v
x
4 - x
)')

should replace <o

in each of the following . Draw figures to decide which of these
to make it true? k) symbols, =, >, or <, should replace in
each of the following to make it true for all
X X
a) if x = 10 values of the variables. If none will, state
b) if x = 1 m) if x = 10
n) this.
c) if x = 0 if x = 1 a) If a > b and b > c, then a c.
d) if x = -1 if x = 0 b) If d < e and e = f, then d f.
e) ifx = -10 if x = -1 c) If g < h and h > i, then g i.
f) ifx>0 if x = -10 d) If; = k and; > /, then k I.
if x > 0 e) If m > n and o < n, then m o.
g) ifx<0
if x < 0 f ) If p > q and r > q, then /> r.

748 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

Set III
14. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
11. Which of these symbols, =, >, or <,
should replace lllllll in each of the following
should replace 111 in each of the following?
to make it true? . .,
a)C 4 nil 5
)
b) -4 111 -5 g) (-3)2in-9
h) (-3)2||||||9
1 MINIM 1 i) (-3)3 llli 9 a) if x = 12|«|3x ~M-
4x|| h) if x = 12
j) 0.2110.4 b) if x = 1
c) if x = 0 i) if x = 1
-jllli-l
4 5
k) (0.2)2 llll 0.4
1) (_o.2)2 lil -0.4 d) if x = -1 j) if x = 0
m) \/UX)0 lllllll \/l00 e) ifx = -12 k) if x = -1
1 lllllll 1 f) ifx>0 1) ifx = -12
n) \/l6 lllllll a/16 m) if x > 0
g) ifx<0 n) if x < 0
-3 111 -9 o) \/Ol6 lllllll 0.16
15. Which of these symbols, >, =, or <,
12. Write two inequalities illustrated by each of should replace lllllll in each of the following
the following figures. to make it true?

4 + XIIII3 + X 4-x|||||||3-x
a) if x = 12 h) if x = 12
b) if x = 1 i) if x = 1
c) if x = 0 j) if x = 0
d) if x = -1 k) if x = -1
e) ifx = -12 1) ifx = -12
f) if x > 0 m) if x > 0
13. Tell which figure below matches each g) ifx<0 n) ifx<0
equation or inequality in pans a through f. 16. Which of these symbols, =, >, <, >, or
The open circles indicate that the numbers
<, should replace 11 in each of the
corresponding to them are not included.
following to make it true for all values of x?
If none will, state this.
2
a) xllx-l d)x3II|x
A-
b)x lllllll 2x e) x2||||||||||(-x)2
C
c) V^llllO f) 5-x||||||7-x
D 17. Draw figures to decide which of these
symbols, =, >, or <, should replace lllllll in
each of the following to make it true for all
E ■*■ values of the variables. If none will, state
F — this.
a) x>2 a) If a = b and b > c, then a 11 c.
b) 2 < x < 9 b) Ud<e and e <f, then d lllllll/
c) x < 9
d) 2 < x < 9 c) If^>AandA<i,then^H.-.
d) If;<*andy = /,then*lil/.
e) x = 2 or x = 9 e) If m < n and o > n, then m 111 o.
f) x < 2 or x > 9 f) If /»< q and r < q, then pWi r.

Lesson 1: Inequalities 749

 Set IV
All animals are equal span of a horse is more than twice that of a dog.
But some animals are more equal than others. Dogs, on the other hand, live longer than either
GEORGE orwell, Animal Farm cows or pigs. If cows outlive pigs by at least
eight years and the typical life-span of a pig is
One way in which animals are not equal is in ten years, can you draw any conclusion about
the length of their life-spans. The typical life- the life-span of a horse?

750 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

 LESSON 2
Solving Linear
Inequalities

If you were a zoo keeper and wanted to find out how heavy an elephant
was, how would you do it? When some children were asked this ques-
tion, one of them made the drawing shown above.* His idea was to
attach the elephant to one end of a giant scale and have a fork-lift
operator load weights on the other end until the two ends balance.
The weights shown in the drawing vary from 1 to 3 tons. Suppose that
when 6 tons have been put into the weight basket, the scale looks like the
first figure at the right and when 1 more ton has been added, the scale
looks like the second figure. The weight of the elephant, x, is more than
6 tons but less than 7: in symbols, 6 < x < 7.
Just as the idea of a balanced scale is useful in understanding equa-
tions, the idea of an unbalanced scale is useful in understanding ine-
qualities. Suppose, for example, that a 3-pound weight is put on one side
of a scale and a 2-pound weight on the other side to illustrate the
inequality

3>2

* "Elephant- 17" from Children Solve Problems by Edward de Bono. Copyright

© 1972 by The Cognitive Trust. Reprinted by permission of Harper & Row, Publish-
ers, Inc., and A. P. Watt & Son.
 If we adJ the same amount of weight to each side, say x pounds, then
clearly the scale will remain unbalanced in the same direction:

3 + x > 2 + x

Similarly, if we take away the same amount of weight from each side,
the scale will remain unbalanced in the same direction:

3 - x > 2 - x

These observations illustrate the following fact.

► Adding the same number to or subtracting the same number from both
sides of an inequality results in an inequality having the same direction.

•2 It might seem reasonable to think that multiplying or dividing an

3> •2
inequality by the same number would also produce an inequality having
2 •2
3> the same direction but this isn't necessarily the case. Look at the pattern
3 3 •2
3> at the left. Although 3 > 2, 3x > 2x only ifx is a positive number. If
2 2 •2
3> -1 x = 0, then 3.v = 2.v. And if x is a negative number, 3x < 2x. The
1 _21 •2
-1 diagrams of the scales at the lower left show that 3 pounds weighs more
0 3< 0 •2
_2 3 = -3 than 2 pounds, but a balloon that can lift 3 pounds weighs less than a
•3<
-3 • balloon that can lift only 2 pounds.
3<

► Multiplying both sides of an inequality by the same positive number

results in an inequality having the same direction. Multiplying both sides
of an inequality by the same negative number results in an inequality-
having the opposite direction.
The same rules hold for division.

► Dividing both sides of an inequality by the same positive number results

in an inequality having the same direction. Dividing both sides of an
inequality by the same negative number results in an inequality having
the opposite direction.

These rules can be used to solve inequalities in the same way that we
solve equations. Examples are given on the next page.

752 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

EXAMPLE 1
Solve the inequality x — 4 > 9.
SOLUTION
Adding 4 to each side, we get

jc> 13

This tells us that all numbers greater than 13 are solutions of x — 4 > 9.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve the inequality -5x + 3 < 38.
SOLUTION
Subtracting 3 from each side, we get
-5x < 35

Dividing each side by -5, we get

x>-7
(Remember that dividing by a negative number reverses the direction of the
inequality.) All numbers greater than -7 are solutions of -5x + 3 < 38.

SOLUTION

This inequality tells us that —6 — 1 is greater than or equal to 0 and less than or
equal to 2. Adding 1, we get

Multiplying by 6 gives

This tells us that all numbers between 6 and 18 inclusive are solutions of

Lesson 2: Solving Linear Inequalities 753

 Exercises

Set I
i . If possible, write each of the following as a
single power.

b) x' + x< e) X^
c) (x2)* f) 4
d) a-4 - x2 x

. This exercise is about the graph at the right

a) Write an equation for line a.
b) Write an equation for line b.
c) Write an equation for line c.
d) What do lines a and b have in common?
e) What do lines a and c have in common?

3. Suppose that the fellow in this cartoon has SI 200 invested, some in a long-term
savings account at 7 percent interest and the rest in a regular savings account at
5 percent interest. If he earns S77 in interest at the end of a year, how much
does he have invested in each account? (Hint: In one year, .v dollars invested at
7 percent interest earns 0.07.V dollars.)

Set II
4. The figure below shows that -3 < 2 and
that -3 + 1 <2 + 1. Draw a similar figure showing that
-3 + 1 a) -4<-l and -4 - 2 < -1 - 2.
2+1 b) 5 > 3 and 2(5) > 2(3).
c) 5 > 3 and -1(5) <C -1(3).
O d)-2<l and -3(-2) > -3(1).

754 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

 . What happens to the direction of an 7. What was done to both sides of the first
inequality if inequality to give the second in each of the
following?
a) the same number is added to both sides?
b) both sides are multiplied by the same a) x — 7 < 2 to give x < 9
negative number? b) 3x > 15 to give x > 5
c) both sides are divided by the same c) x + 10 >0 to give x>-10
positive number? d) -6x < 12 to give x > -2
6. Tell whether or not each of the following e) -x < 8 to give x > -8
numbers is a solution of the inequality -> 1 to give x < -4
given.
b)x-1+ 9 > 6 8. Solve each of the following inequalities for ;
c)-3 a) x + 8 < 1
b) 8x < 1
d) c) x - 5 >-15
e)x-6 - 2 < 5 d) -5x>-15 g) 0 < x - 7 < 7
h) -5 < x + 3 < 5
6
-7 0-
0 h) 7
i
g) ) 9. Solve each of the following inequalities for
10
-10 a) 4x + 7 > -5 e) 1 < 2x - 9 < 1 1
b) -x + 6 < 8 f) 17 - 3x > 2

J) k)14x + 1 < 13 11 -2x > 21 c) ± - 3 > 0 10

<
, 9x + 1 ^ 9x
)
2 m) -5 :+ 1
3 n) -4 d)f >
7
-4 o) 4
+ 1

Set III
10. The figure below shows that -4 < 1 and 1 1 . What happens to the direction of an
that -4 - 2 < 1 - 2. inequality if
a) the same number is subtracted from both
-4-2 1-2 sides?
b) both sides are multiplied by the same
positive number?
c) both sides are divided by the same
Draw a similar figure showing that negative number?
a) -5<-2 and -5 + 1 < -2 + 1.
b) 4 > 1 and 2(4) > 2(1).
c) 4> 1 and -2(4) < -2(1).
d)-3<0 and -l(-3) > -1(0).

Lesson 2: Solving Linear Inequalities 755

 12. Tell whether or not each of the following d)-2x>22 to give x<-ll
numbers is a solution of thek inequality e) -x > 5 to give x < -5
) 1)
given.
x - 4 < 10 -9 f) -^- < 0 to give x > 0

a) 13 - 2>25 14. Solve each of the following inequalities for x.

b) 14 i) -1
3x
m) 10 n) a) x + 10 > 7
c) x-14+ 9 o) b) lOx > 7 f) — > 5
7 > 2
d) 0 d)-3x<-12 h)
g)8<x
-4 + 8<ll
5x < 12 c)*-3<-12 h) -1
e) 2 <x - 6 < 4

f) -7 0 e) - > -5
g) 7 28 - 1> for >
15. Solve each of the following inequalities
h) -5 a) 5*-2<-17 f) 13_2x<l
i) -9
1 3. What was done to both sides of the first b) -x + 8 > 1 1
g) -3 < At + 3 < 3
inequality to give the second in each of the
following? c) ^ + 1 < 0 7x + 1
a) x + 3 > 0 to give x > -3
b) 7x < 28 to give x < 4 7x
c) x — 9 < -3 to give * < 6 e) 4 < 3x - 1 1 < 10

Set IV
Suppose that three dice are thrown at one
Games played with dice have been popular for
thousands of years. time, as in the game of Chuck-a-luck.

f3^ 1. Letting s represent the sum of the numbers

that turn up, write an inequality to show its
possible values.
2. How many integer solutions does your
inequality have?
3. How many different sums can turn up
when three dice are thrown?
&. ^ Suppose that n dice are thrown at one time.
When a die is thrown, any number from one 4. Letting 5 represent the sum of the numbers
through six can turn up. This fact can be that turn up, write an inequality in terms
represented by the inequality of n to show its possible values.
1 <x < 6 5. Write an expression in terms of n for the
number of different sums that can turn up
in which x represents the number that appears. when n dice are thrown.

756 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

 LESSON 3
More on Solving
Inequalities
A good poker player knows a great deal about
top the mathematical probabilities of
the game: the chances of being dealt different hands and the odds against
improving them as the game is played. For example, a given play is favorable if
the following inequality is true:*

> 1
In this inequality, w represents the potential worth of the pot, p represents the
probability of winning it, and c represents the potential cost of playing the hand.
If, for example, the pot is potentially worth S100, the probability of winning
it is 0.5, and it may cost S40 to play the hand, then
100(0-5) =

40

* Total Poker by David Spanier (Simon and Schuster. 1977). p. 40.

 Because 1.25 > 1, the hand is worth playing. On the other hand, if the pot is
potentially worth $300, the probability of winning it is 0.1, and it may cost $50
to play the hand, then

50

Because 0.6 < 1, the player should fold.

The inequality for the favorability of a poker hand contains three variables.
Like a formula, an inequality in two or more variables may be solved for any
one of them in terms of the others. For example, to solve the poker-hand
inequality

for p, we can first clear it of fractions by multiplying both sides by c:

wp > c
Dividing both sides by w gives

(The direction of the inequality is not changed by doing either of these things
because c and w, the cost of playing the hand and the potential worth of the pot,
are both positive numbers.)
Here are more examples of how to solve inequalities.

solutions.
SOLUTION
Adding 5 to each side gives

758 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

Because x > 0, multiplying each side by x gives

10 < 5x

Finally, dividing by 5 we get

2 < x, or x > 2

Because all positive numbers greater than or equal to 2 are solutions of the
inequality, we draw a solid circle at 2 and shade the line to the right of 2.

O 2

EXAMPLE 2
The length of each side of a triangle is less than the sum of the lengths of the other
two sides. Use this information to write three inequalities for the triangle shown
here and solve them for x.
SOLUTION
The three inequalities are:
1. x < 6 + (x + 2)
2. 6 < x + (x + 2)
3. x + 2 <x + 6 X+2

Solving each one, we get

1. x < 6 + (x + 2)
x<8 + x
0<8

2. 6 < x + (x + 2)
6 < 2x + 2
4<2x
2<x
3. x + 2 < x + 6
2<6

The only inequality that tells us anything about x is the second one: x must be
greater than 2.

Lesson 3: More on Solving Inequalities 759

 Exercises

Set I
1. If possible, simplify each oi the following.
a) \ 20* + \ 5x
b) \ 20* - \ 5x
c) \ 20£\ 5.v
d) \ 20.v - \ 5.v
2. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous
equations.
■- 1

3. The cost of flying an airplane depends on

the speed at which it is flown. A typical
formula is a) What kind of function is this?
-800
b) Find the cost oi flying the plane at a
speed of 500 kilometers per hour for one
= 0.004.Y2 hour.
in which y is the cost in dollars per hour c) Find the cost of flying the plane at a
and x is the speed of the plane in kilometers speed of 1,000 kilometers per hour for
one hour.
per hour.

Set II
4. Solve each of the following inequalities and tell which figure at the right
below illustrates its solutions.
Figure A
a) 10 - x < 8
b) 2(.v - 6) > 3 - x

if x > 0
d) 1 ■
e) x < 2(.v - 1)< x + 3
f) (* + 2)2 > x2 - 5x - 1 Figure D
-<0
a)
5. Solve each oi the following inequalities and draw a figure to illustrate its solutions.

b) x > | - 4 c) — > 1, if x > 0

760 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

 7. The length of each side of a triangle is less
than the sum of the lengths of the other two
sides. Use this information to write three
f) * + 12 > 5, if x < o inequalities for each of the following
triangles and solve them for .v.
_1_

h) (.v - 4)(x + 1) > x(x - 4)

6. Solve the following inequalities for x in

terms of the other variables,
a) ax - b > 0, if a > 0
J_

c)<2<x + a<6

d) - + a > b,
&'
if x > 0 and a > fc -7 2 + x

-7
Set III
8. Solve each of the following inequalities and tell which figure at the right
below illustrates its solutions.

a) 6 > 5 - x
Figure A

2 Fig B
b)5>*j_r
c) 3(x + 3)< 2(x + 6) ure
3
d) 1 < 1 _ 1, if x > 0
Fig C
ure
e) (x - l)2 > x(x - 3) 3
5x + 1
4
<x + 1 Figure D
f) x <-

9. Solve each of the following inequalities and draw a figure to illustrate its solutions.
x ^ 2 ^ 10 / ^ .r „ ^ a -V 6 4 /
2

- < 7, if x > 0 h) (x + 2)(x - 3) < .v(.v - 2)

5>-
Lesson 3: More on Solving Inequalities 761
 10. Solve the following inequalities for x in terms of the other variables.
a) ax + h < 1, if a > 0 c)a>x + b>b
if ^ < 0 - < b, if x > 0 and a < A
b)^>-
d) a -
11. The length of each side of a triangle is less than the sum of the lengths of the other two
sides. Use this information to write three inequalities for each of the following
triangles and solve them for x.

Set IV
Suppose that in a poker game you get a hand you figure out how the potential worth of the
with which you are just as likely to lose as win. pot. wo, should compare with the potential cost of
The probability of winning such a hand is 0.5. playing the hand, c, in order for it to be
Using the inequality given in this lesson, can favorable to play?

762 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

 BEER DRINKERS
SHORTED BY DRAM
A CAN, SUIT SAYS
Attorney Jay S. Bulmash. saying
that he is acting on behalf of all Cal-
ifornia beer drinkers, charged Mon-
day in a Superior Court suit that An-
heuser-Busch Co. short-weights its
beer one dram a can
A dram is one-sixteenth of an
ounce.
Bulmash contended in the civil
suit that the company commits
fraud and breach of warranty by
falsely promising its 12-and 16-
ounce cans of Busch Bavarian beer
each contain a full 12 or 16 ounces.
Beer drinkers are being over-
charged at least $259,000 a year be- /\
cause of the shortage, Bulmash al- |_ E S S O N H"
leged.
Within the last four years, Bul-
mash said, he has purchased at least
Absolute Value
24 cans of beer and found each about
a dram short.
The suit seeks monetary damages
and Inequalities
for drinkers and attorney's fees for
Bulmash.

Al though the label on a can of beer may indicate that the can contains 12 ounces,
it is unreasonable to expect that every can will contain exactly that amount.
Whenever something is produced in large quantities, there are always variations
in the results.
Because these variations are unavoidable, a certain tolerance is always
allowed in producing the product. Suppose that for 12-ounce cans of beer this
tolerance is 0.1 ounce. Then cans filled with as little as 1 1.9 ounces or as much
as 12.1 ounces would be acceptable. This variation can be represented on a
number line by shading the part of the line from 11.9 to 12.1 inclusive.

0.1 0.1

11-8 12.2
Variation in weight of beer 763
 If we represent the weight of beer actually contained in a 12-ounce can as x
ounces, then the can is acceptable if

11.9 < x < 12.1

We can indicate this variation in another way by using absolute value. If a

12-ounce can actually contains x ounces, then the amount of the error is

x - 12

ounces and, because this amount is limited to 0.1 ounce or less,

\x - 12) < 0.1

If a 12-ounce can of beer actually contained 1 1.8 ounces, then the error would
be

111.8 - 12| = |-0.2| = 0.2

ounces and, because 0.2 > 0.1, it would not be considered acceptable.
From this example, we see that the inequalities

11.9 < x < 12.1 and x - 12; < 0.1

are equivalent. The figure and statement below put this idea in more abstract
form.

f a+b

In our analysis of the variations that occur in manufacturing a product, we

wrote an inequality that contains an absolute value. Here are more examples of
equations and inequalities containing absolute values.

764 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

EXAMPLE 1
Solve for x: |x| < 2.
SOLUTION
This inequality says that the absolute value of x is less than 2. On a number line,
this means that the distance between x and 0 is less than 2. As the figure below
shows, the numbers whose distance from 0 is less than 2 are between -2 and 2.

-*-+-
The open circles indicate that -2 and 2 are not included. The solutions of the
inequality \x\ < 2, then, are all numbers x such that -2 < x < 2.

EXAMPLE 2
Solve for x: |x - 1| = 5.
SOLUTION
This equation says that the distance between x and 1 on a number line is equal to
5. From the figure shown below, we see that there are two such numbers: -4 and 6.

-5-4 O 5

It is possible to figure this out without thinking of a number line. The absolute
value of x — 1 is either x — 1 or -(.v — 1). In the first case,
-- M1 == -5
5
5
-4
6
In the second case, -1| = 5,
5
x -
- 1 =
1*- 5
-1| X
-(X- 1) =
we write-1|= 5, x =
Checking these solutions,
5 = 5,
= 5, \x- = 5
and
|-5|
5 = 5
|5| =

1-4 Lesson 4: Absolute Value and Inequalitu

|6
 EXAMPLE 3
Solve for x: x — 3 > 4.
SOLUTION
This inequality says that the distance between x and 3 on a number line is more
than 4. From the figure shown below, we see that this is true of all numbers x such
that either x < -1 or x > 7.
4 4-
o o ►
To solve this without thinking of a number line, we can reason as follows. The
absolute value of x — 3 is equal to either x — 3 or -(.v — 3).
In the first case,
x - 3 > 4
x - 3 > 4
■v>7

In the second case,

3 >4

-3<-4
3)>4

•v<-l

Exercises
-- 1
Set I
1. Solve the following quadratic equations. 2. Simplify.
a) .v2 + 5.v = 0 ! j
b) 2x2 - 24 = 0
c) (x - Yf = 9 1
a) -1—r b)

766 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

3. Each year on Annie's birthday, Daddy money Annie receives in dollars, in terms
Warbucks gives her $7 plus $3 for each year of a, her age in years.
of her age. c) Solve your formula for a in terms of m.
a) How much money does Annie get when d) How old is Annie when Daddy Warbucks
she is ten? gives her $100 for her birthday?
b) Write a formula for m, the amount of

Set II
4. What are the coordinates of the two points
on a number line that are
9| > 0
a) 15 units from 0?
b) 6 units from 11? i) 9
c) 1 1 units from 6?
j) -100
1)
k) -io
-9 for x.
d) 8 units from -2? Solve
e) 3 units from *?
f) a units from b? (Assume that a is
^>6
positive.) a) |*| = 8
b) |*| = 0
5. Tell which figure below matches each
equation or inequality in parts a through d. d)
c) |*| <= -1
3 I> 4
e) 2|*| < 10
8. Draw a figure to illustrate each of the
A-- l>-7
following equations and inequalities.
-5

a) |*| = 3
b) |* - 5| = 3
C -«- c) |* + 2| = 3 (Hint: \x + 2\ = \x - (-2)|.)
d) |x| < 4
e) \x- 1|<4
f) |* + 4| < 4 (See hint for part c.)
a) |*| = 5
b) |x| < 5
c) |x| > 5 h) |* -> 3|
g) |*| 2 > 2
d) \x\ < 5 i) |* + 3| > 2
9. Solve for *.
6. Tell whether or not each of the following
numbers is a solution of the equation or a) |*| - 7 = 2
inequality given. ■ 15| < 1 b) \x - 7| = 2
c) |*| - 4 < 9
|* + 6| = 10 d) |* - 4|< 9
d) 13
a) 4 e) 14 e) |*| - 1 > 11
b) -4 f) 15 f) |* - 1| > 11
c) -16 g) I* + 5| < 8
h) 17 h) |*| + 8 > 5
g) 16 \x
Lesson 4: Absolute Value and Inequalities 767
 10. When Acute Alice measured Obtuse Ollie's
height, she got 172 centimeters but may a) Write an inequality indicating the
have made an error of as much as 1 numbers that x lies between.
b) Write an equivalent inequality using
centimeter. Suppose that x represents Ollie's
actual height in centimeters. absolute value.

Set III
b)
1 1 . What are the coordinates of the two points 14. Solve for x.
on a number line that are
a) 9 units from 0? a) x = 6
b) 4 units from 10? f) x >-t
b) x = -5 g) -v >0
c) 10 units from 4?
d) 2 units from -5?
c) |*l <-3110
d) 3|x| < 12 h)-f>7
el 7 units from x? e) x > 1
f ) v units from z? (Assume that y is 15. Draw a figure to illustrate each of the (-1)10
positive.) following equations and inequalities.
12. Tell which figure below matches each
equation or inequality in parts a through d. a) x
c) x + 1 =2 (Hint: 1

-4 4 d) x < 5
e) x - 2 < 5
«• o f) x + 5 < 5 (See hint for part c.)
-4 4o —
B +
•m -4
• -•
4 »- g) xx -> 43 > 3
h)
i) x - 4 > 3
16. Solve for x.

a) x - 5 = 4
a) x < 4 c) x > 4 b) x - 5 = 4
b) x =4 d) x < 4
c) |x| - 10 < 3
13. Tell whether or not each of the following d) |x - 10 < 3
e) x - 6 > 2
numbers is a solution of the equation or
inequality given. f) \x - 6 > 2
-v - 3 = 12 h) Wx ++ 1| > 71
g) 7 <
a) 9 17. When Acute Alice stepped on the drugstore
b) -15 scale, it read 105 pounds. The scale,
c) -9 i) 14 however, might have been as much as 2

j -
x- l<2 i) -14
k) 100
pounds off. Suppose that x represents Alice's
actual weight in pounds.
a) Write an inequality indicating the
e)9 1) 0
f) 10 numbers that x lies between.
bi Write an equivalent inequality using
h) 7 absolute value.

'68 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

Set IV
Parts for a machine that are mass-produced Otherwise, the assembly must be thrown away.
usually differ in size to a small degree: some are Suppose that watches are put together only
slightly larger than called for and some slightly from parts within the allowable errors.
smaller. Suppose that, in an assembly for a
1 . If the errors in the parts for a certain
wristwatch, the allowable errors for the parts are
as shown below: watch assembly are a = 3, b = -1, c = 4,
d = -3, and e = 2, will the assembly work
„ Allowable error in tenths properly?
2. What if the errors are a = 2, b = 1, c = 5,
of a millimeter
d = 1, and e = 0?
A 3. Suppose that the errors in four parts of an
B \a\ <4 assembly are a = -1, b = 0, c = 5, and
C 1*1 < 1
d = -3. Can any acceptable part E be used
D |c|<6 to complete the assembly so that it will
E \d\<3 work properly?
\e\<2 4. Answer the question asked in part 3 if the
The watch will run properly if, when the five errors are a = 4, b = 1, c = 6, and d = -2.
pans are assembled,
- d + e\ < i
\a + b -

Lesson 4: Absolute Value and Inequalit

 Summary
and Review

In this chapter, we have learned how to solve inequalities and have extended our
knowledge of absolute value.
Voue,'
Inequalities (Lesson 1 ) An inequality is a mathematical sentence that contains
any of the symbols < (is less than), > (is greater than), < (is less than or equal
to), or > (is greater than or equal to).

Solving Linear Inequalities (Lessons 2 and 3) An inequality can be changed

into an equivalent one by adding the same number to or subtracting the same
number from each side. Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by
the same positive number results in an inequality having the same direction.
Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by the same negative number
reverses the direction of the inequality.
By applying these rules, inequalities containing variables can be solved in the
same way that equations are solved.

Absolute Value and Inequalities (Lesson 4)

The absolute value of the expression x — a,
written x — a , may be interpreted as the dis-
tance between x and a on a number line. If
x — a < b} then a — b < x < a + b.
To solve an equation or inequality containing
an absolute value, we can use the fact that
.v — a is either x — a or -(.v — a).

70 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

Exercises

Set I
■12
. Which of these symbols, =, >, or <,
should replace Hill in each of the following?
Tell whether or not each of the following
numbers is a solution of the inequality
■2111.
e) |-7| Hill! 7
2
_J_ given.
12 f) (-l)-HIIIIII(-l)5
b)- g) ^27 IIIIII-3 5x + 9 < 0
c) 0.1811 10.4 h) \/l00 lllllll \/l25 a) 8 K7
d) 0.181 b) 0
I (0.4)2 2x: - 4
2. Write an inequality in terms of x to c) -6 i) 1
represent each of the following figures.
d)-5 h)-3
e) -10
f)4
g)-2
6. Solve each of the following inequalities for x.
a) x + 4 > 3
b) 4x > 3 •\ / x
c) -2x < 16
-A, if x > 0
d) 9 - x < 1
e) -2 < x - 4 < 2 X
-2-, ifx<0
f ) 5x + 3 > -7 _£<2
)) 9>8-
X
k) 9 > 8 -

3. Which of these symbols, =, >, <, >, or g) f - 8 < 0

<, should replace ,i in each of the
7. Solve the following inequalities for x in
following to make it true for all values of x? terms of the other variables.
If none will, say so.
a) at + 2 lllllll jc a) ax - b < 1, if a > 0
b if a <0
b)x III lOx d) ^ lllllll4
c) Mil x 4 3 b)^>^
c) ax — bx < c, if a > b
4. Which of these symbols, =, >, or <,
should replace 111 in each of the following d)0<x-a<a + fc
to make it true for all values of the 8. What are the coordinates of the two points
variables? If none will, say so. on a number line that are
a) If a < b and b < c, then a 111 c. a) 5 units from 0?
b) If d = e<mde>f, then d lllllll/. b) 9 units from 2?
c) If^>A and !' >A, then ^lllllll i. c) 10 units from -6?
d) Uj> k and I = k, then; 111/. d) 4 units from .v?

Summary and Revievi

 9. Draw a figure to illustrate each of the 10. Solve for r.
following equations and inequalities. a) 4 x = 20
a) x =A f) x - 2 > 6
b) x < 3 g) x+1
h) x - 1 <
> 00
c) x >6 b)^-<5
d) x - 5 = 2
c) |xj + 7 = 10
e) |x - 7| < 1 d) x + 7 = 10
f) x+1 >7 e) x - 2 > 6

Seta) II
1_
-6
1. Which oi these symbols. = , >, or <, 4. Which of these symbols, =, >, or <,
-15
should replace in each of the following: should replace in each of the following
c) to make it true for all values of the
b)
1 variables? If none will, say so.
15 -9 6 a) If a > b and b = c, then a Be.
e) -9
0.7 0.50 b) If d < e and e >/, then dWf.
0.50 c) If g = h and h < i, then g <M i.
h)
nd) r(0.7)-'
- 10 :
d) If ; > k and / < k, then ;' ■ /.
5. Tell whether or not each of the following
numbers is a solution of the inequality-
:si
2. Write an inequality
\9 in terms of x to x - 5 > 8 4x - 7 > 1
given.
a) 5 g) 0
represent each of the following figures.
b) 3 h) 2
-2 c) -13 i) 7
5
~« • — — 8• — »■
O d)4
3x < -12

-m O

e) -4
6. f)-5
Solve each of the following inequalities for x.
a) x + 5 < 2
b) 5x < 2
Which of these symbols, =. >. <3 >, or c) -3x > 30
< , should replace in each of the d) 7 - x > 4
following to make it true for all values of x e) 0 < x - 6 < 1
If none will, say so. f) 2r + 15 > 3
a) x x - 5 c) x 0 2 <0
10
b) 4.v v

772 Chapter 16: INEQUALITIES

 h)

i) . What are the coordinates of the two points

3*>3^ 6 on a number line that are

\ * + 8
a) 8 units from 0?
b) 15 units from 3?
)) if x>0 c) 7 units from -5?
5>4- X ~ d) x units from y}
8
k) 51) > 4 - X if x < 0 9. Draw a figure to illustrate each of the
following equations and inequalities.
* + 1 X

2 a) |x| = 1 d) |x - 6| = 4
b) |*| < 5 e) \x - 8|< 3
Solve the following inequalities for y c) |x| > 2 f) 1* + 3| > 8
terms of the other variables, . Solve for x.
a) ax + b > 0, if a > 0
a) 3|x| = 24 e)
ux 1*1 / o f) |x|
|x ++ 8|8 >> 33
b)f<^,
b c if £»<0
c) ax — b > ex, if a > c
b) Y<2 g) 1* + 2| < 0
h) |x + 2| > 0
d)0>x + a>a-i c) |x| - 9 = 1
d) |x - 9| = 1

Summary and Revie

Chapter 17
NUMBER
SEQUENCES
 LESSON 1

Number Sequences

Despite its dangers, sky diving can be an exhilarating experience, as the ex-
pression on the free-faller's face in the above photograph shows. In 1960,
Captain Joseph W. Kittinger jumped from a balloon at an altitude of almost 20
miles and fell more than 16 miles before pulling the rip cord of his parachute.
The distances in feet that he traveled during the first few seconds of his fall

16 48 80 112 144 ...

in which the dots indicate that the numbers continue. These numbers are an
example of a number sequence.

A number sequence is an ordered set of numbers with one number for each
counting number.
 Rewriting the numbers in the "falling" sequence to show this pairing, we get
16 48 80 112 144 ...
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

(The counting numbers in this case represent the seconds that have passed since
the moment at which the man jumped from the balloon.)
The numbers in a sequence are called its terms. To represent the terms of a
number sequence, we will use the notation

in which tn represents the «th term. For the "falling" sequence, tl = 16,
t2 = 48, and so forth. Notice that each successive term of this sequence can be
obtained by adding 32 to the preceding term.

16 48 80 112 144 ...

+ 32 +32 +32 +32

► A number sequence in which each successive term may be found by adding the
same number is called an arithmetic sequence.

The differences between successive terms in an arithmetic sequence are the

same. For example, the sequence above, this difference is 32.

Number sequences can be formed in many different ways. Consider, for

example, the sequence

4 20 100 500 2,500 ...

Each successive term of this sequence is obtained by multiplying the preceding

term by 5.

4 20 100 500 2,500 •••

\ X5
y \ X?
y \ X5
y \ X5y
► A number sequence in which each successive term may be found by multiplying
by the same number is called a geometric sequence.

Lesson 1: Number Sequenci

 The ratios of successive terms in a geometric sequence are the same. In the
sequence above, this ratio is — = 5.

Arithmetic and geometric sequences have many interesting applications, some

of which we will study in this chapter. In this lesson, we will consider some of
the many ways in which number sequences in general can be formed.

EXAMPLE 1
What number should replace in the following sequence? What kind of sequence
is it?
11 8 5 2 llll

SOLUTION
Each successive term in this sequence is 3 less than the term before it. Subtracting
3 from 2, we get -1 for the missing term. Because subtracting 3 from each term to
get the next one is equivalent to adding -3, the sequence is arithmetic.

EXAMPLE 2
A formula for the nxh term of a certain sequence is tn = 3 • 7". Find the first three
terms of this sequence. What kind of a sequence is it?
SOLUTION
To find the first term, we let n = 1: r, = 3 • 71 = 3 • 7 = 21. Letting n = 2 and
n = 3 to find the next two terms, we get

t7 = 3 • V- = 3 • 49 = 147 and
t] = 3-73 = 3-343 = 1,029
The first three terms of the sequence are 21, 147, and 1,029. Because each
successive term is 7 times the preceding term, the sequence is geometric.

EXAMPLE 3
Write a formula for the nxh term of this sequence:

11111
2 3 4 5 6

778 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

SOLUTION
Each term of this sequence is a fraction whose denominator is 1 more than its
numerator. Because the numerator is the number of the term, the formula is
. This is not an arithmetic sequence because the differences between
n + 1
successive terms are not the same; nor is it a geometric sequence because the ratios
of successive terms are not the same. There are many sequences that are neither
arithmetic nor geometric but that still follow a simple pattern.

Exercises

Set I
1 . Write an inequality in terms of x to
a)
represent each of the following figures.
-5 -3
L>) -«■ o- in which x is his or her weight in pounds on
4
(d + 4)2
c) 2
the earth.
a) Show that this formula gives the correct
result when d = 0.

a) Obtuse Ollie's weight on the earth's

surface is 200 pounds. How much would he
2. Solve the following equations.
weigh if y =
x + 1 2x - 1
b) 5 9 b) he were 4 thousand miles above the
earth?
±xc) + i4 = -L
4x c) he were 16 thousand miles above the
earth?

!-!=' d) Solve the formula above for x in terms of

e) yIf and d. Alice were 2 thousand miles

Acute
3. One way to "lose weight" is to travel in a
space ship away from the earth. The weight above the earth, she would weigh 48
in pounds of someone who is d thousand pounds. How much does she weigh on
miles above the earth can be found from the the earth's surface?

Lesson 1: Number Sequences 779

 Set II
4. Tell whether each of the following sequences 6. A formula for the nth term of a certain
is arithmetic, geometric, both, or neither. If
a sequence is arithmetic, what is the sequence is
common difference of the terms? If a
b) is geometric, what is the common rn = 5 + In
a)
sequence
ratio? a) Find the first five terms of this sequence.
c) 4d 11 18 25 ... b) From the second term on, each term of
)
3e) 6 12 24 . . . this sequence can be found from the
1 3 6 10 . . . preceding term. How are they found?
15 13 11 9 ... c) What type of sequence is it?
10 100 1.000 10,000 7. A formula for the nth term of a certain
ni) 2 6 24 120 . . .
hi 8 8 8 8... sequence is
k) 24 36 54 ...
-|
i)
16
i) 7 10.5 14 17.5 ...
4 -6 8 -10 . . . a) Find the first five terms of this sequence.
1 -3 9 -27 . . . b) From the second term on, each term of
1111 this sequence can be found from the
preceding term. How are they found?
D)
5'' c) What type of sequence is it?
m. 2 3 4
1111
8. What number should replace each in
2 4 8 16 ' each of the following sequences
L 11 i ...
0) 2 3 6
10 50
112 4
a) if it is arithmetic?
2 3 9 27 ''" b) if it is geometric?
5. What number do you think should replace
in each of the following sequences? 3 24
a) 6 10 14 18
b) 4 12 36 108 c) if it is arithmetic?
c) 3 5 8 12 d) if it is geometric?
d) 9 1 -7 -15 9. Write a formula for the nth term of each of
e) 9( the following sequences.
f) 1 8 27 64
a)
b) 41 45 96 ^716 8 25 .... . .
o\? 1 3 43 5
4 c) 5 10 15 20 25 .. .
1 A d) -8 -8 -8 -8 -8 ...
2 4 e) 4 16 64 256 1.024 . . .
i) 250
b)- 25 2.5 0.25 f) _5 _4 -3 -2 -1 ...

j) 3-15 75 -375_
k) \ 7 2\ 2 3 \ 10 g) ' 2 3 4 5'"
1) 4.1 3 1.9 0.8 h) 1 \ 2 \ 3 2 \ 5 ...

780 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

Set III
10. Tell whether each of the following sequences 12. A formula for the nth term of a certain
is arithmetic, geometric, both, or neither. If
sequence is
a sequence is arithmetic, what is the
common difference of the terms? If it is
tn = 4 + 3«
b)
geometric, what is the common ratio?
a) Find the first five terms of this sequence.
a) c)2 6 18 54 . . .
d)7 16 25 34 ... b) From the second term on, each term of
e)2 5 9 14 ... this sequence may be found from the
f20
) 16 12 8 ... preceding term. How are they found?
1 0.1 0.01 0.001 ... c) What type of sequence is it?
i) h)4 16 48 96 ... 1 3. A formula for the «th term of a certain
6 8.5 11 13.5 . . .
g) sequence is
8 12 18 27 ...
k)2 2 2 2...
)) 11) -4 16 -64 ...
3 -6 9 -12 ... a) Find the first five terms of this sequence.
tn = 4 • 3"
b) From the second term on, each term of
1 1 1 1
this sequence may be found from the
m)6
preceding term. How are they found?
1 71 81 92 """
n) c) What type of sequence is it?
6
14. What number should replace each 1111 in
1 31 2 1 3'1 ' each of the following sequences?
o) 5
10 20 40 '
1 1 3 9
3
4 16 64 ' Ill 6
a) if it is arithmetic? 18' 111
11. What number do you think should replace b) if it is geometric?
11111 in each of the following sequences?
a) 7 14 28 56 1111 2 111 111 128
b)3 9 15 21 111
c) if it is arithmetic?
c) 1 4 9 16 11
d) if it is geometric?
d) 162 54 18 6 111!
e) 58 47 36 25 111 15. Write a formula for the nth term of each of
f) 5 10 16 23 1111 the following sequences.
„\ ) 5 1 3 imiiiiii a) 2 4 6 8 10 . . .
h) 2 8 b) 0 1 2 3 4 ...
1 1 c) 1 8 27 64 125 ...
d) 9 10 11 12 13 ...
3 4 1 { e) 5 25 125 625 3,125 . . .
i) -2 8 -32 128 111 f) 6 6 6 6 6 . ..
j) 5 x/26 3^3 2V7 111 g) 17 27 37 47 57 ...
k) 420 42 4.2 0.42 111 113,5
1) 16 40 100 250 111!

Lesson 1: Number Sequences 781

 Set IV
Number sequences are frequently included in intelligence tests.

18 11 69 88 96 101 |||| |||| ||||

1 . Can you figure out what the three missing terms of this sequence should be?
2. How is the sequence formed?
(<:Aem Slip 35JTJ ^OOJ 1} S30p lV\\/& -^U)

782 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

 LESSON 2
Arithmetic
Sequences

Several years ago, the students at a school in the province of Ontario wanted to
build the world's largest human pyramid. To do so, they all lay down on the
ground and formed the pyramid shown above.
The pyramid had 16 rows of people, with 1 person in the first row, 2 in the
second row, 3 in the third, and so on. How many people did it contain in all?
The numbers of people in the rows form the arithmetic sequence

12 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

To find out how many there are altogether, we have to find the sum of these 16
numbers. One way to do this would be to add the numbers in order from left to
right. Another way is suggested by the figures at the top of the next page. To find
the number of people in a pyramid of any number of rows, imagine the pyramid
copied upside down beside itself. 783
 A ft ft ft ft ft ft

.fl.fl. 2 A 'ftTOT
.fi.fl.fi. 3
9 fi fl.fl.
.fl.fi.fl.fl.fi. 4: 'ft ft'ft ft"
fi $ § 6-7 = 42

fi fi 9 ft fl fl 6 fi fi fi a fi ft 42 ,,

The figures illustrate this for a pyramid of 6 rows. Instead of having to add 6
different numbers, placing the pyramid upside down beside itself changes the
problem into one of adding 6 numbers all of which are the same. Because this is
equivalent to multiplying this number by 6, all that we have to do here is
multiply 6 by 7 and then divide the result by 2 to make up for counting
everything twice.
Applying this method to finding the number of people in a pyramid of 16
rows, we reason as follows. If the pyramid were turned upside down beside
itself, each row would have 17 people (1 + 16, 2 + 15, 3 + 14, etc.). Multi-
plying the number of rows, 16, by the number of people in each row, 17, we get
16 x 17 = 272. Dividing by 2 to make up for counting everyone twice, we get
272
136
2

There are 136 people in a pyramid of 16 rows.

This method for finding the sum of the terms of a sequence can be applied to
any arithmetic sequence. The figure below and the one on the next page
illustrate why. If the first term of an arithmetic sequence is tx and d is the
common difference between successive terms, then the second term is tx + d,
the third term is tx + d + d, and so forth. The figure below7 represents an
arithmetic sequence of seven terms in which each row represents one term. Each
successive row is longer than the preceding row by the same amount: d.

tj d_d__

tj ~d\
d_d^d\

tj
Tf d_d_d_~^\
d_^_d_d_d__
Tj d d d d d d
To find a formula for the sum of the terms of this arithmetic sequence,
tv t2, tv . . . , t7, we copy the figure upside down beside itself as shown in the
next figure.

11 d_d_d_d_d_d_ tj h + t;
0 d_ d_d_d^ tl t2+ t(

tj d_~][\ d d_d__ r, + t:
tj add ~d\d d tj_ U + t,
[l d d d ~d\ d tj r5 + t
tj _^_d_d_d_d__
tj d d d d d d tf h + t. (h + hV
(',h ++ h)l
*

Each row of the resulting figure has the same length: tx + t7. Multiplying this
sum by the number of rows, 7, gives a result that is twice the sum of the terms in
the sequence. Dividing the result by 2 gives us the answer.
This procedure will work for any arithmetic sequence, no matter how many
terms it contains. All we have to do is to think of the terms written down twice
as shown and then:

1. find the sum of the first and last terms,

2. multiply this sum by the number of terms, and
3. divide by 2.

Stating this result as a formula in which n represents the number of terms, tx and
tn represent the first and last terms, and Sn represents the sum of the n terms, we
have

c _ (>i + Qn

With this shortcut, we can find the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence
without even having to write them down.

Lesson 2: Arithmetic Sequences 785

 EXAMPLE 1
Find the sum of the even numbers from 2 through 100.
SOLUTION
We want to find the sum of the sequence
2 4 6 8 10 ... 100

Because this sequence is arithmetic (each successive even number is 2 more than the
preceding one), we can use the formula
\- j
~ _ (?! + tn)n

The first term, tv is 2 and the last term, tn, is 100. Furthermore, n = 50 because
100 is the fiftieth even number in the sequence of even numbers starting with 2.
(2 + 100)50 =jOLiO=J02.50 = 51.
2 2 2
5Q

The sum of the even numbers from 2 through

t 100 is 2,550.
?
tl
tl
To use our method, we must know tj "\
the last term of the sequence that we are
adding. To find the last term, it would be useful to have a formula for the nth
term of an arithmetic sequence. tl Look
tj again at the figure representing an
arithmetic sequence of seven terms.

d
d d
t2 — t
d d d t, = t ++ d2d
d d d d + \i
rA = r
d d d d d
0 d * d d d U =
tb — t?
+ 4d
+ 5d
+ 6d
From this figure, we can see that the nxh term of an arithmetic
h = < sequence is given
by the formula

fn = l\ + (" - l)d
786 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES
in which tx represents the first term and d represents the common difference
between successive terms. Using this formula, we can write down any term of an
arithmetic sequence if we know the first term and the common difference.

EXAMPLE 2
Find the seventeenth term of the sequence

123 119 115 111 ...

SOLUTION

Because the first term, r,, is 123 and the common difference, d, is -4, we can write

ti7 = r, +(17 - \)d

= 123 + 16(-4) = 123 - 64 = 59

The seventeenth term of the sequence is 59.

Exercises

Set I
1. Solve each of the following inequalities for x. 22.60 22.81 22.75 22.87 23.27
a) x + 7 < 1
b) -3x > 15 a) Find the average of these measurements
c) 2 < * - 4 < 8 bv adding them and dividing their sum
d) 5.v - 6 > 4
-0.26.)
b) Subtract the average from each of the five
2. Tell whether each of the following by 5.
statements is true or false. numbers. (Your first answer should be

a) Even- positive integer is a counting c) Add the five differences.

number.
d) Is the answer to part c due to chance
b) Zero is an integer.
alone? Make up another set of five
c) Every integer is a rational number. measurements and make the same
d) Even,- square root is an irrational number. calculations with them. What do you
conclude from this about the sum of the
3. The span from a pianist's thumb to his little
finger was measured five times. The differences between the average and the
measurements in centimeters were numbers averaged?

Lesson 2: Arithmetic Sequences 787

 Set II 7. A formula for the nth term of a certain
arithmetic sequence is
4. This bar graph
represents the first tn = 6 - (n - 1)10
five terms of an
arithmetic sequence. a) Find the first three terms of this
sequence.
b) What is their common difference?
c) Find the tenth term of the sequence.
d) Find the hundredth term.
e) What is the sum of the first ten terms?
f) What is the sum of the first one hundred
terms?

a) What are the five terms represented?

8. What number should replace each i'lll in
b) What is their common difference? each of the following arithmetic sequences?
Draw bar graphs of the following a) 5 11 17 111!
arithmetic sequences. (Represent negative b) 12 ■ 28 36
terms by drawing bars that extend c) 3 III ■ 45
downward from the x-axis.) d)llllll 14 9 II
c) 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 e) 6 ill | 7
d) 7 7 7 7 7 f) 15 111 0 H«I
g)-2 ill 111 111 10
e) 7 4 1 -2 -5
5. Graph the following functions, 1 ■I
illlliiiii 2
3 43
letting x vary from 1 to 5.
a) y = 2.v + 1. 9. Write a formula for the nth term of each of
b) y = 0.5* + 4.5 the following arithmetic sequences and use it
to find the indicated term.
c) y = 7
d) y = -3.v + 10 a) 2 7 12 . 6th term
e) To what kind of functions do arithmetic h)- 16 25 34 ; 10th term
b)
sequences correspond? . ; 21st term
c) 92 89 86
6. A formula for the nth term of a certain ; 12th term
d) 20 9 -2
arithmetic sequence is e) -6 -6 -6 ; 43rd term
. . . ; 101st term
f) -70 -58 -
tn = 8 + (n - 1)3 10. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of
an arithmetic sequence to find each of the
a) Find the first three terms of this
following sums. 4h(The three dots represent all
sequence.
of the terms between those given.)
b) What is their common difference?
c) Find the tenth term of the sequence. a) 1+9 + 17 + 25 + 33 + 41
d) Find the hundredth term. b) 22 + 25 + 28 + 31 + 34 + 37 + 40 +
e) What is the sum of the first ten terms? 43 + 46 + 49
f) What is the sum of the first one hundred c) 101 +97 + 93 +89 + 85
terms? d)l+2 + 3 + 4+-..+50
e) 6 + 12 + 18 + 24 + • • ■ + 144
f ) _98 + -96 + -94 + • • • + -2
788 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES
1 1 . Find each of the following sums by figuring out the first and last terms and
then using the formula for the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence.
a) The sum of the first 8 terms of 21 25 29 ...
b) The sum of the first 15 terms of 3 10 17 ...
c) The sum of the first 1 1 terms of 7 1 -5 ...
d) The sum of the first 50 terms of 40 39.5 39 ...

12. If 5 points are marked at equal intervals on a circle and each point is connected
with straight lines to the rest of the points, 10 lines are required in all. The
figures below show one way in which they can be drawn.

a) How many lines would be required to connect 6 points in the same way?
b) How many lines would be required to connect 12 points in the same way?

13. Obtuse Ollie decided to go jogging even' day of his summer vacation. He
decided to run 0.5 mile the first day, 0.75 mile the second day, 1 mile the third
day, and so on, increasing his distance by 0.25 mile each day. If his vacation
lasted 85 days and Ollie kept this up every day.
a) how far would he jog on the eighty-fifth day?
b) how far would he have jogged altogether?

Set III
14. The bar graph below represents the first five terms of an arithmetic sequence.

a) What are the five terms represented?

b) What is their common difference?
Draw bar graphs of the following arithmetic
sequences. (Represent negative terms by drawing
bars that extend downward from the x-axis.)
c) 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
d) 4 4 4 4 4
e) 5 3 1 -1 -3

Lesson 2: Arithmetic Sequences

 15. Graph the following functions, letting x vary
from 1 to 5.
10
a) y = 3.v - 2 19. Write a formula for the nth term of each of
b) v = 0.5.v + 2.5
the following arithmetic sequences and use it
c) y = 4 to find the indicated term.
d) y = -2.v + 7
e) To what kind of functions do arithmetic a) 1 5 9 . . . ; 8th term
sequences correspond? b) 23 30 37 . . . ; 1 1th term
c) 80 78 76 ... ; 25th term
16. A formula for the nth term of a certain d) 15 6 -3 . . . ; 16th term
arithmetic sequence is e) -100 -87 -74 . . . ; 52nd term
f) _n _n _n ... ; 90th term
tn = 7 + (n - 1)5 20. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of
an arithmetic sequence to find each of the
a) Find the first three terms of this sequence.
b) What is their common difference? following sums. (The three dots represent all
of the terms between those given.)
c) Find the tenth term of the sequence.
d) Find the hundredth term. a) 3 + 12 + 21 + 30 + 39 + 48
e) What is the sum of the first ten terms? b) 17 + 19 + 21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 +
31 + 33
f) What is the sum of the first one hundred
terms? c) 84 + 78 + 72 + 66 + 60
1 7. A formula for the nth term of a certain d)l+2 + 3 + 4+.-.+32
e) 7 + 14 + 21 + 28 + • • - + 175
arithmetic sequence is
f) _99 + -96 + -93 + ... + -3

tn = 9 - (n - 1)4 21. Find each of the following sums by figuring

out the first and last terms and then using the
a) Find the first three terms of this sequence. formula for the sum of the terms of an
b) What is their common difference? arithmetic sequence.
c) Find the tenth term of the sequence. a) The sum of the first 10 terms of 9 15
d) Find the hundredth term. 21 . . .
e) What is the sum of the first ten terms? b) The sum of the first 13 terms of 31 33
f) What is the sum of the first one hundred 35 . . .
terms? c) The sum of the first 21 terms of 14 6

d) The sum of the first 100 terms of 60

18. What number should replace each in 59.5 59 . . .
each of the following arithmetic sequences?
a) 8 15 22 22. If a football league has 6 teams, for each
b) 11 17 20 team to play all of the other teams, 15
c) 6 39 games must be played. The diagram on the
d) 15 11 next page shows one way in which they can
e) 3 0 be counted. (A-B represents the game played
f) 4 5 between teams A and B, and so forth.)

790 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

 A-B
B-C
A-C C-D
B-D D-E
A-D C-E E-F
B-E D-F 23. Acute Alice had a choice of two jobs for her
A-E C-F
summer vacation. The first job paid $15 per
A-F B-F day. The second job paid $1 the first day,
$1.50 the second day, $2 the third day, and
5+4 + 3 + 2 + 1-15 so on, with a raise of $0.50 on each
successive day. If Alice could work 60 days
on either job,
How many games would be required in
order for each team in a football league to a) how much would she get paid for the
play all of the other teams if first job?
a) there are 7 teams in the league? b) how much would she get paid for the
b) there are 10 teams in the league? second job?

Set IV
The following problem is from Olney's Complete Algebra, published in 1870.

"If 100 oranges are placed in a line, exactly 2 yards from each other, and the first
2 yards from a basket, what distance must a boy travel, starting from the basket, to
gather them up singly, and return with each to the basket?"

Can you solve it? If you can, show your work.

Lesson 2: Arithmetic Sequences 791

 LESSON 3
Geometric Sequences
According to legend, the game of chess was invented for a king of Persia by one
of his servants. The king was so pleased that he asked the servant what he would
like as a reward. The man's request seemed very reasonable. He asked that one
grain of wheat be placed on the first square of the chessboard, two grains on the
second square, four grains on the third, and so on, each square having twice as
many grains as the square before. The king was surprised, thinking that the
servant had asked for very little. He was even more surprised when he found out
how much wheat the man actually wanted.
The numbers of grains of wheat on the squares form a geometric sequence:

1 2 4 16 32 64 128

Because there are 64 squares on a chessboard, the inventor's request was for as
many grains of wheat as the sum of the first 64 terms of this sequence. To begin,
let's figure out what the last term of the sequence would be.
The first four terms can be written as

: 1 = 1 • 2°
: 2 = 1-21
: 4 = 1 • 22
: 8 = 1'23
From this pattern, we see that the nth term of the sequence is

tn = 1-2'-1
so that the sixty-fourth term is

"
'64= 1-2follow
The terms of every geometric sequence the same sort of pattern. If tx
represents the first term and r represents the common ratio of successive terms,
we have

tn = tx -r"-1
To find a formula for the sum of the terms of an arithmetic sequence, we
wrote the sequence twice, added, and divided by 2. Although this procedure
won't work for a geometric sequence, a slightiy different method will. To see
how it works, we will apply it to finding the sum of the first five terms of the
chessboard sequence:

1+2 + 4 + 8+16

We will represent this sum as S5. The figure below represents S5.

2i 0
oo This figure represents S5
4 o o o o
80000 0000
+ 16 0000 0000 0000 0000

We multiply each term in this sequence by the common ratio of terms, 2, to

get a new sequence the sum of whose terms is 255.

2 00 This figure represents 2S5

4 0000
80000 0000
I60O00 0000 0000 0000
+ 32 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

Lesson 3: Geometric Sequences 793

 The first four terms of the new sequence are identical to the last four terms of
the original sequence. This makes it easy to subtract the original sequence from
the new one as shown below.

oooo
oo This figure represents 2S5 -S5 =S5
oooo oooo
oooo oooo oooo oooo
32 — 1 = 31QOOO oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo

The result is 1 less than the last term of the new sequence; so
Ss = 32 - 1 = 31.
In a similar way, we can find a formula for the sum of the terms of any
geometric sequence. Letting n represent the number of terms, tx represent the
first term, and r represent the ratio of successive terms, we can write

Sn = h + hr + hrl + hr^ + • • • + txrn~2 + txrn~l

Multiplying each term by r, we get

r • Sn = txr + txr2 + txr"> + ^r4 + • • ■ + txrn~l + txrn

Subtracting the original sum from the new sum, we get

r-Sn = txr + txr2 + txrl + ■■■ + txrn~l + txrn

S_ = tx + txr + txr2 + txrl + ■ • • + txrn~x
rSn - Sn = -tx + txrn
Factoring each side of the resulting equation,

rSn - Sn = txr» - tx
we get

Sn(r - 1) = tx(r" - 1)
Dividing both sides by r — 1 gives a formula for the sum of the terms of the

794 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

sequence:

r - 1

To find the number of grains of wheat that would be required to cover all 64
squares of the chessboard, we can use the following values

fj = 1, r = 2, and n = 64

in this formula to get

C _ 1(2"
_J: _ 1)L _ 064 _ 1

^64_ 2-1 "2 l

The number of grains of wheat, then, is 264 — 1. If we raise 2 to the 64th power
and subtract 1, this number turns out to be

18,446,744,073,709,551,615

Far from having made a modest request, the servant had asked for more wheat
than is produced on the earth in two thousand years!
We have developed two formulas in this lesson, one for the nth term of a
geometric sequence

= tx • r"-1
and the other for the sum of the tnfirst n terms of a geometric sequence

*" - r - 1
_ *,(r" - 1)

Here are more examples of how to use these formulas.

EXAMPLE 1
Find an expression for the twelfth term of the sequence

3 21 147 1,029 ...

Lesson 3: Geometric Sequences 795

 SOLUTION
Because the first term, t„ is 3 and the ratio is 7. we write

Like the number of grains of wheat, this number is very large. We can either leave
it in this form or use a calculator to write it as

5,931,980,229

EXAMPLE 2
Find an expression for the sum of the first ten terms of the sequence

SOLUTION
Because the first term, ?,, is 2, the ratio is 3, and n = 10, we write

1
3-1

We can either leave the answer in this form or use a calculator to convert it into

59,048

Exercises

Set I
1. If possible, tell which of these symbols, >,
= , or <, should replace in each of the b) If d < e and/< d, then e ill /
following to make it true. c) If g h and // = i, then g < i.
a) If a = b and b > c, then a II c. d) If ; > k and k I then j = I.

796 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

2. Write a formula for the «th term of each of
3. For a dollar, Moby Dick's Fish Store, will sell
the following sequences. you either five minnows and five guppies or
a) _3 -6 -9 -12 -15 ... eleven minnows and one guppy.
b) d8 9 10 11 12 ... a) Use this information to write a pair of
)
c) 2 4 8 16 32 . . . simultaneous equations, letting x and y
.1 1 A 1 1 represent the respective prices in cents of
a minnow and a guppy.
2 3 4 5 6' b) Solve the equations for x and y.
c) How much would three minnows and
seven guppies cost?

Set II
4. The bar graph below represents the first
four terms of a geometric sequence.
5. Graph the following functions, letting
30
x vary as indicated.

b)y = 3(\y (lto4)

c)y = 32(±J (lto5)

d) From the results obtained in exercises 4
and 5, what kind of functions correspond
to geometric sequences?
6. A formula for the «th term of a certain
geometric sequence is

a) What are the four terms represented? a) Find the first three terms of this
b) What is their common ratio?
sequence.
Draw bar graphs of the following geometric b) What is the ratio of two successive terms?
sequences. c) Write an expression for the tenth term of
c) 0.5 2.5 12.5 the sequence.
d) 3 3 3 3 d) Write an expression for the hundredth
e) 16 8 4 2 1 term.

Lesson i: Geometric Sequences 797

 7. A formula for the nth term of a certain
•ar
c) The sum of the first ten terms of
geometric sequence is
1 -2 4 ...

d) The sum of the first seven terms of

12 192 ...
a) Find the first three terms of this
sequence. 1 1 . The number of ancestors that a person can
b) What is the ratio of two successive terms? have in the ten generations preceding his
c) Write an expression for the tenth term of own is the sum of a geometric sequence
the sequence. containing ten terms.
d) Write an expression for the hundredth a) Write the ten terms of this sequence,
term.
beginning with 2, the number of a
person's parents.
8. What number should replace each II! I in each b) Use the formula for the sum of the terms
of the following sequences? of a geometric sequence and the table on
a) 2 20 200 III! page 80 1 to find the number of ancestors
b)8 11 18 27 in ten generations.
c) 1 1111 1111 64 c) Write, in simplest form, a formula for the
d) 1111 -15 45 111 number of ancestors in the nth generation
e) 7"1 11 111 72 back.
d) Write a formula for the total number of
ancestors in n generations.

12. Suppose that the inventor of chess had asked

9. Write a formula for the nth term of each of for 1 grain of wheat on the first square of
the following geometric sequences. the board, 3 grains of wheat on the second
a) 6 12 24 ... square, 9 grains on the third square, and so
b) 64 8 1 ... on.
c) 5 -5 5 ...
a) Write a sequence of the numbers of
d) 4 14 49 ...
grains that would be required to cover
e) 2 2\/6 12 . . .
the first eight squares of the board.
f) 300 -30 3 ...
b) Use the formula for the sum of the terms
of a geometric sequence and the table of
10. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of
powers on page 801 to find the number
a geometric sequence and the table on page of grains that there would be altogether
801 to find each of the following sums. on the first eight squares.
a) The sum of the first six terms of c) Write an expression for the number of
2 6 18 ... grains of wheat that would be required
for the sixty-fourth square.
b) The sum of the first eight terms of d) Write an expression for the total number
of grains that would be required to cover
4 20 100 ... the board.

798 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

Set III
13. The bar graph below represents the first a) Find the first three terms of this
four terms of a geometric sequence.
sequence.
b) What is the ratio of two successive terms?
c) Write an expression for the tenth term of
this sequence.
d) Write an expression for the hundredth
term.

16. A formula for the nth term of a certain

geometric sequence is

a) Find the first three terms of this

sequence.
b) What is the ratio of two successive terms?
c) Write an expression for the tenth term of
this sequence.
a) What are the four terms represented? d) Write an expression for the hundredth
b) What is their common ratio? term.

Draw bar graphs of the following geometric 17. What number should replace each 111 in
sequences. each of the following geometric sequences?
c) 0.5 2 8 32
a) 500 50 5 111 . _9_ A
10
_L
10
e) 27 9 3 1
d) 10 10 10 10 b) 16 111 100 250 ; 10
c)lll -8 32 II f)6-2 ,1 6i
14. Graph the following functions, letting d)7 III 111 56
x vary from 1 to 4. 18. Write a formula for the nth term of each of
the following geometric sequences.
a) y = {(4)J a) 5 15 45 ... d) 4 18 81 ...
b) 1 -7 49 . .. e) 9 -6 4 . . . iili!
b)y= 10(1)'
c) 32 8 2 . . . f) 3 3\/5 15 . .
19. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of
d) From the results obtained in exercises 4 a geometric sequence and the table on page
and 5, what kind of functions correspond 801 to find each of the following sums.
to geometric sequences? a) The sum of the first ten terms of
15. A formula for the nth term of a certain 12 4...
geometric sequence is
b) The sum of the first seven terms of
5 30 180 ...

Lesson 3: Geometric Sequences 799

 c) The sum of the first six terms of c) Write a formula for the sum of this
sequence if it has n terms.
4 -12 36 ...
21. Acute Alice got a chain letter in the mail.
d) The sum of the first eight terms of Directions in the letter said to make four
copies of it and send them to four of her
20 100 500 ... friends with instructions to do the same.
a) Write a sequence starting with 1 and
containing six terms to show how many
20. Although the sequence
letters there would be in each step of the
12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 chain if everyone cooperated.
b) Use the formula for the sum of the terms
is geometric, its terms cannot be added by of a geometric sequence and the table of
using the formula for the sum of the terms powers on page 801 to find the number
of a geometric sequence. of letters that there would be altogether.
a) To find out why, try to use the formula. c) Write a formula for the number of letters
What happens? in the nxh step of the chain.
b) What is the sum of the terms of this d) Write a formula for the number of letters
sequence? in a chain of n steps.

Set IV
4. Suppose that someone following this system
In a gambling system called the "martingale," started with a bet of $3 and lost x times in
the rule is to double your bet each time you
lose. a row. How much money would he lose
altogether?
1 . If someone following this system started 5. According to the system, how much money
with a bet of $ 1 and lost seven times in a should he bet the (x + l)th time?
row, how much money would he lose 6. If he won the (x + l)th bet, how much
altogether? money ahead or behind would he be on the
2. According to the system, how much money x + 1 bets altogether?
should he bet the eighth time? 7. These exercises seem to indicate that
3. If he won the eighth bet, how much money someone who uses the martingale system
ahead or behind would he be on the eight
will always come out ahead. Why isn't this
bets altogether? necessarily the case?

800 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

Table of Powers
x 2 3 4 5 6
x2 4 9 25
27 16
64 125 216
x3 8 36
x4 16 81 256 625
x5 32 243 1,296
729 1,024 3,125 7,776
x6 64 15,625 46,656
4,096
x7 128 16,384 78,125 279,936
2,187 65.536
x8 256 390,625 1,679,616
6,561
x9 512 19,683 262,144 1,953,125 10,077,696
x10 1,024 59,049 1,048,576 9,765,625 60,466,176

Lesson 3: Geometric Sequences 801

 LESSON 4
Infinite
Geometric
Sequences

Although a typical racehorse is about 64 inches tall, a breeder in Georgia has

succeeded in producing an adult horse that is only 19 inches tall! The three
horses in this photograph are, from back to front, 60 inches, 37 inches, and 25
inches tall respectively.
Each year the breeder mates his smallest horses, hoping to get horses that are
even smaller. He hopes to eventually get a horse that is only 12 inches tall.
Suppose that it is discovered that the heights of the horses in several succes-
sive generations form the following geometric sequence:

50 45 40.5 36.45 . . .

If this pattern were to continue indefinitely, would it be possible to get a horse

less than 12 inches tall?
Because the sequence is geometric, we can use the formula
to find the height of the horses in any given generation. For example, because
tl = 50 and r = 0.9, the horse in the tenth generation would be

tiQ = 50(0.9)9 ~ 17.4

inches tall. Those in the twentieth generation, if it were possible to continue that
far, would be

t20 = 50(0.9) 19 ~ 6.8

inches tall! The diagram below shows the heights of the horses in 20 successive
generations.

50
50
45
40.5
36.5
32.8 ~17.
29.5 4
26.6
23.9

u+w,3

7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 78 19 20
Generation

By continuing this sequence, we can make the terms smaller and smaller. For
example,

t50 = 50(0.9)49 ~ 0.3,

*l00 = 50(0.9)99 ~ 0.001, and
t2Q0 = 50(0.9)199 ~ 0.00000004.
Lesson 4: Infinite Geometric Sequences 803
 The terms get closer and closer to zero because their ratio is less than 1. For
every geometric sequence having ratio r such that |r | < 1, tn gets closer and closer
to zero as n gets larger and larger. Here is another example illustrating this fact.

EXAMPLE 1
Draw a bar graph illustrating the first eight terms of a geometric sequence whose
first term is 20 and whose ratio is -0.6.
SOLUTION
The first eight terms of this sequence can be found using the table of powers on
page 801 and the formula ' 10""
20(-0.6)""1 = 20(-l)n

More conveniently, they can be found by a calculator and rounded to the nearest
tenth to give
20 -12 7.2 -4.3 2.6 -1.6 0.9 -0.6

Drawing bars that extend downward from the x-axis to represent the negative
terms, we get the graph shown here.

Another interesting property of even' geometric sequence having ratio r such

that r < 1 concerns the sum of its terms, Sn. Consider, for example, the
sequence
8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125 ...

804 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

As we go farther and farther along this sequence, not only do its terms get closer
and closer to zero, but their sum gets closer and closer to a fixed number. Using
the formula for the sum of the terms of a geometric sequence,

r - 1
s = ''(r"1) - "
with tx = 8 and r = 0.5, we find that

8(0.59 - 1)' S 15.96875

L
1)
0.5 -
1
8(0.519 -
0.5 -

8(0. 549 -
0.5-1
As we add more and more terms of this sequence, their sum gets closer and
closer to 16.
It is possible to discover this without making a lot of calculations. Using the
distributive rule on the numerator of our formula for Sn, we get

As n gets larger and larger, rn gets closer and closer to zero. As a result, txrn gets
closer and closer to zero, which means that Sn gets closer and closer to

This tells us that the "sum" of the terms of an infinite geometric sequence
having ratio r such that \r\ < 1 is given by the formula

Applying this formula to the infinite sequence

8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125 ...

Lesson 4: Infinite Geometric Sequences 805

 in which ti = 8 and r = 0.5, we get

5 = 1 - ^ 0.5 = -S-=
0.5 16

Here is an example showing how this formula can be used to express a repeating
decimal as the quotient of two integers.

EXAMPLE 2_
Express 0.18 as the quotient of two integers.
SOLUTION
The number 0.181818. . . can be written as

0.18 + 0.0018 + 0.000018 + • • •, or as

100 10,000 1,000,000

Because the terms being added form an infinite geometric sequence whose first term is

1 - r

getting
s=
1 "Too
18
100
18 100 18 2
99 99 11
100

Checking this answer by dividing 2 by 11, we get

This same method can be used to express any repeating decimal as a quotient of
integers.

806 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

Exercises

Set I
1 . Solve each of the following for x.
a) \x\ < 1 c) \x - 4| = 6 Here is a table showing how the average
b) |x| + 2 = 5 d) 3|x| < 12 weight and the number of monsters may be
2. This exercise is about the arithmetic related:

sequence Number of
12 3 4 5
11 15 19 monsters, n
Average weight
a) Write a formula for the «th term of this 3,000 1,500 1,000 750 600
in kilograms, zv
sequence.
b) Use your formula to find the 21st term
a) How does the average weight, zv, vary
of the sequence.
with respect to the number of monsters,
c) Find the sum of the first 21 terms of the
sequence. b) Write a formula for zv in terms of n.
3. The average weight of the monsters in c) What would be the average weight of
Loch Ness is thought to depend on the the monsters if there were eight of them
number of monsters that the lake contains.* in the lake?

*R. W. Shelton and S. R. Kerr, "Population Density

of Monsters in Loch Ness," Limnology and C
phy, September 1972.

Set II
4. Find the ratio for each of the following , The following questions refer to the
geometric sequences either as an integer or sequences in exercise 4.
in decimal form. a) In which sequences are the terms getting
a) 5 6 7.2 8.64 ... farther and farther from zero? What do
b) 10 9 8.1 7.29 ... the ratios for these sequences have in
c) 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 ... common?
d) 12 -6 3 -1.5 ... b) In which sequences are the terms getting
closer and closer to zero? What do the
e) 7 -7 7 -7 ...
f) 15 -21 29.4 -41.16 ... ratios for these sequences have in
common?
g) _4 _1.2 -0.36 -0.108 ...
h) -2 -2.02 -2.0402 -2.060602 ...

Lesson 4: Infinite Geometric Sequences

 Draw a bar graph to illustrate the first six 9. The figure below represents an infinite
terms of each of the following geometric sequence of squares formed by joining the
sequences. Round each term to the nearest midpoints of the sides of each square to
tenth. = 4 form the next smaller square. Each side of
= 1.2
a) t
: 0.8
b) t
i =4s : -1.1
c) t = -0.9
d)t i = 5>
= ~>
. Use the formula for the sum of the terms
of an
b) infinite geometric sequence to find
each of the following sums,
a) 54c)+ 18 + 6 + 2 + • ■ •
1 " 375
2d)
+
the largest square is 4 centimeters long and
48 + * + £♦
36 + 27 + 20.25 + each successive square has half the area of
1
3
" 1
+
the one before it.
a) Find the areas of the five largest squares.
b) Find the sum of their areas.

iW"
, Express each of the following repeating
*+
decimals as the quotient of two integers by
c) Find the sum of the areas of all of the
squares in the figure, assuming that they
go on infinitely.
treating it as the sum of the terms of an
infinite geometric sequence. Reduce your 10. A rubber ball is thrown upward, reaching a
answers to lowest terms. height of 25 meters. If it rebounds on each
a) 0.333333. . . 3
bounce to a height that is — of its previous
b) 0.454545. . .
c) 0.216216. . . height, how far will the ball travel before it
stops?
d) 0.077777. . .

Set III
, Find the ratio for each of the following 12. The following questions refer to the
geometric sequences either as an integer or sequences in exercise 1 1 .
in decimal form. a) In which sequences are the terms getting
a) 10 8 6.4 5.12 ... farther and farther from zero? What do
b) 2 2.2 2.42 2.662 ... the ratios for these sequences have in
c) 5 -3 1.8 -1.08 ... common?
d) 4.2 4.2 4.2 4.2 ... b) In which sequences are the terms getting
e) 9 4.5 2.25 1.125 .. . closer and closer to zero? What do the
f) -3.5 3.5 -3.5 3.5 ... ratios for these sequences have in
g) -20 -28 -39.2 -54.88 ... common?
h) -1 -0.99 -0.9801 -0.970299 .. .

Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

* 1 3. Draw a bar graph to illustrate the first six 16. The figure below represents an infinite
terms of each of the following geometric sequence of triangles formed by joining the
sequences. Round each term to the nearest midpoints of the sides of each triangle to
tenth. form the next smaller triangle. The area of
a) ?, = 6; r= 1.1
b) f, = 6; r = 0.9
c) f, = 3; r = -1.2
d) /, = 3; r = -0.8

14. Use the formula for the sum of the terms

of an infinite geometric sequence to find
each of the following sums,
a) 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + • • .

the largest triangle is 12 square centimeters

d
b)- ) and each successive triangle has one fourth
c) 75 + 30 + 12 + 4.8 + ■ ■ • the area of the one before it.

5
11,1
20
_JL + J__.
80
1
320
+ a) Find the areas of the five largest
triangles.
b) Find the sum of their areas.

15. Express each of the following repeating

!,
c) Find the sum of the areas of all of the
triangles in the figure, assuming that
decimals as the quotient of two integers by
they go on infinitely.
treating it as the sum of the terms of an
infinite geometric sequence. Reduce your 17. A rubber ball is thrown upward, reaching a
answers to lowest terms. height of 35 meters. If it rebounds on each
a) 0.666666. . .
b) 0.727272. . . 3
c) 0.148148. . . height, how far will the ball travel before it
stops?
d) 0.022222. . .

Set IV
Obtuse Ollie gave Acute Alice a twenty-pound on the third square, and so on, each square
box of chocolates for her birthday. Alice was so having half as many chocolates as the square
before.
overwhelmed by Ollie's generosity that she asked
Ollie to help himself to as many chocolates as he Having heard the story about the inventor of
wanted.
chess, Alice didn't think there would be enough
Ollie, accepting the offer, got out a chessboard chocolates in the box to fulfill Ollie's request.
and asked Alice to put 64 chocolates on the first How many chocolates did Ollie ask for?
square, 32 chocolates on the second square, 16 Round your answer to the nearest integer.

Lesson 4: Infinite Geometric Sequences 809

Summary and Review

In this chapter, we have learned about sequences. We have learned how to

identify arithmetic and geometric sequences, how to find their terms, and how to
find their sums.

Number Sequences (Lesson 1) A number sequence is an ordered set of

numbers with one number for each counting number. The numbers in a
sequence are called its terms.
Number sequences in which each successive term is found by adding the
same number are called arithmetic. The differences between successive terms in
an arithmetic sequence are always the same.
Number sequences in which each successive term is found by multiplying by
the same number are called geometric. The ratios of successive terms in a
geometric sequence are always the same.

Arithmetic Sequences (Lesson 2) The nxh term of an arithmetic sequence is

given by the formula

tn = t, + (n - \)d
in which f, represents the first term and d represents the difference between
successive terms.
 The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence is given by the formula

2
5 = d + *>
in which tx and tn represent the first and last terms.

Geometric Sequences (Lesson 3) The nth term of a geometric sequence is

given by the formula

in which tx represents the first term and r represents the ratio of each successive
term to the preceding one.
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is given by the formula
*»- r-\
_ rt(r" - 1)

in which tx represents the first term and r represents the ratio.

Infinite Geometric Sequences (Lesson 4) For every geometric sequence

having ratio r such that \r\ < 1, the terms get closer and closer to zero as n gets
larger and larger.
The "sum" of the terms of an infinite geometric sequence having ratio r such
that \r\ < 1 is given by the formula

in which tx represents the first term. This formula can be used to express a
repeating decimal as the quotient of two integers.

Summary and Review 811

 Exercises

Set I
1 . Tell whether each of the following 4. Write the first four terms of the sequences
sequences is arithmetic, geometric, both, or having the following formulas for their wth
neither. If a sequence is arithmetic, tell the terms.
common difference. If it is geometric, tell
b)
c)
the common ratio. a) tn = 3n - 1
1
a) 1.5 6 24 96 ... c) tn = 4" fe)) tn = 5 • 2"
d) 7 9.5 12 14.5 . .. d)
b) tn = n*
5(72 + 2)
e) 10 \11 \ 12 \ 13 ...
g) Which sequences in parts a through f
5 3 2 7 are arithmetic?
f
6 )4 4 1 3 12 h) Which sequences in parts a through f
0-3 1Q-2 1Q-1 _ _ _
are geometric?
1 1 1 5. Write a formula for the «th term of each of
5 10
the following sequences and use it to find
a) 10" 15 20 ''" the indicated term.
2. What number do vou think should a) 5 6 7 8 9 ... ; 100th term
~9 replace
1111 each of the following sequences? b) _2 -4 -6 -8 -10 ... ; 15th
b)
150
in
term
c) 39 28 17 "IP! c) 5 25 125 625 3,125 ... ; 7th
1 2 term
d) 4 16 2d
8 e) 12 is 27 Mi ; 6 3 2 3 6
24th term
3 5 -9 S 13
f) ; 10th
1 1
e) 1 8 27
term
64 125 ...
... ;
3 3 6
43 4-1 iiiii111i
2
f) 4 28 196 1,372 9,604
27 6th term

g)
h) 1 J-4 ±9 J-16 J-25 ... ; 14th
3. What number should replace in each of
term
the following sequences?
h) 0 1 \2 \3 2 ... ; 50th term
8 28 11111
6. Use the formula for the sum of the terms
of an arithmetic sequence to find each of
a) if it is arithmetic?
the following sums.
b) if it is geometric?
a) 5 + 11 + 17 + 23 + 29 + 35 +
41 + 47
b) 30 + 17 + 4 + -9 + -22 + -35 + -48
c) if it is arithmetic?
c) 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + ••• + 123
d) if it is geometric? d) 46 + 47 + 48 + 49 + ■ ■ ■ +74
812 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES
 7. Use the formula for the sum of the terms 11. Find each of the following sums.
of a geometric sequence and the table on
a) 1 + 3
page 80 1 to find each of the following b) 1 + 3 + 5
sums.
c) 1+3 + 5 + 7
a) The sum of the first eight terms of d) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9
e) What type of numbers are all of the
3 12 48 ... sums?
f ) Write a formula for the nth term of the
b) The sum of the first seven terms of
sequence
8 40 200 ...
13 5 7 9...
c) The sum of the first six terms of
Simplify the formula as much as you
12 -36 108 ... can.
g) Write a formula for the sum of the first
8. Find the ratio for each of the following n terms of this sequence. Simplify the
geometric sequences in decimal form. formula as much as you can.
a) 25 0.25 0.0025 ...
b) 10 -7 4.9 ...
c) 3.6 5.4 8.1 ...
9. Use the formula for the sum of the terms *12. Suppose that you borrowed $1,000 at 18
percent interest compounded annually and
of an infinite geometric sequence to find that you did not pay back any money on
each of the following sums. the loan until ten years later. The amounts
of money that you would owe at the end of
2 12 72 each year of the loan would form a
geometric sequence in which the first term
b) 250 + 150 + 90 + 54 + • • ■
was $1,180 and the ratio was 1.18.
a) Find the second through tenth terms of
this sequence, rounding each number to
10. Express each of the following repeating the nearest dollar.
decimals as the quotient of two integers by b) Draw a bar graph with a bar
treating it as the sum of the terms of an representing the amount borrowed,
infinite geometric sequence. Reduce your $1,000, and ten bars representing the
answers to lowest terms. amount owed at the end of each of the
a) 0.888888. . . ten years.
b) 0.363636. . . c) Write a formula representing the amount
c) 0.003003. . . of money owed after n years.

Summary and Review 813

 A case of splitting hares. Suppose that the rabbit kept doing this,
taking 4 seconds to run across the cage the
Obtuse Ollie built a cage for his pet first time, 2 seconds the second time, 1
rabbit. One day he noticed the rabbit look second the third, and so on, so that each
out of the window at one end of the cage.
trip took half the time of the preceding
run across the cage to look out of the
one. When would the rabbit be looking out
window at the opposite end, and then back of both windows at the same time?

Set II 3. What number should replace

the following sequences
1. Tell whether each of the following sequences
is arithmetic, geometric, both, or neither. If
a sequence is arithmetic, tell the common
difference. If it is geometric, tell the a) if it is arithmetic?
common ratio.
b) if it is geometric?
a) -7 -1 5 11 ...
d)
b) l3 23 33 43 ...
c) 8 20 50 125 ...
c) if it is arithmetic?
6 5 -3.5 d) if it is geometric?
4. Write the first four terms of the sequences
e) -3.5 having the following formulas for their «th
5 9-.
f) 9-1 ! terms.

2. What number do you think should replace <><-

a) tn == «3
7TT
c) tn = on + 6
in each of the following sequences? b) tn = 3"
a) 5 -10 20 -40 d) tn = 8 - n
b) 3 10.5_ 18 _25.5 |
c)4 \17 3\/2 Y19 if
All
10 5 2 5 f)g) *„arithmetic?
= 4 ■sequences
\\ "hich 10" in parts a through f are
d)-
e) 10 3 0.9 0.27 h ) Which sequences in parts a through f are
f) 2 8 18 32
geometric?
814 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES
5. Write a formula for the «th term of each of 9. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of
the following sequences and use it to find an infinite geometric sequence to find each
the indicated term. of the following sums.
a) 1 4 9 16 25 ... ; 11th term
b) _6 -5 -4 -3 -2 ; 50th 5 25
term
a) 40 - 54 + 36 + 24 +

c) 1 1 1 1 1 ... ; 35th term V 1 1,1 1

} 2 3 4 5 b) 81 - 12 72 432
d) -4 -8 -12 -16 -20 ... ; 20th
term
e) 3 9 27 81 243 ... ; 7th term 10. Express each of the following repeating
f) \/3 2 y/5 V6 V7 . . ; 98th decimals as the quotient of two integers by
term
treating it as the sum of the terms of an
24th term infinite geometric sequence. Reduce your
g)1
67 8
-14 ^8 ±2 ^8 ••• answers to lowest terms.
h) 3 18 108 648 3,888 ... ; 6th a) 0.111111. . .
term b) 0.545454. . .
6. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of c) 0.123123. . .
an arithmetic sequence to find each of the
following sums. 1 1 . The first eight terms of the arithmetic
a) 2 + 15 + 28 + 41 + 54 + 67 + 80
sequence
b) 25 + 17 + 9 + 1 + -7+ -15 +
-23 + -31 199 409 619 ...
c) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + • • • + 150
d) 59 + 58 + 57 + 56 + •■• + 21 are prime numbers.
a) Find the five terms following 619.
7. Use the formula for the sum of the terms of
b) Write a formula for the nth term of the
a geometric sequence and the table on page
801 to find each of the following sums. sequence.
c) Find the eleventh term of the sequence.
a) The sum of the first seven terms of d) Is the eleventh term prime or composite?
2 6 18 ... Justify your answer.

b) The sum of the first five terms of

12. In a national backgammon tournament, 512
15 90 540 ... players make it to the first playoff for the
championship. The number of games in each
c) The sum of the first ten terms of playoff to determine the final winner form a
geometric sequence in which the first term is
6 -12 24 ... 256 and each successive term is half the
8. Find the ratio for each of the following preceding one.
geometric sequences in decimal form. a) List all of the terms of this sequence.
a) 32 3.2 0.32 ... b) How many playoffs are required to
b) 4 4.8 5.76 ... determine the final winner?
c) 10 -4.5 2.025 ... c) How many games are played altogether?

Summary and Review 815

 13. Acute Alice bought a new house plant that
was 30 centimeters tall when she brought it
home from the store. In each successive
month, the plant grew by an amount equal
30
to — of its previous height.

a) How much taller was it at the end of the

first month?
b) How tall was it at the end of the first
month?
c) At the rate of growth described, how long
would it take the plant to become 60
centimeters tall? Justify your answer.

816 Chapter 17: NUMBER SEQUENCES

Final Review
 Test I
1. .Arrange in order from smallest to largest:

0.01, 0.2, 0.003 22. Write the coordinate of point P as a fraction.

2. Express in terms of addition: x — y.

3. Simplify: 7.x — x.
4. What symbol should replace ill! in x2 111 0?
5. Multiply: 2x2-3x3. 23. Simplify: \ 18 + \/8.
6. True or false: The expression .v5 + x — 1
is a polynomial.
7. Simplify: \/50. 24. Simplify: .
8. If a > b and b > c, what can you conclude
about a and c?
9. Add x — y + 9 and x + y - 1. 25. Solve for x: \ x — 7 = 4.
10. Solve for x: (x - 8)2 = 25. 26. Graph the equation 3.v — 2y = 6.

i+ 1
11. Write 4— as a fraction. 27. Multiply: |-|.
5

12. Write an expression for the perimeter of this 28. Write the conjugate of x — \/y.
rectangle. 29. Find the value of x4 — x2 + 1 if x = 3.
30. True or false: A cubic equation can have

f-1
three solutions.

31. Solve for x: = 5.

32. Write as the quotient of a square root and

4x
an integer: I— .
13. Write an expression for its area.
14. Factor 4.v2 - 1. 33. Write in descending powers of x:
15. Find the greatest common factor of 15x3 ■3
8 +forx x:- Ax2.
34. Solve -7x > 35.
and 21.x-2.
lb. True or false: The number 87 is prime.
17. Write .v2 — 6xy + 9y2 as the square of a
binomial.
a proportion.
18. Which fraction is larger: — or — — ? 36. Factor x3y — .ry3 as completely as you can.
37. Divide: x3 + x2 - 10x - 6
19. Square as indicated: (2x — 5)2
20. Reduce — — to lowest terms. 38. Use the formula v = —rrr2h to find v if

2 1 . True or falsej_ If x and y are positive r = 4 and h = 6. Let rr = 3.14.

numbers, f— = — — . 39. Express the repeating decimal 0.272727 . . .

as the quotient of two integers.

818 Final Review

40. Write an inequality in terms of x to 57. Solve the following pair of simultaneous
represent this figure.
equations:

58. Is the number \/5 rational or irrational?

2x -
59. Solve for x in terms of the other
' 5x-15'
42. Factor x2 + x - 42. variables: — 5x-
= — .

43. Simplify: -i_ + ^.

44. Solve for x: 3x - \/45 = 0.
61. Graph the function y — x2 — 4.
45. Write x +y as the difference of two Let x = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3.

fractions. 62. Divide: 4^-4-

8 4

63. What happens to the direction of an

47. Guess a formula for this function: inequality if the same negative number is
added to both sides?
x -2 -1 0 1 2 64. Solve for x: |x| + 4 = 13.
7 2 1 0 1 2 65. Factor 4x3 — 6x2 into prime factors.
66. Find the sum of the first 40 counting
48. Write in scientific notation: 0.0051. numbers: 1+2 + 3 + 4+ ••• +40.
49. Solve for x: x2 — 3x = 0. 67. True or false: If x < 0, |x| = -x.
68. Solve for x: x2 + 4x - 1 = 0.
50. Find the following quotient: — — -. 69. Solve for x in terms of the other
7 x 106
variables: ax + b < 0, if a > 0.
Give your answer in scientific notation.
5 x 102
51. Multiply: x(x + l)(x + 2). The number of chocolate mints that you can
52. What must replace 11111! to make buy for a dollar depends on the cost of each one.
x2 — 111 + 49 the square of a binomial?
53. Multiply: (x -2 7)(x
J_+ 2). 70. Write a formula for this function, letting x
54. Solve for x: represent the cost of each mint in cents and
y represent the number that can be bought
for a dollar.
55. Simplify: |-9|x +~ |-5|.
12'
56. Write the first three terms of the sequence 71. How does the number that you can buy for
whose nth term is given by the formula a dollar vary with respect to the cost?
72. Sketch a graph of this type of function.

, _ 1

Final Review 819

 Acute Alice swam across a swimming pool at 76. Write the parcel post rule as an inequality.
a rate of 1.5 meters per second and back at a 77. Write an inequality to show the possible
rate of 1.2 meters per second. The return trip lengths of a package that has a width of 20
took 20 seconds longer. inches and a height of 15 inches.
73. Draw a diagram to represent this
The number of bacteria in a colony is an
information. Let x represent the time
exponential function of the time. A typical
corresponding to the faster rate. formula is
74. Use the information in your diagram to
write an equation.
75. How long is the swimming pool?
in which y is the number of bacteria after x
Packages sent by air parcel post cannot be hours.
more than 100 inches in length and girth
combined. The girth is the distance around the 78. How many bacteria are there at the
package, shown as the green rectangle in this beginning (when x = 0)?
figure. 79. How many bacteria are there after five
hours?
80. How long does it take the number of
bacteria in the colony to double?

Test II
1. True or false: Even* number has two 9. What number do you think should replace
square roots. in the following sequence?

2. Write the reciprocal of—. (Assume that x

does not equal zero.) 10. Solve for x: Jxj < 8.
3. What are the slope and ^-intercept of the 11. Simplify: \ .v3.
line y = x + 7? 12. Arrange in order from smallest to largest:

4. Reduce to lowest terms: — — . 0.35, 0.35, 0.35

3dx
5. Simplify: \ 48 - \ 3. 13. What svmbol should replace in
x x + 3?
6. Solve for x: (x + 7): = 64.
9 14. Solve the following pair of simultaneous
7. Write — in decimal form.
equations:
8. By what name are second-degree equations .v + 4v = 13
called? v = x - 3

820 Final Review

15. Find the following product: 33. Find the coordinate of the point midway
between A and B.
(9 x 103)(4 x 105). Give your answer i
scientific notation.

16. Write as a single fraction: — — — .

35. Multiply: (x - l)(x2 + x + 1).
17. Write 2~3 without using an exponent. 36. Reduce 4x
3 ,
18. Solve for ; -£_ = !
37. Solve for x: x2 - 6x + 2 = 0.
19. Guess a formula for this
x' function: x 2x
16 38. Divide:
x 0 12 3 4
+ 8'
4x- as
2 4 8 16 a fraction.
y 1 39. Write 1 ■
3y ' y '
20. Solve for x: 40. True or false: For all values of x, \x\ > 0.
(2x - \)(x + 5) = 2{x2 + 4) - 1. 41. Solve for x in terms of the other variables:
21. Find the product of axb and cxd. £-6 = 1.
22. Write 370,000 in scientific notation. a a
23. Simplify: |-6| • |7|. 42. True or false: The graph of the equation
24. Solve for x: x2 + 5 = 21.
25. Write a formula for the rath term of this y — x2 is a curved line.
sequence: 43. Divide: xj + 5X2 + x _ 12
:+ 4
3 9 27 81 ...
44. What must replace 1111 to make
26. Express the ratio of white squares to green x2 + 20x + 11 the square of a binomial?
squares in this pattern in simplest form. 45. Graph the function y = x3 + 2.
Let x = -2,-1,0, 1, and 2.
46. Simplify and write in descending powers
of x: 5x2 — 5x — x2 + x5.
47. Solve for x: xi + 3x2 - lOx = 0.
/t?
48. Divide and simplify: — — .
27. Solve for x: \x - 3|< 7.
28. Factor 350 into primes. 49. If a < b and b = c, what can you conclude
about a and c?
29. Simplify: (6x - y) + (2x + 9y) -
50. Factor 15ry + 9y as completely as you can.
(7* - ly). _ 5 1 . Solve for x in terms of the other
30. Is the number 0.17 rational or irrational?
variables: a + bx > 1, if 6 < 0.
2x 4- 5
3 1 . Write — — as the sum of an integer and
52.Si.pUfy: ^ V6
- ^
a fraction.
32. Find the distance between points A and B. 53. What happens to the direction of an
inequality if both sides are multiplied by the
A B same negative number?
1l+ l1 I I 1+ I I 54. Multiply: (3.v + l)(2.v + 1).
-2 -/ / 2
 72. Multiply: 1
55. Square: (6\ 5)2.
56. Factor .v6 — 4.
73. List the fourth roots of 16.
57. Write 9.v16 as1_.J_
the square of a monomial.
74. This figure is an isosceles triangle. Write a
formula for its perimeter.
58. Simplify: -— .
x y

59. Write an inequality in terms of x to

represent this figure.

60. Solve for x: 2x - 1 < 17. 75. The area of a triangle is equal to the
61. Factor x2 - lO.v + 21. product of half its altitude, //, and its base,
62. Solve for x: x — \ 2 = \ 8. b. Write a formula for the area, A, of the
isosceles triangle.
63. Multiply: x ± 10 • 15.
64. Between what two consecutive integers is Mr. Baggins bought 15 packets of seeds for a
vegetable garden. Some of the packets cost 20
\T5? cents each and the rest cost 30 cents each.
65. Use the graph below to find solutions to the
Altogether they cost S3.40.
equation x3 + .v2 - 6.v = 0.
76. Use this information to write a pair of
simultaneous equations.
77. How many packets at each price did Mr.
Baggins buy?

A person's weight on the moon is less than

what it is on the earth. This table shows some

typical values.
Weight on earth 112 126 140 154 168
in pounds
y=x3+ x2-6x Weight on moon 18 20 22 24
66. Factor .v5 + 2.v2_v + .vv2 as completely as in pounds
you can.
67. Solve for x: \/x + 9 = 2. 78. Write a formula for this function, letting x
68. Subtract 3.v - 2 from x 2 + 2x. represent the weight on earth and v
69. What values of x will make the product represent the weight on the moon.
(x — 5)(.v -i- 2) equal to zero? 79. How does a person's weight on the moon
70. Square as indicated: (.v5 + l)2. vary with respect to his or her weight on the
earth?
7 1 . \^"hat happens to the value of x " as x 80. If this function were graphed, what would
gets larger and larger? the graph look like?
 ANSWERS
to the Set II Exercises
 ANSWERS
to the Set II Exercises

Chapter 1, Lesson 1
11. a) 10 + 7 or 17. b) .v + 7. c) 10 + y. 12. a) 5 • 6 or 30. b) 5 + 6 or 11. c) 5x.
d) .v + v. e) 4 + 8 or 12. f) 4 + z. g) 2 + 5 + 1 d) 5 + x. e) xy. f ) x + >'. g) ax. h) 8a.
or 8. h) -y + 5 + 1 or x + 6. i) 2 + y + 1 or i) a - 8. j) 2 + 7 + a or 9 + a. k) 2 • 7 • a or
y + 3. j) a- +y+ 1. 12. a) 9 + 4. b) 13. 14a. 1) 10 +y+ 3 or y + 13. m) 10 -jy -3 or
c) .v + 5. d) 7. e) 9. 13. a) 1 1 + 4 + 5 or 20. 30j'. n) 4 + a + y. o) 4aj. 13. a) 6-2.
b) a + 6. c) x + y. d) 5 + 3 + x or 8 + a. b) 2-6. c) 5a. d) 11-7. e) a • 7 or 7a. f ) xy.
e) x + 1 + v + 1 or x + y + 2. f ) x + v + z. g) 17 + 17 + 17. h) A + A + A + A.
14. a) □ o o o o o o and ooooooQ i) 2 + 2 + • • • + 2 (y of them).
j) z + z + • • • + z (j of them). 14. a) 7 • 8 or
b) ooDooooo and Oooooooo 56. b) 10a. c) xy. d) aa. 15. a) 140.
c) DooooQ and ooooQQ b) 354a. 16. a) 7a. b) 24a. c) 1,440.
d) l,440.v. e) 10,080a. f) 100a. g) 1,200a.
15. a) 8 + v + 2 or y + 10. 17. a) 165. b) 11a.
b) 9 + v + 2 or y + 1 1. c)x + 3 + 2orx + 5.
d) .v + 0 + 2 or x + 2. e) 6 + 2 + 2 or 10.
16. a) 44. b) 39 + x. c) 39 + x + 6 or x + 45. Chapter 1, Lesson 4
d) a + 5. e) x + y. f ) x + y + z.
3
Chapter 1, Lesson 2 f ) a • 2 or 2a. g) -
11. a) 10-7 or 3. b) 6 - x. c) x - 6.
d) 11 - 3 or 8. e) x - 1. f ) x - y. g) 4 - x. 11. a) !h) 10 -
h) x - 4. 12. a) 12-7 or 5. b) 14 - a.-. : 15. b) 23 • 4 = 92.
c) x - 3. d) j - x. e) 9 - 2 - 3 or 4.
f) x - y - 1. 13. a) 2. b) 3. c) 10. d) The c)
and 12-0
- = 0. d) (7.5X1) = 7.5. e) 10 • 7 = a.
value of x - 4 gets larger, e) 12. f) 11. g) 5. f) a • 12 = 36. g) 4a = 20. h) y • 2 = x.
h) The value of 15 — x gets smaller. 14. a) 8. 12. a) 45. b) 63. c) 108. d) The value of 9x gets
b) 10. c) 8. _d) 10. e) _Each expression's ~- larger. e)l. f) 5. g) 25. h) The value of j- gets
x + y - 3. 15. a) 4. b) 7 - x. c) 6.
30
d) 14 - y. 16. a) 7,000 - x pounds. larger, i) 15. j) 6. k) 0. 5. 1) The value of
b) 7,000 + v pounds. 17. a) 24 cents, b) y - x
cents, c) x + 30 cents, d) 95 — y cents. gets smaller. 13. a) 20,

dollars, b) 600. c)
Chapter 1, Lesson 3 170 ^ 15.300a) 12a inches or a
feet, b) 50. c)
.6. a) 10.6. b) — .

b) DDDDD

824 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

Chapter 1, Lesson 5 f) Yes. g) No. h) Yes. 5. a) 63. b) 441.
c) 15. d) 23. e) 20. f) 48. g) 1. h) 24. i) 5.
11. a) ".v squared" and "x to the second power." j) 9. k) 6. 1) 3. m) 9. n) 9. o) 5. p) 80.
b) An exponent. 12. a) 32. b) 52. c) x2. q) 225. 6. a) Figure 2. b) Figure 3.
d) 43. e) x3. 13. a) 72. b) 26. c) x\ d) x8. c) Figure 1. d) Figure 5. e) Figure 4.
e) 3'. f) Xy. 14. a) 74. b) 47. c) x6. d) 212. f) Figure 6. g) Figure 1. h) Figure 6.
e) 2F. f ) x". g) 8 • 8 • 8 • 8 • 8. h) x • x • x. 7. a) (x - 5)3. b) x • 6 + y or 6x + y.
i) 3 • 3 • • • • • 3 (x of them), j) y -y y (x of
them). 15. a) 2,401. b) 492. 16. a) 36.
c) (y + 6)x. d) ^ - y. e) ™f^.
b) 26. c) 43. d) 82. e) 104. f) 109. g) Because
all powers of 1 are equal to 1. 17. a) 512. f) (x + 2)(x + 7). g) !LzL. h) 11 - (3x)2.
b) 14,641. c) 2,187. d) 390,625. e) x. f) x2.
i) (11 -3x)2. j) (x3 + y)8 or 8(x3 + y*).
8. a) 0. b) 9. c) 105. d) 2,585. e) 0. f) 9.
Chapter 1, Lesson 6 g) 105. h) 2,585.
4. a) The sum of a number and zero is the number.
b) The difference between a number and zero is the
number, c) The product of a number and zero is
zero, d) The product of a number and one is the Chapter 1, Lesson 9
number, e) The quotient of zero and a nonzero 4. a) 3(6 + 2) - 3(6) + 3(2).
number is zero, f ) The quotient of a number and b) 4(7 - 3) = 4(7) - 4(3).
zero is not defined, g) The quotient of a number c) 5(1 + 8) = 5(1) + 5(8).
and one is the number. 5. a) 45. b) 0. c) 11.
d) 6(5 - 1) = 6(5) - 6(1). 5. a) 4x3. b) 7(2*).
d) 1. 6. a) l2 = 1 because 1 times 1 is 1. b) 1. c) 3(x+ 1). d) 9(x +y). e) x4 + x4.
c) 1. 7. a) 0. b) 10 has a "higher value" than 1. f) 3x + 3x + 3x + 3x + 3x.
8. a) x. b) 0. c) x. d) x + 1 cannot be g) (x + 7) + (x + 7) + (x + 7) + (x + 7).
simplified, e) x. f) 0. g) t defined. 6. a) 3(x + 5) = (x + 5) + (x + 5) + (x + 5)
= x + x + x + 5 + 5 + 5
h) x. 9. a) x + y. b) x. c) y. d) 0. = 3x + 15
c) x+y. f) 0. g) x. h)y. 10. a) 1. b) 0. b) 2(x + y) ==x+x+y+y
(x + y) + (x + y)
c) Even. = 2x + 2y

Chapter 1, Lesson 7 c) 4(x2 + 1)

= (x2 + 1) + (x2 + 1) + (x2 + 1) + (x2 + 1)
4. a) Figure 4. b) Figure 5. c) Figure 2. _ x2 + X2 + X2 + X2 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
d) Figure 6. e) Figure 3. f) Figure 4. = 4x2 + 4
g) Figure 1. 5. a) 50. b) 32. c) 48. d) 19.
7. a) 8x + 24. b) 5y - 10. c) x2 + x.
e) 9. f) 400. g) 57. h) 57. i) 27. j) 27. k) 18.
d) xy - y2. e) 2x + 18. f) \y + xy. g) ly - Ix.
1) 12. m) 18. n) 19. o) 52. p) 39. q) 531.
h) x2 - 6x. i) 10x2 + 40. j) x4 - x.
6. a) x2 + y2. b) 10 - 5x. c) ^ - 10. d) 8x3. 8. a) 72 b) 43 • 72 = (40 + 3)72
X43 =40-72 + 3-72
e) y* - y. f) ii + 2. g) x 7. a) 2.
216 = 2880 + 216
b) 26. c) 128. d) 458. 8. a) 19. b) 9. 2880 = 3096
c) 101. d) 900. e) 84. f) 82. 9. a) 845 cents or 3096
$8.45. b) 80x + 95.y cents. c) 43 d) 72 • 43 = (70 + 2)43
X72 =70-43 + 2-43
86 = 3010 + 86
Chapter 1, Lesson 8 3010 = 3096
4. a) Yes. b) No. c) Yes. d) No. e) Yes. 3096

Chapter 1, Lesson 9 825

 9. a) 4(x + 5) and 4x + 20. b) x(10 + x) and
lOx + x2. c) 3{x + y + 3) and 3x + 3y + 9.
d) x(x2 + x + 1) and x3 + x2 + x. 10. a) a: + y
b) 2(x + y). c) 2x. d) 2y. e) 2x + 2y. 28 49 76
b) x 2 3 4 5
Chapter 1, Review j 12 45 112 225
6. a) v = 6*. b) y = x + 7. c) >• = x - 4.
1. a) 3- 11. b) 2r. c) x + x + x + x + x.
d) yyyy. d) y = x2. e) j = x2 + 1. f) ;y = 6x - 1.
2. Step 1. Think of a number. g) > = lOx + 3. h) y = 11*. i) j- = 12 - x.
Step 2. Add 1. j) >- = — . 7. a) 40. b) p = 45. c) 100.
Step 3. Multiply by 4.
Step 4. Add 8. d) a = s2. 8. a) 1 1 meters per second.
b) m = lis. c) 770 meters. 9. a) The population
Step 5. Divide by 4.
is increasing, b) No. b) y
Step 6. Subtract the number that you first
thought of.
a)Chapter
y 2, Lesson 2
3. a) a - 5. b) b\ c) 2 + c. d) 1 4. a) 25.
b) bIt 4. O(0,0); A (1,10); i (6, 6); C (3, 7); D (7, 3);
) is impossible to express 3 as a power of 1.
E (8, 0); F (0, 5).
c) 106. 5. a) x - 3. b) x + 5. 6. a) 9. 5.
20
7. a) 72 + a b) 72 - y.

c) 3
9. a)
8.
32 — l2
a)
=
600. b) 3,600.
8 = 23
c) 45. d) 55.
</ \
62 - 32 = 27 = 33 5
102 - 62 = 64 = 43
152 - 102 = 125 = 53
b) 212 - 152 = 216 = 63

10. a) (* - 6)2 or 2(x - 6). b) -| + 4. O 5

c) 150 - x\ 11. a) 8© + 88. b) Iw - 18.
c) xy + xz. 12. a) \x + 4) = 3x + 12. 6. a) y = 2x. b) 4. f
b) (6 + x)x = 6x + x2. c) >•(* + 1) = yx + y.
13. a) 3x. b) 200 - 3x kilograms, c) ^.
5
14. a) 0. b) 10. c) 136. d) 0. e) 10. f) 136.

Chapter 2, Lesson 1

d) They lie on a straight line.

7. a) x 0 1 2 3 4
0 2 4 6 7
b)x y 4 5
y 0 8 16 24
b) yx = x0 + 4.1
8. a) 3
0 1 2 3
c) X
y 3 5 7 9 y 7 6
1 2 3 4 9. a)
b) yx = 07 - x.2
d) X
y 8 6

826 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 12 3 4
1 4 7 10

u- •

5 -

Chapter 2, Lesson 3
4. a) x 0 1 2 3
y 0 3 6 9
b) j> = 3x. 5. a) x = 2. b) j> = 1 and
y = 3. 6. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) No. d) Yes.
e) Yes. f) Yes. g) No. h) No. i) Yes. j) Yes.

b)x 0

Chapter 2, Lesson 3 827

 Chapter 2, Lesson 4 : parallel, f) (0, 2) for y = x + 2; (0, 4)
- 7. g) At (0, 10).
4. a) .v 0 1 2 3 5. a) :
7)2 for 3v =
y 0 5 10 15
b) y is tripled, c) A direct variation, d) v = 5x.
e) 35. i n /
5. a) x
.v 3
4 8
6
12
9
20
15
100
75 it/?
b) |. c) v = |.v. 6. a) v = 0.
7 Ar
b) v = a • 0 = 0. c) (0, 0). d) The line goes b
through the origin. 7. a) Yes. b) Xo. c) Yes.
d) Xo. e) Xo.
8. a) .v 0
y o :
0
b)x o :
y
0 e) They all go through (0, 1). f) (0, 1). g) (0, 1).
c)x 6. a) x 0 1 2 3 4
y 5 5 5 5 5 b) y

flf
c) It is a horizontal straight line, d) y = 5.
e) 2 for j' = 2x; 3 for jy = 3x; 4 for jy = Ax. 7. a) The difference in successive values of jy is 3.
f) jy = 4.v. g) The steepness increases as the b) Below x = 0. c) y = 2x + 8. d) y = 7x + 1.
constant of variation increases. 9. a) 75 e) y = 4x+ 6. f) y = 6x + 4.
centimeters, b) 240 centimeters, c) The bounciness 8. a) y = 2x + 6. b) Linear, c) Xo.
increases as the constant of variation increases. 9. a) x 0 1 2 3 4
d) Xo; in that case the ball would bounce higher and v 20 20.5 21 21.5 22
higher. 10. a) v = 45.v. b) A steep line going b) 20 centimeters, c) 0.5 centimeter.
through the origin. d) 30 centimeters.

Chapter 2, Lesson 6
Chapter 2, Lesson 5
4. a) .v 12 3 4 5 6
3
2 3 4 y 12 6 4 3 2.4 2
0 1 2 b) j' is divided by 3. c) An inverse variation,
4 5 6 d) v = — . e) 1.2.
0 1 2 5. a) .v 2 4 6 12 20
7 8 9 v 30 15 10 5 3
b) 60. c) v = — . 6. a) v = a. b) 0. c) We
cannot divide by 0. d) Xo. 7. a) Yes. b) Xo.
c) Xo. d) Yes. e) Xo.

828 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 1 2 3 4 5
3. a) True, b) False, c) True, d) True,
4 2 1.3 1 0.8
1 2 3 4 5 e) False. 4. a) y = 8 - x. b) y = x2.
6 3 2 1.5 1.2 c) y - 10* - 1. d) y - ^x or y = \.5x.
1 2 3 4 5 5. a) x 0 1 2 3 4
10 5 3.3 2.5 2
j 3 5 7 9 11
b) No. c) A linear function, d) y = 2x 4

e) 53.

6. a) x 3
4.5

b) x 1 2 3 4
e) 4 for ^ = -; 10 for y -. j- 7 5 3 1
f) The larger the constant of variation, the farther
the curve is from the origin. 9. a) y = — .
O 5
b) 24. c) Inversely.
10. a) 2 4 5 10
50 25 20 10
100
b)5 = c) It is approximately 9.19 meters per
second,

Chapter 2, Review c) x 1 2 3 4
i. y j> 2 5 10 17

O 5
2. a)* 1 2 3 4 5 7. a) v : b) The water height varies direcdy
y 3 7 11 15
194 with respect to the time, c) A straight line going
0 1 2 3 through the origin.
b)x
y 0 4 10 28 8. a) x 0 6 12 18 24
18
1 2 3 4 5 v 0 25 50 75 100
C) X

b) 24 karats.

Chapter 2, Review 829

 Chapter 3, Lesson 2
4. A (8. 1); B (-6,2); C (-8. ■ 5); D (0, -7); E (6, -6);
F5.(10,-2). Y

d) A direct variation.
9. a) :
15 12.9 11.25 10 9

b) y 6. a)

c) Inversely, d) It is impossible to divide by 0.

Chapter 3, Lesson 1
4. a) 39 degrees below zero on the Celsius scale.
b) 29 meters below sea level, c) 37 years after the
birth of Christ, d) 10 minutes ago.
5. a) -12 > -15. b) -196" < -78:. c) -3 < -3.
d) -22 > -24. 6. a) 4 > 1. b) 0 < 9.
c)7>-7. d)-3<0. e)5>-ll. f) -1 > -6.
g) -12 < 8. h) -10 < -2. 7. a) +7. b) -8.
c) -8, -6, -4. -2,-1, -3. -5. -7. 8. a) 3. b) -3.
c) 5. d) -5. e) 0. f) 0. g) -1. h) 1. 9. a) 5.
b) 5. c) 8. d) 8. e) 6. f) 20. g) 7. h) 7.
10. a) x < 0. b) -v2 > 5. c) x - 1 < 10.

d)f >8
ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES
 d) oooooo«« * o o o o
b and c) e) oooidll ► • •

b) -8. b) 3. c) -1. d) 15. e) -x. f) y.

5. a)
a) 0. b) 0. c) 7. d) -20. e) -5. f) -14.
-10. h) -21. i) -19. j) 8. k) -32. 1) 8.
a) -5. b) 2. c) -2. d) -6. e) 11. f) -11.
-10. h) 10. i) 10. j) -4. k) -8. 1) 2.
c) _io. b) -4. c) -2. d) 0. e) -14. f) -10.
a)
Chapd) h) -12. i) -22. j) -36. k) -6. 1) 6.
-8.
4. a)
ter 3, Lesson 4
o o o o o X X

•••xxxxx

X * « X
•
XXXXXXXX
O 0 o
o o o o o o

• • •
5. a) 7 + -2 = 5. b) -8 + 5 = -3.
c) 3 + -4 = -1. d) -5 + 8 = 3. e) 6 + 1 = 7.
f) -2 + -3 = -5. 6. a) 7. b) -7. c) 17.
d) -17. e) -20. f) -2. g) 11. h) 5. i) -2. j) 2.
k) 0. 1) -8. 7. a) 4. b) 4. c) 10. d) 10.
e) -5. f) -5. g) 11. h) 11. i) -14. j) -14.
k) 6. 1) 6. m) x — y — z. n) x — y + z.
8. a) Nov., 17; Dec, 21; Jan., 18. b) Dec.
9. a) 15 - 32 = -17; 55 - 12 = 43; 0 - 18 = -18.
b) -16 + -17 + 43 + -18. c) He came out $8
behind (-16 + -17 + 43 + -18 = -8).

c) Intersect at (-2, -3). Chapter 3, Lesson 5

4. a) 3(4) = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.
Chapter 3, Lesson 3
b) 3(-4) = -4 + -4 + -4 = -12.
4. a) o o o o o » o o o o o c) 4(-3) = -3 + -3 + -3 + -3 = -12. 5. a) -21.
b) -36. c) 25. d) -56. e) 0. f) 132. g) -36.
h) 1. i) -39. j) 300.
6. a) x 3 2 1 0-1-2-3
c) ••••oooo -1-x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Chapter 3, Lesson 5 831

 b) The opposite of the number, c) -x. d) 3 or 2 7. a) -25. b) -25. c) -20. d) 20. e) 40.
or 1. e) -1 or -2 or -3. f) No. f ) 40. 8. a) 30 meters per second, b) 0 meters
7. a) -108. b) -108. c) 10. d) -10. e) -10. per second, c) -20 meters per second, d) The
f) 0. g) -1. h) -16. i) -16. j) 9. 8. a) 105. arrow is at its highest point, e) The arrow is coming
b) -105. c) 105. d) -105. e) 16. f) -32. g) 64. down. 9. a) 0 degrees, b) -15 degrees.
h) 100. i) -1,000. j) -120. k) -120. 1) 0. c) -40 degrees.
9. a) <. b) >. c) >. d) =. e) <.
10. a) -15. b) 12. c) 25. d) -11. e) 1. f) 30.
Chapter 3, Review
11. a) (-3)2 = 9; (-3)3 = -27; (-3)4 = 81;
(_3)5 = _243; (-3)6 = 729. b) The even powers. 1. a) True, b) True, c) False, d) False,
c) Negative. e) True. 2. a) 12. b) -4. c) 4. d) -3.
3. a) x < -4. b) 2x = x2. c) ^ > 5.
4. a) 10. t
Chapter 3, Lesson 6 5. a) 5(-3) =) -1. c) -22.
-3 + -3 + -3 -
4. a) -6. b) -6. c) -15. d) 15. e) -7. f) 1. -X + -X + -X + -
b)
6. a)4(-x)3 = 0 -1 -8
g) 0. h) -1.
5. a) x 3 2 1 0-1-2-3 12 0 -4 -32
JL _3 _2 -l 0 1 2 3 2 -10 -14 -42
5 -10 -15 -50
b) The opposite of the number, c) -x. d) Not 1 -2 -3 -10
necessarily. 6. a) -9. b) 3. c) -8. d) 10. 8 5 4-3
e) -6. f) 4. g) -1. h) 7. 7. a) >. b) =. 5 5 5 5
c) =. d) =. e) <. f) =. 8. a) -14. b) 14. b) Think of a number: □
c) 18. d) -18. e) 32. f) -32. g) -4. h) -4. Multiply by four: D D D D
i) 5. j) -5. 9. a) -6. b) -4. c) -5. d) 4. Subtract ten: DDDD
e) 32. f) 2.
-10
Add the number that you ddddd;
first thought of:
Chapter 3, Lesson 7 -13 Divide by five:
-9
-26
4. a) 7 2 0-4 -18 Add seven:
4 -1 -3 -7
Subtract the number that □ O0OO0
8 -2 -6 -14
16
8
6
3
2-6
1-3
you first thought of:
□ ••
o o o o o
7. a) 3. b) -8. c) -13. d) 16. e) 0. f) -2.
b) Think of a number: a 8. a) =. b) <. c) <. d) >.
9. a) -4. b) -9. c) x. d) 1.
e) =.

Subtract three: 10. a) x 0 1 2 3

Multiply by two:
□an••• y 3 2 1 0

II
b and c)
Add eight:
Divide by two: DD oo
Subtract the number that
you first thought of: o
Do

5. a) 45. b) -75. c) -128. d) 32. e) -81.

f) 27. 6. a) -10. b) -10. c) 14. d) 10. e) -7.
5 o|\l
f) 17. g) 64. h) 64. i) -80. j) -80. k) 81.
1) -248. m) 21. n) -24. o) -64. p) 64.

832 ANSWERS TO THE SET I! EXERCISES -5--

 d x _3 _2 -1 x 4 5 6 Chapter 4, Lesson 3
v 6 5 4 v -1 -2 -3
11. a) 20. b) 19. c) 9. d) 150. e) 0. 4. a) 6.1 + 1.9 = 8. b) -2.5 + 2.5 = 0.
12. a) His assets are S300 more than his liabilities. c) -5 + -7.1 = -12.1. d) 3.03 + -4 = -0.97.
5. a) 3.8. b) -3.4. c) -2.24. d) -1.8. 6. a) 9.
b) $125. c) S375. 13. a) 1. b) -25. c) -36.
b) -9. c) -99.99. d) -99.99. e) 25.6. f) 0.256.
d) -7. e) -8.
7. a) 3. b) 3. c) -0.7. d) -7. e) -11.2.
14. a) 4(1 --9)= 4(10) = 40
4(1) - 4(-9) = 4 + 36 = 40 f) 0.112. 8. a) -2.5. b) -1. c) 3.2. d) -1.6.
b) -6(2 - 5) = -6(-3) = 18 e) 3.3. f) -0.1. g) 5.2. h) -3.6.
_6(2) - (-6)(5) = -12 + 30 = 18 9. a) 4.5 1.8 -2.6
2.2 6.6
c) _7(-3 - 8) = -7(-ll) = 77
1.5 -6.6 -19.8
-7(-3) - (-7X8) = 21 + 56 = 77 -0.6 -13.8
-0.2 -4.6
-2 -2 -2
Chapter 4, Lesson 1 d) b) -2. 10. a) 8.835. b) -22.56. c) -43.62.
d) 314.64. e) -14.17. f) 222.222.
c)i
4. a) 1.4. b) 0.14. c) 0.014. d) 0.0625.
e) 0.625.
b) f) 6.25. g) 7. h) 0. i) 0.7.
5. a) -
0
5.
0 f); -29
10 .
a)
22
g)
'
6. c) -7 1
-8 h)- 12 3 4 5
-6 -5 -4 -J -2
b)
1.1. 7. a) 4.2 < 4.3.
;1
b) -4.2 > -4.3. c) -7.6 < 6.7. d) -7.6 < -6.7.
e) 0.05 < 0.5. f) 0.05 > -0.5. g) 2.1 > 2.09.
h) -2.1 <-2.09. 8. a) 13.05. b) 11.55.
c) 9.225. d) 16.4. e) 0.242. f) 0.198.
g) 0.00484. h) 10. Chapter 4, Lesson 4
4. a) 3. b) 2. c) -5. d) -2. e) 13. f) 0.
Chapter 4, Lesson 2 5. a) 3. b) 3.1. c) 3.14. d) 3.142. e) 3.1416.
f) 3.14159. 6. a) 0.33. b) 0.67. c) -2.43.
4. a) 8. b) -(-5) or 5. c) 0.6. d) -(-3.4) or 3.4.
d) -0.24. e) -0.02. f) 0. 7. a) -5.8. b) 3.3.
e) 0. f) x. g) -x. 5. a) 13. b) 13. c) 5.
c) 6.1. d) -6.1. e) 11.4. f) 1.1. g) 0.1. h) -0.5.
d) -5. e) 21. f) 21. g) 4. h) 0.25. 6. a)
i) _4.6. j) -0.2. 8. a) -2.2. b) -2.2. c) -13.1.
b) >. c) <. d) =. e) >. f) <. g) >.
d) 1.2. 9. a) 5.29. b) -9.91. c) -17.56.
h) <. 7. a) False; example, -1 ^ -1. b) False;
example, |-1| + |2| ^ |-1 + 2|. c) True, d) False; d) 5.34. e) -3.29.
example, (-1)3; ? (-1)3. 8. a) -10.2. b) 6.2.
c) 2.3. d) -2.3. e) -8. f) -3.95. g) -7.2. Chapter 4, Lesson
h) -0.81. 9. a) 2.94. b) -5.31. c) -6.105.
d) -3.108. 10. a) -3.87. b) 1.889. c) -18.46. 4. a) .v 0 2 3 5
0.5 1.5
d) 18.46. e) -7.66. f) 7.66.

Chapter 4, Lesson :
 d) (4, 1), (7, 2.5), and (-4, -3). e) (4, 1), (7, 2.5), and
H,-3).
5. a) x 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
v 0 0.00 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.22 0.34 0.51 0.73 1.00

6. a) Linear functions, b) (0, b) is the point in

which the graph crosses the jy-axis. c) y = x + 3.
d) y = x - 4.
7. a) .v -2 -1 0 1 2

d)x

834 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 -3
d)
-7 -7- J)
-2
-0.5 -6.4. c) -7.7. d) -2.7. e -3.6.
-3
b) -3.2. h) -1.12. i)-0.6
-8.1 13.
-4 f) -2.4.
4 -2.5. k) -1.728.
(.v con'd) 0 12.4. f) 5. a) -5.7.
0.2 0.3 0.5
(v con'd) 0 0.7 12. d) 4.6.
6.
B) -0.4
b) 0.
a) -4.5
3.5 1.2 -0.
0 16.2 8.2 c) -2
23.2
0 11.6 4.1
7.1
-2.74.
-1.5
9.
-1. 7
a) 6. b)
8. c) 8.0.0.06.d) -5.
a) 1.71. b) 17.14.
c) 0.58
-6
-1 5 -5 5 0.5
-2 a)con'd)
x 3.5
- -1 -2.5
0
-3 1 2 3 4
con'd) 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5
(y y -

6 -5 -4 -3
1 -1.2 -1.5 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(.v con'd) - 6 3 2 1.5 1.2 1
( v con'd)

(*

i -4 -3 -2 -1
-3.2 -2.4 -1.6 -0.8
(x con'd) 0 12 3 4
(y con'd) 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2
3x,
8. a) v = = -_6 = 2x
6^

X
and y = c y
c)
d) v = y-

Chapter 4, Review
1. a) M 61 ,. 13
X- ~'T "'To- d)~T-
2. a) -0.007. b) 1.75. c) -0.8125. 3. a) <.
b) >. c) <. d) =. e) >. f) <. 4. a) 5.3.

Chapter 4, Review 835

 Chapter 5, Lesson 2
4. a) Subtraction, b) Division, c) Addition.
d) Multiplication. 5. a) Divide by 5. b) Subtract
5. c) Add 2. d) Multiply by 2. e) Subtract -8 (or
add 8). f) Divide by -8. g) Multiply by -6.
h) Add -6 (or subtract 6). i) Add x. j) Multiply
by x. 6. a) 7. b) x - 3. c) 12. d) .v + 5.
1. dp
e) 4. f) -f. g) 18. h) 2.v. 7. a) 2x + 6.

b) 2{x + 6). c) :
-3)-
e) (x 0 (* - y) + 3. g) -
h) 4
8. a) Subtract 6 and divide the result by 2.
b) Divide 2 and subtract 6 from the result, c)-6Add
-2
1 and then multiply the result by 5. d) Multiply by
5 and then add 1 to the result, e) Add y and then
y subtract 3 from the result, f ) Subtract 3 and then
-1
add v to the result, g) Multiply by v and divide-2 the
result bv 4. h) Divide by 4 and multiplv the result
by y. -6
9. a) -3 -2-10 e) -4 0 -124 8
_8 -7 -6-5 -10 12
-10 12 7 8 9 10
b) -3 -2 -1 0 f) 0
4 8 16
10. a) v = x + 2.5 and y = 0.8*. b) j 1 2 3 4
-6 -4 12
c) y = — and y = x2 — x. d) y = — 0
0
36 -24 0
8 -12
-6 -4 0
Chapter 5, Lesson 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 10. a) 0
4. a) If a certain number is multiplied by 2, the 3 -2 0
-12 -9 -6 -3 8 -12
result is 8. b) If 3 is added to a certain number, the
result is 11. c) If a certain number is divided by 6. i) Tables a and b; tables g and h. False.
the result is 5. d) If a certain number is cubed, the b) False, c) True.
result is 1. e) If 5 is raised to a certain power, the
result is 25. 5. a) True, b) False, c) Neither,
d) True, e) False, f) Neither. 6. a) 95. Chapter 5, Lesson 3
b) 20. c) 9. d) 4. e) 36. f) 8. g) 4 and -4. 4. a) Four 1-pound weights were removed from each
h) 0. i) No number, because a number cannot be 2 pan. b) The contents of each pan was divided by 3.
more than itself, j) 0 and 1. k) -24. 1) -7. c) 3x + 4 = 10. d) 3.v = 6. e) .v = 2. f) Subtract
m) -10. n) 0. o) 0. p) 1. q) True for any 4 from each side of the equation, g) Divide each
number, r) 2. s) -1. t) No number, because the side of the equation by 3. h) The weight of one
square of a number is not negative, u) -1. v) 2. brick is 2 pounds. 5. a) 2x = 5. b) x = 0.
w) 3. x) No number, because even,- power of 1 is c) Ix = 14. d) .v = -72. e) 3.v = -6.
1. 7. a) 1 and 3. b) 0, -2, and 5. c) -3 and f ) x = -6. 6. a) Divide each side of the equation
-4. d) 1, 3, 8, -2, and -9. by 4. b) Multiply each side of the equation by 4.

ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

c) Add 5 to each side of the equation, d) Subtract 5 d) 6* + 2 = x - 3. e) 5x + 2 = -3. f) 5x = -5.
from each side of the equation, e) Subtract 9 from g) .v = -1. h) Subtract x from each side of the
each side of the equation, f ) Multiply each side of equation, i) Subtract 2 from each side of the
the equation by 6. g) Subtract 21 from each side of equation, j) Divide each side of the equation by 5.
the equation, h) Divide each side of the equation by
3. i) Add 1 to each side of the equation.
j) Multiply each side of the equation by 4.
k) Subtract 6 from each side of the equation.
1) Multiply each side of the equation by -1.
7. a) -9. b) 0.25. c) 4. d) 5. e) -22.
f) -40. g) -10. h) -7. 8. a) 7.8. b) 7.5.
c) 10.2. d) 10.8. e) -7.5. f) 4. g) -7.3. !,qi^ .JfjLL^
h) -2.1. 9. a) -2. b) 8. c) 48. d) -12.
e) 3. f) -9. 10. a) -6. b) -2. c) 0. d) 18.
e) 6. f) -12.

Chapter 5, Lesson 4
4. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) No. d) Yes. e) Yes.
6. a) 4. b) 2.2. c) -1. d) 5. e) 15. f) -7.
f) Yes. g) No. h) Yes. i) No. j) Yes. k) Yes.
g) 6. h) 1.2. 7. a) 8. b) -4. c) 7. d) -2.5.
1) Yes. 5. a) 1 + 8x. b) (x + 3).v. c) x2 + 3.v. e) -18. f) 3.6. g) 9. h) -89. 8. a) 1.1.
d) (5 + 2) + y or 7 + y. e) (5 • 2)y or 10y. b) -8.5. c) 5.7. d) 3.3. e) -82.
f) 24.v - 6. g) -v + 1. h) 7(xx) or 7x2.
6. a) Commutative property of multiplication,
b) Distributive property of multiplication over Chapter 5, Lesson 6
addition, c) Associative property of addition. 4. a) x + 8. b) Ax. c) 2x + 20. d) 5x + 10.
d) Distributive property of division over subtraction.
5. a) 7.v. b) 4x2. c) 8x - 32.
e) Associative property of multiplication. 6. x + (.v + 2) + 5 = 19; 6, 8, and 5. 7. a) 5, 8,
f) Commutative property of addition. 7. a) 10.v. 5, and 8. b) 4.5, 4.5, and 7. c) 4, 11, 4, and 11.
b) x + 10. c) 8*. d) 4.v2. e) 8.v. f) 0. g) 16.v2. d) 7, 4, 3, 1, and 2. 8. a) 9 and 4. b) 6 and 5.
h) 10*. i) 8x. j) x. k) -x. 8. a) 7x. b) 8x\ c) 5 and 7. 9. a) AE = 35; CD = 39.
c) 3x + 4. d) 8x2. e) x - 7. f) .v - 9. b) AE = 24.5; EB = 13.5. c) AB = 9; CE = 2;
g) 4.v - 5. h) lO.v. ED = 7. d) AE = 1.6; EB = 21.6; CD = 23.2.
9. a) Think of a number: x
Subtract 3: x — 3
Multiply by 2: 2(x - 3) = 2x - 6 Chapter 5, Lesson 7
Add 8: (2x - 6) + 8 = 2x + 2 4. a) H-^_
Divide by 2: 1
Subtract the number 2x -
b) _— x + 10 x+W
first thought of: (x + \) — x = \
b) 1. 5. a) t 0 1 2 3 4
d 0 45 90 135 U
Chapter 5, Lesson 5 b) Directiy. c) d = 45?.
4. a) One box was removed from each pan. b) Two 6. a) r 400 450 500 550
t 9.9 8.8 7.92 7.2
circles were removed from each pan. c) The
contents of each pan was divided by 5 (because 5 c) Inversely. 7. a) 15. b) 50.
boxes are balanced by 5 colored circles, one box 3,960
b) t
would be balanced by 1 colored circle). c) 0.5. d) 65*. e)

Chapter 5, Lesson 7 837

0 4-
8. a) 80* = 24,900. b) 311.25 miles per day. 5, and 7. d) 8, 12, 8, and 12. 13. a) CE = 24;
9. a) 2.04 meters per second: 1.82 meters per second; ED = 20. b) AE = 7; CD = 36. c) AB = 46:
1.72 meters per second; 1.66 meters per second. CE = 6: ED = 40.
b) 122.45 meters per minute, c) 7,346.94 meters per 14. a) r 350 400 500 15. a) " miles per
hour, d) 7.35 kilometers per hour. r 2 1.75 1.4
700 i Inversely.

Chapter 5, Lesson 8 day. b) 27.v miles. 16. a) Dog Biscuit. 46.v feet:
Beedebaum. 50.v feet.
4. a) x - 2.
b) Alf 660 lx+2) b) t--
Daisy -Dog Biscuit
- Beetlebaum
720x
840
c) 660(a + 2) = 720.V. d) 22 minutes, e) 15 c) 30 - 46.v = 50.v. d) 7.5. e) Dog Biscuit, 345
b)
meters, feet; Beedebaum, 375 feet.
rely.5. a) 70.v meters and 80.v meters,
respects
1st 2nd
Swimmer swimmer c)
70x 80x Chapter 6, Lesson 1
4. a) 15. b) 27. c) 15. d) 69. e) 2. f) -22.
- 430 meters
g) -10. h) 2. i) 14. j) 34. k) 34. 1) 34. m) 4.
n) 40. o) 49. p) 40. 5. a) Yes. b) No.
c) 70* + 80* = 480. d) 3.2 minutes, e) 224 meters c) Yes. d) No. e) Yes. f) No. g) No. h) Yes.
and 256 meters. 6. a) 2 — x hours. i) No. j) Yes. k) Yes. 1) Yes. m) No. n) Yes.
o) No. p) Yes. 6. a) 2.v + 6v.
b) 2.v + 6v = 30. c) Yes. d) Yes. e) No.
| 9012-x) Against wind f) 3.YV. g) 3.yv = 36. h) Yes. i) No. j) Yes.
7. a) a- 10-1-2 -3
c) 1 lO.v = 90(2 - x). d) 0.9. e) 198 miles. v 13 9 5 1-3
b) v is decreased by 4.
Chapter 5, Review
1. a) True, b) False, c) True, d) Neither.
2. a) -11. b) 13. c) No number, because no
number equals itself increased by 3. d) 48. e) 5 or
-5. f) 3. 3. a) 2 and -4. b) 6 and -1. c) 3. 4,
5, 6, and 7. 4. a) Divide by 6 and subtract 2.
b) Add 5 and multiply by 10. c) Subtract y and
divide bv 3. d) Multiplv by 7 and add v.
5. a) -7. b) 7. c) -0.75. d) -1. e) 72. f) -2.
6. a) -5. b) 39. c) 2. d) -4. e) -13.
7. a) x + (9 + 3) or x + 12. b) 3(.v + 9).
c) 2x - 1. d) 2(,v.v) or 2v-\ e) x2 - lO.v.
8. a) 9.v. b) 9 + x. c) 20.v. d) 7.v-\ e) 7 + 2.v.
f) 9.v. 9. a) 0.5. b) 4. c) -3. d) 8. e) -6.
f) 1.4. 10. a) 5. b) -2.5. c) 4. d) -14.5.
11. a) Perimeter, 2(.v + 2) or 2.v - 4; area. 2.v.
d) They lie on a straight line.
b) Perimeter. 4(5.v) or 20.v; area, (5.v)- or 25.v2.
c) Perimeter, 2x + 22; area, 4{.v + 7) or 4v + 28. 8. a) (1, 5), (2, 4), (3, 3), (4, 2), and (5, 1). b) (1, 5),
12. a) 5, 12, and 8. b) 6.5. 9. 19.5, and 13. c) 5, 7, (2. 3). and (3, 1). c) Unlimited number, d) (1, 10),

ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 10 -5

v
(2,5), (5,2), and (10, 1). c) (1,2) and (6, 1).
t) None, g) Unlimited number, h) (2, 1).
\
Chapter 6, Lesson 2
4. a) v = x + 3. b) v = x - 8. c) v = 4.v.
d) v = f. e) v= 10 -x. f) v = 5.v + 1.

5. a) x = y - 3 b) x = y + 8. c) x V

d) .v = 2y. e) j • = 10 - v. f) x = -— -5 °
6. a) .v = 3 - _v b) v = 3 - .v. c) x
5v - 2x
d)v = l e),
= "2- f)^ = T- «
h) y = 4.v - 8. 7. a) a = M. b) fr -10-

c) h = j. 8. a) x = 2a - ,v. b) v = 2a - x. d) Yes. e) Yes. f) No. g) No.

c) 7. d) 3 = 2(7) - 11 = 14 - 11. e) -3. 7. a) Example table:
f) -8 = 2(-3) - 2 = -6 - 2. 9. a) 85 meters. a- -1 0 1 2
c) 70 meters. 10. a) 37 cents. y 2 2 2 2
b) a = h -

b) n = C— 15(120)
11. a) 120. b) m =
,, 100m
d) c = — — .

Chapter 6, Lesson 3
4. a) 6x + \y = 2; a = 6, b = \, c = 2.
b) 2x + 3v = -7; a = 2, b = 3, c = -7.
c) 2x + 8y = 9; a = 2, b = 8, c = 9. c) No. d) No. e) Yes. f) Yes.
d) 4x + -5y = 1; a — 4, b = -5, c = 1. 8.
e) 3x + Oy = 11; a = 3, b = 0, c = 11. Y
f) lx + 2v = 8; a = 1, fc = 2, c = 8.
g) lx + -6y = -10; a = 1, b = -6, c = -10.
h) -0.5x + 7v = 0; a = -0.5, b = 7, c = 0.
5. a) >• = 4x + 3. b) jy = 9x - 1. c) >' = -
1 - Sx
d) v = - -5.v. f) y = 6.v — 7.
15 - •5x "'
6. a) v = 2
b) Example table:

Chapter 6, Lesson 3 839

 e) All the lines pass through the point (0, -6)

Chapter 6, Lesson 4
4. a) x-intercept, 3; jy-intercept, 4. b) x-intercept,
-3; jy-intercept, 1 . c) x-intercept, -2; jy-intercept,
-5. d) x-intercept, 0; j'-intercept, 0. e) x-intercept,
4; No jy-intercept. 5. a) 10 and 4. b) 1 and 8.
c) 12 and -4. d) 0 and 0. e) -4.5 and 2. f) -3
and 6. g) 2.8; no jy-intercept. h) No x-intercept;
5.5. 6. a) -6 and 2. b) -6 and 2. c) -6 and 2.
d) -6 and 2. e) All the graphs are the same line
y (because they have the same x- and jy-intercepts).
f) The equations are equivalent. 7. a) 6 and 12.

10
b) )
5 - \
i— o i
5 "
-5 -

9. a-d)

c) Yes. d) Yes. e) No. f) No.

8'

e) All the lines are parallel.

840 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 \I
"5 +

5 -

9. a-c)

d)
10. All
a-c)have x-intercept 10.

d) All the lines are parallel.

Chapter
5. a) 6, Lesson 5
4. a) 4. b) 0.5. c) -3. d) 0.

Slope = 3.

(The line goes through the origin; so, to plot it, a point
other than the intercepts must be found.)

Chapter 6, Lesson 5 841

 Slope = 0.5.
-x Slope = 0.6.

c) r\

Slope = -5.

Slope = 0.

Slope is not defined.

6. a)

i— J— s 5--
Slope = 1.
c and d)

b) Y

Slope = -2.

e) They are perpendicular.

842 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

9. a) Slope, 2; ^-intercept, 5. b) Slope,—;
^'-intercept, 4. c) Slope, -1; jy-intercept, 6.
d) Slope, -4; ^-intercept, -3. e) Slope, 5;
jy-intercept, 0. f ) Slope, 7; jy-intercept, 2. g) Slope,
-3; jy-intercept, -8.

Chapter 6, Lesson 6
4. a) Linear, b) Straight lines, c) The slope.
d) The _v-intercept. 5. a) Slope, 8; jy-intercept, 3.
b) Slope, — ; jy-intercept, 5. a) c) Slope, 1; jy-intercept,
-7. d) Slope, 6; jy-intercept, -12. e) Slope, 2;
jy-intercept, 0. f) Slope, -1; jy-intercept, 0. g) Slope,
-3; jy-intercept, 10. h) Slope, 0; jy-intercept, 4.

6. a) y = 9.v +1. b) j; = -|* - 6.

c) y = -Ax + 7. d) y = 2.5*. e) y = -8.
f) y = 0. 7. a) y = 2x + 3. b) y = ^-x - 4.
c) y = -x + 5. d) j. = -1.

Chapter 6, Lesson 6 843

 c) (-5, 0). d) (0, 5). e) 1. 10. a) y = 2x + 4.

c) (-2, 0). d) (0, 4). e) 2.

Chapter 6, Review
1. a) 14. b) -8. c) 14. d) 32. e) 9. f) 9.
2. a) Yes. b) No. c) Yes. d) No. e) Yes.
f) Yes. 3. a) (13, 1) and (6,2). b) Unlimited
number, c) (1, 12), (2, 6), (3, 4), (4, 3), (6, 2), and

(12, 1). d) None. 4. a) x = ^—-

b) v = 3x - 7. c) .v = 9 - 4y. d) v = ^JL

5. a) m = dv. b) v = -y. c) = 3 kilograms per

liter, d) 7.5 = 3(2.5) = 7.5 e) 2.5 = -y- = 2.5.

6. a) 3. b) 126 pounds, c) y = x ~ tt' . d) 20.

844 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES
7. a) 6.v + -lv =\2;a = 6,b = -1, c = 12.
b) 6.v + 2y = 5;a = 6,6 = 2,c = 5.
c) 4.v + -\y = -lj a = 4, 6 = -1, c = -1.
d) 0.v + 7y = 9; a = 0, b = 7, c = 9.

8. a) v = 5.v + 10. b) v = Z±l. c)y = ^-=^ .

d) v = 8.v — 1. 9. a) .v-intercept, 14; jy-intercept,
4. b) ^-intercept, 1.8; v-intercept, -9.
c) .v-intercept, 8; j-intercept, 3. d) .v-intercept, 3;
no j-intercept.
10. a) y

Slope = -

x Slope =

-5
Slope is not denned.

12. a) Slope, 4; jy-intercept, -5. b) Slope,—;

-5 ° ^intercept, 0. c) Slope, -1; y- intercept, 11.
d) Slope, 0; j-intercept, 8. 13. a) y = 3x + 2.
+ 5. c) y = v. d)j = 0.
b)y-
14. )

5\

-5-

Chapter 6, Review 845

 Y Chapter 7, Lesson 1
4. a) Yes. b) No. c) No. d) No. e) Yes.
f) No. g) Yes. h) Yes. i) Yes. 5. a) 2x = 14.
b) x = 7. c) 3' = 2. d) (7, 2). e) 7 - 2(2) = 3.
6. a) 3x + y = 22. b) 3x - y = 14. c) x = 6;
n-5
— ^^n-^
° ^-^^5
5-
1 v = 4. d) 3(6) + 4 = 22 and 3(6) - 4 = 14.
7. x= ll;j> = 8. 8. x = 8;y = 10.5.
9. (15,6). 10. (2,-1). 11. (-11,14).
12. (5,27). 13. (2.5,1). 14. (11,0).

-5- Chapter 7, Lesson 2

4. a) 5. b) 7. c) 2x + y = 17 and x +y = 12.
d) (5, 7). 5. Ax + 3y = 57, Ax + y = 43; x = 9,
j = 7. 6. 5x - 2y = 36, x - 2y = 2; x = 8.5,
>- = 3.25. 7. a) 6x = 30; x = 5, >• = 6.
b) 2y = 12; y = 6, x = 5. c) -2y = -12; j- = 6,
x = 5. 8. (4, 1). 9. (7,-5). 10. (8,-3).
11.(2.5,0). 12. (-2,-9). 13. (-3,40).
14.(4.5,-1.5). 15.(25,0). 16.(7,2.25).

Chapter 7, Lesson 3
3. x + 2y = 16, 2x + Ay = 32; multiply each side by
2. 4. 2x — y — 5, 6x — 3v = 15; multiply each
side by 3. 5. 4x + Ay = 28, x + y = 7;
divide each side by 4. 6. a) 3x + 12y = 21.
b) 16x - 40>' = 8. c) 4x + y = 10.
d) -6x+jy = 3. e) 5x - 15v = 0.
f) 3x - ly = 9. 7. a) 12x + 2,y = 90.
b) 13x = 91. c) x = 7. d) v = 2.
e) 4(7) + 2 = 30, 28 + 2 = 30, 30 = 30;
7 - 3(2) = 1, 7 - 6 = 1, 1 = 1. f) 4x - 12y = 4.
g) 13y = 26. h) y = 2. i) x = 7.
8. (11,-4). 9. (7,3). 10. (4,0).
11. (-1,5). 12. (8,-2). 13. (-6,10).

846 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

Chapter 7, Lesson 4
4. (4,-1). 5. (-2,3). 6. (-3.5,-5).
7. a, c, and e)

Solution: (-3, 1).

b) 2x + Ay = 8. d) 2y = -2. f) All four lines §

through (6,-1).
8. a, c, and e)

Solution: (0, -3).

b) Ax = 12. d) ly - 4. f) All four lines go Solution: (4.5, 2.5).

through (3, 2).

Chapter 7, Lesson 5
4. a) There is one solution: (-3, 2). b) There are no
solutions (the equations are inconsistent), c) There
are infinitely many solutions (the equations are
equivalent). 5. a) 2x + 2y = 25; x + y = 12.
c) Inconsistent. 6. a) x + 2y = 14;
Solution: (1,2). 3x + 6v = 42. c) Equivalent.
7. a) 2jc - 2v = 16; 5.r - 5y = 40.
c) Equivalent. 8. a) 3x — y = 7; 6x — 2y = 10.
c) Inconsistent.

Chapter 7, Lesson 5 847

 The equations have
no solutions.

b) The lines are parallel, c) None, d) Inconsistent.

Chapter 7, Lesson 6
10.
4. 2x + y = 35; y = 3x. Solution: (7, 21).
5. x + 3y = 20; x = y + 8. Solution: (11, 3).
6. 2x + 3 = y; 4x + 2y = 42. Solution: (4.5, 12).
7. 2x + 14 = 4y; 9 + 3x = 4y. Solution: (5, 6).
8. (8,8). 9. (11,9). 10. (-1,3).
11. (5, 14). 12. a) 2(3y + 7) - 6y = 11,
6y + 14 - 6y = 11, 14 = 11. b) The equations are
inconsistent, c) Parallel lines.
13. a) 4(2* + 1) - 8x = 4, 8x + 4 - 8x = 4,
4 = 4. b) The equations are equivalent, c) A single
line. 14. a) x + y = 35; 3x = I2y. b) (28, 7).
b) Each graph is the same line, c) Infinitely many, c) 28 + 7 = 35, 35 = 35; 3(28) = 12(7), 84 = 84.
d) Equivalent. 15. a) x + y = 20; 6x = Ay. b) (8, 12).
c) 8 + 12 = 20, 20 = 20; 6(8) = 4(12), 48 = 48.
16. a) x + y = 24; 3x = 5y. b) (15, 9).

5 w* c) 15 + 9 = 24, 24 = 24; 3(15) = 5(9), 45 = 45.

Chapter 7, Lesson 7
fin 4. a) x + y = 52. b) 5x. c) IQy.
=5 °~f 5 d) 5x + lOj- = 450. e) * = 14, y = 38. f) 14
nickels and 38 dimes. 5. a) x + y = 20. b) 45x.
-5-1 The equations have
infinitely many c) 60j. d) 45x + 60.y = 960. e) x = 16, y = 4.
solutions. f) 16 liters of apple juice and 4 liters of cranberry
juice. 6. a) x + y = 95; 3x + 5>> = 353.
b) x = 61, y = 34. c) 61 plants at $3 and 34 plants
at $5. 7. a) x + y = 10; 7.2x + U.Qji = 83.4.
b) x = 7, y = 3. c) 50.4 grams of tin and 33 grams
of lead.

Chapter 7, Review
1. a) Yes. b) No. c) Yes. d) Yes. e) No.
The equations have 2. a) 7x = 14. b) 5x - 6y = 10. c) 2x - y --
^^$."vs one solution: d) 6x + 18y = 12. 3. (25.5, 17.5).
(-1.5,-2.5). 4.(3,-11). 5. (-1,7). 6. (-4,-5).
7. (9,2). 8. (5,-1).
848 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES
 13. (18,9). 14. (-2, 1). 15. (6,-7).
16. (0, -5). 17. x + y = 20, 9x = 6y; x = 8,
y = 12. 18. x + y = 26, 8x = 5y; x = 10,
v = 16. 19. a) One possible answer:
The equations have 6x — 2y =10. b) One possible answer:
one solution: (3,6). 3.v — y = 4. c) One possible answer: x — y = 1.
20. a) x + y = 31; 1.5* + 5y = 92. b) x = 18,
v =13. c) 18 bullheads and 13 catfish.

Chapter 8, Lesson 1
4. a) One hundred, b) One thousand, c) Ten
thousand, d) One hundred thousand, e) One
million. 5. a) 108. b) 10". c) 106. d) 104.
6. a) 34,000. b) 57.2. c) 9. d) 0.016. e) 1016.
•5 The equations have f) 8 X 108. g) 3 X 10" or 0.3 X 1012. 7. a) 75.
infinitely many b) 0.28. c) 0.0001. d) 105. e) 4.1 x 109 or
solutions 41 x 108. 8. a) 2,000. b) 1,000,000,000.
c) 75,000. d) 60.2. e) 300,000,000,000.
f) 84,000. 9. a) 42,000,000. b) 4.2 x 107.
10. a) 3 x 104. b) 8 X 101. c) 7.2 x 102.
d) 2.01 x 107. e) 1.984 x 103. f) 6.0005 x 105.
11. a) 1 X 1012. b) 5 X 106. c) 9.4 X 1010.
d) 3 x 1019. e) 7.6 X 101. 12. a) 40,000.
b) 4 x 104. 13. a) Eleven million.
b) 1.1 x 107. 14. a) 330,000. b) Three
hundred thirty thousand. 15. a) 6,227,000,000.
b) Six billion two hundred twenty-seven million.
The equations have
one solution: (-5, 1). Chapter 8, Lesson 2
4. a) x8. b) y5. c) x2y7. d) x*y. e) x4y2.
5. a) x5. b) yi0. c) x8. d) _y6. e) x9y9. f) xh>2]
g) 16x10. h) 15X8. 6. a) 11. b) 7. c) 10.
d) 8. e) 7. f) 3. g) 20. h) 8.
7. a) 37 = 2,187. b) 3U = 177,147.
c) 35 • 39 = 314 = 4,782,969.
d) 38 • 38 = 316 = 43,046,721.
e) 33 • 34 • 35 = 312 = 531,441.
f) 32 • 32 • 32 • 32 • 32 = 310 = 59,049. g) False,
h) True, i) False, j) True. 8. a) 8 x 108.
The equations have b) 6 x 107. c) 4 x 1012. d) 2.1 x 10".
no solutions. e) 9 x 105. f) 8 x 1016. 9. a) 3 x 1024.
b) 3,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.
10. a) 5.84 x 108 and 4.6 X 109. b) 2.7 x 1018.

Chapter 8, Lesson 2 849

 b)

Chapter 8, Lesson 3 d) 7.5 x 10"1. e) 3.14 x 10"2. f) 3.14 x 1010.

= 4 g) 8 X 10°. h) 1.00 X 10"6. 8. a) 600.
4. a) 45 . 4)(4 • 4) = 4 • 4 • 4 •
.4.4.4 b) 0.06. c) 0.0003. d) 0.00033. e) 105,000,000.
4-4 = 4 (4.4.4.
45 4., 5. a)
4.4 4-4 -. f) 0.0000000105. 9. a) 0.00006. b) 6 x 10~5.
10. a) 8 x 104. b) 8 x 10~2. c) 4 x 105.
c) (45)2 = (45)(45) = 45+5 = 410. 5. a) x9. b) ; d) 4 x 10"7. 11. a) <. b) >. c) <. d) >.
c) x7. d) x14. e) x14. f) xib. 6. a) 6. b) 5.
c) 1. d) 17. e) 8. f) 8. g) 11. h) 28. i) 10. e) =. f) <. 12. a) 6 x 105. b) 4 x 101.
c)
j) 16. k) 9. 1) 4. m) 18. n) 6. c) 6.3 x lO"1. d) 2 x 107. e) 5 x 108.
7. a) 45 = 1,024. b) 414 = 268,435,456. f) 4 x 10-'. 13. a) 0.00002. b) Two-one
hundred thousandths. 14. a) 4 x 106 and
48 = 65,536. d) 4rr = 47 = 16,384. 1 X 10~5. b) 4 X 10". c) Four hundred billion.
e) 415 = 1,073,741,824. f) 48 = 65,536.
g) (42)6 = 412 = 16,777,216.
h) (46)2 = 412 = 16,777,216. i) False, j) True. Chapter 8, Lesson 6
k) True. 1) False. 8. a) 3 x 106. b) 2 x 1010.
c) 5 x 109. d) 7 x 102. e) 3 x 1012. 4. a) xV. b) x-'j--'. c) 8x3. d) 625y4. e) x14.
f) 7.5 x 108. 9. a) 133,000,000 and
4,000,000,000. b) 1.33 X 108 and 4 x 109.
c) 30. 10. 500 seconds.
»)> »f?
f) xy°. g) i6x
h) -27y2. i) x7. j) y-
5. a) <. b) =. c) >.
d) <. e) =. f) >. g) =. h) >. i) >.
Chapter 8, Lesson 4
j) =. 6. a) 23-43 = 83 = 512. b) 8"1 = 0.125.
c) 84 = 4,096. d) 85 = 32,768.
4. a) 1. b) 10. c) 0. d) 1. e) 1. f) 1 g) -32. e) 82 • 84 = 86 = 262,144. f) 82 = 64.
g) 8"2 = 0.015625.

h) Q-Y = (8~>)3 = 83 = 0.001953125.

n) 1. 5. a) 5-' = 0.2. b) 5"6 = 0.000064.
7. a) 8 x 1012. b) 4.9 x 105. c) 2.43 x 103.
c) 55 = 3,125. d) 5"5 = 0.00032.
d) 2 x lO"4. e) 1 X 10"16. f) 2.5 x 10".
e) 54 • 56 = 52 = 25. f) -^ = 56 = 15,625. 8. a) 36. b) 4. c) 9. d) 4. e) 12. f) 6. g) 12.
h) 4. i) 4. j) 3. k) 12. 1) 8.
g) 57 • 5"7 = 5° = 1. h) 58 = 390,625.
i) (55)-1 = 5~5 = 0.00032. j) 1.
6. a) x 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
y 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125 Chapter 8, Lesson 7
7. a) <. b) =. c) >. d) >. e) >. f) <-.
g) <. h) <. 8. a) x2. b) x15. c) x10. d) x°. 4. a)8-103. b)5-37. c) 1 1 • 42. d) 6 • 104.
e) x°. f) X"16. g) X"7. h) x\ 1) x-8. j) x-K e) 2 • 7"5. 5. a) 500. b) 200,000. c) 9. d) 4.
k) x"5. 1) x°. m) x7. n) x~12. 0) x°. p) x~n. e) 8. f) 0.032.
6. a) x 0 1 2 3 4
q) x7. r) x'°. y \ 4 16 64 256
b) y is multiplied by 4. c) v is multiplied by 16.
Chapter 8, Lesson 5 d) y is multiplied by 64.
4. a) One. b) One-tenth, c) One-one hundredth. 7. a) x -2 -1 ' 0 1 2
d) One-one thousandth, e) One-ten thousandth. jy -6 -3 0 3 6

5. a) 0.7. b) 123.45. c) 104. d) 10"2. b) x -2 -1 0 1 2

v -8-1018
e) 90 x 10"11 or 9 x 10 10. f) 2 x 10"6 or
0.2 x 10-5. 6. a) 0.0004. b) 3.33. c) 107. c) x -2 -1 0 1 2
d) 10"9. e) 5 x lO-6 or 0.5 x 10\
7. a) 2 x 103. b) 2 x 104. c) 7.5 x 101.
, i j » 3 .
850 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES
 d) 720. 3. a) 5 x 107. b) 8.1 x 1010.
c) 6 x 10 3. d) 6 x 10 b. 4. a) 3 x 10 ".
b) Three-billionths. 5. a) 6.1. a);
b) 1. c) 81.
d)_L.
; 81 e)J_.
; 64 f)_l
' 7
c) x \ d) x*. e) x-6. f) x 4. 7. a) <.
b) >. c) =. d) >. 8. a) 32x5. b) x~\

9. a) 3.2 x 10". b) 2.7 x 10 '*. c) 2.5 x 104.

c) 81yi:
d) b) x-
3.5 x 10 12. e) 6.4 x 1010. f) 4 x 1010.
10. a) >. b) <. c) >. d) =. e) <. f) =.
g) >. 11. a) 6. b) 8. c) 9. d) 4. e) 8.
f) 5. 12. a) 33,000,000,000. b) 3.3 x 1010.
c) 9 X 107; 90 million.
13. a) x 0 12 3 4
y 0.5 1 2 4 8
b) y is doubled.
y

f)
14. a) $5,600. b) $4,480. c) No; the first year it
decreases by $1,400 and the second year it decreases
by $1,120.

Midterm Review

8. a) $4,500. b) $3,375. c) $2,531.25. d) $337.88.

9. a) x 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
y 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
b) 16. c) 256. d) 65,536.

Chapter 8, Review

1. a) 10". b) 0.36. c) L0«. d) 8.21.

c) 7 x 10 \ 2. a) 8,000. b) 0.008. c) 0.45.
-5-
5 -
Midterm Review 851
 6. 3. 7. 4.v -y= 1. 8. -3.5. 9. 212. Chapter 9, Lesson 1
\ y 4. a) Coefficient, 7; degree, 2. b) Coefficient, 1;
\\ degree, 6. c) Coefficient, -4; degree, 1.
d) Coefficient, 5; degree, 0. 5. a) Yes. b) Xo.
\\ c) Yes. d) Yes. e) No. f) Xo. 6. a) 9x.

\ ih b) Not possible, c) Not possible, d) 5x3. e) lO.v.

°\\ /M
f) Not possible, g) 15.v. h) 3.v5. i) 9x2. j) Not

- \/\ / Solution: (2, -4).

possible, k) 2x~. 1) Not possible, m) -4.v. n) Not

v
possible, o) -4.v4. 7. a) 14.x-\ b) 7.v3. c) x9.
d) 4.v6. e) -llx2. f) -121*. g) 125-v3. h) a15.
i) 24X6. j) 8x9. k) 24.v". 1) -5a-6. m) -6x7.
/\ n) 16a:10. o) -125-v12. 8. a) 25. b) 100. c) 3.

m
d) 6. 9. a) 15a-2. b) 26.x-4. c) Not possible,
d) 26.Y3. e) 7x5. f) -8a-10. g) Not possible,
h) -8x». i) 12.v4. j) 64.v12. k) lO.v10. 1) 32.v50.
10. a) Perimeter, 16.v; area, 15.v2. b) Perimeter, 4.v3;
area, .v6. c) Perimeter, 12.v2 + 2x; area, 6.v3.
d) Perimeter, 2r* + 8.v; area, 4a-5.

Chapter 9, Lesson 2

:| s — :T; 4. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) No. d) Yes. e) Yes.

-5I / f)
c)
No. 5. a) a-3 + -4.
-5a- + -10. 6. a) a5
b) 1 + 2.v + -.v2.
+ x. b) 5v2 - 7v + 3.
c) 2.x-4 + 3.x-3 + 4.v2 — .v. d) -y*> + 1.
e) -2.x-8 - a-6 + 5.x-4 + 20. f) v + 25.
13. 1.5 X 107. 14. -3.5. 15. 35. 7. a) 6x + 16. b) -5>'2 + 5. c) .v4 + 7.v3 — 6.v2.
16. Subtract x from each side of the equation. d) 3.v3 - 6.v2 + 15.V. e) a5 - 2.v4 + 5.v3.
17. A-3 > * is. -7. 19. (8. 1) and (1, 2). f) -4v6 + 8j'2. 8. a) -a-2 - 5.x- - 10.
b) -j5 + 7y. c) 6.x-2 -11.
20. -5. 21. y = 15 - x. d) -1 + 2v - 3v2 + 4v3. 9. a) -1. b) 7.
c) 17. d) -7. e) -11. f) 15. g) 12. h) 12.
i) -60. j) -15. k) -12. 1) -12. m) 60. n) 1.
1
o) 5. p) 1. q) 31. r) 11. s) 11,111. t) 9,091.
10. a) 6.v2 + 6.v. b) 2.v3 + 3.x-' - 5x. c) 6.v2 - 7x.
d) x3 + 7.x- - 7. e) .v4 - 8.x-2 + 4. f) 2.v7 + 14.v.
/
//
i
Chapter 9, Lesson 3

Lm J
0- 4. a) 6.x- + 1. b) 2.v - 4v. c) 4.v: + 8

fI c d)
5.
3.v2 - x. e) 4.x-3 - 4.x-2 + 4.v + 4.
a) 7a + 4. b) x. c) -x2 - 6x.
d) 2.x-2 + lO.v - 1. e) a-4 - 9.x-2 + 9x H
23. 4.2 x 10". 24. (7,-1). 25. <. 6. a) 4a-2 - 3.v + 1. b) 2.v2 + 5x - 5.
26. 1.6. 27. 314,000. 28. Odd. 29. -19. c) a 4 !
30. 73. 31. 0.36. 32. 185.
33. v = 1 - 3.v. 34. 30. 35. v = 3.v + 4. polynomial A 50 78
36. 40(5 - x). 37. 50.v - 40(5 - x) = 215. polynomial B 3 8
38. 1.5 hours. 39.-132. 40.(2,-1). polynomial C 53 86
polynomial D 47 70
852 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES
 -5
y
3y

-2
7. a)

6y
d) The values of polynomials C and D are the sums 5y
and differences, respectively, of the corresponding
values of polynomials A and B. * in

7. a) 2x- 1. b) 20.v - 13. c) x3 + x2 + x. 44

-b
4 4x
d) 9.v - 4v - z. 8. a) 6x2 + fry. b) -3x - 24. -7
c) 6.v2 - 2x - 4. d) x3 - ,v2 - x + 1 .
9. a) 9x - 3 v. b) 8x2 - x + 10.
C) X3 - X2 -x+l.
I5y2 +y-2.
2
15y2
Chapter 9, Lesson 4 a? 4
4. a) The 24 on the fourth line should have been
0 X2

b)
written one digit to the left.

20+4
200 40 X 10 + 5
100 + 20 120
200 + 40 240 4a349b
100 20
360

8. a) x2 + 14* + 24. b) x2 + x - 72.

c) 6x2 - Ix - 20. a^ d)
a^ 36.v2 + \2x + 1.
37 e) 36.v2 - 1. f) 21.r2 - 58* + 21. g) 16 -
b)
< 52 1500 h) x" + 7.v3 - 8. i) 2x3 + x2 - \\x + 5.
350
74 j) ,v4 - 1. k)7b.r4
2 - 4.v3 +7b5.v2
2 - 28.v + 32.
185 60 1) x4 + 2x2 + 9.
1924 14 b*
Chapter 9, Lesson 5
4. a) x2 + 8x + 12. b) x2 + 4x - 12.
X 419 400 3200 c) x2 - 1 lx + 24. d) x2 + x - 20.
72 e) x2 + 14x + 49. f) x2 - 49. g) 6x2 4
10
h) 6x2 - 26x + 8. i) 30x2 + 13a: - 10.
80
32 9 72 j) 4x2 - 31x - 90. k) x2 - 2xy + y2.
3352 1) x2 - v2. 5. a) 10x2 - x - 3.
1 10

c) 206 polynomial A 2 12 47
X 93 18000 polynomial B 3 7 21
540 polynomial C 6 84 987
1854
19158 18
600 c) The values of polynomial C are the products of
the corresponding values of polynomials A and B.
a) x4 + 4x2 - 5. b) x4 - 9x3 + x2 - 9x.
6. a) (2x + l)(x + 5); 2x2 + llx + 5. x3 + 8. d) x4 + 2x3 - x2 + lOx - 3.
b) 6v(3v - 7); 18>>2 - 42y. 2xi + 4x2 - 48x. f) x3 - 6x2 + 1 lx - 6.
c) (a2 + 6a - 2)(4a + 3); 4a3 + 27a2 + 10a - 6. x"
a) x2- -1. 1. b) x3 - 1. c) x4 - 1. d) x5 - 1.
d) (a - b)(a + *); a2 - b2.

Chapter 9, Lesson 5 853

 -28x

Chapter 9, Lesson 6

4. a) (.v + 5)2 = .v2 + lOx + 25.

b) (3y - lX3y + 1) = 9j2 - 1. -12x2 8
c) (a - 6)2 = a2 - 12a + 36. -27 x
d) (2 + 76)(2 - lb) = 4 - 49R
4. a) 3.v + 8. b) .v2 - 2x + 1. c) 6.v - 4.
18x3
-12 a a'a) 7* 3x21 42x2b)

9x -12a
2x 2 - 3.v
9 21 x 3
9x -12 x2 9
81
X2
16a2 4x
16a2 - 24a + 9. 2x + 3.
2y 14-x2

6. a) 2x + 3. b) .v2 - 3x + 1. 7. a) 5x + 8.
Wxy -6ab b) x2 + Ax - 6. c) 3.v - 7. d) x2 4x3 - 2x + 4.
5x e) 2x - 3. f) x2 + 5. 8. a) x2 + Ox + 6.
2y
Sx b) 8x3 + Ox2 + 0.v + 1.
Wxy c) x4 + 0.t3 + 6x2 + 2.v - 3.
9x2
2Sx2 d) _.v5 + Ox4 + O.v3 + O.v2 + lOx + 0.
6ab
36a2 9. a) x2 - 3.v + 8. b) 5.v2 + 4.v + 5.
c) 8x3 + 20.v2 + 50.v + 125.
. 20xy 4yZ
+ 4v-\

36a2 - b2. Chapter 9, Review

-b2 1. a) True, b) True, c) False, d) True.
6. a) By squaring the second term of the binomial.
b) By taking twice the product of the first term and e) False. 2. a) 57. b) -57. c) 16. d) 448.
the second term of the binomial. e) 8. f) 1,000. 3. a) Not possible, b) 3.v5.
7. a) x2 + 16-v + 64. b) .v2 - 64. c) Not possible, d) -8.v5. e) 16.x10. f) -2,048x5.
c) 144a2 + 24a + 1. d) 9b2 - 606 + 100. g) Not possible,
1-7 h) -4.x-6.
e) 49.v2 - v2. f ) 4.v2 - 12.vy + 9j2.
8. a) 1,849. b) 1,591. c) 1,849. d) 2,451.
9. a) X* + 6.v2 + 9. b) 9.v4. c) 16v10 - 8v5 + 1. (1 + 7)2= l2 + 2(l-7) + 72.
d) 16v10 - 1. e) abbb. f) a6 - 2a3fc3 + b6.
1-7
10. a) x2 + 8x + 16; x + 4. b) x2 + 2x + 1;
x + 1. c) x2 - 18* + 81; x - 9. 2 6
d) .v2 - 10* + 25; .v - 5. 2-6

1-6
-6x
Chapter 9, Lesson 7 (2 + 6)2 = 22 + 2(2 • 6) + 62.

3- a) .y , b)
4 4
15 x
4-4
12x2 -10xz : 42 + 2(4 • 4) + 42.
32x 40 /2
3 4-4 72
5x
5x3

854 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES 3x2

22
Every equation checks out because each side gives 64, 5. a) 22-52. b) 22-32-5. c) 3-7- 11.
the number of squares on the checkerboard. d) 2 • 3 • 5 - 7 - 11. e) 24-3- 17. f) 26 • 3 • 17.
-21
5'a) ,- T C) 0* g) 32 • 52. h) 3b • 56. i) 26 • 73. j) 3lb.
6. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) No. d) No. e) Yes.
14 x f) Yes. g) No. h) Yes. i) No. j) Yes. k) Yes.
Z8x 1) No. 7. a) 1, 5, 11, and 55. b) 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
-27 x
49
4x2 and 32. c) 1 and 71. d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 18,
14x 36x2
24, 36, and 72. e) 1, 5, 52, and 53. f) 1, 3, 32, 33,
3\ and 3s. 8. a) 5. b) 8. c) 1. d) 12. e) 18.
4.v2 + 28x + 49.
f) 2. g) 1. h) 34. i) 64. j) 1.

6xy -2y

Chapter 10, Lesson 2

-6xy
4. a) 56x2. b) 56x2. c) 15x8. d) -x20. e) 36x8.
3x f) 64x24. g) abr^+b. h) a2x2". 5. a) (1)(18),
(2)(9), (3)(6). b) (l)(34x), (2)(17x), (17)(2x), (34)(x).
6xy
-36yz
X2
" c) (l)(25x2), (5)(5x2), (25)(x2), (x)(25x), (5x)(5x).
d) (l)(2x3), (2)(x3), (x)(2x2), (2x)(x2). 6. a) 42.
b) (x8)2. c) (3x5)2. d) (5xj-)2. 7. a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
- 36v2. 8, 12, and 24. b) 1,3, 5, 15, x, 3x, 5x, and 15x.
c) 1, 7, 49, x, 7x, 49x, x2, 7x2, and 49x2. d) 1, x, x2,
x3, x4, x5, and x6. e) 1,3, x, 3x, x2, 3x2, x3, and
3x3. 8. a) 16-v4. b) 5x8. c) x3. d) -ly.
6. a) -.v5 + 7x3 + 10. b) x8 - .v2 + 6x. e) x7v3. f) 2xT. 9. a) 3. b) 5x. c) 1. d) x7.
c) -.v4 + 2. d) 4.v3 - 2.v2. 7. a) x2 + 5x.
e) 1. f) 11. g) 8xy. h) 13xv2. i) 1. j) 3. k) 1.
b) x2 + 7x +10. c) 6x2 - 18x.
d) 6x2 - 19x + 3. e) x2 + 3x - 28. 1) 2x.
f) 28x2 + 3x - 1. g) x2 + 16x + 64. h) 64x2.
i) 4x2 _ 81 j) 9x2 _ 6x + L k) vs + 8v4 + 16 Chapter 10, Lesson 3
1) x8 - 16. 8. a) 9 v. b) 7x3 + x - 1.
4. a) 16x - 24 v. b) 5x2 + 20x. c) x5 - 2x4.
c) x4 + lOx - 10. d) x - 8v - 3. d) 4x2^ - 4x^2 + 4xv. 5. a) 2x. b) x3. c) 1.
e) 24x2 + 19x - 120. f) 4x3 + 19x2 - 7x - 10.
g) 2x2 + 5x - 4. h) 8x3 + 4x2 + 2x + 1.
9. a) Perimeter, 12x + 10; area, 24x + 4. d) 8. X 2

b) Perimeter, 8x3; area, 4x6. c) Perimeter, 12x + 1 8 3x /

area, 5x2 + 49x — 10. d) Perimeter, 16x; area,
16x2 - 49. 10. a) 20x. b) 625. c) 8xy. 4x
d) 16. 11. a) lOx - 10. b) 21x2 - 62x + 16.
c) x3 - x2 - 31x + 55. d) x2 + 4x - 10.
e) 4x2 + 2x - 6. f) 4x2 - 2x - 12.
g) 8x3 + 12x2 - 18x - 27. h) 2x - 3.
d) x3

Chapter 10, Lesson 1

5x
2- 13
4. 21 3-7 26
22 2-11 27 x(x + 5).
28 22-7 2x 2x4 12 x
23 prime
29
24 23 • 3 3x-3
25 52
2x4 + 12x = 2x(x3 + 6).
30 prime
2-3-

Chapter 10, Lesson 3 855

33
 7. a) 3(.v + 4). b) 5(.v+ 1). c) 2(x + y). d) a6 - 9. e) x2 - y\ f) 1 - x2y2. 5. a) 82.
d) l(2.v + 3y). e) 4(x - 1). f) 5(2.v - 3). b) (x4)2. c) Not possible, d) (x18)2. e) (3x2)2.
g) 8(4* -30. h) x(x + 6). i) 2(x3 + 1). f) Not possible, g) (4av)2. h) (10x50)2-
j) l(3x2 + 2). k) x2(a2 - 8). 1) l(x< + y*). 6. a) a2 - 9 = (x + 3X* - 3).
8. a) x(7 + 3) = lO.v. b) x(5 - 1) = 4x. b) 25a2 - 49 = (5x - 7)(5a + 7).
c) .v2(l + 8) = 9x2. d) x3(2 - 5) = -3.v3. c) x2 - 16.y2 = (x + 4jXa - 4y).
e) 2.vv(2 + 1) = 6at. f) xy\\ - 9) = -8xy2. d) x6 - y* = (a3 - v2)(.v5 + y2). 7. a) 0.
9. a) 23(6 + 4) = 23(10) = 230. b) 40. c) 91. d) -9. e) -5. f) 16. g) 0. h) 40.
b) 12(31 - 1) = 12(30) = 360. i) 91. j) -9. k) -5. 1) 16.
c) 45(36 - 16) = 45(20) = 900. 8. a) (a - 8)(a + 8). b) Not possible.
d) 99(99 + 1) = 99(100) = 9,900. 10. a) 3. c) (4x + 3y)(4x - 3j). d) (9 + x)(9 - x).
b) x3 - 6.v + 1. c) 2a4 + x2 - 3. e) 8(x + l)(x - 1). f) 4(2x2 - 1). g) 5(x2 + 4).
d) 5 + .v - y. 11. a) 4.v(3.v2 - 4.v + 2). h) (x2 - 7)(a2 + 7). i) (6x5 - lX6x5 + 1).
b) 1(6x2 + at + 63'2). c) a-5(10.y5 - 1). j) 2(x3 - 4)(a3 + 4).
d) 2.v2(l + 3a-4 + 5x*). 9. a) (x + v + 3)(a + y - 3).
b) (4x + 13)(4x +1). c) (6 - x)(4 + x).
d) x(16 - x).
Chapter 10, Lesson 4

4. a) a-' + 16.v + 15. b) x2 - 16.v + 15. Chapter 10, Lesson 6

c) x2 + 8.v +15. d) a-2 - 8a- + 15.
e) x2 + 14.v - 15. f) a2 - 14.v - 15. 4. a) x2 + 6a + 9 = (a + 3)-\
g) .v2 + 2x - 15. h) a-2 - 2.v - 15. b) a2 - 20x + 100 = (a - 10)2.
5. a) a2 + 8.v + 12 = (.v + 6)(.v + 2). c) 16x2 + 8xj + v2 = (4x + y)2.
b) a2 - 13a + 30 = (.v - 3)(.v - 10). d) x8 - 2x4y + y2 = (a4 - y)2.
C) .v2 + 3.v - 28 = (a- - 4)(.v + 7). 5. a) a2 + 14x + 49. b) a2 - 14a + 49.
d) x2 - x - 72 = (x + 8)(.v - 9). c) 16a2 - 8x + 1. d) 25a2 + 20xj + 4>>2.
6. a) 10 = (2)(5) and 2 + 5 = 7. e) 4x2 + 20xy + 25j2. f) a4 + 2x2j5 + y10.
b) 10 = (-2)(-5) and -2 + -5 = -7. 6. a) (3x)2. b) (x8)2. c) 202. d) Not possible.
c) -33 = (-3)(ll) and -3 + 11 =8. e) (5x18)2. f) Not possible, g) (8x3y)2. h) Not
d) -33 = (3X-H) and 3 + -11 = -8. possible. 7. a) 16a. b) 121. c) 24a. d) 1.
e) 42 = (6)(7) and 6 + 7=13. f) 42 = (3)(14) 8. a) (x + 6)2. b) (x -y)2. c) (2x + l)2. d) Not
and 3 + 14 = 17. g) -36 = (-2)(18) and possible, e) (3x - 10)2. f) Not possible,
-2 + 18 = 16. h) -36 = (-6)(6) and g) (7x + yf. h) (5x - 8y)2. 9. a) 36. b) 64.
-6 + 6 = 0. 7. a) x + 9. b) a - 4. c) x + 7. c) 225. d) 0. e) 16. f) 36. g) 64. h) 225.
d) x - 8. e) a - 12. f) x + 5. i) 0. j) 16. 10. a) (x2 + ll)2. b) (x3 - 4)2.
8. a) (x + l)(.v + 5). b) (a - l)(.v - 5). c) (a' + y*f. d) 2(x - 3)2. e) 5(x2 - 5)2.
c) (x + 3Xa + 9). d) (x + 4)(x + 8).
e) (A--2)(A-+ 11). f) (x + 2Xx- 11). f ) (4x - j8)2-
g) (x + 7)(x + 7). h) (x + 7)(.v - 7).
Chapter 10, Lesson 7
i) (a - 5)(.v - 12). j) (a - 3)(x - 20).
k) (v - 4)(.v + 15). 1) (a + 6)(.v - 10). 4. a) 2a2 + 17x + 36 = (x + 4X2a + 9).
9. a) (x + 2v)(.v + y). b) (x + 8y\x - 5y). b) 5a2 - 8x + 3 = (5x - 3)(x - 1).
c) (* + 6)0> + 4). d) (x2 - 10X*2 - 7). c) 12a2 + 7a - 12 = (3a + 4)(4a - 3).
10. a) (a - 3v)( v + 5y). b) (a - 2y)(x + 9y). d) 36x2 - 25 = (6x - 5)(6a + 5).
c) (-V + 4)(>' + 4). d) (x2 + l)(x2 - 10). 5. a) 3a2 + 37x + 12. b) 3a2 + 35x - 12.
c) 3a2 + 20a +12. d) 3a2 + 16x - 12.
Chapter 10, Lesson 5 e) 3v2 + 15a + 12. f) 3a2 + 9a - 12.
g) 3x2 + 12x +12. h) 3a2 - 12.
4. a) x2 - 400. b) I6.v2 - l. c) 25x; 6. a) (2x + l)(x + 7). b) (2a - 1)(a + 7).

856 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

c) (5.v - l)2. d) (5x + l)(5.v - 1). c) (x + 4)(x - 4). d) x3(4x + 3). e) (x - 10)2.
e) (3.v - 2)(x + 3). f) \x - l)(x - 2). f)(x + 2)(x+ 11). g) (x + 6)(x-5).
g) (4x + 5)(2x + 3). h) (4x - 5)(2x - 3). h) x(x - l)2. i) x2 + 9. j) (7x + 2)2.
i) (3.v+ 11X2* - 1). j) (3.x- - 11X2*+ 1). k) (3x + l)(x + 5). 1) (2x - 7)(x + 4).
7. a) (2x - v)(3x + y). b) (.v - v)(8x - 3y). m) 3(x - 3)2. n) x(x + 8)(x - 5). o) 4x(x2 + 4).
c) (4* + 1X>' - 5). d) (5x2 + 6)(x2 + 2). p) 2x2(x - l)(x - 2). 10. a) jy(3x + y2).
8. a) (5* + y)(x + 3y). b) (4x - v)(2x - ly). b) 4(2x - y2). c) (x - 9y)(x - y).
c) (x + 5)(2v - 1). d) (3x2 + 2)(x2 + 10). d) (x - 1)(^ + 6). e) (5x + 2^)(5x - 2y).
f ) (x2 + y)2.
Chapter 10, Lesson 8

4. a) \0x2 - 5* - 5. b) 10x2 - 5x - 5. Chapter 11, Lesson 1

c) 10x2 - 5x - 5. d) 10x2 - 5x - 5. 5. a) 6.v3.
b) 2x3 + 6x2. c) x3 + 5x2 + fix. d) All have 4.
5. A,
a-c)4;B, -?-; C, -4-; D, Ji c
4 4 4 4
degree 3. 6. a) x(x2 + 10). b) 4x(x + 2)(x - 2). f)
c) x2(x + 4)(x + 6). d) 3x(x - l)(x - 5).
e) 6x2(x2 + x + 3). f) 2x3(x + 7)(x - 5).
g) 5x2(2x + 3)(2x - 3). h) x(5x2 + lOx + 1). b)
i) (x + l)(x - l)(x2 + 1). j) x3(3x + l)(x + 3).
7. a) 11. b) 47. c) 4x + 1. d) x - 9.
10 1
e) 3x +1. f) x2 + x + 1. 8. a) x(x2 + 2y). d) 1. e) 6. a) 0.75.
f)lior|.
b) xy{x + y)(x - y). c) 2(x - y)2.
d) x(x + yXx + 3y). e) (3x + 15)(j - 2). b) d0.75.
)^ c) 0.17. d) 0.17. e) 0.18. f) 5.50.
f) (x + 3y)(x - 3y){x2 + y2). g) 0.62. h) 2.43. i) 0.55. j) 0.50. 7. a) 0 and
1. b) 2 and 3. c) -1 and 0. d) -2 and -1. e.) 9
2" ' 3
Chapter 10, Review and 10. f) 90 and 91. 8. a) l b)
^ | 2 . c) ^.
17 11 43
l.a)ll-13. b)33-52. c)2-72-19. d) 32 • 52. 101 10
e) 212-56. f) 212-312. 2. a) 7. b) 5. c) 1. 91 ' *" 9' "' 81
d) 12. e) 49. f) 1. 3. a) 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and h) f. 9. a)
24, and 48. b) 1, 3, 11, 33, x, 3x, llx, and 33x. 21' c)' 72 72 ' d); 24
72 and^T-
c) 1, x, x2, x3, x4, and x5. d) 1, 3, 9, x, 3x, 9x, x2, and ^ - 20,ii,andii. f)i2,ii5andii.
10. a) 60' 60' 60 ' 16' 16' 16
3x2, and 9x2.
4. a) Example: 1,234 11 M 7 7 7 „,H U
12,341,234 = m0.8

d)f'i'T-
•2'X- n-a)-f- b) 10'
"•"'- T b)^5- 3'C)T
30'
i234^234 = 90Q82
d) -^ . 12. a) 3. b) 0. c) -2. d) Not possible
b) Writing a four-digit number twice to form an 13. a) 3. b) 2. c) 5. d) 9. e) -7. f) 5. g) 5.
eight-digit number is equivalent to multiplying the
h) Because — is not denned, i) 5. j) 5.
number by 10,001. 10,001 = 73 • 137. 5. a) 2.
b) x. c) x6. d) 2xj>. e) 1. f) 6x. 14. a) 12. b) 35. c) 14. d) 15. e) 41. f) 28.
6. a) 56(39 + 61) = 56(100) = 5,600.
b) 902 - 22 = 8,100 - 4 = 8,096. g) 3. h) 4.
c) 25(81 - 1) = 25(80) = 2,000.
Chapter 11, Lesson 2
d) (127 + 27)(127 - 27) = (154)(100) = 15,400.
7. a) 81. b) 60x. 8. a) 3x2. b) -2x5. c) 8. 4. a) 0. b) 1. c) -5. d) No value, e) 2 and -2.
d) 10 - x2. e) x - 2. f) x + 6. g) 3x - 7.
f) No %-alue. 5. a) ^r- b) -. c) 4- d) -jj.
h) 5x + 2. 9. a) 7(2x + 5). b) x(x - 8).
o j 4 xJ

Chapter 11, Lesson 2 857

 <>i
2 + ,,2
•>7 6. a) 16. b) 12. c) 0.
e)f f)i4J- b)
' +>'
d) 16. e) 12. f) 0. g) Yes, for all values of x
c) -^f and 4"- d) e)
except 3 because
6 +_* x + 2 d6 »+7x^T
andll.
9.v ej^Land^.
xv xv f) (x +^ 2X*
+ 8+ 4) xb)+ 2 + ^
3 (x 1+ 2Xx+ x- -3) 3 6^x

(x + 2X* + 4) ' 6/ 10 ' 10 ' 10 ' ' x3 ' x3 ' i): x - 3 ~ x - 3

x2_x-6 + 6 + x x2
and 4. 7. a) 10. b) 2. c) 4. d) 1. e) -1. "TT
f ) Not possible. 8. a) 3.v. b) 5. c) 2x + 6. 7.
d) lO.v. e) 4x - 32. f) x - 5. 9. a) -i. b) Not
j)■
7
0 . b,i 8
possible, c) ^ ■ d) Not possible, e) 4. f) y. X
x133 +— M X 3
h) 1 T
g) -4^. h) -2—. i) x. ,')1. k) -J-J-. l. d)9. 8a)+ 2x1.+ 1.
10. a) 1. b) 1.6. c) 3. d) 1. e) 1.6. 6' «>
1. c
) *+JV
fI)) - 3. g) Yes, for all values of x except 2 because x- 3 4
x2 + 3.v _ io (X + 5X-v - 2) _ .v - 5
5x - 10 5(.v - 2) 5 Chapterx -11,j 2' Lesson
x3 ! x —

»f
d)**.
d) 1. e) 6. f) -g,
Ch apter 11, Lesson 3 — . e 4. a)- 28 . 5x « x
2
• 0
4. a) 1. b) 3..,!. „>£. C)R. ,«
h) j.„>
*- f.
g) c,
k)
■ |.
lOx
or 2(5 + x) X + ) 2x.
o 10 + 2x
■v - 10 —- 10
10. b)
'b)-*£ c)m)V'
-
'
Ol
b)
2x
5
o^W- • r)
*■
n) 1. 6- a) f b) ^.
P) ^j- q) 1 5. a) 1. e) 1. f) '
-v - 2 ' (x+jy)2 0rx2 + 2xy+j2 (x + l)2
T
■v- T- 25c)5"")fd,#-•*" 1 ^ 216
6- 3.v:
(x - y)2 x2 - 2xv - v: '
k)
. f) 3 -J*
g)
I 5.v 6. a) 4- b) x. c) -

»A"
c)
- 2xv +y
+ 3
2x3 V
10'
,lv-'' .
a- - x12 '
2 y +
Chapter 11, Lesson 6
d) -1. e) —
)) - 10 '
h)- 216'
c)-

+ 6'
Chapter 11, Lesson 4 or<X-
^ g) I. - h)3x -1-.
4x
■ 1)' 5. a) 4x. b) i±^. c) 10.
d)-
41
4. a) =-. ««
b) -*JI. d)21. e, X3

4.v - 1
. d,f.• 10 d)^2. e)-
- x „ 3,v - .v-
5. a) - 3
1 5x

e] - f) - c + 6 r' i
ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

h)-
 b) 8(s 1) or 8s + 8. c) - ' 9 8 9 9' 9
2. a) Not true; example: s =
d) 4(6x3 - 1) or 24s3 - 4. e) -^— 6, y = 3,
1
10)(2s - 1) 2s2 + 19s - b) Not true; example: s = 1, jy = 0, — ^ -1.
0-
7. a) c) True, d) True, e) True, f) Not true; example:

4 +""2A ± 4 + 2. 3. a) 9. b) 0. c) -1
-12 + f- d) 12.r 3
c)s2 and 1. 4. a) -jf- b) c) ±=^-. d)
8. a) 49s2 + 49s + 6 M 16s2 - 9
d)
49 ' 36 •
- 12s2 + 35 ,x 300s2 - 25s - 2
e) Not possible, f) s + 2. 5. a) j-. b) -y-.

'i
c) -
c)f d>£. 6. a, 2, b,»+l. c,^±.
Chapter 11, Lesson 7
I)^^' =>^- o£?f 7-»f + {
4. a) 1 b) 3. c) 1. d) x. e) -
- 4y ' ~' x — 6 -5)

d) 3s -^-.
^-. 8. a) 3s4. b) —
^-±-|.

) 8. f) ±. 6. a) f. b) 2s. c) - s(3 - s) ^ 3s -s2 ^ Sh

(* + y)2 f
24 3 3 ' ' 2sj>
d) 45. e) 5s2. f) 1 1_
7. a) 2sj> 10. a)
ft * - 6 ft * 13 16
6- "-' s2- ~'y "' 2" 81
h)-
b) 6 -
s + 4) s2 + 7s + 12
b) 12. c) - - 3)(* - 4) l)2 c) 4s - 16. d) -
- 7s + 12 '
f)-l.
+ 4
2_

Chapter 11, Lesson 8

4. a) Chapter 12, Lesson 1
4. a) 7 and -7. b) 2 and -2. c) None, d) 30 and
5. a) 2(s +b)-2) r 2s + 4
-30. e) 0. f) None. 5. a) 2,025. b) 2,916.16'
3(s + 3) c) 6.71. d) Not possible, e) 78. f) 37. g) 51.84.
1 b)!
5'

d)l- e)l. f) 3s + 9' h) 7.3. 6. a) 3 and 4. b) 4 and 5. c) -2 and

-1. d) -6 and -5. e) 11 and 12. f) 35 and 36.
7. a) 64. b) 6,400. c) 640,000. d) 64,000,000.
6. a)- -4)' e) 6. f) 19. g) 60. h) 190.
■ )3'- 8. a) (11.2)2 = 125.44; (11.22)2 = 125.8884;
(11.225)2 = 126.000625. b) 11.2 is smaller than
d
\/r26; 11.22 is smaller than VT26; 11.225 is larger
Chapter 11, Review
than >/l26. 9. a) 12. b) -9. c) 16. d) 16.
1. a) The second fraction was divided by the first. e) 7. f) 7. g) 7. 10. a) =. b) =. c) =.

Chapter 12, Lesson 1 859

 d) =. e) <. f) >. g) =. h) >. i) <. j) >.
k) <. 1) =. 11. a) 8. b) 4. c) 6. d) 6. 8. a) 20\/x". b) 6x. c) x + \fx~. d) 4\/x".
e) 72\/xy. f) Not possible, g) 3\/7x.
e) 13. f) 17. h) 2\/2x. 9. a) \/2. b) \/l9 - 3. c) lly/TT.
d) -4. e) 2\/2. 0 8.
Chapter 12, Lesson 2

4. a) vlO. b) VSc. c) 6\/x. d) V**. Chapter 12, Lesson 5

e) 3y\/x. f) 3x\/y. g) 3\/xy. h) 8*. i) 5x1
4. a) 9. b) 2y/T0. c) 33. d) 60. e) 10\/l5.
j) (5x)i. k) (xy)i 1) xiy. m) x(7y)i n) lOxj'i f) 360. g) 600. h) 42. i) 16 + 2\/t.
5. a) 3. b) 5. c) 24. d) 81. e) 2. f) 5. g) 20. j) 4 + 8\^. k) 7 - \/7. 1) 12. 5. a) 9x.
h) 93. 6. a) 2\/3. b) 3\/7. c) 4\/2. b) a:5, c) 12*. d) 35x6. e) 16 + 4v^.
d) 3\/!0. e) 5\/5. f) 6\ 11. g) 3\/83.
h) 30 V6. 7. a) 14.388. b) 14.424. c) 26.46. f) 4\/x"+ x. 6. a) 8. b) 15. c) 45. d) 75.
e) 14 + 6\/5. f) 28 + 10^3. g) 8 + 2\/l5.
d) 83.67. 8. a) 7. b) x. c) 2x3. d) x4. e) x2. h) 8. 7. a) 9. b) 167. c) 11. d) x - 16.
f) 2x18. 9. a) 3x. b) x18. c) Not possible, e) x2 - 10. f) xy - 6. 8. a) 11 + 16\/2.
d) 36.v. 10. a) 8v^. b) a:32, c) x3yx. b) 20 -Uy/2. c) 1 + V5 + \/6 + \/30-
d) 2x\A0. e) 11*V*. f) 3x9\/2.
d) 30 + 21\/3.

Chapter 12, Lesson 3

Chapter 12, Lesson 6
4- *) 4- b) « c) ». d)
4. a) 5. b) 4. c) 1. d) \TT. e) 2V/3. f) ^-.
5. a) 2.83. b) 0.84. c) 0.14. d) 1.58. 6. a) 5.
5. a) 4. b) J-, c) 7. d) \'2. 6. a) -^-.
b,^. o^. d,^. e,^I. „: b) \T5 + 6. c) x + \/y. d) \/x - Vy.
7. a) 0.866. b) 0.3162. c) 1.291. d) 0.5916.
8. a) 3 ~ VD. b) 3 + V5 c) \/l7- ^2.

10. a) 10 and 10. b) 30

and 30. c) 0 and 0. d) 5 and -5. e) 20 and -20.
f) 1 and 1. g) 2 and 2. h) 1 and -1. i) Yes.
j) No. k) Yes. 1) No. x8 c) 5\ 15. d) 5V3. e) \ 2. f) 6\ 3.

Chapter 12, Lesson 4 Chapter 12, Lesson 7

4. a) Ix^. b) 5\/3. c) 7V«. d) 4\TTx". 4. a) 6. b) 1. c) 4. d) 14. e) 5. f) 7. g) Not

e) Vl0+ V^IO.
possible, h) -7. 5. a) 3. b) 7. c) 10. d) 12.
f)Vx~+Vx+Vx+Vx~+Vx~. 5. a) 11 V2~. e) It is 2 more than x.
b) \/2. c) 7\/2. d) 5\/2. e) Not possible.
f) Not possible, g) 5\ 3._ h) 3\/5. i) 6\/2. f) V*2 + 4x + 4 = V(* + 2)2 = .v + 2. g) No;
j) 4VTT. k) V6. 1) -\ 6. 6. a) 8. b) 6.3. \/(-10)2 + 4(-10) + 4 = 8, 8 is not 2 more than
c) 5.6. d) 4. e) 0.2. f) 1. g) 3.5. _h) 4.5. i) 4. -10. 6. a) Yes. b) No. c) Yes. d) Yes.
j) 2.8. 7. a) 8 + 5 V5. b) 9 + \/3 + y/6. 7. a) 45. b) 9. c) 220. d) 100. e) No solution,
c) 20 + Ay/2, d) 2. e) 1 + \1. f) 48 + 2\/3. f) _4. g) No solution, h) -2. i) 16. j) No

860 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

solution, k) 10. 1) 2.25. m) -115. n) No
solution. 8. a) 10+ \ To . b) 10\To. c) 2V/3.
d) 3. e) \ 2. f) 2\/2.

Chapter 12, Review

1
. a) 8 and -8. b) None, c) 0. d) ^ and
/
fJ
2. a) 25. b) 25. c) 10. d) 48. e) 18. f) 30.
3. a) =. b) =. c) <. d) =. e) >. f) =.
3 "3" \
4. a) 3\/5. b) 7\ 2. c) 2V26. d) 100 \ 6. 5
5. a) 6vr. b) .v18. c) x'vlO. d) 3x\^.
o x "^ 6 un ^ ^ v V7x ,, \ 6.v
6. a) -y-. b) — . c) -j-. d) -j- .
7. a) 5.5. b) 7.7. c) 3.9. d) 4.5. 8. a) 8\/5. 5. a) 2. b) Quadratic, c) A curve.
0 12 3
b) 8\2. c) 9\/3. d) Not possible.^ e) Not
possible, f) 9\rx. 9. a) 7 + 7\ 7.
b) 34 + 5\ 2. c) -5\ 3. 10. a) 48.
b) 19 + 8V3. c) 7 - 4a/3. d) 18. 11. a) 10.
b) 33. c) 24 - 4\ 6. d) x\ e) x + 7\ x
f) 10 + 7\ 2. g) .v - 144. h) 4 - 5Vx + *.
_ ^ \ 66 + 6
12. a) 4. b) 2\ 3. c) 12(2 - \ 3). d) - — f—.

/°
13.a)0.77. b) 0.26. c) 3.74. 14. a) 2 \ 3.
b) 2\7. c) 160. d) 1,590. e) 900. f) 2. g) No
solution, h) 64.

Chapter 13, Lesson 1

4. a) 4at - 11 = 0; degree 1. b) .v3 - 6x2 + 8 = 0;

degree 3. c) x2 + 2x — 5 = 0; degree 2. 6. a-c)
d) 2a:5 - 1 = 0; degree 5. e) Ix - 20 = 0;
degree 1. f) 2x* + 9x2 — x = 0; degree 4.
5. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) Yes. d) No. e) Yes.
f) Yes. g) Yes. h) Yes. i) Yes. j) Yes. k) Yes.
1) Yes. 6. a) Yes. b) No. c) Yes. d) No.
e) Zero is a solution if x is a factor of even' term on
the left side. 7. a) -10. b) 19. c) 4. d) 0.
e) -0.6. f) -8. g) 7. h) -25.

Chapter 13, Lesson 2

4. a) 1. b) Linear, c) A straight line,
d) x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -1 1 3 5 7 9 11 d) All have the same shape.

Chapter 13, Lesson 2 861

 Chapter 13, Lesson 3

862 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

8. a) Between 1 and 2; between 4 and 5. Chapter 13, Lesson 6
b) Between -4 and -3; between -1 and 0. c) No
solution, d) Between -3 and -2; between -2 and -1. 4. a) -v2 + 8x + 16 = (x + 4)2.
b) x2 - 30x + 225 = (x - 15)2.
c) Ax2 - \2x + 9 = (2x - 3)2.
Chapter 13, Lesson 4 d) 25x2 + 70* + 49 = (5x + I)2.
e) x2 + lax + a2 = (x + a)2.
4. a) 4 and 5. b) 0 and -8. c) 0.5. d) 0 and 10. f) a2x2 - 4ax + 4 = (ax - 2)2. 5. a) Seven was
added to each side of the equation, b) Four was
e) -1 and 3. f) 4 and -0.25. g) -a and -b. h) -
added to each side of the equation and the left-hand
and — . side was factored as a binomial square, c) The
5. a) -3 and 3. b) 0 and 9. c) 0 and
square root of each side of the equation was taken,
-1. d) -3 and -4. e) 5. f) -7 and 2. g) 0 and d) Two was subtracted from each side of the
-12. h) 8 and -8. i) -16 and 4. j) - equation, e) Each side of the equation was divided
by 3. 6. a) x2 + 6x - 40 = 0,
- 25 = 0; 5 (x + 10)(x - 4) = 0; -10 and 4.
k) 0and-|. 1) -i«
b) x2 + 6x + 9 = 40 + 9; 4 and -10.
and -5. b) x2 + 9x - 22 = 0; 2 and -1 1. 7. a) x2 - 10.x + 25 = 36 + 25; 5 + V61 and
c) x2 - lOx = 0; 0 and 10. d) x2 + 8x + 7 = 0; -1 5 - V6l b) 12.81 and -2.81.
and -7. e) \x2 + 6x - 4 = 0; -2 and 0.5. c) (12.81)2 - 10(12.81) = 36, 164.0961 - 128.1 = 36,
f) 2x2 - 2x - 24 = 0; 4 and -3. 35.9961 ~ 36; (-2.81)2 - 10(-2.81) = 36,
7.8961 +28.1 = 36, 35.9961 a 36.
Chapter 13, Lesson 5
4. a) 12 and -12. b) \ 30 and -\ 30. c) 2 viand
-2 \/3. d) 5 \/6 and -5 \/6. 5. a) 9, -3. b) -4,
-18. c) 2,4. d) 10 + \Z3, 10 - V3.
e) 1 + 4V5, I -4 V5. f) 2 + \/2, 2 - ^2.
6. a) x2 - 6x - 27 = 0; 9 and -3. b) x - 3 = =6:
9 and -3. c) The square-rooMnethod.
7. a) -4 + y/\5 and -4 - \/l5.
b) x2 + 8x - 1 = 0; x2 + 8x - 1 doesn't factor.
8. a) 3x - 6 = ± >/45J 2 + \ T and 2 - \/5-
b) 4.236 and -0.236. c) [3(4.236) - 6]2 = 45,
(12.708 - 6)2 = 45, (6.708)2 = 45, 44.997264 = 45;
[3(-0.236) - 6]2 = 45, (-0.708 - 6)2 = 45,
(-6.708)2 = 45, 44.997264 = 45. 9. a) 4\ 3 and
-4V5! b) 7 and 3. c) 3 and -7. d) -1 + \/i0 and

-1 - \T0. e) 6 and -3. f) 1 and --^-. b) Between -2 and -1 and between 3 and 4.
c) 1 + v^ and 1 - \/5- d) 3.24 and -1.24.
10. a) 7 and -1. b) -8 + 3\/5 and -8 - 3\ 5~.
9. a) 7 and_-ll. b) 7 andjx c) -9. d) 1 + vTT
c)0and-5. d) 1 +.V° and 1 ~.V?. and 1 - \ 11. e) -8 + \ 65 and -8 - \ 65.
11. a) 9.236 and 4.764. b) 2.317 and -4.317.
c) 0.833. d) 0.020 and -0.770. f) 3 + 3\ 2 and 3 - 3\2. g) -1 and -|.

h) "^ +,X ^ and "5 ~ . 10. a) -2 + \ 26

and -2 - \ 26. b) 2 V6 and -2 \ 6. c) 4 + \ 22
and 4 - \/22. d) -6 + \/34 and -6 - \ 34 .

Chapter 13, Lesson 6 863

 Chapter 13, Lesson 7

4. a) x2 - 5x + 3 = 0; a = 1, b = -5, c = 3.
b) 4a:2 - x - 9 = 0; a = 4, 6 = -1, c = -9.
c) 6x2 + 3x = 0; a = 6, fc = 3, c = 0.
d) 2x2 + 14x - 11 = 0; a = 2, b = 14, c = -11.
5. a) 3 + \/2l and 3 - \^2\. b) 3 + \/2T and
3 - V2T. c) 7.58 and -1.58.
d) (7.58)2 - 6(7.58) = 12, 57.4564 - 45.48 = 12,
11.9764 ~ 12; (-1.58)2 - 6(-1.58)
-. b)= 12,
2.4964 + 9.48 = 12, 11.9764 ~ 12. -3 + V5
-3-
- and -
6. a) - 2 2
-3 -
-. c) The quadratic formula. 7. a) 7
d) -3 and -1. e) -2. f) No solutions. 6. a) -1
and -2. b) 7.1 and -2.1. c) 7.2 and -2.2. d) 6.6 and -3. b) -2. c) No solutions. 7. a) -1 and
and 0.5. e) 7.6 and 0.4. f) 8.7 and 0.4. 8. a) 8_ -3. b) -2. c) No solutions. 8. a) 8; two
solutions, b) -15; no solutions, c) 0; one solution,
and -2. b) -\ and -2. c) 5 + .v17 and 5 ~ v 17 . d) 20; two solutions. 9. a) 1.5 and 4.5. b) No
solutions, c) -0.5. d) 2.2 and -2.2. 10. a) 4.41
-2.24.
and 1.59. b) No solutions, c) -0.5. d) 2.24 and

Chapter 13, Lesson 9 -5

3. a) x5 - 8x = 0; 5. b) x3 + Ax - 10 = 0; 3.
c) 3x + 1 = 0; 1. d) x4 - 7x3 + 2x - 14 = 0; 4.
4. a) Yes.6. a)b) No. c) Yes. d) Yes.
5. a) -4, -1.3, and 4. b) -5, -2, 0, 3, and 5.
>
Chapter 13, Lesson 8
4. a) 4; two solutions, b) 0; one solution, c) -8; no
.
solutions. /
5. a) b)
/

40-
b) -2.2 and 2.2. 7. a) 0, -1, and 2.
1 5"
b) 0, l +2VTI, and 1~2^.
20- c) -1, 1, -3, and
3. d) a/5 and -yd. 8. a) 0, -3, and 0.5.
-10' c) -2 and
b) 3 + \/5 and 3 - \f5. 2.

V°
Chapter 13, Review
1. a) 6x5 - 2x + 3 = 0; quintic; 5. b) 7x - 44 = 0;

864 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 b)

linear; 1. c) .v3 - 81.v = 0; cubic; 3. 2. a) No. 5. a) 0.2. b) 0.04. c) 0.008. d) 0.0016. e) It

b) Yes. - 12 = 0. b) 2. c) -1.6 ends, f) Even. g)_n. h) 0.00032. i) 0.00000256.
and 2.6. j) Yes. 6. a) 0.09. b) 0.009. c) 0.0009. d) It
repeats, e) 10. f) 9. 7. a) -

a) 19. b) It would

10. a) -^;0.3. b) I; 0.4. c)

0.4950. e) It increases.

-f-v?
5. a) -0.3 and 3.3. b) 1.6. 6. a) 8 and -8. 2 l 3
b) -7 and 5. c) 1 and -j-. d) 2 and 9.
7. a) 3\ 2 and -3\ 2. b)-l+\K)and
-1 - \ 10. c) 3 and - d) 4 and -1. k) \^3and-\ 10. 5. a) Rational, b) Irrational.
c) Rational, d) Irrational, e) Irrational,
and -8. b) -4 + v^ and -4 - \ 22. 9. a) -* f) Rational, g) Irrational, h) Rational.
no solutions, b) 4; two solutions, c) 0; one
6. a) Not possible; irrational, b) 4; rational, c) Not
solution. 10. a) 1 and -0.2. b) 4 + \ TT and_
possible; irrational, d) 3.5; rational, e) Not
-1 + \T3 - and
_A --1 - \T3
\ 11. c) - 3 3 possible; irrational, f) 6; rational, g) Not possible;
irrational, h) 0.5; rational, i) 0.26; rational.
11. a) 0, \ 6, and -\ 6. b) 2 and_-2. 12. a) 2
and 5. b) 10 and -4.d)- c) -1 + \ 6 and -1 — \ 6. j) 0.13; rational. 7. a) 1.4. b) Smaller, c) ^.
- 789
^ -/ anda -3.i
d) e)* l + V29 and 1 - x 29 .
d) Smaller, e) 1.416. f) Larger, g) -yg-.
f ) 0, 5, and -5. h) Larger. 8. a) 36.000. b) 34.810. c) 35.046.
d) 34.999. e) 35.000. f ) Each number has a
Chapter 14, Lesson 1 decimal form that ends, g) 5.9 and 5.916 are smaller
than \ 35; 6, 5.92, and 5.9161 are larger than \ 35.
h) No. because \ 35 is irrational. 9. a) 1 and — .
1 1.00000 1 1
- and - and
2 0.50000 0.5
3 0.33333
0.3
4 0.25000 0.25 e) It must be the square of an integer.
5 0.20000 0.2
6 0.16666 0.16
7 0.14285 0.142857 \ 3
c) -
8 0.12500 0.125
d) -
Chapter 14, Lesson 2
 er 14, Lesson 3

-v
l 1 1 1 1 b) 1.8. c) 2.4. d) -1.6. e) One. f) One.
2 4 8 16 32 9. a) 10. b) -2. c) -5 and 5. d) None exists,
3 9 27 81 243 e) 1. f) -3. 10. a) >. b) >. c) =. d) <.
4 16 64 v2 256 1.024 e) <- f) >• g) >. h) >.
•
5 25 125 625
3,125
x> Chapter 14, Lesson 4
5. a) Irrational, b) Rational; 2. c) Rational; 5.
d) Irrational, e) Rational; 9. f) Rational; 3. V4

g) Rational; — . h) Rational; — . i) Irrational. 4' a) ITT'

rational and t:b)is31605'
irrational.c) Lar§er- d) (t)4 1S
j) Rational; J=-. 6. a) It gets smaller, b) 1. c) It 5. a) Radius 12 3 4 5
Circumference 2c- 4- 6tt 8t 10t
gets larger, d) 1. 7. a) The v-coordinate is the
square of the .v-coordinate. b) The .v-coordinate is b) Yes. c) Direcdy. 6. a) Circumference, t cm;
the square root of the v-coordinate. area, 0.25^ square cm. b) Circumference, 2cr( \ 2)
cm; area, 2c7 square cm. c) Circumference, 2t2 cm;
area, tt3 square cm. d) Circumference, 6 cm; area, —

square cm. 7. a) 4.5. b) — . c) 3. d) 2\ 5.

8. a) 1,600. b) 16.v2. c) 400cr. d) 4s*2.
9. a) 27tt. b) 3m*2. c) ^- . 10. a) 113 inches.
b) 2 inches, c) 53 square centimeters,
d) 40 centimeters.

Chapter 14, Lesson 5

4. a) 8, \ 8 = 2, and 82 = 64. b) 0s = 0 and -8.

d) -3.2 and 3.2.
e) -4.2 and 4.2. c) 0.8, 0.8, and j. d) \ 8 and 8^. 5. a) No;
f) -4.7 and 4.7. example: 1 — 2 = -1. b) Yes. c) No; example:
g) Two. h) None.
— = 0.5. d) Yes. e) Xo; example: \ 2 is
irrational. 6. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) Yes. d) Xo;
example: — = 0.5. e) Yes. 7. a) Yes. b) Yes.
c) Yes. d) Yes. e) Yes. f) Xo; example: \ 2 is
irrational. 8. _a) 0.0008^0.009^0.07^0.6. b) 0183,
0.183, 0.183, 0.183. c) \ 10, \ 10, \ 10. d) \ -2.
\-l. \1.\2. e)
9. a) 1.82.

b) 0.43. c) -0.04. d) 0.32. e) -2.21. 10. a) ==-;

rational, b) 1; counting number, c) \ 2; irrational,
d) \/5 and -\ 5; irrational, e) 5 and -1; integers,
2' 2'
f ) 49; counting number.

866 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

Chapter 14, Review Chapter 15, Lesson 2
1. a) True, b) True, c) True, d) False. 4. a) 20 + x. b) 3* - 2. c) 8 + 2x. d) x2 - 15.
e) True. 2. a) 2.5. b) 0.28. c) 4.8. e) 4x + 26. f) 3x2 + 4x - 2.
9 5. a) ; 3.v . v Ax
d) 0.153846. 3. a) -±. b) -£=-. c) "
1124 SO" u'75- " 12 = T" b)T
c) Ax — 48 = 3x e) It contains16 no= fractions.
d) "*7 . 4. a) 17. b) It repeats zeros.
6. a) 0.2. b) 2.5. c) -3. d) 42. e) 15. f) No
' solution, g) 0. h) 8. i) -3.5. j) 5.
c) 16. 999 5. a) -1. b) Not possible, c) j. d) j. 7. a) (15,8). b) (6,-11).
6. 0.027, 0.027, 0.027, 0.027. 7. a) -4. b) 3
and -3. c) 0. d) 2. 8. a) <. b) =. c) <.
Chapter 15, Lesson 3
d) >. 9. a) 5 and 1. b) 3 + \/3 and 3 - \/3.
c) 3 + \/2 and 3 - y/2. d) 3. e) Jr. must be the 4. a) 5 and -5. b) 2 and -0.5. c) 8 and -5.
square of an integer. 10. a) 3.1418. b) Larger. d) -1. 5. a) 8.48 and -0.48. b) 3.65 and -1.65.
c)
c) m js not rational. 11. a) 2iry/5. b) 0.09tt.
c) 0.17. d) -0.38 and -2.62. 6. a) Ollie, -^-;
d) 10 V2.
a\ in,/o 12. a) 75^. b) 3^7.v2. c) \. 1
13. a) 38 inches, b) 7,850 square centimeters. 1_
14. a) 9 and \/9 = 3. b) 0" = 0 and -9. c) 0.9 c) — + — = 1. d) Approximately 34.3
and
^-. d)\3/9and9^. 15. a) No; example:
3 + minutes. 7. a) Time going, -^-;
' 60'time returning, — .
1=4. b) No; example: 3—1=2. c) Yes.
d) No; example: 1 b) — + — . c) 12 kilometers per hour.
e) Yes
rational, b) 3 V6; irrational, c) \/6and-\/6;
irrational, d) 121; counting number. •b
Chapter 15, Lesson 4

4. a) h = ab. b) About 4,184 hits. 5. a) x = —a .

Chapter 15, Lesson 1 3'
b) =%- = -3. c) 0.6. 6. a) -10. b) -21.
9 M 1
4. a) - b) -±-. c) 9. d) 1.
b) Not c) -ab. d) 4. e) 9. f) a. 7. a) b. b)

0 -T- g) 4- h) Not possible. 6. a) 6. b) 13.2.

g) ±Va2 - \. h) J2U . 8. a) 55 degrees,
c) y. d) 41. e) True for all x except -1. f) 10 b) n = 4(F - 40). c) 128. d) 40.
and -10. g) No solution, h) -1.3. i) 8 and -8.
J) 1. Chapter 15, Lesson 5
7. a) Lucy's age 1 2 3 6 10 20 30
Ethel's age 7 8 9 12 16 26 36
b) 7, 4, 3, 2, 1.6, 1.3, 1.2. c) i d) It gets
smaller, e) No; if the ratio of their ages became
equal to 1, Ethel and Lucy would be the same age.
8. a) Time in minutes 1 5 6.25 12.5
Amount of gas in ounces 1.6 8 10 20
b) 1.6. c) Directly, d) g = 1.6*. 6. a) 39. b) a -.
 bf
7. a) A 20 35 50 65 Chapter 16, Lesson 2
p 112 121 134.5 152.5
4. .4.2 -1-2
b) It gets higher, c) No. 8. a) 4.8 centimeters.

Chapter 15, Review 2. a)

b) Not
possible, c) — . d) Not possible. 3. a) 45 + x.
b) 7.x- - 2. c) 4 + 6x. d) x2 - x - 24.
4. a) 4.9. b) 1.25. c) True for all numbers except -2 0 1
-5. d) 5. e) -36. f) -15. g) 1.2. h) \/l0 and
-2V5 ., , , 5. a) The direction is the same, b) The direction is
. )) -4 and
reversed, c) The direction is the same.
3v 6. a) Yes. b) Yes. c) No. d) Yes. e) Yes.
2.5. 5. a) 16^ cubic centimeters, b) b
f) Yes. g) Yes. h) No. i) Yes. j) Yes. k) No.
1) Yes. m) Yes. n) No. o) No. 7. a) Seven was
c) 8 centimeters. 6. a) a ~ . b) a + 1 added to both sides, b) Both sides were divided by
three, c) Ten was subtracted from both sides,
c) y/aand-y/a. d) a — 0
p. e) ab a+ 1 .
d) Both sides were divided by -6. e) Both sides
were multiplied (or divided) by -1. f) Both sides
7. a) 273.3 degrees, b) F = 9^ - 23Q0 ,
b) were multiplied by -4. 8. a) x < -7. b) x < -^.
c) 1,475 degrees. 8. a) — hours.
c) abc c) x > -10. d)x<3. e) x < -18. f) x > -18.
g) 7 < x < 14. h) -8 < x < 2. 9. a) x > -3.
be3-4-6
+ ac + ab ' -8
72
b) x > -2. c)x>15. d) *>j. e)5<.v<10.
4-6 + 3-6 + 3-4 24+18+12" f) .r < 5. g) True for all numbers, h) 40 > x > 0.

Chapter 16, Lesson 1 Chapter 16, Lesson 3

4. a) >. b) <. c) <. d) >. e) >. f) <. 4. a) x > 2; Figure C. b) x > 5; Figure A.
g) =. h) <. i) >. j) >. k) <. 1) >. c) x < 5; Figure D. d) x > 2; Figure C.
m) <. n) =. o) >. 5. a) 2<9 and 9 > 2. e) 2 < x < 5; Figure B. f) 5 > x; Figure D.
b) -4 < 4 and 4 > -4. c) 0 < x and x > 0. 5.
d)_v<-3 and -3>v. 6. a) E. b) A. c) F.
d) B. e) C. f) D. 7. a) <. b) <. c) =. a) x < 3.
3
d) >. e) >. f) <. g) >. h) <. i) <. j) <. * o »
k) <. 1) <. m) <. n) <. 8. a) <. b) <.
b) x > -8.
c) <. d) <. e) <. f) <. g) <. h) <.
i) <. j) Not defined, k) >. 1) >. m) <. m 2• *-
n) >. 9. a) <. b) None, c) >. d) None. c) 2 > x.
e) None, f) >. 10. a) >. b) <. c) None.
d) >. e) >. f) None. d) x < 0.

868 ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 e) -1 >x. 9. a) 9 and -9. b) 9 and 5. c) -13 < x < 13.
d)-5<x<13. e) x > 12 or x < -12.
f) 3 < x. -24 f) x > 12 or x < -10. g) -13 < x < 3. h) True
3 for all numbers. 10. a) 171 < x < 173.

g) -24 > x b) |x - 172|< 1.

Chapter 16, Review
h) x>4. — o j a) < b) > c) > d) < e) > f) _
g) >. h) =. 2. a) x < 5. b) 0 < x < 8.
c) x > -2. d) -6 < x < 4. 3. a) >. b) None.
c)0<x<b-a.
6. a)x>A. a b)x>^. b c) >• d) None. 4. a) >. b) None. c)<.
d) >. 5. a) Yes. b) No. c) No. d) No.
d) x > -* ■ 7. a) x < 3 + 5, x < 8; e) Yes. f) Yes. g) No. h) Yes. i) Yes.
6.
6. a)x<-3.
a) x < -3. b)x<-f.
b) x < | c)x<-10. d) x < 3.
3 < x + 5,-2 < x; 5 < x + 3, 2 < x.
b) x < 12 + x + 6, 0 < 18; 12 < x + x + 6, 3 < x; e) 6 < x < 7. f ) x > -6. g) x < 20. h) x <
x + 6 < x + 12, 6 < 12. c) x < 2x + 6, -6 < x,
6 < x + 2x, 2 < x; 2x < x + 6, x < 6. 0 * > 12- >) * > ~7- k)e)* < ~7- 0 * < 12-
d) 4 < (2 + x) + (8 - x), 4 < 10; 7. a) x > - * . b) x > ** . c) x > -*_.
2 + x < 4 + (8 - x), x < 5; 8 - x < 4 + (2 + x), a c a~c
± <x d) -a > x > -6. 8. a) 8 and -8. b) 18 and -12.
c) 2 and -12. d) v + x and y — x.
9.
-/ 0 1
Chapter 16, Lesson 4 a) -« •— — • »-
4. a) 15 and -15. b) 17 and 5. c) 17 and -5. d) 6 bx ^ 0 , „
and -10. e) .v + 3 and x - 3. f) b + a and O
6 - a. 5. a) C. b) A. c) D. d) B. c) ^ o 1 o ^
6. a) Yes. b) No. c) Yes. d) No. e) Yes. -2 0 2
f) Yes. g) Yes. h) No. i) Yes. j) Yes. k) No. d) • + ^ ^
1) Yes. 7. a) 8 and -8. b) 0. c) No solution.
d) -3 < x < 3. e) -5 < x < 5. f ) x > 4 or
x < -4. g) True for all numbers, h) x > 30 or ^
x < -30.

-3 0 3^
a) "*
.
^
2
J
5
•
8
►"" 10. a) -8 and 8. b) -14 < x < 14. c) -10 and 10.
d) 10 and 8. e) True for all numbers, f) x > -5
-11. g) -2. h) True for all numbers.
4 . 1 • ^
-5 -2 7 Chapter 17, Lesson 1
-4 0 4 4. a) Arithmetic; common difference, 7.
e) ^ o . 1 o +- b) Geometric; common ratio, 2. c) Neither.
-3 1 5 d) Arithmetic; common difference, -2. e) Geometric
f) -* o o *~ common ratio, 10. f) Neither, g) Both; common
-8 -4 0 difference, 0; common ratio, 1. h) Geometric;
-. . 1 • ■ ►
§) "* -2 • 01 2 common ratio, 1.5. i) Arithmetic; common
difference, 3.5. j) Neither, k) Geometric; common
1 3 5 ratio, -3. 1) Neither, m) Geometric; common
-* • 1 • » 1

Chapter 17, Lesson 1 869

 e) Linear. 6. a) 8, 11, 14. b) 3. c) 35.
o) Geometric; common ratio,
d) 305. e) 215. f) 15,650. 7. a) 6, -4, -14.
b) -10. c) -84. d) -984. e) -390. f) -48,900.
b) 324. c) 17. d) -23. e) 6. f) 125.
i) 0.025. j) 1,875. k)\ 11. 1) -0.3. 6. a) 7,9,
11, 13, 15. b) By adding 2. c) Arithmetic. -7.5. g) 1, 4, 7. h)
7. a) 10, 20, 40, 80, 160. b) By multiplying by 2.
c) Geometric. 8. a) -30, 90. b) 2, 250. c) 10,h)- 9. a) tu = 2 + (» - 1)5: 27. b) r, = 16 + (n - 1)9;
17. d) 6, 12. 9. a) r„ = n + 3. b) tn = n2. 97. c) tu = 92 - (n - 1)3; 32.
c) rn = 5». d) tn = -8. e) tn A) =*n 4". d) f„ = 20 - (b - 1)11; -101. e) tn = -6; -6.
f) tn = -70 + (n - 1)12; 1,130. 10. a) 126.
f) tn = n - 6. S)tu = -r b) 306. c) 465. d) 1,275. e) 1,800. f) -2,450.
11. a) 280. b) 780. c) -253. d) 1,387.5.
Chapter 17, Lesson 2 12. a) 21. b) 78. 13. a) 21.5 miles.
b) 935 miles.
4. a) 3, 5. 7, 9, 11. b) 2.

c) , d)

12'

ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 5h

d) Exponential.
d) 6. a) 0.5, 2, 8. b) 4. c) d) 5, -4.5, 4.1,-3.6, 3.3, -3.

2 7. a) 15, 5, |. b) ±. c) 15- ^
8. a) 2,000. b) 12. c) 4, 16.
d) 15-

d) 5,-135. e) 7°, 7'. f) -L.

9. a) tn = 6-2" '. b) f„ = 64*(i)" '•

10/
c) ?„ = 5.(-l)«>. d) t„ = 4 •({)"'•
e) f„ = 2-(\/6)n_1. f) '„ = 300-
10. a) 728. b) 390,624. c) -341. d) 65,532.
11. a) 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1,024.
b) d)2,046. c) 2". d) Sn = 2(2" - 1). 12. a) 1, 3, 9. a) 16, 8, 4, 2, 1.
9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2,187. b) 3,280. c) 363.
3M - 1 b) 31. c) 32. 10. a) 62.5 meters.
2 ' 37 '
Mr
1'
Chapter 17, Review
Chapter 17, Lesson 4 1. a) Arithmetic; common difference, 6. b) Neither,
c) Geometric; common ratio, 2.5. d) Neither.
4. a) 1.2. b) 0.9. c) 1. d) -0.5. e) -1. f) -1.4. e) Both; common difference, 0; common ratio, 1.
g) 0.3. h) 1.01. 5. a) Sequences a, f, and h; their
absolute values are greater than 1. b) Sequences b, f) Geometric; common ratio, — . 2. a) 80.
d, and g; their absolute values are less than 1.
b) 33. c) 2\/5. d) A. e) 0.081. f) 50.
6. a) 4, 4.8, 5.8, 6.9, 8.3, 10. 3. a) 24. b) 27. c) 25. d) 20. 4. a) 1, 8, 27,
64. b) 3, 9, 27, 81. c) 11, 16, 21, 26. d) 7, 6, 5,
c) 5,-5.5, 6.1,
-6.7, 7.3, -8. 4. e) 1, |, 1 , 1. f) 40, 400, 4,000, 40,000.
g) c and d. h) b and f. 5. a) tn = n2; 121.
b) tn = n - 7; 43. c) tn = 1; JL. d) tn = -An;

-80. e) tn = 3"; 2,187. f) tn = Vn~+2; 10.

g) tn=j] 3. h) tn = 3 -6"-'; 23,328.

6. a) 287. b) -24. c) 5,700. d) 1,560.
7. a) 2,186. b) 23,325. c) -2,046. 8. a) 0.1.

b) 4, 3.2, 2.6, 2, 1.6, 1.3. b) 1.2. c) -0.45. 9. a) 50. b) 243. c) |.

4h 41 ll. a) 829, 1,039,
9, 9, 0.

Lton
.
1,24 1,45 1,669 b) tn = 199 + (« - 1)21
c) 2,299. d) Composite; 2,299 = 11 ■ 209.
12. a) 256, 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1. b) 9.
c) 511. 13. a) 12 centimeters, b) 42
centimeters, c) Shortly after end of second month;
cO-
Chapter 17, Review 871
second month: 42 — -^-(42) = 58.8. third month: 46. Xs - 4.v- - 5.v. 47. 0, 2, and -5.
48. 2\ 3. 49. j<c. 50. 3y(5x - 3i.
58.8 + 4(58.8) = 82.32.
51. .v < 1 ~a. 52. 3. 53. It is reversed.
54. 6.v: - 5.v - 1. 55. 180.
Final Review 56. (.v5 + 2X.v3 - 2). 57. (3x*f. 58. — —.
59. x > 4 or 4 < x. 60. .^< 9.
1. False. 2. 3. Slope. 1; v-intercept, 61. (x - 3)(.v - 7). 62. 3\ 2. 63. 3.v + 30.
64. 3 and 4. 65. -3, 0, and 2.
4. J_.
5x 5. 3X 3. 6. -15 and 1. 7. 1.125. 66. .v(.v + v)2. 67. -5. 68. x2 - x - 2.
69. 5 and -2. 70. x* - 2.v5 + 1. 71. It gets
8. Quadratic. 9. -3. 10. -8 < x < 8.
11. x\.v. 12. 0.35,0.35,0.35. 13. <. smaller (closer and closer to 1). 72. 4-.
14. ;. 2 . 15. 3.6 x 109.
73. 2 and -2. 74. p = 2a ^ b. 75. .-1 = l*ft.
18. 8 and -8. 19. ;. = 2 . 20. 76. x - v = 15; 20.v - 30v = 340. 77. 11 packets
at 20 cents. 4 packets at 30 cents. 78. v = -^- or
6..

21. aex*«. 22. 3.7 x 105.

.
223

442

24. 4 and -4. 25. tn = 3». v = ~x. 79. Directly. 80. It would be a
27. -4 < .v < 10. 28. 2 • 5: straight line through the origin.
29. x - 1 1 v. 30. Rational. 31.

32. 1.5. 33. -0.5. 34. 13.5. 35.

36. Y ^ . 37. 3 - \ 7 and 3 - \

3'

38. 1 40. True.

39. —
41. x = ah + 1. 42. True
44. 100. 4::!.
45. y

ANSWERS TO THE SET II EXERCISES

 Index

Absolute value, 155-156 Circumference of a circle, 687-688

and inequalities, 763-766 Closure of a set of numbers, 694
Addition Coefficient of a monomial, 394
of fractions, 513-516 Commutative property
method for solving simultaneous of addition, 201
equations, 286-287 of multiplication, 201
of polynomials, 406-408 Completing the square, 632-634
of polynomials and fractions, 520-522 Complex fraction, 544-546
of positive and negative numbers, Composite number, 445
121-122, 157 Conjugate, 588
properties of, 201 Constant of variation, 85, 97
of square roots, 578 Coordinate graph, 73-74, 115-116
Approximations, 165-167 Coordinates of a point, 74
Area Counting numbers, 33
of a circle, 688-689 Cube of a number, 29, 680
of a rectangle, 213-214 Cube root of a number, 680-681
Arithmetic sequence, 777
nth term of, 786
sum of, 785 Decimal form of a rational number,
Associative property 150-151
of addition, 201 Degree
of multiplication, 201 of a monomial, 394
Axes, 73 of a polynomial, 401
Denominator of a fraction, 498-499
Base, 346 Descending powers of the variable, 401
Binomial, 423 Difference, 13
squaring, 422-426 of two squares, factoring the, 470-472
Direct variation, 84-85 Formulas, 66-67
Discriminant, 645-648 solving, 245-247, 724-726, 730-733
Distance, rate, and time, 220-221 Fractional equations, 713-715, 718-720
Distributive properties, 53-54, 201 Fractions, 498-501, 506-509
Division, 23-24 addition and subtraction of, 513-516
of fractions, 538-541 complex, 544-546
of polynomials, 430-433 division of, 538-541
of positive and negative numbers, equivalent, 500
135-136. 162 multiplication of, 526-529
of square roots, 587-589 simple, 545
bv zero. 34 Functions, 66-67, 78-79
exponential, 376-378
graphing. 74, 79, 170-172
Equations, 182 linear, 90-91
equivalent. 193-194, 313 polynomial, 611-613
fractional, 713-715, 718-720
inconsistent, 312-313
Geometric sequence, 777
polynomial, 606-607
radical, 593-595 nth term of, 793
simultaneous, 284-286 sum of, 795
steps in solving higher-degree, 653- Graph, 73-74, 115-116
656 of a direct variation, 85
steps in solving linear, 207 of a function, 74, 79, 170-172
steps in solving quadratic, 621-623, of an inverse variation, 97
626-628. 632-634, 639-641 of a linear equation, 252-254
in two variables. 240-241 of a linear function, 9 1
Equivalent Graphing
of a quadratic function, 645-646
equations, 193-194, 313
expressions, 200-201 by intercepts, 258-261
fractions, 500 simultaneous equations, 304-307
Exponents, 28, 346 by slope-intercept form, 272-273
Greatest common factor
properties of, 345-348, 352-354,
371-373 of a set of monomials, 452
Exponential functions, 376-378 of a set of numbers, 446
Expressions, equivalent, 200-201

Inconsistent equations, 312-313

Factoring
Inequalities, 744-746
the difference of two squares, 470-472 solving, 751-753, 757-759
trinomial squares, 476-477 Infinite geometric sequences, 802-806
Factors sum of, 805
of integers, 445 Integers, 1 1 1
of polynomials, 455-458, 461-466, Intercepts, 258-261
481-484, 487-489 Inverse operations, 186-188
Formula, quadratic, 639-641 Inverse variation, 96-97
Large numbers, 340-342 Ordered pairs, 241
Laws of exponents, 345-348, 352-354, Origin, 73
371-373
Linear equations, graphing, 252-254 Parabola, 645
Linear functions, 90-91
Parentheses, use of, 46-47
Perimeter of a figure, 213-214
Mixed number, 521 Period of a repeating decimal, 667
Mixture problems, 328-329 Pi, 687-689
Monomials, 394-396 Polynomial equations, 606-607
factors of, 450-452 solving by graphing, 616-617
Polynomial functions, 611-613
operations with, 395-396
Multiplication, 17-18 Polynomials, 400-402
addition and subtraction of, 406-408
of fractions, 526-529
division of, 430-433
of polynomials, 412-414, 418-419 factors of, 455-458, 461-466, 481-
of polynomials and fractions, 532-535
of positive and negative numbers, 484, 487-489
130-132, 162 multiplication of, 412-414, 418-419
Positive integers, 111
properties of, 201 Power
of square roots, 582-584 of a number, 28-29, 681
of a power, 354
of a product, 372
Natural numbers, 33 of a quotient, 372
Negative integers, 111 Prime
as exponents, 359-361 numbers, 445
Number line, 110, 151
polynomials, 457
Number sequences, 776-779 Product, 17
Numbers of the sum and difference of two
composite, 445
counting, 33 terms, 425-426
of two powers, 347
irrational, 674-675
natural, 33 Proportion, 707-709
prime, 445
rational, 150-151, 666-669 Quadrants, 116
real, 693-695 Quadratic equations
Numerator of a fraction, 498-499 solving by completing the square,
632-634
solving by factoring, 621-623
One, properties of, 34 solving by quadratic formula, 639-641
One-half as an exponent, 564-565 solving by taking square roots, 626-
Operations, order of, 40 628
Opposites, 121 Quadratic formula, 639-641
Order Quadratic function, graph of, 645-646
of operations, 40 Quotient, 23
of a set of numbers, 694 of two powers, 354
Radical equations, 593-595 Square roots
Radical sign, 558 addition and subtraction of, 577-578
Rate problems, 225-227 division of, 587-589
Ratio, 707 multiplication of, 582-584
Rationalizing the denominator, 588-589 Squares and square roots, table of, 563
Rational numbers, 150-151, 666-669 Standard form
changing to decimal form, 666-667 of a 253
linear equation in two variables,
Real numbers, 693-695
Reciprocal of a number, 540 of a polynomial equation, 607
Reducing to lowest terms, 501 Subject of a formula, 245-246
Relatively prime Substitution method for solving
monomials, 452 simultaneous equations, 319-323
numbers, 446 Subtraction, 12-13
Rise and run, 266 as adding the opposite, 126
Root of a number, 68 1 of fractions, 513-516
method for solving simultaneous
equations, 291-292
Scientific notation, 340-342, 366-367 of polynomials, 406-408
Simple fraction, 545 of polynomials and fractions, 520-522
Simple radical form, 566 of positive and negative numbers,
Simultaneous equations, 284-286 125-126, 161-162
of square roots, 578
graphing, 304-307
solving by addition method, 286-287
solving by substitution method, 319- Terms of a polynomial, 401
323 Trinomial, 423
solving by subtraction method, 291-
292 squares, factoring, 476-477
Slope, 265-267 Variable, 7, 67, 182
Slope-intercept form of a linear Variation
equation, 271-273
Small numbers, 366-367 direct, 84-85
Solution of equation, 183 inverse, 96-97
Square of a number, 29, 558
Square root Zero
of a number, 558 as an exponent, 359-361
of a product, 564-566 product property, 621
of a quotient, 570-573 properties of, 33-34
 ISBN 0-7167-1047-1

9 '78071 6"71 0479"