Chemical Reactions and Equations

C L A S S 1 0 TH C H A P T E R 1 ST
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Consider the following situations of daily life and think what happens when –

• milk is left at room temperature during summers.

• an iron tawa/pan/nail is left exposed to humid atmosphere.
• grapes get fermented.
• food is cooked.
• food gets digested in our body.
• we respire.
Physical and chemical changes
Chemical change – one or more new substances with new physical and chemical
properties are formed.

Here, when copper sulphate reacts with iron, two new substances, i.e.,
ferrous sulphate and copper are formed.

Physical change – change in color or state occurs but no new substance

is formed.
Example
• Water changes to steam on boiling but no new substance is formed(Even though
steam and water look different when they are made to re act with a piece of Na,
they react the same way and give the exact same products).

• This involves only a change in state (liquid to vapor).

• The sun rises, the night turns into a day, the seasons change, the leaves shed,
flowers bloom and living beings grow.

• Every day, we see a number of changes happening around us.

• Change is inevitable. It takes place all the time and everywhere. However,
changes differ from one another in a number of aspects.

• Some changes are fast, others are slow. Some of them are temporary, others are
permanent.

• Some are periodic, others are non-periodic. Some are natural, others are man-
made. Some are reversible, others are irreversible.

• On the larger front, a change may be categorized into a chemical or a physical

change depending on how the properties of a subject alter when it undergoes the
change.
Physical Change
• A substance is said to undergo a physical change when only the physical
properties such as the shape, size, colour, state or appearance of the substance
change.

• Its chemical composition remains intact. Some characteristics of a physical

change are:

Temporary in nature
• Does not affect the internal structure of a substance, only the molecules are
rearranged.

• No new substance is formed.

• Most of the physical changes are reversible. We can obtain the substance back
even after the change.
Some examples of a physical change are folding of a paper sheet, melting of wax,
freezing and boiling water, melting of ice, condensation, vaporization, magnetizing
a compass needle, dissolving sugar in water, etc.

Chemical Change
A substance is said to undergo a chemical change when the chemical properties of a
substance alter.

As a result, there is either formation or breaking of atomic bonds at the molecular

level. Some characteristics of a chemical change are:

• Permanent in nature.

• Since the original composition of the substance changes, one or more new
substances are formed.
• Forms of energy, such as heat, light or electricity, may be emitted or absorbed.

• A chemical change is generally irreversible. At least, it cannot be reversed by

simple physical means.

• Some examples of a chemical change are burning of paper, burning of fuel,

rusting of iron, the souring of milk, growth in a living being, cooking, digestion
of food, burning of wood, etc.
Observations that help determine a chemical reaction
A chemical reaction can be determined with the help of any of the following
observations:
a) Evolution of a gas
b) Change in temperature
c) Formation of a precipitate
d) Change in colour
e) Change of state
Chemical reaction
• Chemical reactions are chemical changes in which reactants transform into
products by making or breaking of bonds (or both) between different atoms.

Types of chemical reactions

• Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into
multiple categories.
• Few examples are:
● Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation
Chemical Equations
• Due to the vast amounts of chemical reactions happening around us, a
nomenclature was developed to simplify how we express a chemical reaction in
the form of a chemical equation.

• A chemical equation is nothing but a mathematical statement which symbolizes

the product formation from reactants while stating certain condition for which
how the reaction has been conducted.
The reactants are written on the left-hand side (LHS) with a plus sign (+) between
them. Similarly, products are written on the right-hand side (RHS) with a plus sign
(+) between them. For example, a reaction

A+B→C+D

• Here, A and B are the reactants, which react to form the products C and D.

• In an actual chemical equation, reactants are denoted by their chemical formula.

• In order to assure the law of conservation of mass, a chemical equation must be

balanced i.e. the number of atoms on both sides must be equal. This is the
balancing of the equation.

• Let us consider an actual chemical reaction between Methane(CH₄) and Oxygen

(O2),
Here we can see how the number of each atom on the left side is balanced on the
right side, as stated by the law of conservation of mass.

Types of Chemical Reactions

The basis for different types of reactions is the product formed, the changes that
occur, the reactants involved and so on. Different types of reactions are:-

• Combustion reaction
• Decomposition reaction
• Neutralization reaction
• Redox Reaction
• Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction
• Synthesis reaction
1. Combustion Reaction
A combustion reaction is a reaction with a combustible material with an oxidizer to
give an oxidized product.
An oxidizer is a chemical a fuel requires to burn, generally oxygen. Consider the
example of combustion of magnesium metal.
2Mg+O2→2MgO+Heat

Here, 2 magnesium atoms react with a molecule of oxygen producing 2

molecules of the compound magnesium oxide releasing some heat in the
process.
2. Decomposition Reaction
• A Decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a single component breaks down
into multiple products.

• Certain changes in energy in the environment have to be made like heat, light or
electricity breaking bonds of the compound.

• Consider the example of the decomposition of calcium carbonate giving out Cao
(Quick Lime) which is a major component of cement.
CaCO3(s)→Heat Cao(s)+CO2(g)
3. Neutralization Reaction
• A Neutralization reaction is basically the reaction between an acid and a base
giving salt and water as the products.

• The water molecule formed is by the combination of OH– ions and H+ ions.

• The overall pH of the products when a strong acid and a strong base undergo a
neutralization reaction will be 7.

• Consider the example of the neutralization reaction between Hydrochloric acid

and Sodium Hydroxide giving out sodium chloride(Common Salt) and water.

HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O
• Here, an acid and a base, Hydrochloric acid and Sodium Hydroxide react in a
neutralization reaction to produce Sodium Chloride(Common Salt) and water as
the products.

4. Redox Reaction
• A Reduction Oxidation reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of
electrons between chemical species.

• Let us consider the example of an electrochemical cell-like redox reaction between

Zinc and Hydrogen.
Zn+2H+→Zn2++H2
• Here, A Zinc atom reacts with 2 ions of positively charged hydrogen to which
electrons get transferred from zinc atom and hydrogen becomes a stable
molecule and Zinc ion is the product.

5. Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction

• It is a type of displacement reaction in which two compounds react and
consequently, their anions and cations switch places forming two new products.

• Consider the example of the reaction between silver nitrate and sodium
chloride.

• The products will be silver chloride and sodium nitrate after the double-
displacement reaction.AgNO3+NaCl→AgCl+NaNO3
• Here, Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride undergo a double displacement reaction.

• Wherein Silver replaces Sodium in Sodium Chloride and Sodium joins with Nitrate
becoming Sodium Nitrate along with the Silver Chloride as the product.

6. Synthesis Reaction
• A Synthesis reaction is one of the most basic types of reaction wherein multiple
simple compounds combine under certain physical conditions giving out a complex
product.

• The product will always be a compound.

• Let us consider the Synthesis reaction of sodium chloride with reactants solid
sodium and chloride gas.
2Na(s)+Cl(g)→2NaCl(s)
Chemical Reactions and Equations I
Word equation
• A word equation is a chemical reaction expressed in words rather than chemical
formulas. It helps identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
• For example,
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride
• The above equation means: “Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium
chloride.”

Symbols of elements and their valencies

• A symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two-letter
atomic symbol, which is the abbreviated form of its name.
• Valency is the combining capacity of an element. It can be considered as the
number of electrons lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with
another atom to form a molecule.
For solids, the symbol is “(s)”.
• For liquids, it is “(l)”.
• For gases, it is “(g)”.
• For aqueous solutions, it is “(aq)”.
• For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by “(↑)”.
• For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by “(↓)”
Balancing of a Chemical Reaction
Conservation of mass
• According to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the
reactants side has to balance the number of atoms that are present in the products
side.

• In other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is
equal to the total mass of the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.

Balanced chemical equation

• The chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element in the
reactants side is equal to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical
equation.
Chemical Reactions and Equations II
Types of chemical reactions
• Taking into consideration different factors, chemical reactions are grouped into
multiple categories.
Few examples are:
● Combination
● Decomposition
● Single Displacement
● Double displacement
● Redox
● Endothermic
● Exothermic
● Precipitation
● Neutralisation
Combination reaction
In a combination reaction, two elements or one element and one compound or two
compounds combine to give one single product.
Decomposition reaction
• A single reactant decomposes on the application of heat or light or electricity to
give two or more products.
Types of decomposition reactions:
a. Decomposition reactions which require heat – thermolytic decomposition or
thermolysis.
Thermal decomposition of HgO
b. Decomposition reactions which require light – photolytic decomposition or
photolysis.

Photolytic decomposition of H2O2c.

Decomposition reactions which require electricity – electrolytic decomposition or

electrolysis.
Displacement reaction
• More reactive element displaces a less reactive element from its compound or
solution.

Double displacement reaction

An exchange of ions between the reactants takes place to give new products.
Precipitation reaction
• An insoluble compound called precipitate forms when two solutions
containing soluble salts are combined.
Redox reaction
Oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.

Oxidation: Substance loses electrons or gains oxygen or loses hydrogen.

Reduction: Substance gains electrons or loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.

Oxidising agent – a substance that oxidises another substance and self-gets reduced.

Reducing agent – a substance that reduces another substance and self-gets oxidised.
Endothermic and exothermic reaction
Exothermic reaction – heat is evolved during a reaction. Most of the combination
reactions are exothermic.

Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 + Fe + heat

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat

Examples of Exothermic Reactions

• Exothermic reactions are everywhere, from the burning of a candle to the nuclear
fusion reactions taking place in the sun.

• An image detailing some of the exothermic reactions which are used by human
beings for beneficial purposes is provided below.
Endothermic – Heat is required to carry out the reaction.

6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2

• Endothermic reactions are chemical reactions in which the reactants absorb heat
energy from the surroundings to form products.

• These reactions lower the temperature of their surrounding area, thereby

creating a cooling effect.

• Physical processes can be endothermic as well – Ice cubes absorb heat energy
from their surroundings and melt to form liquid water (no chemical bonds are
broken or formed).
Glucose
Most of the decomposition reactions are endothermic
Corrosion
Gradual deterioration of a material, usually a metal, by the action of moisture, air or
chemicals in the surrounding environment.

Rusting:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(from air) + xH2O(moisture) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O(rust)

Corrosion of copper:
Cu(s) + H2O(moisture) + CO2(from air) → CuCO3.Cu(OH)2(green)

Corrosion of silver:
Ag(s) + H2S (from air) → Ag2S(black) + H2(g)
Rancidity
It refers to the oxidation of fats and oils in food that is kept for a long time. It gives
foul smell and bad taste to food.

Rancid food causes stomach infection on consumption.

Prevention:

(i) Use of air-tight containers

(ii) Packaging with nitrogen

(iii) Refrigeration

(iv) Addition of antioxidants or preservatives

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Acids, Bases and Salts
Class-10th Chapter-2nd
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Classification of matter
On the basis of
a) composition – elements, compounds and mixtures
b) state – solids, liquids and gases
c) solubility – suspensions, colloids and solutions

Types of mixtures – homogeneous and heterogeneous

Types of compounds – covalent and ionic
What Is an Acid and a Base?
• Ionizable and non-ionizable compounds

• An ionizable compound when dissolved in water or in its molten state, dissociates into
ions almost entirely. Example: NaCl, HCl, KOH, etc.

• A non-ionizable compound does not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water or in its
molten state. Example: glucose, acetone, etc.
Arrhenius theory of acids and bases
Arrhenius acid – when dissolved in water, dissociates to give H+ (aq) or H3O+ ion.
Arrhenius base – when dissolved in water, dissociates to give OH− ion.

Examples
Acids
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Nitric acid (HNO3)

Bases
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Bronsted Lowry theory
• A Bronsted acid is an H+ (aq) ion donor.

• A Bronsted base is an H+ (aq) ion acceptor.

Example
• In the reaction: HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) → NH+4(aq) + Cl− (aq)

• HCl – Bronsted acid and Cl− : its conjugate acid

• NH3 – Bronsted base and NH+4 : its conjugate acid

Physical test
Given are two possible physical tests to identify an acid or a base.

a. Taste
An acid tastes sour whereas a base tastes bitter.
The method of taste is not advised as an acid or a base could be contaminated or
corrosive.

b. Effect on indicators by acids and bases

• An indicator is a chemical substance which shows a change in its physical properties,
mainly colour or odour when brought in contact with an acid or a base.

• Below mentioned are commonly used indicators and the different colours they
exhibit:
a) Litmus
1. In a neutral solution – purple
2. In acidic solution – red
3. In basic solution – blue

• Litmus is also available as strips of paper in two variants – red litmus and blue litmus.

• An acid turns a moist blue litmus paper to red.

• A base turns a moist red litmus paper to blue.

b) Methyl orange
1. In a neutral solution – orange

2. In acidic solution – red

3. In basic solution – yellow

c) Phenolphthalein
• In a neutral solution – colourless

• In acidic solution – remains colourless

• In basic solution – pink

Acid-Base Reactions
Reactions of acids and bases
a) Reaction of acids and bases with metals
Acid + active metal → salt + hydrogen + heat
2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2 (↑)

Base + metal → salt + hydrogen + heat

2NaOH + Zn → Na2ZnO2 + H2 (↑)

A more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its base.

2Na + Mg (OH) 2 → 2NaOH + Mg

b) Reaction of acids with metal carbonates and bicarbonates
Acid + metal carbonate or bicarbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide.

2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

H2SO4 + Mg (HCO3)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

Effervescence indicates liberation of CO2 gas.

c) Neutralisation reaction
1. Reaction of metal oxides and hydroxides with acids
Metal oxides or metal hydroxides are basic in nature.

Acid + base → salt + water + heat

H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O
2HCl + Mg (OH) 2 → MgCl2 + 2H2O

2. Reaction of non-metal oxides with bases

• Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature

• Base + Nonmetal oxide → salt + water + heat

2NaOH + CO2→ Na2CO3 + H2O

Water
• Acids and bases in water

• When added to water, acids and bases dissociate into their respective ions and help in
conducting electricity.
Difference between a base and an alkali
Base:
• Bases undergo neutralisation reaction with acids.
• They are comprised of metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates and metal
bicarbonates.
• Most of them are insoluble in water.

Alkali:
• An alkali is an aqueous solution of a base, (mainly metallic hydroxides).
• It dissolves in water and dissociates to give OH− ion.
• All alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis.
Hydronium ion
Hydronium ion is formed when a hydrogen ion accepts a lone pair of electrons from the
oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a coordinate covalent bond.

Dilution
• Dilution is the process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent
(usually water) to it.

• It is a highly exothermic process.

• To dilute acid, the acid must be added to water and not the other way round.
Strength of acids and bases
Strong acid or base: When all molecules of a given amount of an acid or a base dissociate
completely in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−(aq) for base).

Weak acid or base: When only a few of the molecules of a given amount of an acid or a
base dissociate in water to furnish their respective ions, H+(aq) for acid and OH−(aq) for
base).
Dilute acid: contains less number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.
Concentrated acid: contains more number of H+(aq) ions per unit volume.

Universal indicator
• A universal indicator has a pH range from 0 to 14 that indicates the acidity or alkalinity of
a solution.

• A neutral solution has pH=7

pH
• pH=−log10[H+]

• In pure water, [H+]=[OH−]=10−7 mol/L. Hence, the pH of pure water is 7.

• The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

If pH < 7 → acidic solution

If pH > 7→ basic solution
pH scale

Importance of pH in everyday life

1. pH sensitivity of plants and animals
Plants and animals are sensitive to pH. Crucial life processes such as digestion of food,
functions of enzymes and hormones happen at a certain pH value.

2. pH of a soil
The pH of a soil optimal for the growth of plants or crops is 6.5 to 7.0.
3. pH in the digestive system
The process of digestion happens at a specific pH in our stomach which is 1.5 to 4.
The pH of the interaction of enzymes, while food is being digested, is influenced by HCl in our
stomach.

4. pH in tooth decay
Tooth decay happens when the teeth are exposed to an acidic environment of pH 5.5 and
below.

5. pH of self-defence by animals and plants

Acidic substances are used by animals and plants as a self-defence mechanism. For example,
bee and plants like nettle secrete a highly acidic substance for self-defence. These secreted
acidic substances have a specific pH.
Manufacture of acids and bases
a) Nonmetal oxide + water → acid

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4HNO3(aq)

Non-metal oxides are thus referred to as acid anhydrides.

b) Hydrogen + halogen → acid

H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)

HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
c) Metallic salt + conc. sulphuric acid → salt + more volatile acid
2NaCl(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
2KNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2HNO3(aq)

d) Metal + oxygen → metallic oxide (base)

4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

e) Metal + water → base or alkali + hydrogen

Zn(s) + H2O(steam) → ZnO(s)+ H2(g)

f) Few metallic oxides + water → alkali

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
g) Ammonia + water → ammonium hydroxide
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

Salts
A salt is a combination of an anion of an acid and a cation of a base.

Examples – KCl, NaNO3 ,CaSO4, etc.

Salts are usually prepared by the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.

Common salt
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) is referred to as common salt because it’s used all over the world
for cooking.
Family of salts
Salts having the same cation or anion belong to the same family. For example, NaCl, KCl,
LiCl.

pH of salts
A salt of a strong acid and a strong base will be neutral in nature. pH = 7 (approx.).
A salt of a weak acid and a strong base will be basic in nature. pH > 7.
A salt of a strong acid and a weak base will be acidic in nature. pH < 7.
The pH of a salt of a weak acid and a weak base is determined by conducting a pH test.

Preparation of Sodium hydroxide

Chemical formula – NaOH
Also known as – caustic soda
Preparation (Chlor-alkali process):
Electrolysis of brine (solution of common salt, NaCl) is carried out.
At anode: Cl2 is released
At cathode: H2 is released
Sodium hydroxide remains in the solution.

Bleaching powder
Chemical formula – Ca(OCl)Cl or CaOCl2
Preparation – Ca(OH)2(aq)+Cl2(g)→CaOCl2(aq)+H2O(l)
On interaction with water – bleaching powder releases chlorine which is responsible for
bleaching action.

Baking soda
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3

Preparation (Solvay process):

a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3→CaO+CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq)+NH3(g)+CO2(g)+H2O(l)→NaHCO3(aq)+NH4Cl(aq)

Uses:
1. Textile industry
2. Paper industry
3. Disinfectant
Washing soda
Chemical name – Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Chemical formula – NaHCO3
Preparation (Solvay process) –
a. Limestone is heated: CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
b. CO2 is passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia:
NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) → NaHCO3(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)

Uses
1. In glass, soap and paper industries
2. Softening of water
3. Domestic cleaner
Crystals of salts
Certain salts form crystals by combining with a definite proportion of water. The water that combines with the
salt is called water of crystallisation.

Plaster of pairs
Gypsum, CaSO4.2H2O (s) on heating at 100°C (373K) gives CaSO4. ½ H2O and 3/2 H2O
CaSO4. ½ H2O is plaster of paris.
CaSO4. ½ H2O means two formula units of CaSO4 share one molecule of water.
Uses – cast for healing fractures.
THANKYOU…
METALS AND NON-METALS
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-3RD
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In Class IX you have learnt about various elements. Elements can be classified as metals or
non-metals on the basis of their properties.

• Think of some uses of metals and non-metals in your daily life.

• What properties did you think of while categorizing elements as metals or non-metals?

• How are these properties related to the uses of these elements?

Let us look at some of these properties in detail.

Metals: Physical properties of metals, chemical properties of metals and non-metal oxide.

Metals are the elements that conduct heat and electricity and are malleable and ductile.
Examples are Iron (Fe), Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Copper (Cu), Gold (Au), Platinum (Pt), Lead
(Pb), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca) and Magnesium (Mg) etc.

Metals are the elements which form positive ions by losing electrons. Thus, metals are known
as Electropositive Elements.

Physical Properties of Metals

Hardness: Most of the metals are hard, except alkali metals, such as sodium, potassium,
lithium, etc. are very soft metals. These can be cut by using a knife.

Strength: Most of the metals are strong and have high tensile strength. Because of this, big
structures are made using metals, such as copper (Cu) and iron (Fe). (Except Sodium (Na) and
potassium (K) which are soft metals).
State: Metals are solid at room temperature except for mercury (Hg).

Sound: Metals produce ringing sound, so, metals are called Sonorous. Sound of metals is also
known as Metallic sound. This is the cause that metal wires are used in making musical
instruments.

Conduction: Metals are a good conductor of heat and electricity. This is the cause that
electric wires are made of metals like copper and aluminum.

Malleability: Metals are malleable. This means metals can be beaten into a thin sheet.
Because of this property, iron is used in making big ships.

Ductility: Metals are ductile. This means metals can be drawn into thin wire. Because of this
property, a wire is made of metals.
Melting and Boiling Point: Metals have generally high melting and boiling points. (Except
sodium and potassium metals which have low melting and boiling point.)

Density: Most of the metals have a high density.

Color: Most of the metals are grey in color. But gold and copper are exceptions.

Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Reaction with oxygen: Most of the metals form respective metal oxides when reacting
with oxygen.

Metal + Oxygen → Metal Oxide

Examples:
Reaction of Potassium with Oxygen: Potassium metal forms potassium oxide when reacts
with oxygen.
Reaction of Sodium with Oxygen: Sodium metal forms sodium oxide when reacts with
oxygen.

Lithium, potassium, sodium, etc. are known as Alkali-metals. Alkali metals react vigorously
with oxygen.
Reaction of Copper metal with Oxygen: Copper does not react with oxygen at room
temperature but when burnt in air, it gives oxide.

Silver, gold and platinum do not combine with the oxygen of air even at high temperature.
They are the least reactive.
2. Reaction of metals with water: Metals form respective hydroxide and hydrogen gas
when reacting with water.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Most of the metals do not react with water. However, alkali metals react vigorously with
water.

Reaction of Sodium metal with Water: Sodium metal forms sodium hydroxide and liberates
hydrogen gas along with lot of heat when reacting with water.
Reaction of Calcium metal with Water: Calcium forms calcium hydroxide along with hydrogen
gas and heat when react with water.

Reaction of Magnesium metal with Water: Magnesium metal reacts with water slowly
and forms magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
When steam is passed over magnesium metal, magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas are
formed.

Reaction of Aluminum metal with Water: Reaction of aluminum metal with cold water
is too slow to come into notice. But when steam is passed over aluminum metal,
aluminum oxide and hydrogen gas are produced.
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 2H2X
Reaction of Zinc metal with Water: Zinc metal produces zinc oxide and hydrogen gas
when steam is passed over it. Zinc does not react with cold water.

Reaction of Iron with Water: Reaction of iron with cold water is very slow and comes
into notice after a long time. Iron forms rust (iron oxide) when reacts with moisture
present in the atmosphere. Iron oxide and hydrogen gas are formed by passing of
steam over iron metal.
Both calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are heavier than water but still float over
it: Both calcium and magnesium float over water surface because hydrogen gas is evolved
when these metals react with water. It is in the form of bubbles which stick on the metal
surface. Therefore, they float over it.

Other metals usually do not react with water or react very slowly. Lead, copper,
silver and gold do not react with steam.

Thus, the order of reactivity of different metals towards water may be written as :
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Ae > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au
3. Reaction of metals with dilute acid: Metals form respective salts when reacting with
dilute acid.
Metal + dil. acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen

Reaction of Sodium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Sodium metal gives sodium
chloride and hydrogen gas when react with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Reaction of Magnesium metal with dilute hydrochloric acid: Magnesium chloride and
hydrogen gas are formed when magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Reaction of Zinc with dilute sulphuric acid: Zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas are formed
when zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid. This method is used in the laboratory to
produce hydrogen gas.

• Hydrogen (H2) gas is not evolved when metal is treated with nitric acid (HNO3):
Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent and it oxidizes the hydrogen gas (H2) liberated into
water (H2O) and itself get reduced to some oxide of nitrogen like nitrous oxide
(N2O)3 nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Copper, gold, silver are known as noble metals. These do not react with water or
dilute acids.
The order of reactivity of metal towards dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid is in
the order;
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Cu > Hg > Ag
Metal Oxides
Chemical Properties: Metal oxides are basic in nature. The aqueous solution of metal
oxides turns red litmus blue.
Reaction of Metal oxides with Water: Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water.
Alkali metal oxides are soluble in water. Alkali metal oxides give strong base when dissolved
in water.
Reaction of Sodium oxide with Water: Sodium oxide gives sodium hydroxide when reacts
with water.
Reaction of Potassium oxide with Water: Potassium oxide gives potassium hydroxide
when reacts with water.

Reaction of Zinc oxide and Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are
insoluble in water.

Aluminium oxide and zinc oxide are amphoteric in nature. An amphoteric substance
shows both acidic and basic characters. It reacts with base like acid and reacts with an
acid like a base.

When zinc oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide, it behaves like an acid. In this reaction,
sodium zincate and water are formed.
Zinc oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid. Zinc oxide gives zinc chloride and water
on reaction with hydrochloric acid.

In a similar way, aluminum oxide behaves like a base when reacts with acid and behaves like
acid when reacts with a base.
Aluminium oxide gives sodium aluminate along with water when reacts with sodium
hydroxide.
Aluminium oxide gives aluminum chloride along with water when it reacts with
hydrochloric acid.
Reactivity Series of Metals: The order of intensity or reactivity of metal is known as
Reactivity Series.

• Reactivity of elements decreases on moving from top to bottom in the given reactivity
series.
•
In the reactivity series, copper, gold, and silver are at the bottom and hence, least
reactive.

• These metals are known as Noble metals. Potassium is at the top of the series and
hence, most reactive.

• Reactivity of some metals are given in descending order :

K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu
4. Reaction of metals with solution of other metal salts: Reaction of metals with the
solution of other metal salt is displacement reaction. In this reaction, more reactive metal
displaces the less reactive metal from its salt.
Metal A + Salt of metal B → Salt of metal A + Metal B
Examples :
Iron displaces copper from copper sulphate solution.

Similarly, aluminium and zinc displace copper from the solution of copper sulphate.
In all the above examples, iron, aluminium and zinc are more reactive than
copper. This is why they displace copper from its salt solution.
When copper is dipped in the solution of silver nitrate, it displaces silver and forms
copper nitrate.

In the reaction, copper is more reactive than silver and hence, displaces silver from
silver nitrate solution.

Silver metal does not react with copper sulphate solution because silver is less reactive
than copper and not able to displace copper from its salt solution.
Similarly, when gold is dipped in the solution of copper nitrate, no reaction takes place
because copper is more reactive than gold.

In similar way, no reaction takes place when copper is dipped in the solution of
aluminium nitrate because copper is less reactive than aluminium.
Non-Metals: Physical Properties of non-metals, chemical properties of non-metals,
nonmetal oxides, Reaction of metal and Non-metal, Ionic bonds and formation of an ionic
bond. Non-metals are the elements that do not conduct electricity and are neither
malleable nor ductile.
Examples: Carbon (C), Sulphur (S), Phosphorous (P), Silicon (Si), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Neon (Ne) and Argon (Ar) etc.
Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions by gaining an electron. Thus,
nonmetals are also known as Electronegative Elements.

Physical properties of non-metals

•Hardness: Non-metals are not hard rather they are generally soft. But the diamond is an
exception; it is the hardest naturally occurring substance.
•State: Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gas.
•Lustre: Non-metals have a dull appearance. Diamond and iodine are exceptions.
•Sonority: Non-metals are not sonorous, i.e., they do not produce a typical sound on being
hit.
•Conduction: Non-metals are a bad conductor of heat and electricity. Graphite which is
allotrope of carbon is a good conductor of electricity and is an exception.
•Malleability and ductility: Non-metals are brittle.
•Melting and boiling point: Non-metals have generally low melting and boiling points.
•Density: Most of the non-metals have low density.
•Colour: Non-metals are in many colours.
Carbon in the form of graphite is non-metal which conduct electricity.
Iodine is non-metal which is lustrous having a shining surface.
Carbon in the form of diamond is a non-metal which is extremely hard.
Diamond is a non-metal which has a very high melting point and boiling point.

Chemical properties of Non-metals

1. Reaction of Non-metals with Oxygen: Non-metals form respective oxide when reacting
with oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metallic oxide
When carbon reacts with oxygen, carbon dioxide is formed along with the production of
heat.
When carbon is burnt in an insufficient supply of air, it forms carbon monoxide. Carbon
monoxide is a toxic substance. Inhaling of carbon monoxide may prove fatal.

Sulphur gives sulphur dioxide when reacting with oxygen. Sulphur catches fire when
exposed to air.
When hydrogen reacts with oxygen it gives water.

Non-metallic Oxide: Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature. The solution of non-metal
oxides turns blue litmus red.
Carbon dioxide gives carbonic acid when dissolved in water.
Sulphur dioxide gives sulphurous acid when dissolved in water.

Sulphur dioxide gives sulphuric acid when reacts with oxygen.

2. Reaction of Non-metal with Chlorine: Non-metal gives respective chloride when they
react with chlorine gas.
Non-metal + Chlorine → Non-metal chloride
Hydrogen gives hydrogen chloride and phosphorous gives phosphorous trichloride when
reacting with chlorine.

3. Reaction of Non-metals with Hydrogen: Non-metals reactive with hydrogen to

form covalent hydrides.
Non-metal + Hydrogen → Covalent Hydride
Sulphur combines with hydrogen to form a covalent hydride is called Hydrogen
sulphide.
Nitrogen combines with hydrogen in presence of an iron catalyst to form covalent hydride
ammonia
Non-metals do not react with water (or steam) to evolve Hydrogen gas.
Non-metals do not react with dilute acids.

4. Reaction of Metal and Non-metal: Many metals form ionic bonds when they react with
non-metals. Compounds so formed are known as Ionic Compounds.

Ions: Positive or negative charged atoms are known as ions. Ions are formed because of loss or
gain of electrons. Atoms form ions obtain by the electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas.

Positive ion: A positive ion is formed because of the loss of electrons by an atom.
Following are some examples of positive ions:

Sodium forms sodium ion because of the loss of one electron. Because of the loss of one
electron, one positive charge comes over sodium.
Magnesium forms positive ion because of the loss of two electrons. Two positive charges
come over magnesium because of loss of two electrons.

Negative ion: A negative ion is formed because of the gain of an electron.

Some examples are given below :

Chlorine gains one electron in order to achieve a stable configuration. After the loss of
one electron, chlorine gets one negative charge over it forming chlorine ion.
Ionic Bonds: Ionic bonds are formed because of transfer of electrons from metal to nonmetal.

• In this course, metals get positive charge because of transfer of electrons and non-metal
gets negative charge because of acceptance of electrons.

• In other words, bond formed between positive and negative ion is called Ionic Bond.

• Since, a compound is electrically neutral, so to form an ionic compound, negative and

positive both ions must be combined.

• Some examples are given below:

• Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl): In sodium chloride, sodium is a metal (alkali
metal) and chlorine is a non-metal.
• Atomic number of sodium = 11
• Electronic configuration of sodium : 2, 8, 1
• Number of electrons in outermost orbit = 1
• Valence electrons = Electrons in outermost orbit = 1
• Atomic number of chlorine = 17
• Electronic configuration of chlorine : 2, 8, 7
• Electrons in outermost orbit = 7
• Sodium has one valence electron and chlorine has seven valence electrons.

• Sodium requires losing one electron to obtain stable configuration and chlorine
requires gaining one electron in order to obtain stable electronic configuration.

• Thus, in order to obtain stable configuration, sodium transfers one electron to chlorine.
After loss of one electron, sodium gets one positive charge (+) and chlorine gets one
negative charge after gain of one electron.

• Sodium chloride is formed because of transfer of electrons.

• Thus, ionic bond is formed between sodium and chlorine. Since, sodium chloride is
formed because of ionic bond, thus, it is called Ionic compound. In similar way,
potassium chloride (KCl) is formed.
Properties of Ionic compound

•Ionic compounds are solid. Ionic bond has a greater force of attraction because of which
ions attract each other strongly. This makes ionic compounds solid.

•Ionic compounds are brittle. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points because
force of attraction between ions of ionic compounds is very strong.

•Ionic compounds generally dissolve in water. Ionic compounds are generally insoluble in
organic solvents; like kerosene, petrol, etc.

•Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state. The solution of ionic
compounds in water conduct electricity.

•This happens because ions present in the solution of ionic compound facilitate the passage
of electricity by moving towards opposite electrodes. Ionic compounds conduct electricity in
the molten state.
• Occurrence and Extraction of Metals: Minerals, ores, extraction of metals of least
reactivity, extraction of metals of middle reactivity, extraction of metals of high reactivity,
refining or purification of metals and corrosion.

• Occurrence and Extraction of Metals:

• Source of metal: Metals occur in Earth’s crust and in seawater; in the form of ores.
Earth’s crust is the major source of metal. Seawater contains many salts such as sodium
chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.

• Mineral: Minerals are naturally occurring substances which have a uniform composition.
• Ores: The minerals from which a metal can be profitably extracted are called Ores.

• Metals found at the bottom of reactivity series are least reactive and they are often found
in nature in free-state; such as gold, silver, copper, etc.

• Copper and silver are also found in the form of sulphide and oxide ores.

• Metals found in the middle of reactivity series, such as Zn, Fe, Pb, etc. are usually found in
the form of oxides, sulphides or carbonates.
•
Metals found at the top of the reactivity series are never found in free-state as they are
very reactive, example; K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al, etc.
• Many metals are found in the form of oxides because oxygen is abundant in nature and is
very reactive.

• Extraction of Metals: Metals can be categorized into three parts on the basis of their
reactivity: Most reactive, medium reactive and least reactive.
The three major steps involved in the extraction of a metal from its ore are

1. Concentration or enrichment of ores.

2. Conversion of concentrated ore into crude metal and,

3. Refining of impure or crude metal.

1. Concentration of Ores: Removal of impurities, such as soil, sand, stone, silicates, etc.
from mines ore is known as Concentration of Ores.
Ores which are mined often contain many impurities. These impurities are called
gangue. First of all, concentration is done to remove impurities from ores. The
concentration of ores is also known as enrichment of ores. Process of concentration
depends upon physical and chemical properties of ores. Gravity separation,
electromagnetic separation, froth flotation process, etc. are some examples of the
processes which are applied for concentration of ores.

2. Conversion of Concentrated Ore into Crude Metal

Conversion of metals ores into oxides: It is easy to obtain metals from their oxides. So,
ores found in the form of sulphide and carbonates are first converted to their oxides by
the process of roasting and calcination. Oxides of metals so obtained are converted into
metals by the process of reduction.

Roasting: Heating of sulphide ores in the presence of excess air to convert them into oxides
is known as Roasting.
Calcination: Heating of carbonate ores in the limited supply of air to convert them into
oxides is known as Calcination
3. Reduction: Heating of oxides of metals to turn them into metal is known as Reduction.

(i) Extraction of Metals of Least Reactivity: Mercury and copper, which belong to the least
reactivity series, are often found in the form of their sulphide ores. Cinnabar (HgS) is the ore
of mercury. Copper glance (Cu2S) is the ore of copper.

Extraction of Mercury Metal: Cinnabar (HgS) is first heated in air. This turns HgS (mercury
sulphide or cinnabar) into HgO (mercury oxide) by liberation of sulphur dioxide. Mercury
oxide so obtained is again heated strongly. This reduces mercury oxide to mercury metal.
Extraction of Copper Metal: Copper glance (Cu2S) is roasted in the presence of air.
Roasting turns copper glance (ore of copper) into copper (l) oxide. Copper oxide is then
heated in the absence of air. This reduces copper (l) oxide into copper metal.
(ii) Extraction of Metals of Middle Reactivity: Iron, zinc, lead, etc. are found in the form of
carbonate or sulphide ores.
Carbonate or sulphide ores of metals are first converted into respective oxides and then
oxides are reduced to respective metals.

Extraction of Zinc: Zinc blende (ZnS: zinc sulphide) and smithsonite or zinc spar or
calamine (ZnCO3: zinc carbonate) are ores of zinc.
Zinc blende is roasted to be converted into zinc oxide. Zinc spar is put under calcination to
be converted into zinc oxide.
Zinc oxide so obtained is reduced to zinc metal by heating with carbon (a reducing agent).

Extraction of Iron from Haematite (Fe2O3): Haematite ore is heated with carbon to be
reduced to iron metal.

Extraction of Lead from Lead oxide: Lead oxide is heated with carbon to be reduced to
lead metal.
Reduction of Metal oxide by Heating with Aluminium: Metal oxides are heated with
aluminium (a reducing agent) to be reduced to metal. Following is an example:
Manganese dioxide and copper oxide are reduced to respective metals when heated with
aluminium.
Thermite Reaction: Ferric oxide; when heated with aluminium; is reduced to iron metal. In
this reaction, a lot of heat is produced. The thermite reaction is used in the welding of electric
conductors, iron joints, etc. such as joints in railway tracks. This is also known as Thermite
Welding (TW).

(iii) Extraction of Metals of High Reactivity: Metals of high reactivity; such as sodium, calcium,
magnesium, aluminium, etc. are extracted from their ores by electrolytic reduction.
These metals cannot be reduced using carbon because carbon is less reactive than them.

Electrolytic Reduction: Electric current is passed through the molten state of metal ores. Metal
being positively charged is deposited over the cathode.
Example: When an electric current is passed through molten state or solution of sodium
chloride, sodium metal gets deposited over the cathode.
Metals obtained from the process of electrolytic reduction are pure in form.

4. Refining or purification of metals: Metals extracted from various methods contains some
impurities, thus, they are required to be refined. Most of the metals are refined using
electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic Refining: In the process of electrolytic refining, a lump of impure metal and a thin
strip of pure metal are dipped in the salt solution of metal to be refined.

When an electric current is passed through the solution, pure metal is deposited over a thin
strip of pure metal from a lump of impure metal.

In this, impure metal is used as anode and pure metal is used as a cathode.
Electrolytic Refining of Copper: A lump of impure copper metal and a thin strip of pure
copper are dipped in the solution of copper sulphate.

Impure lump of metal is connected with the positive pole and thin strip of pure metal is
connected with negative pole.

When electric current is passed through the solution, pure metal from anode moves towards
cathode and is deposited over it.

Impurities present in metal are settled near the bottom of anode in the solution. Settled
impurities in the solution are called Anode Mud.
5. Corrosion: Most of the metals keep on reacting with the atmospheric air.

This leads to the formation of a layer over the metal.

In the long run, the underlying layer of metal keeps on getting lost due to conversion into
oxides or sulphides or carbonate, etc.

As a result, the metal gets eaten up. The process is called Corrosion.

Rusting of Iron: Rusting of iron is the most common form of corrosion.

When iron articles like the gate, grill, fencing, etc. come in contact with moisture present in
the air, the upper layer of iron turns into iron oxide.

Iron oxide is brown-red in colour and is known as Rust. The phenomenon is called Rusting
of Iron.
If rusting is not prevented in time, the whole iron article would turn into iron oxide.

This is also known as Corrosion of Iron. Rusting of iron gives a huge loss every year.

Prevention of Rusting: For rusting, iron must come in contact with oxygen and water.
Rusting is prevented by preventing the reaction between atmospheric moisture and the
iron article. This can be done by:
•Painting
•Greasing
•Galvanization
•Electroplating
•Alloying
6. Alloys: The homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-metal is
called Alloy.

Types of alloys :
•Ferrous alloys: An alloy in which iron (Fe) is present. For example : manganese steel (Fe =
86% ; Mn = 13% ; C = 1%) and Nickle steel (Fe = 98% ; Ni = 2%).
•Non-ferrous alloys: An alloy does not contain iron. For example : Brass (Cu = 80% ; Zn =
20%), and Bronze (Cu = 90% ; Sn = 10%).
•Amalgams: An alloy in which mercury (Hg) is present. For example Sodium amalgams
[Na(Hg)] and Zinc amalgams [Zn(Hg)].

Properties of an Alloy
•Alloys are stronger than the metal from which they are obtained.
•It is harder than the constituent metals.
•More resistance to corrosion.
•The melting point of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.
Example: Solder [Sn(80%) + Pb(50%)] has lower m. p. than Pb and Sn.
•The electrical conductivity of alloys is lower than the constituent metals.
Some examples of Alloys:
•Brass: [80% Cu + 20% Zn ]
•Bronze: [90% Cu + 20% Sn]
•Solder: [50% Pb + 50% Sn]
•Duralumin: [95% Al + 4% Cu + 0.5% Mg + 0.5 Mn]
•Steel: [99.95% Fe + 0.05% C]
•Stainless steel: [74% Fe + 18% Cr + 8% Ni]
•Magnesium: [95% Al + 5% Mg]
•German Silver: [60% Cu + 20% Zn + 20% Ni]
•Alloys of Gold: Pure gold is said to be of 24 carats. Gold is alloyed with a small amount of
silver or copper to make it hard.
Chemical Properties of Metals and Non-metals.
The reaction of metals with oxygen. Metals form their oxides when reacting with oxygen.
Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide

Metal oxides are basic in nature. Example, Reaction of Iron metal with oxygen When iron
reacts with moist air, it forms rust.

Rust is iron oxide. Articles made of iron, such as grills, fencing, etc. are getting rusted
because of reaction with moist air.

Iron (Fe) + Water (H2O) + Oxygen (O2) → Fe3O4n.H2O (Iron II, III) Oxide (Rust)
Rust is reddish brown in colour and is iron oxide. Iron oxide is basic in nature.

It turns red litmus blue.

Rusting of iron can be prevented:
•by galvanizing the iron articles with zinc coating.
•by painting and applying grease on the articles.
The reaction of Magnesium metal with oxygen: When magnesium is burnt in air, it forms
magnesium oxide. Burning in the air means reaction with oxygen.

Magnesium + Oxygen (O2) → MgO (Magnesium oxide)

Magnesium oxide forms magnesium hydroxide with water. The solution of Magnesium
oxide turns red litmus paper blue. This means magnesium oxide is basic in nature.
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium Hydroxide)
The reaction of Non-metals with oxygen: Non-metals form their oxides when they react
with oxygen.
Non-metal + Oxygen → Non-metal oxide
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature.
Example., Reaction of sulphur with oxygen.
When sulphur is burnt in air, it forms sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur + Oxygen (O2) → SO2 (Sulphur dioxide)
The solution of sulphur dioxide turns blue litmus paper red. Sulphur dioxide forms
sulphurous acid when dissolved in water. Thus, sulphur dioxide is acidic in nature.
SO2 + H2O → Sulphurous acid (H2SO3)
The reaction of carbon with oxygen—When carbon is burnt in air, it forms carbon dioxide.
Carbon + Oxygen (O2) → CO2 (Carbon dioxide)

When coal (carbon) is burnt it forms smoke, which contains carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide
is acidic in nature.

The solution of carbon dioxide in water turns blue litmus paper red.
CO2 + H2O → Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

The reaction of Metals and Non-metals with water: Generally, metals form respective
hydroxides when they react with water.
Metal + Water → Metal hydroxide

The reaction of sodium metal with water: Sodium metal vigorously reacts with water and
forms sodium hydroxide along with a lot of heat.
Na + H2O → NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) + H2 (Hydrogen) + Heat
Non-metals generally do not react with water. Rather some non-metals which react with air
vigorously are stored in water.

The reaction of metals and non-metals with dilute acid. Metals give hydrogen gas when
they react with dilute acid.

Metal + Acid → Hydrogen gas + Salt

The reaction of zinc with dilute acid. Zinc gives hydrogen gas along with zinc chloride when
it reacts with hydrochloric acid.

Similarly, zinc gives hydrogen gas along with zinc sulphate when it reacts with sulphuric
acid. This method is used to produce hydrogen gas in the laboratory.
Zn + H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) → ZnSO4 (Zinc sulphate) + H2 (Hydrogen)
The reaction of Aluminium with dilute acid. Aluminium gives hydrogen gas along with
aluminium chloride when it reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.

2Al + 6HCl (Hydrochloric acid) → 2AlCl3 (Aluminium Chloride) + 3H2 (Hydrogen)

Copper does not react with dilute sulphuric acid even on heating, but it reacts with
concentrated sulphuric acid.

Copper, silver and gold are considered as noble metals as do not react with dilute acid.

Generally, non-metals do not react with dilute acid.

The reaction of metals and non-metals with the base. Metals give hydrogen gas when they
react with a base.
Metal + Base → Hydrogen gas + Salt

The reaction of aluminium metal with sodium hydroxide.

Al + NaOH (Sodium hydroxide) → NaAlO2 (Sodium aluminate) + H2 (Hydrogen)

Aluminium metal forms hydrogen gas and sodium aluminate when it reacts with sodium
hydroxide.

Similarly, zinc gives sodium zincate and hydrogen gas when it reacts with sodium hydroxide.

Displacement Reaction: When a more reactive metal reacts with the salt solution of less
reactive metal, more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its solution.

Metal A + Salt Solution of metal B → Salt Solution of metal A + metal B

In the above equation, metal A is more reactive than metal B.
Example., When aluminium metal is dipped in the solution of copper sulphate, it forms
aluminium sulphate and copper.

Al + CuSO4 (Copper sulphate) → Al2(SO4)3 (Aluminium Sulphate) + Cu (Copper)

In the above reaction, aluminium is more reactive than copper, that is why it replaces copper
from the solution of copper sulphate.

When copper metal is dipped in the solution of aluminium nitrate, no reaction takes place.
Because copper is less reactive than aluminium.
THANKYOU….
Carbon and its Compounds
Class-10th Chapter-4th
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
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• In the last Chapter, we came to know many compounds of importance to us. In this
Chapter we will study about some more interesting compounds and their properties.

• Also, we shall be learning about carbon, an element which is of immense significance to

us in both its elemental form and in the combined form.

• Food, clothes, medicines, books, or many of the things that you listed are all based on this
versatile element carbon. In addition, all living structures are carbon based.

• The amount of carbon present in the earth’s crust and in the atmosphere is quite meagre.
The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in the form of minerals (like carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates, coal and petroleum) and the atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon dioxide.

• In spite of this small amount of carbon available in nature, the importance of carbon
seems to be immense. In this Chapter, we will know about the properties of carbon which
make carbon so important to us.
BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND
The data on the boiling and melting points of the above compounds, we can conclude
that the forces of attraction between these molecules are not very strong.

Since these compounds are largely nonconductors of electricity, we can conclude that
the bonding in these compounds does not give rise to any ions.
• The reactivity of elements is explained as their tendency to attain a completely filled
outer shell, that is, attain noble gas configuration.

• Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or losing electrons from
the outermost shell.

• In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs to gain or lose
four electrons to attain noble gas configuration. If it were to gain or lose electrons –

(i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be difficult for the nucleus with
six protons to hold on to ten electrons, that is, four extra electrons.

(ii) It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require a large amount of
energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a carbon cation with six protons in its
nucleus holding on to just two electrons.
• Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms of
carbon or with atoms of other elements.

• Not just carbon, but many other elements form molecules by sharing electrons in this
manner.

• The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells of both the atoms and lead to both
atoms attaining the noble gas configuration.

• Before going on to compounds of carbon, let us look at some simple molecules formed by
the sharing of valence electrons.

• The simplest molecule formed in this manner is that of hydrogen. As you have learnt
earlier, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1.
• Hence hydrogen has one electron in its K shell and it requires one more electron to fill
the K shell.

• So two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to form a molecule of hydrogen, H2.

• This allows each hydrogen atom to attain the electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas, helium, which has two electrons in its K shell.

• Can depict this using dots or crosses to represent valence electrons.

• The shared pair of electrons is said to constitute a single bond between the two hydrogen
atoms. A single bond is also represented by a line between the two atoms.

• The atomic number of chlorine is 17. Chlorine forms a diatomic molecule, Cl2.
• In the case of oxygen, we see the formation of a double bond between two oxygen
atoms.

• This is because an atom of oxygen has six electrons in its L shell (the atomic number of
oxygen is eight) and it requires two more electrons to complete its octet.

• So each atom of oxygen shares two electrons with another atom of oxygen to give us the
structure .

• The two electrons contributed by each oxygen atom give rise to two shared pairs of
electrons. This is said to constitute a double bond between the two atoms.

• Nitrogen has the atomic number 7. In order to attain an octet, each nitrogen atom in a
molecule of nitrogen contributes three electrons giving rise to three shared pairs of
electrons.

• This is said to constitute a triple bond between the two atoms. The electron dot structure
of N2 and its triple bond can be depicted.
• A molecule of ammonia has the formula NH3.

• Methane is widely used as a fuel and is a major component of bio-gas and Compressed
Natural Gas (CNG).

• It is also one of the simplest compounds formed by carbon. Methane has a formula CH4.
Hydrogen, as you know, has a valency of 1.

• Carbon is tetravalent because it has four valence electrons. In order to achieve noble gas
configuration, carbon shares these electrons with four atoms of hydrogen.
• Such bonds which are formed by the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms are
known as covalent bonds.

• Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds within the molecule, but
intermolecular forces are small.

• This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these compounds.

• Since the electrons are shared between atoms and no charged particles are formed,
such covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of electricity.
 A molecule of hydrogen Single bond between two hydrogen
atoms

Triple bond between two nitrogen atoms

Double bond between two oxygen atoms
Electron dot structure for methane
Allotropes of carbon
• The element carbon occurs in different forms in nature with widely varying physical
properties.

• Both diamond and graphite are formed by carbon atoms, the difference lies in the manner
in which the carbon atoms are bonded to one another.

• In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming a rigid three-
dimensional structure.

• In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane
giving a hexagonal array.

• One of these bonds is a double-bond, and thus the valency of carbon is satisfied.

• Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in layers one above the
other.
• These two different structures result in diamond and graphite having very different
physical properties even though their chemical properties are the same.

• Diamond is the hardest substance known while graphite is smooth and slippery.
Graphite is also a very good conductor of electricity unlike other non-metals.

• Diamonds can be synthesized by subjecting pure carbon to very high pressure and
temperature.

• These synthetic diamonds are small but are otherwise indistinguishable from natural
diamonds.

• Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be identified was C-
60 which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.

• Since this looked like the geodesic dome designed by the US architect Buckminster
Fuller, the molecule was named fullerene
VERSATILE NATURE OF CARBON
• The formation of covalent bonds by the sharing of electrons in various elements and
compounds.

• We have also seen the structure of a simple carbon compound, methane.

• The numbers of carbon compounds whose formulae are known to chemists was recently
estimated to be about three million.

• This outnumbers by a large margin the compounds formed by all the other elements put
together.

• The nature of the covalent bond enables carbon to form a large number of compounds.

• Two factors noticed in the case of carbon are –

• Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise to
large molecules.

• This property is called catenation. These compounds may have long chains of carbon,
branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in rings.

• In addition, carbon atoms may be linked by single, double or triple bonds.

• Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the carbon atoms
are called saturated compounds.

• Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between their carbon atoms are
called unsaturated compounds.

• No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon
compounds.
• Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto seven or eight atoms,
but these compounds are very reactive.

• The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable.

• This gives us the large number of compounds with many carbon atoms linked to each
other.

(ii) Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of
carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.

• Compounds of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, Sulphur, chlorine and
many other elements giving rise to compounds with specific properties which depend on
the elements other than carbon present in the molecule.
• Again the bonds that carbon forms with most other elements are very strong making
these compounds exceptionally stable.

• One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size. This enables the
nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons strongly.

• The bonds formed by elements having larger atoms are much weaker.
Organic compounds
The two characteristic features seen in carbon, that is, tetravalency and catenation, put
together give rise to a large number of compounds.

Many have the same non-carbon atom or group of atoms attached to different carbon
chains.

These compounds were initially extracted from natural substances and it was thought that
these carbon compounds or organic compounds could only be formed within a living
system.

That is, it was postulated that a ‘vital force’ was necessary for their synthesis. Friedrich
Wöhler disproved this in 1828 by preparing urea from ammonium cyanate.

But carbon compounds, except for oxides of carbon, carbonate and hydrogencarbonate
salts continue to be studied under organic chemistry.
Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds
Another compound formed between carbon and hydrogen is ethane with a formula of
C2H6.

In order to arrive at the structure of simple carbon compounds, the first step is to link the
carbon atoms together with a single bond and then use the hydrogen atoms to satisfy the
remaining valences of carbon.

For example, the structure of ethane is arrived in the following steps –

C—C Step 1
(a) Carbon atoms linked together with a single bond
Three valencies of each carbon atom remain unsatisfied, so each is bonded to three
hydrogen atoms giving:

Each carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms

The electron dot structure of ethane

Electron dot structure of ethane

The valences of all the atoms are satisfied by single bonds between them. Such carbon
compounds are called saturated compounds.

These compounds are normally not very reactive. However, another compound of carbon
and hydrogen has the formula C2H4 and is called ethene.

Each carbon atom gets two hydrogen atoms to give – We see that one valency per carbon
atom remains unsatisfied.

This can be satisfied only if there is a double bond between the two carbons giving us –
The electron dot structure for ethene is given in yet another compound of hydrogen and
carbon has the formula C2H2 and is called ethyne.

Compounds of carbon having double or triple bonds between the carbon atoms are known
as unsaturated carbon compounds and they are more reactive than the saturated carbon
compounds.
Chains, Branches and Rings
The carbon compounds methane, ethane and propane, containing respectively 1, 2 and 3
carbon atoms. Such ‘chains’ of carbon atoms can contain tens of carbon atoms.
Versatile Nature of Carbon: The existence of such a large number of organic compounds is
due to the following nature of carbon,
•Catenation
•Tetravalent nature.

(i) Catenation: The self linking property of an element mainly carbon atom through
covalent bonds to form long straight, branched and rings of different sizes are called
Catenation.
This property is due to
•The small size of the carbon atom.
•The great strength of the carbon-carbon bond.
Carbon can also form stable multiple bonds (double or triple) with itself and with the atoms
of other elements.
Straight Chain

Branched Chain
Rings
(ii) Tetravalent Nature: Carbon has valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four
other atoms of carbon or some other heteroatoms with single covalent bond as well as
double or triple bond.

Hydrocarbons: Compounds of carbon and hydrogen are known as hydrocarbons.

For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), Ethyne (C2H2) etc
Saturated Hydrocarbon (Alkanes): General formula is CnH2n+2.
n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the carbon atoms are connected by only a single bond.
For example; Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6) etc.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes: General formula is CnH2n, where n = number of carbon atoms.
In this, the two carbon atoms are connected by double bond.
Alkynes: General formula is CnH2n-2, where n = number of carbon atoms. In this, the two
carbon atoms are connected by triple bond.

Electron Dot Structure of Hydrocarbons

Homologous Series: Series of organic compounds having the same functional group and
chemical properties and successive members differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass units are
known as Homologous series.
Homologous series of Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes
Characteristic of Homologous Series
•The successive members in homologous series differ by CH2 unit or 14 mass unit.
•Members of given homologous series have the same functional group.
•All the members of homologous series shows similar chemical properties.
Functional Group: An atom or group of atoms present in a molecule which largely
determines its chemical properties are called Functional Group.
Nomenclature of Organic Compounds: It is difficult to remember millions of
compounds by their individual common name.

Thus, to systematize the nomenclature of organic compounds IUPAC (International

Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) has given certain rule which is as follows:

1. Identify the Number of Carbon Atoms in the Compound

Word Root
S. No Number of Carbon Atoms Single bond
(-) (Suffix)

1. One carbon atoms (1-C) Meth + ane

2. Two carbon atoms (2-C) Eth + ane

3. Three carbon atoms (3-C) Prop + ane

4. Four carbon atoms (4-C) But + ane

5. Five carbon atoms (5-C) Pent + ane

6. Six carbon atoms (6-C) Hex + ane

2. Identify the functional group

S.
Functional Group Prefix Suffix
No.
1. Double bond (=) — ene
2. Triple bond (≡) — yne
3. Chlorine (—Cl) Chloro —
4. Bromine (—Br) Bromo —
5. Alcohol (-OH) — ol
6. Aldehyde (-CHO) — al
7. Ketone (-CO-) — one
8. Carboxylic acid (-COOH) — oic acid
3. Name the Compounds By Following Order
Prefix + Word Root + Suffix
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds: The important chemical properties are as
follows:
1. Combustion: The complete combustion of carbon compounds in the air gives carbon
dioxide water, heat and light.
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Heat and light

Carbon burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and heat and light.

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat and light

Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame in the presence of a sufficient supply of air or
oxygen.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat and light

In presence of limited supply of air, saturated hydrocarbon forms a sooty flame.

The gas and kerosene stove used at home has inlet for air so that, burnt to given clean
blue flame.

Due to presence of small amount of nitrogen and Sulphur, coal and petroleum produces
carbon dioxide with oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur which are major pollutant.

2. Oxidation: Oxidation of ethanol in presence of oxidizing agents gives ethanoic acid.

Oxidizing Agent: Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others, are known as
Oxidising Agent.

Example: Alkaline KMnO4 (or KMnO4—KOH)

Acidified K2Cr2O7 (or K2Cr2O7—H2SO4)
KMnO4 – Potassium permanganate
K2Cr2O7 – Potassium dichromate

3. Addition Reaction: Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbon in the

presence of catalysts such as nickel or platinum or palladium are known as Hydrogenation
(addition) reaction.
Catalyst: Substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceeds to different rate without
consuming in it are called a catalyst. For example; Ni, Pt, Pd, etc.
Vegetable fats are saturated fats which are harmful for health.
Vegetable oil containing unsaturated fatty acids are good for health.

4. Substitution Reaction: Replacement of one or more hydrogen atom of an organic

molecule by another atom or group of the atom is known as Substitution Reaction.
Some Important Carbon Compounds :
Ethanol (CH3CH2—OH): Commonly known as Ethyl Alcohol.
Physical Properties
•It is colorless, inflammable liquid.
•It is miscible with water in all proportions.
•It has no effect on the litmus paper.

Chemical Properties
•Reaction with sodium

Reaction with concentrated H2SO4 (Dehydration Reaction)

Dehydrating agent: Substances which removes water from ethanol (alcohols) is known as
Dehydrating agent. For example; Cone. H2SO4.

Uses: As solvent, as antiseptic (tincture iodine), as anti-freeze in automobiles.

Ethanoic Acid (CH3COOH): Commonly known as Acetic acid. 5-8% of ethanoic acid in water is
called Vinegar.

The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence, it often freezes in cold climate so
named as glacial acetic acid.

Physical Properties
•It is a colourless, pungent-smelling liquid.
•Miscible with water in all proportions.
•Turns blue litmus to red.
Chemical Properties
(i) Esterification Reaction: Reaction of ethanoic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a
few drops of conc. H2SO4 as catalyst gives a sweet-smelling substance known as Esters,
called Esterification reaction.

Esters are used in making perfumes and flavouring agents.

Saponification Reaction: Reaction of esters with sodium hydroxide, gives alcohol and
sodium salt of carboxylic acid (soap). This reaction is known as Saponification Reaction.
(ii) Reaction with Carbonates and Hydrogen Carbonates: Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium
carbonates and sodium hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon dioxide and water
Advantage of Detergents: The main advantage of detergent over soaps is that soaps cannot
be used in hard water for washing because hard water reacts with soap to form curdy white
precipitate called Scum.

Thus, in hard water, soap does not give lather while detergent does.

Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: Both soaps and detergents cantains two parts. A
long hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature and a short ionic
part which is hydrophilic (water attracting) in nature.

The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule links itself to the oily (dirt) drop and ionic end
orients itself towards water and forms a spherical structure called micelles. The soap
micelles helps in dissolving the dirt in water and wash our clothes.
Alkanes
•General formula – CnH2n+2
•Saturated hydrocarbons
•Methane – CH4
•Ethane – C2H6
Alkenes
•General formula – CnH2n
•Unsaturated hydrocarbon.
•Ethene – C2H4
•Propene – C3H6
Homologous series: A family of organic compounds having the same functional group,
similar chemical properties and the successive (adjacent) members differ by a CH2 unit or 14
mass unit.
Characteristics of a homologous series:
All the members of a homologous series can be represented by a general formula.
•Alkane – CnH2n+2
•Alkyne – CnH2n-2
•Alcohol – CnH2n+1OH
•Ketone – CnH2n+1COCnH2n+1
•Alkene – CnH2n
•Haloalkane – CnH2n+1X
•Aldehyde – CnH2n+1CHO
•Carboxylic acid – CnH2n+1COOH

• The molecular formula of two successive (adjacent) members of a homologous series

differs by a CH2 unit.

• All the members of a given homologous series have the same functional group.

• All the members of a series show similar chemical properties.

Nomenclature of carbon compound: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) decided some rules to name the carbon compounds. This was done to maintain
uniformity throughout the world. Names which are given on this basis are popularly known
as IUPAC name. The rules for nomenclature are as follows:

(i) Identify the number of carbon atoms in the carbon compound. Name the carbon
compounds according to the number of carbon atoms.
Example, Saturated hydrocarbon having one carbon atom is named as Methane. Saturated
hydrocarbon having two carbon atoms is named as Ethane.
•An unsaturated hydrocarbon with a double bond having two carbon atoms is named as
Ethene.
•An unsaturated hydrocarbon with a triple bond between carbon atoms is named as Ethyne.
(ii) If the structure has a branched chain, identify the longest chain and then identify the
number of carbon atoms.
(iii) In the case of a functional group present, write the prefix or suffix of the functional
group as given below. Then write the name of the parent compound:
Chemical properties of Ethanol
•Ethanol (C2H5OH) compound is a colorless liquid at room temperature. It is the second
member of the homologous series of alcohols. Its common name is ethyl alcohol. Its
functional group is – OH.
•It has a very low melting point (156 K) and low boiling point (351 K or 78°C).
•Ethanol is highly soluble in water.
•Ethanol is one of the main components of alcoholic drinks.
•It is a good organic solvent.
•It is a neutral substance, so it does not have any effect on either blue litmus solution or red
litmus solution.
•It bums with a blue flame in the presence of O2 of air. This combustion is an oxidation
process.
In the presence of alkaline KMnO4, it is oxidised to ethanoic acid.

•Ethanol alcohol reacts with sodium(Na) metal vigorously to form sodium ethoxide and
evolves H2 gas.
2C2H5OH + 2Na → 2C2H5ONa (Sodium ethoxide) + H2 (g)
•Ethanol on dehydration in the presence of cone. H2SO4 acid at 443 K forms ethene gas.
H2SO4 acid absorbs water molecules from the alcohol molecules and acts as a strong
dehydrating agent.
Chemical properties of Ethanoic acid
•Ethanoic acid commonly called acetic acid (CH3COOH) is a colourless liquid. The functional
group present in it is carboxylic acid – COOH.
•It’s melting point is 290 K and the boiling point is 391 K.
•Being an acid, it turns blue litmus red.
•It is sour in taste.
•Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of cone. H2SO4 acid to form sweet
smelling compounds called esters.

Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form its salt and water.
It reacts with carbonate and hydrogen-carbonate compounds of metals to form its salt
(sodium ethanoate commonly called sodium acetate) and release CO2 gas.
Saponification : Esters in the presence of acid or base react to give back alcohol and
carboxylic acid is called saponification.
Soaps and Detergents :
Soaps and Synthetic Detergents: Soaps and detergents are substances used for cleaning.

Soap: Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids, such as Oleic acid
(C17H33COOH), Stearic acid (C17H35COOH), Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH), etc. These acids are
present in the form of their esters along with glycerol (alcohol containing three hydroxyl
groups). These esters, called ‘glycerides’ are present in fats and oils of animal and
vegetable origin.

Preparation of Soap: When an oil or fat (glyceride) is treated with sodium hydroxide
solution, it gets converted to sodium salt of the acid (soap) and glycerol. The reaction is
known as saponification.
Detergents: Chemically, detergents are sodium salts of sulphonic acids, i.e., detergents
contain a sulphonic acid group (—S03H), instead of a carboxylic acid group (—COOH), on
one end of the hydrocarbon.
The cleansing action of detergent is considered to be more effective than a soap.
Cleansing Action of Soaps and Detergents: The cleansing action of soaps and detergents
follows the same principle.
• When soap or detergent is dissolved in water, the molecules gather together as
clusters, called micelles. The tails stick inwards and the heads outwards.

• In cleansing, the hydrocarbon tail attaches. Itself to oily dirt. When water is agitated,
the oily dirt tends to lift off from the dirty surface and dissociates into fragments.

• This gives an opportunity to other tails to stick to oil. The solution now contains small
globules of oil surrounded by detergent molecules.

• The negatively charged heads present in water prevent the small globules from coming
together and form aggregates. Thus, the oily dirt is removed from the object.

Scum: The insoluble precipitates formed by soap molecule when they react with calcium
and magnesium ions present in hard water. Due to this, a lot of soap gets wasted and
cleansing action gets reduced to a larger extent.
THANKYOU..
Periodic Classification
of Elements
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-5TH
 CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
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Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• In Class IX we have learnt that matter around us is present in the form of elements,
compounds and mixtures and the elements contain atoms of only one type.

• Do you know how many elements are known till date? At present, 118 elements are
known to us. All these have different properties.

• Out of these 118, only 94 are naturally occurring. As different elements were being
discovered, scientists gathered more and more information about the properties of these
elements.

• They found it difficult to organise all that was known about the elements.

• They started looking for some pattern in their properties, on the basis of which they
could study such a large number of elements with ease.
MAKING ORDER OUT OF CHAOS – EARLY ATTEMPTS AT THE CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
• We have been learning how various things or living beings can be classified on the basis of
their properties.

• Even in other situations, we come across instances of organization based on some

properties.

• For example, in a shop, soaps are kept together at one place while biscuits are kept together
elsewhere. Even among soaps, bathing soaps are stacked separately from washing soaps.

• Similarly, scientists made several attempts to classify elements according to their properties
and obtain an orderly arrangement out of chaos.

• The earliest attempt to classify the elements resulted in grouping the then known elements
as metals and non-metals.

• Later further classifications were tried out as our knowledge of elements and their
properties increased.
Döbereiner’s Triads
• In the year 1817, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, a German chemist, tried to arrange the
elements with similar properties into groups.

• He identified some groups having three elements each. So he called these groups
‘triads’. Döbereiner showed that when the three elements in a triad were written in the
order of increasing atomic masses; the atomic mass of the middle element was roughly
the average of the atomic masses of the other two elements.

• For example, take the triad consisting of lithium (Li), sodium (Na) and potassium (K) with
the respective atomic masses 6.9, 23.0 and 39.0.

• What is the average of the atomic masses of Li and K? How does this compare with the
atomic mass of Na?

• Given below are some groups of three elements. These elements are arranged
downwards in order of increasing atomic masses. Can you find out which of these
groups form Döbereiner triads?
Group A Atomic Mass Group B Atomic mass Group C Atomic mass
elements elements elements
N 14.0 Ca 40.1 C1 35.5
P 31.0 Sr 87.6 Br 79.9
As 74.9 Ba 137.3 I 126.9

You will find that groups B and C form Döbereiner triads. Döbereiner could identify
only three triads from the elements known at that time. Hence, this system of
classification into triads was not found to be useful.

Döbereiner’s triads
Li Ca Cl
Na Sr Br
K Ba I
Newlands’ Law of Octaves
• The attempts of Döbereiner encouraged other chemists to correlate the properties of
elements with their atomic masses.

• In 1866, John Newlands, an English scientist, arranged the then known elements in the
order of increasing atomic masses.

• He started with the element having the lowest atomic mass (hydrogen) and ended at
thorium which was the 56th element.

• He found that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first. He
compared this to the octaves found in music.

• Therefore, he called it the ‘Law of Octaves’. It is known as ‘Newlands’ Law of Octaves’.

• In Newlands’ Octaves, the properties of lithium and sodium were found to be the same.
Sodium is the eighth element after lithium.
• Similarly, beryllium and magnesium resemble each other. A part of the original form of
Newlands’ Octaves.

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Da Ni
(do) (re) (Mi) (FA) (SO) (LA) (TI)
H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg A1 Si P S
C1 K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr - -
Are you familiar with musical notes?
In the Indian system of music, there are seven musical notes in a scale – sa, re, ga, ma, pa,
da, ni. In the west, they use the notations – do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti. The notes in a scale are
separated by whole and half-step frequency intervals of tones and semitones. A musician
uses these notes for composing the music of a song. Naturally, there must be some
repetition of notes. Every eighth note is similar to the first one and it is the first note of the
next scale.
• It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only up to calcium, as after calcium
every eighth element did not possess properties similar to that of the first.

• It was assumed by Newlands that only 56 elements existed in nature and no more
elements would be discovered in the future. But, later on, several new elements were
discovered, whose properties did not fit into the Law of Octaves.

• In order to fit elements into his Table, Newlands adjusted two elements in the same slot,
but also put some unlike elements under the same note.

• As per the table give- Note that cobalt and nickel are in the same slot and these are
placed in the same column as fluorine, chlorine and bromine which have very different
properties than these elements.

• Iron, which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties, has been placed far away from
these elements . With the discovery of noble gases, the Law of Octaves became
irrelevant. Thus, Newlands’ Law of Octaves worked well with lighter elements only.
MAKING ORDER OUT OF CHAOS – MENDELÉEV’S PERIODIC TABLE
• Even after the rejection of Newlands’ Law of Octaves, many scientists continued to
search for a pattern that correlated the properties of elements with their atomic masses.

• The main credit for classifying elements goes to Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev, a Russian
chemist.

• He was the most important contributor to the early development of a Periodic Table of
elements wherein the elements were arranged on the basis of their fundamental
property, the atomic mass, and also on the similarity of chemical properties.

• When Mendeléev started his work, 63 elements were known. He examined the
relationship between the atomic masses of the elements and their physical and chemical
properties.

• Among chemical properties, Mendeléev concentrated on the compounds formed by

elements with oxygen and hydrogen.
• He selected hydrogen and oxygen as they are very reactive and formed compounds
with most elements.

• The formulae of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element were treated as one of
the basic properties of an element for its classification.

• He then took 63 cards and on each card he wrote down the properties of one element.
He sorted out the elements with similar properties and pinned the cards together on a
wall.

• He observed that most of the elements got a place in a Periodic Table and were
arranged in the order of their increasing atomic masses.

• It was also observed that there occurs a periodic recurrence of elements with similar
physical and chemical properties.
• On this basis, Mendeléev formulated a Periodic Law, which states that ‘the properties
of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses’. Mendeléev’s Periodic
Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called ‘periods’.

• Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was published in a German journal in 1872.

• In the formula for oxides and hydrides at the top of the columns, the letter ‘R’ is used
to represent any of the elements in the group.

• Note the way formulae are written. For example, the hydride of carbon, CH4, is written
as RH4 and the oxide CO2, as RO2.
Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• While developing the Periodic Table, there were a few instances where Mendeléev had to
place an element with a slightly greater atomic mass before an element with a slightly
lower atomic mass.

• The sequence was inverted so that elements with similar properties could be grouped
together.

• For example, cobalt (atomic mass 58.9) appeared before nickel (atomic mass 58.7).

• Further, Mendeléev left some gaps in his Periodic Table. Instead of looking upon these
gaps as defects, Mendeléev boldly predicted the existence of some elements that had not
been discovered at that time.

• Mendeléev named them by prefixing a Sanskrit numeral, Eka (one) to the name of
preceding element in the same group.
• For instance, scandium, gallium and germanium, discovered later, have properties similar
to Eka–boron, Eka–aluminum and Eka–silicon, respectively.

• The properties of Eka–Aluminum predicted by Mendeléev and those of the element,

gallium which was discovered later and replaced Ekaaluminium, are listed as follows

Properties of eka–aluminum and gallium

Property Eka-aluminum Gallium

Atomic Mass 68 69.7

Formula of Oxide E2O3 Ga2O3

Formula of Chloride ECI3 GaCI3

• This provided convincing evidence for both the correctness and usefulness of
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.

• Further, it was the extraordinary success of Mendeléev’s prediction that led chemists
not only to accept his Periodic Table but also recognise him, as the originator of the
concept on which it is based.

• Noble gases like helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) have been mentioned in many a
context before this.

• These gases were discovered very late because they are very inert and present in
extremely low concentrations in our atmosphere.

• One of the strengths of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was that, when these gases were
discovered, they could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing order.
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification
• Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals.

• Like alkali metals, hydrogen combines with halogens, oxygen and sulphur to form
compounds having similar formulae, as shown in the examples here.

• On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen also exists as diatomic molecules and it
combines with metals and non-metals to form covalent compounds.

Compounds of H Compounds of Na

HCl NaCl

H2O Na2O

H2S Na2S
• Certainly, no fixed position can be given to hydrogen in the Periodic Table. This was the
first limitation of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.

• He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his Table. Isotopes were
discovered long after Mendeléev had proposed his periodic classification of elements.

• Let us recall that isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties, but different
atomic masses.

• Thus, isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.

• Another problem was that the atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in
going from one element to the next. So it was not possible to predict how many
elements could be discovered between two elements — especially when we consider
the heavier elements.
MAKING ORDER OUT OF CHAOS – THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
• In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number (symbolized as Z) of an element
is a more fundamental property than its atomic mass.

• Accordingly, Mendeléev’s Periodic Law was modified and atomic number was adopted as
the basis of Modern Periodic Table and the Modern Periodic Law can be stated as follows:

• ‘Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.’ Let us recall that
the atomic number gives us the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and this
number increases by one in going from one element to the next.

• Elements, when arranged in order of increasing atomic number, lead us to the

classification known as the Modern Periodic Table.

• Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more precision when elements
were arranged on the basis of increasing atomic number.
MORDERN PERIODIC TABLE
Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table
• The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’ and 7 horizontal
rows known as ‘periods’.

• You will find that all these elements contain the same number of valence electrons.

• Similarly, you will find that the elements present in any one group have the same number
of valence electrons.

• For example, elements fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), belong to group 17, how many
electrons do fluorine and chlorine have in their outermost shells?

• Hence, we can say that groups in the Periodic Table signify an identical outer shell
electronic configuration.
• On the other hand, the number of shells increases as we go down the group. There is
an anomaly when it comes to the position of hydrogen because it can be placed either
in group 1 or group 17 in the first period. Can you say why?

• You will find that these elements of second period do not have the same number of
valence electrons, but they contain the same number of shells.

• You also observe that the number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit, as
the atomic number increases by one unit on moving from left to right in a period.

• Or we can say that atoms of different elements with the same number of occupied
shells are placed in the same period.

• Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl and Ar belong to the third period of the Modern Periodic Table,
since the electrons in the atoms of these elements are filled in K, L and M shells.
Trends in the Modern Periodic Table
• Valency : As you know, the valency of an element is determined by the number of
valence electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom.

• Atomic size: The term atomic size refers to the radius of an atom. The atomic size may be
visualized as the distance between the center of the nucleus and the outermost shell of
an isolated atom. The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre, 1 pm = 10–
12m).

• Metallic and Non-metallic Properties :The metals like Na and Mg are towards the left-
hand side of the Periodic Table while the non-metals like Sulphur and chlorine are found
on the right-hand side. In the middle, we have silicon, which is classified as a semi-metal
or metalloid because it exhibits some properties of both metals and non-metals In the
Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals. The borderline
elements – boron, silicon, germanium,arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium – are
intermediate in properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals.
• As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a
period, the tendency to lose electrons will decrease.

• Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons is decreasing
because the outermost electrons are farther away from the nucleus.

• Therefore, these can be lost easily. Hence metallic character decreases across a period and
increases down a group. Non-metals, on the other hand, are electronegative.

• They tend to form bonds by gaining electrons. Let us learn about the variation of this
property.

• As the trends in the electronegativity show, non-metals are found on the right-hand side of
the Periodic Table towards the top.

• These trends also help us to predict the nature of oxides formed by the elements because it
is known to you that the oxides of metals are basic and that of non-metals are acidic in
general.
Life Process
Class-10th Chapter-6th
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• How do we tell the difference between what is alive and what is not alive? If we see a dog
running, or a cow chewing cud, or a man shouting loudly on the street, we know that
these are living beings.

• What if the dog or the cow or the man were asleep? We would still think that they were
alive, but how did we know that?

• We see them breathing, and we know that they are alive. What about plants?

• How do we know that they are alive?

• We see them green, some of us will say. But what about plants that have leaves of colours
other than green?

• They grow over time, so we know that they are alive, some will say. In other words, we
tend to think of some sort of movement, either growth-related or not, as common
evidence for being alive.
• But a plant that is not visibly growing is still alive, and some animals can breathe without
visible movement.

• So using visible movement as the defining characteristic of life is not enough.

• Movements over very small scales will be invisible to the naked eye -movements of
molecules, for example. Is this invisible molecular movement necessary for life?

• If we ask this question to professional biologists, they will say yes. In fact, viruses do not
show any molecular movement in them (until they infect some cell), and that is partly
why there is a controversy about whether they are truly alive or not.

• Why are molecular movements needed for life? We have seen in earlier classes that living
organisms are well-organised structures; they can have tissues, tissues have cells, cells
have smaller components in them, and so on.
• Because of the effects of the environment, this organised, ordered nature of living
structures is very likely to keep breaking down over time.

• If order breaks down, the organism will no longer be alive. So living creatures must keep
repairing and maintaining their structures.

• Since all these structures are made up of molecules, they must move molecules around all
the time.

• What are the maintenance processes in living organisms?

WHAT ARE LIFE PROCESSES?
The maintenance functions of living organisms must go on even when they are not doing
anything particular.

Since these maintenance processes are needed to prevent damage and break-down, energy
is needed for them.

This energy comes from outside the body of the individual organism.

So there must be a process to transfer a source of energy from outside the body of the
organism, which we call food, to the inside, a process we commonly call nutrition.

If the body size of the organisms is to grow, additional raw material will also be needed from
outside.

Since life on earth depends on carbon-based molecules, most of these food sources are also
carbon-based.
• Depending on the complexity of these carbon sources, different organisms can then use
different kinds of nutritional processes.

• The outside sources of energy could be quite varied, since the environment is not under the
control of the individual organism.

• These sources of energy, therefore, need to be broken down or built up in the body, and
must be finally converted to a uniform source of energy that can be used for the various
molecular movements needed for maintaining living structures, as well as to the kind of
molecules the body needs to grow.

• Oxidizing-reducing reactions are some of the most common chemical means to break-down
molecules.

• The process of acquiring oxygen from outside the body, and to use it in the process of
break-down of food sources for cellular needs, is what we call respiration.
• In the case of a single-celled organism, no specific organs for taking in food, exchange of
gases or removal of wastes may be needed because the entire surface of the organism is
in contact with the environment.

• In multi-cellular organisms, all the cells may not be in direct contact with the surrounding
environment. Thus, simple diffusion will not meet the requirements of all the cells.

• When chemical reactions use the carbon source and the oxygen for energy generation,
they create by-products that are not only useless for the cells of the body, but could even
be harmful.

• These waste byproducts are therefore needed to be removed from the body and
discarded outside by a process called excretion.
• Basic rules for body design in multi-cellular organisms are followed, a specialized tissue
for excretion will be developed, which means that the transportation system will need
to transport waste away from cells to this excretory tissue.
NUTRITION
Energy is needed to maintain a state of order in our body. We also need materials from
outside in order to grow, develop, synthesize protein and other substances needed in
the body. This source of energy and materials is the food we eat.

How do living things get their food?

• The general requirement for energy and materials is common in all organisms, but it
is fulfilled in different ways.

• Some organisms use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in the
form of carbon dioxide and water.

• These organisms, the autotrophs, include green plants and some bacteria.

• Other organisms utilise complex substances. These complex substances have to be

broken down into simpler ones before they can be used for the upkeep and growth of
the body.
• To achieve this, organisms use bio-catalysts called enzymes.

• Thus, the heterotrophs survival depends directly or indirectly on autotrophs .

Heterotrophic organisms include animals and fungi.

Autotrophic Nutrition
• Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled by
photosynthesis.

• It is the process by which autotrophs take in substances from the outside and convert
them into stored forms of energy.

• This material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water which is converted into
carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.

• Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plant.

The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch, which
serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when required by the plant.

A somewhat similar situation is seen in us where some of the energy derived from the food
we eat is stored in our body in the form of glycogen.
During the process of photosynthesis. The following events occur during this process –

(i)Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.

(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen.

(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.

These steps need not take place one after the other immediately. For example, desert
plants take up carbon dioxide at night and prepare an intermediate which is acted upon
by the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll during the day.
• A cross-section of a leaf under the microscope you will notice that some cells contain
green dots.

• These green dots are cell organelles called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.

• The plantobtains carbon dioxide. we had talked about stomata which are tiny pores
present on the surface of the leaves.

• Massive amounts of gaseous exchange takes place in the leaves through these pores
for the purpose of photosynthesis.

• But it is important to note here that exchange of gases occurs across the surface of
stems, roots and leaves as well.

• Since large amounts of water can also be lost through these stomata, the plant closes
these pores when it does not need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
• The opening and closing of the pore is a function of the guard cells.

• The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomatal pore to open.
Similarly the pore closes if the guard cells shrink.

• Water used in photosynthesis is taken up from the soil by the roots in terrestrial plants.

• Other materials like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and magnesium are taken up from the
soil.

• Nitrogen is an essential element used in the synthesis of proteins and other compounds.
This is taken up in the form of inorganic nitrates or nitrites.

• Or it is taken up as organic compounds which have been prepared by bacteria from

atmospheric nitrogen.
a) Open and (b) closed stomatal pore
Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Each organism is adapted to its environment. The form of nutrition differs depending on
the type and availability of food material as well as how it is obtained by the organism.

• For example, whether the food source is stationary (such as grass) or mobile (such as a
deer), would allow for differences in how the food is accessed and what is the nutritive
apparatus used by a cow and a lion.

• There is a range of strategies by which the food is taken in and used by the organism.
Some organisms break-down the food material outside the body and then absorb it.

• Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms. Others take in whole
material and break it down inside their bodies.

• What can be taken in and broken down depends on the body design and functioning.
Some other organisms derive nutrition from plants or animals without killing them.
• This parasitic nutritive strategy is used by a wide variety of organisms like cuscuta (amar-
bel), orchids, ticks, lice, leeches and tape-worms.

How do Organisms obtain their Nutrition?

• Since the food and the way it is obtained differ, the digestive system is different in various
organisms.

• In single-celled organisms, the food may be taken in by the entire surface.

• But as the complexity of the organism increases, different parts become specialized to
perform different functions.

• For example, Amoeba takes in food using temporary finger-like extensions of the cell
surface which fuse over the food particle forming a food-vacuole.
• Inside the food vacuole, complex substances are broken down into simpler ones which
then diffuse into the cytoplasm.

• The remaining undigested material is moved to the surface of the cell and thrown out.

• In Paramoecium, which is also a unicellular organism, the cell has a definite shape and
food is taken in at a specific spot.

• Food is moved to this spot by the movement of cilia which cover the entire surface of
the cell.
Nutrition in Human Beings
• The alimentary canal is basically a long tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
Various regions are specialized to perform different functions.

• Naturally the food has to be processed to generate particles which are small and of the
same texture.

• This is achieved by crushing the food with our teeth. Since the lining of the canal is soft,
the food is also wetted to make its passage smooth.
• When we eat something we like, our mouth ‘waters’. This is actually not only water, but
a fluid called saliva secreted by the salivary glands.

• Another aspect of the food we ingest is its complex nature.

• If it is to be absorbed from the alimentary canal, it has to be broken into smaller

molecules. This is done with the help of biological catalysts called enzymes.

• The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary amylase that breaks down starch which is
a complex molecule to give sugar.

• The food is mixed thoroughly with saliva and moved around the mouth while chewing
by the muscular tongue.

• It is necessary to move the food in a regulated manner along the digestive tube so that
it can be processed properly in each part.
• The lining of canal has muscles that contract rhythmically in order to push the food
forward.

• These peristaltic movements occur all along the gut. From the mouth, the food is taken
to the stomach through the food-pipe or oesophagus.

• The stomach is a large organ which expands when food enters it.

• The muscular walls of the stomach help in mixing the food thoroughly with more
digestive juices.

• These digestion functions are taken care of by the gastric glands present in the wall of
the stomach.

• These release hydrochloric acid, a protein digesting enzyme called pepsin, and mucus.
• The hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium which facilitates the action of the enzyme
pepsin.

• The mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of the acid under
normal conditions.

• The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by a sphincter muscle which releases it in
small amounts into the small intestine.

• From the stomach, the food now enters the small intestine. This is the longest part of the
alimentary canal which is fitted into a compact space because of extensive coiling.

• The length of the small intestine differs in various animals depending on the food they eat.

• Herbivores eating grass need a longer small intestine to allow the cellulose to be digested.
Meat is easier to digest, hence carnivores like tigers have a shorter small intestine.
• The small intestine is the site of the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and
fats. It receives the secretions of the liver and pancreas for this purpose.

• The food coming from the stomach is acidic and has to be made alkaline for the
pancreatic enzymes to act.

• Bile juice from the liver accomplishes this in addition to acting on fats.

• Fats are present in the intestine in the form of large globules which makes it difficult for
enzymes to act on them.

• Bile salts break them down into smaller globules increasing the efficiency of enzyme
action. This is similar to the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt.

• The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains enzymes like trypsin for digesting
proteins and lipase for breaking down emulsified fats.
• The walls of the small intestine contain glands which secrete intestinal juice.

• The enzymes present in it finally convert the proteins to amino acids, complex
carbohydrates into glucose and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

• The digested food is taken up by the walls of the intestine. The inner lining of the small
intestine has numerous finger-like projections called villi which increase the surface area
for absorption.

• The villi are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each and
every cell of the body, where it is utilized for obtaining energy, building up new tissues
and the repair of old tissues.

• The unabsorbed food is sent into the large intestine where more villi absorb water from
this material.

• The rest of the material is removed from the body via the anus. The exit of this waste
material is regulated by the anal sphincter.
RESPIRATION
• The food material taken in during the process of nutrition is used in cells to provide
energy for various life processes.

• Diverse organisms do this in different ways – some use oxygen to break-down glucose
completely into carbon dioxide and water, some use other pathways that do no involve
oxygen.

• In all cases, the first step is the break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, into a
three-carbon molecule called pyruvate. This process takes place in the cytoplasm.

• Further, the pyruvate may be converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. This process
takes place in yeast during fermentation.

• Since this process takes place in the absence of air (oxygen), it is called anaerobic
respiration. Breakdown of pyruvate using oxygen takes place in the mitochondria.
• This process breaks up the three-carbon pyruvate molecule to give three molecules of
carbon dioxide. The other product is water.

• Since this process takes place in the presence of air (oxygen), it is called aerobic
respiration.

• The release of energy in this aerobic process is a lot greater than in the anaerobic
process.

• Sometimes, when there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells, another pathway for the
break-down of pyruvate is taken.

• Here the pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which is also a three-carbon molecule.
This build-up of lactic acid in our muscles during sudden activity causes cramps.
Break-down of glucose by various pathways
• The energy released during cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesize a
molecule called ATP which is used to fuel all other activities in the cell.

• In these processes, ATP is broken down giving rise to a fixed amount of energy which can
drive the endothermic reactions taking place in the cell.

• Since the aerobic respiration pathway depends on oxygen, aerobic organisms need to
ensure that there is sufficient intake of oxygen.

• We have seen that plants exchange gases through stomata, and the large inter-cellular
spaces ensure that all cells are in contact with air.

• Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged by diffusion here. They can go into cells, or
away from them and out into the air.
• The direction of diffusion depends upon the environmental conditions and the
requirements of the plant.

• At night, when there is no photosynthesis occurring, CO2 elimination is the major

exchange activity going on.

• During the day, CO2 generated during respiration is used up for photosynthesis, hence
there is no CO2 release.

• Instead, oxygen release is the major event at this time. Animals have evolved different
organs for the uptake of oxygen from the environment and for getting rid of the carbon
dioxide produced.

• Terrestrial animals can breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere, but animals that live in
water need to use the oxygen dissolved in water.
• Since the amount of dissolved oxygen is fairly low compared to the amount of oxygen in the
air, the rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster than that seen in terrestrial
organisms.

• Fishes take in water through their mouths and force it past the gills where the dissolved
oxygen is taken up by blood.

• Terrestrial organisms use the oxygen in the atmosphere for respiration. This oxygen is
absorbed by different organs in different animals.

• All these organs have a structure that increases the surface area which is in contact with the
oxygen-rich atmosphere.

• Since the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide has to take place across this surface, this
surface is very fine and delicate.
• In order to protect this surface, it is usually placed within the body, so there have to be
passages that will take air to this area.

• In addition, there is a mechanism for moving the air in and out of this area where the
oxygen is absorbed.

• In human beings , air is taken into the body through the nostrils. The air passing through
the nostrils is filtered by fine hairs that line the passage.

• The passage is also lined with mucus which helps in this process. From here, the air passes
through the throat and into the lungs.

• Rings of cartilage are present in the throat. These ensure that the air-passage does not
collapse.
Human respiratory system
• Within the lungs, the passage divides into smaller and smaller tubes which finally
terminate in balloon-like structures which are called alveoli.

• The alveoli provide a surface where the exchange of gases can take place.

• The walls of the alveoli contain an extensive network of blood-vessels.

• As we have seen in earlier years, when we breathe in, we lift our ribs and flatten our
diaphragm, and the chest cavity becomes larger as a result.

• Because of this, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.

• The blood brings carbon dioxide from the rest of the body for release into the alveoli, and
the oxygen in the alveolar air is taken up by blood in the alveolar blood vessels to be
transported to all the cells in the body.
• During the breathing cycle, when air is taken in and let out, the lungs always contain a
residual volume of air so that there is sufficient time for oxygen to be absorbed and for
the carbon dioxide to be released.

• When the body size of animals is large, the diffusion pressure alone cannot take care of
oxygen delivery to all parts of the body.

• Instead, respiratory pigments take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to
tissues which are deficient in oxygen before releasing it.

• In human beings, the respiratory pigment is hemoglobin which has a very high affinity for
oxygen.

• This pigment is present in the red blood corpuscles. Carbon dioxide is more soluble in
water than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported in the dissolved form in our blood.
TRANSPORTATION
Transportation in Human Beings
• Blood consists of a fluid medium called plasma in which the cells are suspended.

• Plasma transports food, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes in dissolved form.

• Oxygen is carried by the red blood cells. Many other substances like salts, are also
transported by the blood.

• We thus need a pumping organ to push blood around the body, a network of tubes to
reach all the tissues and a system in place to ensure that this network can be repaired if
damaged.
Our pump — the heart
The heart is a muscular organ which is as big as our fist. Because both oxygen and carbon
dioxide have to be transported by the blood, the heart has different chambers to prevent the
oxygen-rich blood from mixing with the blood containing carbon dioxide.

The carbon dioxide-rich blood has to reach the lungs for the carbon dioxide to be removed,
and the oxygenated blood from the lungs has to be brought back to the heart.

This oxygen-rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the body. Oxygen-rich blood from the
lungs comes to the thin-walled upper chamber of the heart on the left, the left atrium.

The left atrium relaxes when it is collecting this blood. It then contracts, while the next
chamber, the left ventricle, expands, so that the blood is transferred to it.
• When the muscular left ventricle contracts in its turn, the blood is pumped out to the
body.

• De-oxygenated blood comes from the body to the upper chamber on the right, the right
atrium, as it expands.

• As the right atrium contracts, the corresponding lower chamber, the right ventricle,
dilates.

• This transfers blood to the right ventricle, which in turn pumps it to the lungs for
oxygenation.

• Since ventricles have to pump blood into various organs, they have thicker muscular
walls than the atria do.

• Valves ensure that blood does not flow backwards when the atria or ventricles contract.
Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs
• The separation of the right side and the left side of the heart is useful to keep oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood from mixing.

• Such separation allows a highly efficient supply of oxygen to the body.

• This is useful in animals that have high energy needs, such as birds and mammals, which
constantly use energy to maintain their body temperature.

• In animals that do not use energy for this purpose, the body temperature depends on the
temperature in the environment.

• Such animals, like amphibians or many reptiles have three-chambered hearts, and
tolerate some mixing of the oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood streams.
• Fishes, on the other hand, have only two chambers to their hearts, and the blood is
pumped to the gills, is oxygenated there, and passes directly to the rest of the body.

• Thus, blood goes only once through the heart in the fish during one cycle of passage
through the body.

• On the other hand, it goes through the heart twice during each cycle in other vertebrates.
This is known as double circulation.
Schematic representation of transport and exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide
Blood pressure
• The force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel is called blood pressure. This
pressure is much greater in arteries than in veins.

• The pressure of blood inside the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is called
systolic pressure and pressure in artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called
diastolic pressure.

• The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of

Hg.

• Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called sphygmomanometer.

• High blood pressure is also called hypertension and is caused by the constriction of
arterioles, which results in increased resistance to blood flow.

• It can lead to the rupture of an artery and internal bleeding.

The tubes – blood vessels
Arteries are the vessels which carry blood away from the heart to various organs of the
body.

Since the blood emerges from the heart under high pressure, the arteries have thick,
elastic walls.

Veins collect the blood from different organs and bring it back to the heart.

They do not need thick walls because the blood is no longer under pressure, instead they
have valves that ensure that the blood flows only in one direction.

On reaching an organ or tissue, the artery divides into smaller and smaller vessels to bring
the blood in contact with all the individual cells.

The smallest vessels have walls which are one-cell thick and are called capillaries.
Exchange of material between the blood and surrounding cells takes place across this thin
wall.

The capillaries then join together to form veins that convey the blood away from the organ
or tissue.
Maintenance by platelets
Naturally the loss of blood from the system has to be minimized.

In addition, leakage would lead to a loss of pressure which would reduce the efficiency of
the pumping system.

To avoid this, the blood has platelet cells which circulate around the body and plug these
leaks by helping to clot the blood at these points of injury.
Lymph
• There is another type of fluid also involved in transportation. This is called lymph or
tissue fluid.

• Through the pores present in the walls of capillaries some amount of plasma, proteins
and blood cells escape into intercellular spaces in the tissues to form the tissue fluid or
lymph.

• It is similar to the plasma of blood but colourless and contains less protein.

• Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries from the intercellular spaces, which join to form
large lymph vessels that finally open into larger veins.

• Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid from
extra cellular space back into the blood.
Transportation in Plants
We have discussed earlier how plants take in simple compounds such as CO2 and
photosynthesize energy stored in their chlorophyll-containing organs, namely leaves.

The other kinds of raw materials needed for building plant bodies will also have to be taken up
separately.

For plants, the soil is the nearest and richest source of raw materials like nitrogen, phosphorus
and other minerals.

The absorption of these substances therefore occurs through the part in contact with the soil,
namely roots.

If the distances between soil-contacting organs and chlorophyll containing organs are small,
energy and raw materials can easily diffuse to all parts of the plant body.
• But if these distances become large because of changes in plant body design, diffusion
processes will not be sufficient to provide raw material in leaves and energy in roots.

• A proper system of transportation is therefore essential in such situations. Energy needs

differ between different body designs.

• Plants do not move, and plant bodies have a large proportion of dead cells in many tissues.

• As a result, plants have low energy needs, and can use relatively slow transport systems.

• The distances over which transport systems have to operate, however, can be very large in
plants such as very tall trees
• Plant transport systems will move energy stores from leaves and raw materials from
roots.

• These two pathways are constructed as independently organised conducting tubes.

• One, the xylem moves water and minerals obtained from the soil.

• The other, phloem transports products of photosynthesis from the leaves where they
are synthesized to other parts of the plant.

Transport of water
In xylem tissue, vessels and tracheid of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to
form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plant.

At the roots, cells in contact with the soil actively take up ions. This creates a difference in
the concentration of these ions between the root and the soil.
• Water, therefore, moves into the root from the soil to eliminate this difference.

• This means that there is steady movement of water into root xylem, creating a column
of water that is steadily pushed upwards.

• However, this pressure by itself is unlikely to be enough to move water over the heights
that we commonly see in plants.

• Plants use another strategy to move water in the xylem upwards to the highest points of
the plant body.
• Provided that the plant has an adequate supply of water, the water which is lost
through the stomata is replaced by water from the xylem vessels in the leaf.

• In fact, evaporation of water molecules from the cells of a leaf creates a suction which
pulls water from the xylem cells of roots.

• The loss of water in the form of vapour from the aerial parts of the plant is known as
transpiration.

• Thus, transpiration helps in the absorption and upward movement of water and
minerals dissolved in it from roots to the leaves. It also helps in temperature
regulation.

• The effect of root pressure in transport of water is more important at night.

• During the day when the stomata are open, the transpiration pull becomes the major
driving force in the movement of water in the xylem.
Transport of food and other substances
So far we have discussed the transport of water and minerals in plants.

The products of metabolic processes, particularly photosynthesis, are moved from leaves,
where they are formed, to other parts of the plant.

This transport of soluble products of photosynthesis is called translocation and it occurs in the
part of the vascular tissue known as phloem.

Besides the products of photosynthesis, the phloem transports amino acids and other
substances.

These substances are especially delivered to the storage organs of roots, fruits and seeds and
to growing organs.
• The translocation of food and other substances takes place in the sieve tubes with the
help of adjacent companion cells both in upward and downward directions.

• Unlike transport in xylem which can be largely explained by simple physical forces, the
translocation in phloem is achieved by utilizing energy.

• Material like sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP.

• This increases the osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it.

• This pressure moves the material in the phloem to tissues which have less pressure.

• This allows the phloem to move material according to the plant’s needs.

• For example, in the spring, sugar stored in root or stem tissue would be transported to
the budswhich need energy to grow.
EXCRETION
• Organisms get rid of gaseous wastes generated during photosynthesis or respiration.

• Other metabolic activities generate nitrogenous materials which need to be removed.

• The biological process involved in the removal of these harmful metabolic wastes from
the body is called excretion.

• Different organisms use varied strategies to do this. Many unicellular organisms remove
these wastes by simple diffusion from the body surface into the surrounding
• water.

• As we have seen in other processes, complex multi-cellular organisms use specialised

organs to perform the same function.
Excretion in Human Beings
The excretory system of human beings includes a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary
bladder and a urethra.

Kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of the backbone.

Urine produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it
is stored until it is released through the urethra.

The purpose of making urine is to filter out waste products from the blood.

Just as CO2 is removed from the blood in the lungs, nitrogenous waste such as urea or uric
acid are removed from blood in the kidneys.

It is then no surprise that the basic filtration unit in the kidneys, like in the lungs, is a cluster
of very thin-walled blood capillaries.
• Each capillary cluster in the kidney is associated with the cup-shaped end of a tube that
collects the filtered urine.

• Each kidney has large numbers of these filtration units called nephrons packed close
together.

• Some substances in the initial filtrate, such as glucose, amino acids, salts and a major
amount of water, are selectively re-absorbed as the urine flows along the tube.

• The amount of water reabsorbed depends on how much excess water there is in the
body, and on how much of dissolved waste there is to be excreted.

• The urine forming in each kidney eventually enters a long tube, the ureter, which
connects the kidneys with the urinary bladder.
• Urine is stored in the urinary bladder until the pressure of the expanded bladder leads to
the urge to pass it out through the urethra.

• The bladder is muscular, so it is under nervous control, as we have discussed elsewhere.

As a result, we can usually control the urge to urinate.
Artificial kidney (Hemodialysis)
• Kidneys are vital organs for survival. Several factors like infections, injury or restricted
blood flow to kidneys reduce the activity of kidneys.

• This leads to accumulation of poisonous wastes in the body, which can even lead to
death. In case of kidney failure, an artificial kidney can be used.

• An artificial kidney is a device to remove nitrogenous waste products from the blood
through dialysis.

• Artificial kidneys contain a number of tubes with a semi-permeable lining, suspended in

a tank filled with dialysing fluid.

• This fluid has the same osmotic pressure as blood, except that it is devoid of nitrogenous
wastes. The patient’s blood is passed through these tubes.
• During this passage, the waste products from the blood pass into dialysing fluid by
diffusion. The purified blood is pumped back into the patient.

• This is similar to the function of the kidney, but it is different since there is no
reabsorption involved.

• Normally, in a healthy adult, the initial filtrate in the kidneys is about 180 L daily.

• However, the volume actually excreted is only a litre or two a day, because the remaining
filtrate is reabsorbed in the kidney tubules.
Excretion in Plants
• Plants use completely different strategies for excretion than those of animals.

• Oxygen itself can be thought of as a waste product generated during photosynthesis.

• Plant can get rid of excess water by transpiration. For other wastes, plants use the fact
that many of their tissues consist of dead cells, and that they can even lose some parts
such as leaves.

• Many plant waste products are stored in cellular vacuoles.

• Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off. Other waste products are stored as
resins and gums, especially in old xylem.

• Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.
THANKYOU….
Control and Coordination
CLASS-10TH , CHAPTER- 7TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• In the previous chapter, we looked at life processes involved in the maintenance
functions in living organisms.

• There, we had started with a notion we all have, that if we see something moving, it is
alive.

• Some of these movements are in fact the result of growth, as in plants.

• A seed germinates and grows, and we can see that the seedling moves over the course of
a few days, it pushes soil aside and comes out.

• But if its growth were to be stopped, these movements would not happen.

• Some movements, as in many animals and some plants, are not connected with growth.

• A cat running, children playing on swings, buffaloes chewing cud – these are not
movements caused by growth.
• Living organisms must use systems providing control and coordination.

• In keeping with the general principles of body organization in multicellular organisms,

specialized tissues are used to provide these control and coordination activities.

ANIMALS – NERVOUS SYSTEM

• In animals, such control and coordination are provided by nervous and muscular
tissues, which we have studied in Class IX.

• Touching a hot object is an urgent and dangerous situation for us.

• All information from our environment is detected by the specialized tips of some nerve
cells.

• These receptors are usually located in our sense organs, such as the inner ear, the nose,
the tongue, and so on.
• Gustatory receptors will detect taste while olfactory receptors will detect smell.

• Acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of a nerve cell , sets off a chemical reaction that
creates an electrical impulse.

• This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body, and then along the axon to its
end.

• At the end of the axon, the electrical impulse sets off the release of some chemicals.

• These chemicals cross the gap, or synapse, and start a similar electrical impulse in a
dendrite of the next neuron.

• This is a general scheme of how nervous impulses travel in the body.

• A similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells,
such as muscles cells or gland.
• It is thus no surprise that nervous tissue is made up of an organised network of nerve cells
or neurons, and is specialised for conducting information via electrical impulses from one
part of the body to another.

• (a) and identify the parts of a neuron . (i)Where information is acquired, (ii) through
which information travels as an electrical impulse, and (iii) where this impulse must be
converted into a chemical signal for onward transmission.

What happens in Reflex Actions?

• ‘Reflex’ is a word we use very commonly when we talk about some sudden action in
response to something in the environment.

• If nerve impulses are sent around the way we have talked about earlier, then thinking is
also likely to involve the creation of such impulses.
Reflex arc
• Thinking is a complex activity, so it is bound to involve a complicated interaction of many
nerve impulses from many neurons.

• If this is the case, it is no surprise that the thinking tissue in our body consists of dense
networks of intricately arranged neurons.

• It sits in the forward end of the skull, and receives signals from all over the body which it
thinks about before responding to them.

• Obviously, in order to receive these signals, this thinking part of the brain in the skull
must be connected to nerves coming from various parts of the body.

• Similarly, if this part of the brain is to instruct muscles to move, nerve must carry this
signal back to different parts of the body.
• If all of this is to be done when we touch a hot object, it may take enough time for us to
get burnt! How does the design of the body solve this problem? Rather than having to
think about the sensation of heat, if the nerves that detect heat were to be connected
to the nerves that move muscles in a simpler way, the process of detecting the signal or
the input and responding to it by an output action might be completed quickly. Such a
connection is commonly called a reflex arc.

• Where should such reflex arc connections be made between the input nerve and the
output nerve?

• The best place, of course, would be at the point where they first meet each other.

• Nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in the spinal cord on their way to the
brain.

• Reflex arcs are formed in this spinal cord itself, although the information input also goes
on to reach the brain.
• Of course, reflex arcs have evolved in animals because the thinking process of the brain is
not fast enough.

• In fact many animals have very little or none of the complex neuron network needed for
thinking.

• So it is quite likely that reflex arcs have evolved as efficient ways of functioning in the
absence of true thought processes.

• However, even after complex neuron networks have come into existence, reflex arcs
continue to be more efficient for quick responses.
Human Brain
• Is reflex action the only function of the spinal cord?

• Obviously not, since we know that we are thinking beings.

• Spinal cord is made up of nerves which supply information to think about. Thinking
involves more complex mechanisms and neural connections.

• These are concentrated in the brain, which is the main coordinating centre of the body.
The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system.

• They receive information from all parts of the body and integrate it.
Human Brain
• We also think about our actions. Writing, talking, moving a chair, clapping at the end of a
programme are examples of voluntary actions which are based on deciding what to do
next.

• So, the brain also has to send messages to muscles. This is the second way in which the
nervous system communicates with the muscles.

• The communication between the central nervous system and the other parts of the body
is facilitated by the peripheral nervous system consisting of cranial nerves arising from the
brain and spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord.

• The brain thus allows us to think and take actions based on that thinking. As you will
expect, this is accomplished through a complex design, with different parts of the brain
responsible for integrating different inputs and outputs.

• The brain has three such major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain,mid-brain and
hind-brain.
• The fore-brain is the main thinking part of the brain. It has regions which receive sensory
impulses from various receptors.

• Separate areas of the fore-brain are specialised for hearing, smell, sight and so on.

• There are separate areas of association where this sensory information is interpreted by
putting it together with information from other receptors as well as with information
that is already stored in the brain.

• Based on all this, a decision is made about how to respond and the information is passed
on to the motor areas which control the movement of voluntary muscles, for example,
our leg muscles.

• However, certain sensations are distinct from seeing or hearing, for example, how do we
know that we have eaten enough?
• The sensation of feeling full is because of a centre associated with hunger, which is in a
separate part of the fore-brain.

• Let us look at the other use of the word ‘reflex’ that we have talked about in the
introduction.

• Our mouth waters when we see food we like without our meaning to. Our hearts beat
without our thinking about it.

• In fact, we cannot control these actions easily by thinking about them even if we wanted
to.

• Do we have to think about or remember to breathe or digest food? So, in between the
simple reflex actions like change in the size of the pupil, and the thought out actions such
as moving a chair, there is another set of muscle movements over which we do not have
any thinking control.
• Many of these involuntary actions are controlled by the mid-brain and hind-brain.

• All these involuntary actions including blood pressure, salivation and vomiting are
controlled by the medulla in the hind-brain.

• Think about activities like walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle, picking up a pencil.
These are possible due to a part of the hind-brain called the cerebellum.

• It is responsible for precision of voluntary actions and maintaining the posture and
balance of the body.
• How are these Tissues protected?
• A delicate organ like the brain, which is so important for a variety of activities, needs to
be carefully protected.

• For this, the body is designed so that the brain sits inside a bony box. Inside the box, the
brain is contained in a fluid-filled balloon which provides further shock absorption.

• If you run your hand down the middle of your back, you will feel a hard, bumpy structure.

• This is the vertebral column or backbone which protects the spinal cord.

• How does the Nervous Tissue cause Action? So far, we have been talking about nervous
tissue, and how it collects information, sends it around the body, processes information,
makes decisions based on information, and conveys decisions to muscles for action.
• In other words, when the action or movement is to be performed, muscle tissue will do
the final job. How do animal muscles move? When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle,
the muscle fibre must move.

• How does a muscle cell move? The simplest notion of movement at the cellular level is
that muscle cells will move by changing their shape so that they shorten. So the next
question is, how do muscle cells change their shape? The answer must lie in the
chemistry of cellular components.

• Muscle cells have special proteins that change both their shape and their arrangement in
the cell in response to nervous electrical impulses.

• When this happens, new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle cells a shorter
form.

• Remember when we talked about muscle tissue in Class IX, there were different kinds of
muscles, such as voluntary muscles and involuntary muscles.
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
• Animals have a nervous system for controlling and coordinating the activities of the body.

• But plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles. So, how do they respond to
stimuli?

• When we touch the leaves of a chhui-mui (the ‘sensitive’ or ‘touch-me-not’ plant of the
Mimosa family), they begin to fold up and droop.

• When a seed germinates, the root goes down, the stem comes up into the air.

• What happens? Firstly, the leaves of the sensitive plant move very quickly in response to
touch .

• There is no growth involved in this movement. On the other hand, the directional
movement of a seedling is caused by growth.
• If it is prevented from growing, it will not show any movement. So plants show two
different types of movement – one dependent on growth and the other independent
of growth.
Immediate Response to Stimulus
• Let us think about the first kind of movement, such as that of the sensitive plant.

• Since no growth is involved, the plant must actually move its leaves in response to touch.

• But there is no nervous tissue, nor any muscle tissue If we think about where exactly the
plant is touched, and what part of the plant actually moves, it is apparent that movement
happens at a point different from the point of touch.

• So, information that a touch has occurred must be communicated.

• The plants also use electrical-chemical means to convey this information from cell to cell,
but unlike in animals, there is no specialised tissue in plants for the conduction of
information.

• Finally, again as in animals, some cells must change shape in order for movement to
happen.
The sensitive plant
• Instead of the specialised proteins found in animal muscle cells, plant cells change
shape by changing the amount of water in them, resulting in swelling or shrinking, and
therefore in changing shapes.

Movement Due to Growth

• Some plants like the pea plant climb up other plants or fences by means of tendrils.

• These tendrils are sensitive to touch. When they come in contact with any support, the
part of the tendril in contact with the object does not grow as rapidly as the part of the
tendril away from the object.

• This causes the tendril to circle around the object and thus cling to it.

• More commonly, plants respond to stimuli slowly by growing in a particular direction.

Because this growth is directional, it appears as if the plant is moving.
• Environmental triggers such as light, or gravity will change the directions that plant parts
grow in.

• These directional, or tropic, movements can be either towards the stimulus, or away
from it.

• So, in two different kinds of phototropic movement, shoots respond by bending towards
light while roots respond by bending away from it.

• Plants show tropism in response to other stimuli as well.

• The roots of a plant always grow downwards while the shoots usually grow upwards and
away from the earth.

• This upward and downward growth of shoots and roots, respectively, in response to the
pull of earth or gravity is, obviously, geotropism
• If ‘hydro’ means water and ‘chemo’ refers to chemicals, what would ‘hydrotropism’ and
‘chemotropism’ mean?

• One example of chemotropism is the growth of pollen tubes towards ovules, about which
we will learn more when we examine the reproductive processes of living organisms.

• Let us now once again think about how information is communicated in the bodies of
multicellular organisms.

• The movement of the sensitive plant in response to touch is very quick.

• The movement of sunflowers in response to day or night, on the other hand, is quite slow.

• Growth-related movement of plants will be even slower.

• Even in animal bodies, there are carefully controlled directions to growth.

• Our arms and fingers grow in certain directions, not haphazardly. So controlled
movements can be either slow or fast.

• If fast responses to stimuli are to be made, information transfer must happen very
quickly. For this, the medium of transmission must be able to move rapidly.

• Electrical impulses are an excellent means for this. But there are limitations to the use
of electrical impulses.

• Firstly, they will reach only those cells that are connected by nervous tissue, not each
and every cell in the animal body.

• Secondly, once an electrical impulse is generated in a cell and transmitted, the cell will
take some time to reset its mechanisms before it can generate and transmit a new
impulse.
• In other words, cells cannot continually create and transmit electrical impulses. It is thus
no wonder that most multicellular organisms use another means of communication
between cells, namely, chemical communication.

• If, instead of generating an electrical impulse, stimulated cells release a chemical

compound, this compound would diffuse all around the original cell.

• If other cells around have the means to detect this compound using special molecules on
their surfaces, then they would be able to recognise information, and even transmit it.

• This will be slower, of course, but it can potentially reach all cells of the body, regardless
of nervous connections, and it can be done steadily and persistently.

• These compounds, or hormones used by multicellular organisms for control and

coordination show a great deal of diversity, as we would expect.
• Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the
environment.

• They are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse to the area
of action.

• For example-When growing plants detect light, a hormone called auxin, synthesized at
the shoot tip, helps the cells to grow longer.

• When light is coming from one side of the plant, auxin diffuses towards the shady side of
the shoot.

• This concentration of auxin stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot
which is away from light. Thus, the plant appears to bend towards light.
• Another example of plant hormones are gibberellins which, like auxins, help in the
growth of the stem.

• Cytokinins promote cell division, and it is natural then that they are present in greater
concentration in areas of rapid cell division, such as in fruits and seeds.

• These are examples of plant hormones that help in promoting growth.

• But plants also need signals to stop growing. Abscisic acid is one example of a hormone
which inhibits growth. Its effects include wilting of leaves.
HORMONES IN ANIMALS
• Animal bodies have to prepare for either fighting or running away.

• Both are very complicated activities that will use a great deal of energy in controlled
ways.

• Many different tissue types will be used and their activities integrated together in these
actions.

• If the body design in the squirrel relied only on electrical impulses via nerve cells, the
range of tissues instructed to prepare for the coming activity would be limited.

• On the other hand, if a chemical signal were to be sent as well, it would reach all cells of
the body and provide the wideranging changes needed.

• This is done in many animals, including human beings, using a hormone called adrenaline
that is secreted from the adrenal glands.
• Adrenaline is secreted directly into the blood and carried to different parts of the body.

• The target organs or the specific tissues on which it acts include the heart.

• As a result, the heart beats faster, resulting in supply of more oxygen to our muscles.

• The blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraction of muscles
around small arteries in these organs.

• This diverts the blood to our skeletal muscles. The breathing rate also increases because of
the contractions of the diaphragm and the rib muscles.

• All these responses together enable the animal body to be ready to deal with the
situation.

• Such animal hormones are part of the endocrine system which constitutes a second way of
control and coordination in our body.
• Plants will grow leaves in many places on the plant body, for example. But we do not grow
fingers on our faces.

• The design of the body is carefully maintained even during the growth of children.

• Examples to understand how hormones help in coordinated growth.

• We have all seen salt packets which say ‘iodised salt’ or ‘enriched with iodine’.

• Iodine is necessary for the thyroid gland to make thyroxin hormone.

• Thyroxin regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body so as to provide
the best balance for growth.

• Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin. In case iodine is deficient in our diet, there
is a possibility that we might suffer from goitre.
• One of the symptoms in this disease is a swollen neck. Can you correlate this with the
position of the thyroid gland.

• Sometimes we come across people who are either very short (dwarfs) or extremely tall
(giants).

• Have you ever wondered how this happens? Growth hormone is one of the hormones
secreted by the pituitary.

• As its name indicates, growth hormone regulates growth and development of the body.
If there is a deficiency of this hormone in childhood, it leads to dwarfism.
• You must have noticed many dramatic changes in your appearance as well as that of your
friends as you approached 10–12 years of age.

• These changes associated with puberty are because of the secretion of testosterone in
males and oestrogen in females.

• Do you know anyone in your family or friends who has been advised by the doctor to take
less sugar in their diet because they are suffering from diabetes?

• As a treatment, they might be taking injections of insulin.

• This is a hormone which is produced by the pancreas and helps in regulating blood sugar
levels.

• If it is not secreted in proper amounts, the sugar level in the blood rises causing many
harmful effects.
• If it is so important that hormones should be secreted in precise quantities, we need a
mechanism through which this is done.

• The timing and amount of hormone released are regulated by feedback mechanisms.

• For example, if the sugar levels in blood rise, they are detected by the cells of the
pancreas which respond by producing more insulin.

• As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is reduced.

THANKYOU…
How do Organisms
Reproduce?
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-8TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• Before we discuss the mechanisms by which organisms reproduce, let us ask a more
basic question – why do organisms reproduce?

• After all, reproduction is not necessary to maintain the life of an individual organism,
unlike the essential life processes such as nutrition, respiration, or excretion.

• On the other hand, if an individual organism is going to create more individuals, a lot of
its energy will be spent in the process.

• So why should an individual organism waste energy on a process it does not need to stay
alive?

• It is obvious that we notice organisms because they reproduce.

• If there were to be only one, nonreproducing member of a particular kind, it is doubtful

that we would have noticed its existence.
• It is the large numbers of organisms belonging to a single species that bring them to our
notice.

• How do we know that two different individual organisms belong to the same species?
Usually, we say this because they look similar to each other.

• Thus, reproducing organisms create new individuals that look very much like themselves
DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT COPIES OF THEMSELVES?
• Organisms look similar because their body designs are similar. If body designs are to be
similar, the blueprints for these designs should be similar.

• Thus, reproduction at its most basic level will involve making copies of the blueprints of
body design.

• The chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance of features
from parents to next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules.

• The DNA in the cell nucleus is the information source for making proteins.

• If the information is changed, different proteins will be made. Different proteins will
eventually lead to altered body designs.
• Therefore, a basic event in reproduction is the creation of a DNA copy. Cells use chemical
reactions to build copies of their DNA.

• This creates two copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell, and they will need to be
separated from each other.

• However, keeping one copy of DNA in the original cell and simply pushing the other one
out would not work, because the copy pushed out would not have any organized cellular
structure for maintaining life processes.

• Therefore, DNA copying is accompanied by the creation of an additional cellular

apparatus, and then the DNA copies separate, each with its own cellular apparatus.

• Effectively, a cell divides to give rise to two cells.

• These two cells are of course similar, but are they likely to be absolutely identical?

• The answer to this question will depend on how accurately the copying reactions involved
occur.

• No bio-chemical reaction is absolutely reliable. Therefore, it is only to be expected that the

process of copying the DNA will have some variations each time.

• As a result, the DNA copies generated will be similar, but may not be identical to the
original. Some of these variations might be so drastic that the new DNA copy cannot work
with the cellular apparatus it inherits.

• Such a newborn cell will simply die. On the other hand, there could still be many other
variations in the DNA copies that would not lead to such a drastic outcome.

• Thus, the surviving cells are similar to, but subtly different from each other.
The Importance of Variation
• Populations of organisms fill well-defined places, or niches, in the ecosystem, using their
ability to reproduce.

• The consistency of DNA copying during reproduction is important for the maintenance of
body design features that allow the organism to use that particular niche.

• Reproduction is therefore linked to the stability of populations of species.

• However, niches can change because of reasons beyond the control of the organisms.

• Temperatures on earth can go up or down, water levels can vary, or there could be
meteorite hits, to think of a few examples.

• If a population of reproducing organisms were suited to a particular niche and if the

niche were drastically altered, the population could be wiped out.
• However, if some variations were to be present in a few individuals in these populations,
there would be some chance for them to survive.

• Thus, if there were a population of bacteria living in temperate waters, and if the water
temperature were to be increased by global warming, most of these bacteria would die,
but the few variants resistant to heat would survive and grow further.

• Variation is thus useful for the survival of species over time.

MODES OF REPRODUCTION USED BY SINGLE ORGANISMS
Fission
• For unicellular organisms, cell division, or fission, leads to the creation of new individuals.

• Many different patterns of fission have been observed. Many bacteria and protozoa
simply split into two equal halves during cell division.

• In organisms such as Amoeba, the splitting of the two cells during division can take place
in any plane.

• However, some unicellular organisms show somewhat more organization of their bodies,
such as is seen in Leishmania (which cause kala-azar), which have a whip-like structure at
one end of the cell.

• In such organisms, binary fission occurs in a definite orientation in relation to these

structures.
• Other single-celled organisms, such as the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, divide into
many daughter cells simultaneously by multiple fission.

• Yeast, on the other hand, can put out small buds that separate and grow further.

Fragmentation
• In multi-cellular organisms with relatively simple body organization, simple reproductive
methods can still work.

• Spirogyra, for example, simply breaks up into smaller pieces upon maturation.

• These pieces or fragments grow into new individuals This is not true for all multi-cellular
organisms.

• They cannot simply divide cell-by-cell. The reason is that many multi-cellular organisms,
as we have seen, are not simply a random collection of cells.
• Specialized cells are organized as tissues, and tissues are organized into organs, which
then have to be placed at definite positions in the body.

• In such a carefully organized situation, cell-by-cell division would be impractical.

• Multi-cellular organisms, therefore, need to use more complex ways of reproduction.

• A basic strategy used in multi-cellular organisms is that different cell types perform
different specialized functions.

• Following this general pattern, reproduction in such organisms is also the function of a
specific cell type.

• How is reproduction to be achieved from a single cell type, if the organism itself
consists of many cell types?
• The answer is that there must be a single cell type in the organism that is capable of
growing, proliferating and making other cell types under the right circumstances.

Regeneration
• Many fully differentiated organisms have the ability to give rise to new individual
organisms from their body parts.

• That is, if the individual is somehow cut or broken up into many pieces, many of these
pieces grow into separate individuals.

• For example, simple animals like Hydra and Planaria can be cut into any number of pieces
and each piece grows into a complete organism. This is known as regeneration.

• Regeneration is carried out by specialized cells. These cells proliferate and make large
numbers of cells. From this mass of cells, different cells undergo changes to become
various cell types and tissues.
Regeneration in Planaria
• These changes take place in an organized sequence referred to as development.

• However, regeneration is not the same as reproduction, since most organisms would
not normally depend on being cut up to be able to reproduce.

Budding
• Organisms such as Hydra use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of
budding.

• In Hydra, a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific
site.

• These buds develop into tiny individuals and when fully mature, detach from the
parent body and become new independent individuals.
Vegetative Propagation
• There are many plants in which parts like the root, stem and leaves develop into new
plants under appropriate conditions.

• Unlike in most animals, plants can indeed use such a mode for reproduction.

• This property of vegetative propagation is used in methods such as layering or grafting to

grow many plants like sugarcane, roses, or grapes for agricultural purposes.

• Plants raised by vegetative propagation can bear flowers and fruits earlier than those
produced from seeds.

• Such methods also make possible the propagation of plants such as banana, orange, rose
and jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.

• Another advantage of vegetative propagation is that all plants produced are genetically
similar enough to the parent plant to have all its characteristics.
• Similarly buds produced in the notches along the leaf margin of Bryophyllum fall on the
soil and develop into new plants.

Tissue culture
In tissue culture, new plants are grown by removing tissue or separating cells from the
growing tip of a plant. The cells are then placed in an artificial medium where they divide
rapidly to form a small group of cells or callus. The callus is transferred to another medium
containing hormones for growth and differentiation. The plantlets are then placed in the
soil so that they can grow into mature plants. Using tissue culture, many plants can be
grown from one parent in disease-free conditions. This technique is commonly used for
ornamental plants.
Spore Formation
• Even in many simple multi-cellular organisms, specific reproductive parts can be identified.

• The thread-like structures that developed on the bread are the hyphae of the bread mould
(Rhizopus).

• They are not reproductive parts. On the other hand, the tiny blob-on-a-stick structures are
involved in reproduction.

• The blobs are sporangia, which contain cells, or spores, that can eventually develop into
new Rhizopus individuals .

• The spores are covered by thick walls that protect them until they come into contact with
another moist surface and can begin to grow.

• All the modes of reproduction that we have discussed so far allow new generations to be
created from a single individual. This is known as asexual reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
• We are also familiar with modes of reproduction that depend on the involvement of
two individuals before a new generation can be created.

• Bulls alone cannot produce new calves, nor can hens alone produce new chicks.

• In such cases, both sexes, males and females, are needed to produce new generations.

Why the Sexual Mode of Reproduction?

• The creation of two new cells from one involves copying of the DNA as well as of the
cellular apparatus.

• The DNA copying mechanism, as we have noted, cannot be absolutely accurate, and the
resultant errors are a source of variations in populations of organisms.
• Every individual organism cannot be protected by variations, but in a population,
variations are useful for ensuring the survival of the species.

• It would therefore make sense if organisms came up with reproductive modes that
allowed more and more variation to be generated.

• While DNA-copying mechanisms are not absolutely accurate, they are precise enough
to make the generation of variation a fairly slow process.

• If the DNA copying mechanisms were to be less accurate, many of the resultant DNA
copies would not be able to work with the cellular apparatus, and would die.

• So how can the process of making variants be speeded up? Each new variation is made
in a DNA copy that already has variations accumulated from previous generations.
• Thus, two different individuals in a population would have quite different patterns of
accumulated variations.

• Since all of these variations are in living individuals, it is assured that they do not have
any really bad effects.

• Combining variations from two or more individuals would thus create new combinations
of variants.

• Each combination would be novel, since it would involve two different individuals.

• The sexual mode of reproduction incorporates such a process of combining DNA from
two different individuals during reproduction. But this creates a major difficulty.

• If each new generation is to be the combination of the DNA copies from two pre-existing
individuals, then each new generation will end up having twice the amount of DNA that
the previous generation had.
• This is likely to mess up the control of the cellular apparatus by the DNA.

• We have seen earlier that as organisms become more complex, the specialization of
tissue increases.

• One solution that many multi-cellular organisms have found for the problem mentioned
above is to have special lineages of cells in specialized organs in which only half the
number of chromosomes and half the amount of DNA as compared to the
nonreproductive body cells.

• This is achieved by a process of cell division called meiosis.

• Thus, when these germ-cells from two individuals combine during sexual reproduction to
form a new individual, it results in reestablishment of the number of chromosomes and
the DNA content in the new generation.
• If the zygote is to grow and develop into an organism which has highly specialized
tissues and organs, then it has to have sufficient stores of energy for doing this.

• In very simple organisms, it is seen that the two germ-cells are not very different from
one another, or may even be similar.

• But as the body designs become more complex, the germ-cells also specialize.

• One germ-cell is large and contains the food-stores while the other is smaller and likely
to be motile.

• Conventionally, the motile germ cell is called the male gamete and the germ-cell
containing the stored food is called the female gamete.

• The need to create these two different types of gametes give rise to differences in the
male and female reproductive organs and, in some cases, differences in the bodies of
the male and female organisms.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• The reproductive parts of angiosperms are located in the flower.

• The different parts of a flower – sepals, petals, stamens and pistil. Stamens and pistil are
the reproductive parts of a flower which contain the germ-cells.

• The flower may be unisexual (papaya, watermelon) when it contains either stamens or
pistil or bisexual (Hibiscus, mustard) when it contains both stamens and pistil.

• Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that are yellowish in
color. You must have seen this yellowish powder that often sticks to our hands if we
touch the stamen of a flower.

• Pistil is present in the center of a flower and is the female reproductive part. It is made of
three parts.
• The swollen bottom part is the ovary, middle elongated part is the style and the terminal
part which may be sticky is the stigma.

• The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell. The male germ-cell produced
by pollen grain fuses with the female gamete present in the ovule.

• This fusion of the germ-cells or fertilization gives us the zygote which is capable of
growing into a new plant.
Germination of pollen on stigma
• Thus the pollen needs to be transferred from the stamen to the stigma.

• If this transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower, it is referred to as self-pollination.

• On the other hand, if the pollen is transferred from one flower to another, it is known as
crosspollination.

• This transfer of pollen from one flower to another is achieved by agents like wind, water
or animals.

• After the pollen lands on a suitable stigma, it has to reach the female germ-cells which
are in the ovary.

• For this, a tube grows out of the pollen grain and travels through the style to reach the
ovary.
• After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.

• The ovule develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.

• The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. Meanwhile, the petals, sepals,
stamens, style and stigma may shrivel and fall off.

• Have you ever observed any flower part still persisting in the fruit? Try and work out the
advantages of seed-formation for the plant.

• The seed contains the future plant or embryo which develops into a seedling under
appropriate conditions. This process is known as germination.
Reproduction in Human Beings
• So far, we have been discussing the variety of modes that different species use for
reproduction.

• Our height has increased continuously from early age till now. We acquire teeth, we
even lose the old, so-called milk teeth and acquire new ones.

• All of these are changes that can be grouped under the general process of growth, in
which the body becomes larger.

• But in early teenage years, a whole new set of changes occurs that cannot be explained
simply as body enlargement.

• Instead, the appearance of the body changes. Proportions change, new features appear,
and so do new sensations.
• Some of these changes are common to both boys and girls.

• Thick hair growing in new parts of the body such as armpits and the genital area
between the thighs, which can also become darker in color.

• Thinner hair can also appear on legs and arms, as well as on the face. The skin frequently
becomes oily and we might begin to develop pimples.

• We begin to be conscious and aware of both our own bodies and those of others in new
ways.

• On the other hand, there are also changes taking place that are different between boys
and girls.

• In girls, breast size begins to increase, with darkening of the skin of the nipples at the
tips of the breasts.
• Also, girls begin to menstruate at around this time. Boys begin to have new thick hair
growth on the face and their voices begin to crack.

• Further, the penis occasionally begins to become enlarged and erect, either in daydreams
or at night.
• All of these changes take place slowly, over a period of months and years.

• They do not happen all at the same time in one person, nor do they happen at an exact
age.

• In some people, they happen early and quickly, while in others, they can happen slowly.

• Also, each change does not become complete quickly either. So, for example, thick hair
on the face in boys appears as a few scattered hairs first, and only slowly does the growth
begin to become uniform.
• Even so, all these changes show differences between people. Just as we have differently
shaped noses or fingers, so also we have different patterns of hair growth, or size and
shape of breast or penis. All of these changes are aspects of the sexual maturation of the
body.

• The creation of germ-cells to participate in sexual reproduction is another specialized

function, and we have seen that plants develop special cell and tissue types to create
them.

• Human beings also develop special tissues for this purpose.

• However, while the body of the individual organism is growing to its adult size, the
resources of the body are mainly directed at achieving this growth.

• While that is happening, the maturation of the reproductive tissue is not likely to be a
major priority.
• Thus, as the rate of general body growth begins to slow down, reproductive tissues begin
to mature. This period during adolescence is called puberty.

• The sexual mode of reproduction means that germ-cells from two individuals have to join
together.

• This can happen by the external release of germ-cells from the bodies of individuals, as
happens in flowering plants. Or it can happen by two individuals joining their bodies
together for internal transfer of germ-cells for fusion, as happens in many animals.

• If animals are to participate in this process of mating, their state of sexual maturity must
be identifiable by other individuals.

• Many changes during puberty, such as new hair-growth patterns, are signals that sexual
maturation is taking place.
• On the other hand, the actual transfer of germ-cells between two people needs special
organs for the sexual act, such as the penis when it is capable of becoming erect.

• In mammals such as humans, the baby is carried in the mother’s body for a long period,
and will be breast-fed later.

• The female reproductive organs and breasts will need to mature to accommodate these
possibilities.
Male Reproductive System
• The male reproductive system consists of portions which produce the germ-cells and
other portions that deliver the germ-cells to the site of fertilization.

• The formation of germ-cells or sperms takes place in the testes. These are located outside
the abdominal cavity in scrotum because sperm formation requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature.

• We have discussed the role of the testes in the secretion of the hormone, testosterone, in
the previous chapter.

• In addition to regulating the formation of sperms, testosterone brings about changes in

appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty.
• The sperms formed are delivered through the vas deferens which unites with a tube
coming from the urinary bladder.

• The urethra thus forms a common passage for both the sperms and urine.

• Along the path of the vas deferens, glands like the prostate and the seminal vesicles add
their secretions so that the sperms are now in a fluid which makes their transport easier
and this fluid also provides nutrition.

• The sperms are tiny bodies that consist of mainly genetic material and a long tail that
helps them to move towards the female germ-cell.
Female Reproductive System
• The female germ-cells or eggs are made in the ovaries. They are also responsible for the
production of some hormones.

• When a girl is born, the ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. On reaching
puberty, some of these start maturing.

• One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries. The egg is carried from the ovary
to the womb through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.

• The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus. The uterus
opens into the vagina through the cervix.
• The sperms enter through the vaginal passage during sexual intercourse.

• They travel upwards and reach the oviduct where they may encounter the egg.

• The fertilized egg (zygote) starts dividing and form a ball of cells or embryo.

• The embryo is implanted in the lining of the uterus where they continue to grow and
develop organs to become fetus.

• The mother’s body is designed to undertake the development of the child.

• Hence the uterus prepares itself every month to receive and nurture the growing
embryo. The lining thickens and is richly supplied with blood to nourish the growing
embryo.
• The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue called
placenta.

• This is a disc which is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the embryo’s side
of the tissue. On the mother’s side are blood spaces, which surround the villi.

• This provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
embryo.

• The developing embryo will also generate waste substances which can be removed by
transferring them into the mother’s blood through the placenta.

• The development of the child inside the mother’s body takes approximately nine months.
The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus.
What happens when the Egg is not Fertilized?
• If the egg is not fertilized, it lives for about one day. Since the ovary releases one egg
every month, the uterus also prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized egg.

• Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy. This would be required for nourishing the
embryo if fertilization had taken place.

• Now, however, this lining is not needed any longer. So, the lining slowly breaks and
comes out through the vagina as blood and mucous.

• This cycle takes place roughly every month and is known as menstruation. It usually lasts
for about two to eight days.
Reproductive Health
• As we have seen, the process of sexual maturation is gradual, and takes place while
general body growth is still going on.

• Therefore, some degree of sexual maturation does not necessarily mean that the body or
the mind is ready for sexual acts or for having and bringing up children.

• All of us are under many different kinds of pressures about these issues.

• There can be pressure from our friends for participating in many activities, whether we
really want to or not.

• There can be pressure from families to get married and start having children. There can be
pressure from government agencies to avoid having children. In this situation, making
choices can become very difficult.
• Since the sexual act is a very intimate connection of bodies, it is not surprising that
many diseases can be sexually transmitted.

• These include bacterial infections such as gonorrhea and syphilis, and viral infections
such as warts and HIV-AIDS.

• Using a covering, called a condom, for the penis during sex helps to prevent
transmission of many of these infections to some extent.

• The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy. Pregnancy will make major
demands on the body and the mind of the woman, and if she is not ready for it, her
health will be adversely affected.

• Therefore, many ways have been devised to avoid pregnancy. These contraceptive
methods fall in a number of categories.
• One category is the creation of a mechanical barrier so that sperm does not reach the egg.
Condoms on the penis or similar coverings worn in the vagina can serve this purpose.

• Another category of contraceptives acts by changing the hormonal balance of the body so
that eggs are not released and fertilization cannot occur.

• These drugs commonly need to be taken orally as pills. However, since they change
hormonal balances, they can cause side-effects too.

• Other contraceptive devices such as the loop or the copper-T are placed in the uterus to
prevent pregnancy.

• Again, they can cause side effects due to irritation of the uterus. If the vas deferens in the
male is blocked, sperm transfer will be prevented.

• If the fallopian tube in the female is blocked, the egg will not be able to reach the uterus.
• In both cases fertilization will not take place. Surgical methods can be used to create
such blocks.

• While surgical methods are safe in the long run, surgery itself can cause infections and
other problems if not performed properly.

• Surgery can also be used for removal of unwanted pregnancies.

• These may be misused by people who do not want a particular child, as happens in
illegal sex-selective abortion of female fetuses.

• For a healthy society, the female-male sex ratio must be maintained. Because of reckless
female feticides, child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some sections of our
society, although prenatal sex determination has been prohibited by law.
• Reproduction is the process by which organisms increase their populations. The rates of
birth and death in a given population will determine its size.

• The size of the human population is a cause for concern for many people. This is because
an expanding population makes it harder to improve everybody’s standard of living.

• However, if inequality in society is the main reason for poor standards of living for many
people, the size of the population is relatively unimportant.
THANKYOU….
Heredity and Evolution
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-9TH
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• We have seen that reproductive processes give rise to new individuals that are similar, but
subtly different.

• We have discussed how some amount of variation is produced even during asexual
reproduction.

• And the number of successful variations are maximized by the process of sexual
reproduction. If we observe a field of sugarcane we find very little variations among the
individual plants.

• But in a number of animals including human beings, which reproduce sexually, quite
distinct variations are visible among different individuals.

• In this chapter, we shall be studying the mechanism by which variations are created and
inherited.

• The long-term consequences of the accumulation of variations are also an interesting point
to be considered. We shall be studying this under evolution.
ACCUMULATION OF VARIATION DURING REPRODUCTION
• Inheritance from the previous generation provides both a common basic body design, and
subtle changes in it, for the next generation.

• The second generation will have differences that they inherit from the first generation, as
well as newly created differences.

• The situation if a single individual reproduces, as happens in asexual reproduction.

• If one bacterium divides, and then the resultant two bacteria divide again, the four
individual bacteria generated would be very similar.

• There would be only very minor differences between them, generated due to small
inaccuracies in DNA copying.

• However, if sexual reproduction is involved, even greater diversity will be generated, as we

will see when we discuss the rules of inheritance.
Creation of diversity over succeeding generations. The original organism
at the top will give rise to, say, two individuals, similar in body design,
but with subtle differences. Each of them, in turn, will give rise to two
individuals in the next generation. Each of the four individuals in the
bottom row will be different from each other. While some of these
differences will be unique, others will be inherited from their respective
parents, who were different from each other.
• Depending on the nature of variations, different individuals would have different kinds of
advantages.

• Bacteria that can withstand heat will survive better in a heat wave, as we have discussed
earlier.

• Selection of variants by environmental factors forms the basis for evolutionary processes.

HEREDITY
• The most obvious outcome of the reproductive process still remains the generation of
individuals of similar design.

• The rules of heredity determine the process by which traits and characteristics are
reliably inherited.
Inherited Traits
We know that a child bears all the basic features of a human being.

However, it does not look exactly like its parents, and human populations show a great deal
of variation.

Rules for the Inheritance of Traits – Mendel’s Contributions

• The rules for inheritance of such traits in human beings are related to the fact that both
the father and the mother contribute practically equal amounts of genetic material to
the child.

• This means that each trait can be influenced by both paternal and maternal DNA.

• Thus, for each trait there will be two versions in each child.

• Mendel (see box) worked out the main rules of such inheritance, and it is interesting to
look at some of his experiments from more than a century ago.
Inheritance of traits over two generations
• Mendel used a number of contrasting visible characters of garden peas –
round/wrinkled seeds, tall/short plants, white/violet flowers and so on.

• He took pea plants with different characteristics – a tall plant and a short plant,
produced progeny by crossing them, and calculated the percentages of tall or short
progeny.

• In the first place, there were no halfway characteristics in this first generation, or F1
progeny – no ‘medium-height’ plants.

• All plants were tall. This meant that only one of the parental traits was seen, not some
mixture of the two.
• Mendelian experiments test this by getting both the parental plants and these F1 tall
plants to reproduce by self-pollination.

• The progeny of the parental plants are, of course, all tall. However, the second-
generation, or F2, progeny of the F1 tall plants are not all tall.

• Instead, one quarter of them are short. This indicates that both the tallness and shortness
traits were inherited in the F1 plants, but only the tallness trait was expressed.

• This led Mendel to propose that two copies of factor (now called genes) controlling traits
are present in sexually reproducing organism.

• These two may be identical, or may be different, depending on the parentage. A pattern
of inheritance can be worked out with this assumption,
• In this explanation, both TT and Tt are tall plants, while only tt is a short plant.

• In other words, a single copy of ‘T’ is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies
have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.

• Traits like ‘T’ are called dominant traits, while those that behave like ‘t’ are called
recessive traits.

• Work out which trait would be considered dominant and which one recessive.
• What happens when pea plants showing two different characteristics, rather than just
one, are bred with each other? What do the progeny of a tall plant with round seeds and
a short plant with wrinkled-seeds look like?

• They are all tall and have round seeds. Tallness and round seeds are thus dominant traits.

• But what happens when these F1 progeny are used to generate F2 progeny by self-
pollination?

• A Mendelian experiment will find that some F2 progeny are tall plants with round seeds,
and some were short plants with wrinkled seeds.

• However, there would also be some F2 progeny that showed new combinations.
How do these Traits get Expressed?

• How does the mechanism of heredity work? Cellular DNA is the information source for
making proteins in the cell.

• A section of DNA that provides information for one protein is called the gene for that
protein.

• How do proteins control the characteristics that we are discussing here?

• We know that plants have hormones that can trigger growth. Plant height can thus
depend on the amount of a particular plant hormone.

• The amount of the plant hormone made will depend on the efficiency of the process for
making it.
Independent inheritance of two separate traits, shape and color of seeds
• Consider now an enzyme that is important for this process. If this enzyme works
efficiently, a lot of hormone will be made, and the plant will be tall.

• If the gene for that enzyme has an alteration that makes the enzyme less efficient, the
amount of hormone will be less, and the plant will be short.

• Thus, genes control characteristics, or traits. If the interpretations of Mendelian

experiments we have been discussing are correct, then both parents must be contributing
equally to the DNA of the progeny during sexual reproduction.

• If both parents can help determine the trait in the progeny, both parents must be
contributing a copy of the same gene.

• This means that each pea plant must have two sets of all genes, one inherited from each
parent. For this mechanism to work, each germ cell must have only one gene set.
How do germ-cells make a single set of genes from the normal two copies that all other cells
in the body have?

If progeny plants inherited a single whole gene set from each parent, then the experiment
cannot work. This is because the two characteristics ‘R’ and ‘y’ would then be linked to each
other and cannot be independently inherited.

This is explained by the fact that each gene set is present, not as a single long thread of DNA,
but as separate independent pieces, each called a chromosome.

Thus, each cell will have two copies of each chromosome, one each from the male and
female parents.

Every germ cell will take one chromosome from each pair and these may be of either
maternal or paternal origin.
• When two germ cells combine, they will restore the normal number of chromosomes in
the progeny, ensuring the stability of the DNA of the species.

• Such a mechanism of inheritance explains the results of the Mendel experiments, and is
used by all sexually reproducing organisms.

• But asexually reproducing organisms also follow similar rules of inheritance. Can we work
out how their inheritance might work?
Sex Determination
• We have discussed the idea that the two sexes participating in sexual reproduction must
be somewhat different from each other for a number of reasons.

• Different species use very different strategies for this. Some rely entirely on
environmental cues.

• Thus, in some animals like a few reptiles, the temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept
determines whether the animals developing in the eggs will be male or female.

• In other animals, such as snails, individuals can change sex, indicating that sex is not
genetically determined.

• However, in human beings, the sex of the individual is largely genetically determined.

• In other words, the genes inherited from our parents decide whether we will be boys or
girls. But so far, we have assumed that similar gene sets are inherited from both parents.
Sex determination in human beings
• The explanation lies in the fact that all human chromosomes are not paired.

• Most human chromosomes have a maternal and a paternal copy, and we have 22 such
pairs.

• But one pair, called the sex chromosomes, is odd in not always being a perfect pair.

• Women have a perfect pair of sex chromosomes, both called X.

• But men have a mismatched pair in which one is a normal-sized X while the other is a
short one called Y.

• Half the children will be boys and half will be girls. All children will inherit an X
chromosome from their mother regardless of whether they are boys or girls.

• Thus, the sex of the children will be determined by what they inherit from their father.
• A child who inherits an X chromosome from her father will be a girl, and one who
inherits a Y chromosome from him will be a boy.

EVOLUTION
• We have noted that there is an inbuilt tendency to variation during reproduction, both
because of errors in DNA copying, and as a result of sexual reproduction.

An Illustration
• Consider a group of twelve red beetles. They live, let us assume, in some bushes with
green leaves.

• Their population will grow by sexual reproduction, and therefore, can generate
variations.

• Let us imagine also that crows eat these beetles. The more beetles the crows eat, the
fewer beetles are available to reproduce. Now, let us think about some different
situations that can develop in this beetle population.
• In the first situation, a color variation arises during reproduction, so that there is one
beetle that is green in color instead of red.

• This beetle, moreover, can pass the color on to its progeny, so that all its progeny beetles
are green.

• Crows cannot see green- color beetles on the green leaves of the bushes, and therefore
cannot eat them.

• The progeny of green beetles is not eaten, while the progeny of red beetles continues to
be eaten.

• As a result, there are more and more green beetles than red ones in the beetle
population.
• In a second situation, again, a color variation arises during reproduction, but now it
results in a beetle that is blue in color instead of red.

• This beetle can also pass the color on to its progeny, so that all its progeny beetles are
blue.

• Crows can see blue - colored beetles in the green leaves of the bushes as well as they
can see red ones, and therefore can eat them.

• In the population, as it expands, there are a few blue beetles, but most are red. But at
this point, an elephant comes by, and stamps on the bushes where the beetles live.

• This kills most of the beetles. By chance, the few beetles that have survived are mostly
blue. The beetle population slowly expands again, but now, the beetles in the population
are mostly blue.
• It is obvious that in both situations, what started out as a rare variation came to be a
common characteristic in the population.

• In other words, the frequency of an inherited trait changed over generations.

• Since genes control traits, we can say that the frequency of certain genes in a population
changed over generations. This is the essence of the idea of evolution.

• But there are interesting differences, too, in the two situations. In the first case, the
variation became common because it gave a survival advantage.

• In other words, it was naturally selected. We can see that the natural selection is exerted by
the crows.

• The more crows there are, the more red beetles would be eaten, and the more the
proportion of green beetles in the population would be.
• Thus, natural selection is directing evolution in the beetle population. It results in
adaptations in the beetle population to fit their environment better.

• In the second situation, the color change gave no survival advantage.

• Instead, it was simply a matter of accidental survival of beetles of one color that
changed the common characteristic of the resultant population.

• The elephant would not have caused such major havoc in the beetle population if the
beetle population had been very large.

• So , accidents in small populations can change the frequency of some genes in a

population, even if they give no survival advantage. This is the notion of genetic drift,
which provides diversity without any adaptations.
• Now consider a third situation. In this, as the beetle population begins to expand, the
bushes start suffering from a plant disease.

• The amount of leaf material for the beetles is reduced. The beetles are poorly nourished
as a result.

• The average weight of adult beetles decreases from what it used to be when leaves
were plentiful, but there is no genetic change occurring.

• After a few years and a few beetle generations of such scarcity, the plant disease is
eliminated. There is a lot of leaf food. At this time, what would we expect the weight of
the beetles to be?
Acquired and Inherited Traits
• If the weight of the beetle is reduced because of starvation, that will not change the DNA
of the germ cells.

• Therefore, low weight is not a trait that can be inherited by the progeny of a starving
beetle.

• Therefore, even if some generations of beetles are low in weight because of starvation,
that is not an example of evolution, since the change is not inherited over generations.

• Change in non-reproductive tissues cannot be passed on to the DNA of the germ cells.
Therefore the experiences of an individual during its lifetime cannot be passed on to its
progeny, and cannot direct evolution.
• Consider another example of how an individual cannot pass on to its progeny the
experiences of its lifetime.

• If we breed a group of mice, all their progeny will have tails, as expected.

• Now, if the tails of these mice are removed by surgery in each generation, do these
tailless mice have tailless progeny? The answer is no, and it makes sense because
removal of the tail cannot change the genes of the germ cells of the mice.
SPECIATION
• What we have seen so far is micro-evolution. That means that the changes are small, even
though they are significant.

• Also, they simply change the common characteristics of a particular species. But this does
not properly explain as to how new species come into existence.

• That can be said to have happened only if this group of beetles we are thinking about,
splits into two populations that cannot reproduce with each other.

• When this happens, they can be called two independent species. Consider what would
happen if the bushes the beetles feed on are spread widely over a mountain range.

• The beetle population becomes very large as a result. But individual beetles feed mostly on
a few nearby bushes throughout their lifetime. They do not travel far
• So, in this huge population of beetles, there will be sub-populations in neighborhoods.

• Since male and female beetles have to meet for reproduction to happen, most
reproduction will be within these sub-populations.

• Of course, an occasional adventurous beetle might go from one site to another. Or a beetle
is picked up by a crow from one site and dropped in the other site without being eaten.

• In either case, the migrant beetle will reproduce with the local population. This will result
in the genes of the migrant beetle entering a new population.

• This kind of gene flow is bound to happen between populations that are partly, but not
completely separated.

• If, however, between two such sub-populations a large river comes into existence, the two
populations will be further isolated. The levels of gene flow between them will decrease
even further.
• Over generations, genetic drift will accumulate different changes in each sub-population.

• Also, natural selection may also operate differently in these different geographic locations.
Thus, for example, in the territory of one sub-population, crows are eliminated by eagles.

• But this does not happen for the other sub-population, where crow numbers are very high.
As a result, the green variation will not be selected at the first site, while it will be strongly
selected at the second.

• Together, the processes of genetic drift and natural selection will result in these two
isolated sub-populations of beetles becoming more and more different from each other.

• Eventually, members of these two groups will be incapable of reproducing with each other
even if they happen to meet.
• There can be a number of ways by which this can happen.

• If the DNA changes are severe enough, such as a change in the number of chromosomes,
eventually the germ cells of the two groups cannot fuse with each other.

• Or a new variation emerges in which green females will not mate with red males, but only
with green males. This allows very strong natural selection for greenness.

• Now, if such a green female beetle meets a red male from the other group, her behavior
will ensure that there is no reproduction between them. Effectively, new species of
beetles are being generated.
EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION
• Based on these principles, we can work out the evolutionary relationships of the species
we see around us. It is a sort of going backwards in time.

• We can do this by identifying hierarchies of characteristics between species.

• Similarities among organisms will allow us to group them and then study the groups.

• Characteristics are details of appearance or behavior; in other words, a particular form or

a particular function. That we have four limbs is thus a characteristic.

• That plants can do photosynthesis is also a characteristic.

Some basic characteristics will be shared by most organisms. The cell is the basic unit of
life in all organisms.

The characteristics in the next level of classification would be shared by most, but not all
organisms.

A basic characteristic of cell design that differs among different organisms is whether the
cell has a nucleus. Bacterial cells do not, while the cells of most other organisms do.

Among organisms with nucleated cells, which ones are unicellular and which ones multi-
cellular?

That property marks a very basic difference in body design, because of specialization of
cell types and tissues.
• Among multi-cellular organisms, whether they can undertake photosynthesis or not will
provide the next level of classification.

• Among the multi-cellular organisms that cannot do photosynthesis, whether the skeleton
is inside the body or around the body will mark another fundamental design difference.

• We can see that, even in these few questions that we have asked, a hierarchy is
developing that allows us to make classification groups.

• The more characteristics two species will have in common, the more closely they are
related.

• And the more closely they are related, the more recently they will have had a common
ancestor.

• An example will help. A brother and a sister are closely related. They have common
ancestors in the first generation before them, namely, their parents.
• A girl and her first cousin are also related, but less than the girl and her brother.

• This is because cousins have common ancestors, their grandparents, in the second
generation before them, not in the first one.

• We can now appreciate that classification of species is in fact a reflection of their

evolutionary relationship.

• We can thus build up small groups of species with recent common ancestors, then super-
groups of these groups with more distant common ancestors, and so on.

• In theory, we can keep going backwards like this until we come to the notion of a single
species at the very beginning of evolutionary time.

• If that is the case, then at some point in the history of the earth, non-living material must
have given rise to life. There are many theories about how this might have happened.
Tracing Evolutionary Relationships
• When we try to follow evolutionary relationships. These characteristics in different
organisms would be similar because they are inherited from a common ancestor.

• As an example, consider the fact that mammals have four limbs, as do birds, reptiles and
amphibians.

• The basic structure of the limbs is similar though it has been modified to perform different
functions in various vertebrates.

• Such a homologous characteristic helps to identify an evolutionary relationship between

apparently different species.

• However, all similarities simply in organ shape are not necessarily because of common
ancestry.
Homologous organs
Analogous organs – The wing of a bat and the wing of a bird
• The wings of bats are skin folds stretched mainly between elongated fingers. But the
wings of birds are a feathery covering all along the arm.

• The designs of the two wings, their structure and components, are thus very different.

• They look similar because they have a common use for flying, but their origins are not
common. This makes them analogous characteristics, rather than homologous
characteristics.

• It would now be interesting to think about whether bird arms and bat arms should be
considered homologous or analogous.
Fossils
• Such studies of organ structure can be done not only on current species, but also on
species that are no longer alive.

• Usually, when organisms die, their bodies will decompose and be lost.

• But every once in a while, the body or at least some parts may be in an environment that
does not let it decompose completely.

• If a dead insect gets caught in hot mud, for example, it will not decompose quickly, and
the mud will eventually harden and retain the impression of the body parts of the insect.

• All such preserved traces of living organisms are called fossils.

Various kind of fossils. Note the different appearances and degrees of detail and
preservation. The dinosaur skull fossil shown was found only a few years ago in the
Narmada valley
• There are two components to this estimation. One is relative.

• If we dig into the earth and start finding fossils, it is reasonable to suppose that the
fossils we find closer to the surface are more recent than the fossils we find in deeper
layers.

• The second way of dating fossils is by detecting the ratios of different isotopes of the
same element in the fossil material.
FOSSILS FORMATION
Evolution by Stages
A question that arises here is – if complicated organs, such as the eye, are selected for the
advantage they provide, how can they be generated by a single DNA change?

Surely such complex organs will be created bit-by-bit over generations?

But how can each intermediate change be selected for? There are a number of possible
explanations. Even an intermediate stage such as a rudimentary eye, can be useful to some
extent.

This might be enough to give a fitness advantage. In fact, the eye – like the wing – seems to
be a very popular adaptation.

Insects have them, so does an octopus, and so do vertebrates. And the structure of the eye
in each of these organisms is different – enough for them to have separate evolutionary
origins.
A flatworm named Planaria has very simple
‘eyes’ that are really just eye-spots which
detect light.
• Also, a change that is useful for one property to start with can become useful later for
quite a different function. Feathers, for example, can start out as providing insulation in
cold weather.

• But later, they might become useful for flight. In fact, some dinosaurs had feathers,
although they could not fly using the feathers.

• Birds seem to have later adapted the feathers to flight. This, of course, means that birds
are very closely related to reptiles, since dinosaurs were reptiles.

• It is all very well to say that very dissimilar looking structures evolve from a common
ancestral design.

• It is true that analysis of the organ structure in fossils allows us to make estimates of
how far back evolutionary relationships go.
• But those are guesses about what happened in history. Are there any current examples
of such a process? The wild cabbage plant is a good example.

• Humans have, over more than two thousand years, cultivated wild cabbage as a food
plant, and generated different vegetables from it by selection.

• This is, of course, artificial selection rather than natural selection.

• So some farmers have wanted to select for very short distances between leaves, and
have bred the cabbage we eat.

• Some have wanted to select for arrested flower development, and have bred broccoli, or
for sterile flowers, and have made the cauliflower.

• Some have selected for swollen parts, and come up with kohlrabi. Some have simply
looked for slightly larger leaves, and come up with a leafy vegetable called kale.
• Another way of tracing evolutionary relationships depends on the original idea that we
started with.

• That idea was that changes in DNA during reproduction are the basic events in evolution.

• If that is the case, then comparing the DNA of different species should give us a direct
estimate of how much the DNA has changed during the formation of these species. This
method is now extensively used to define evolutionary relationships.
 Molecular phylogeny
We have been discussing how changes in the DNA during cell division would lead to
changes in the proteins that are made from this new DNA. Another point that has been
made is that these changes would accumulate from one generation to the next. Could this
be used to trace the changes in DNA backwards in time and find out where each change
diverged from the other? Molecular phylogeny does exactly this. This approach is based on
the idea that organisms which are more distantly related will accumulate a greater number
of differences in their DNA. Such studies trace the evolutionary relationships and it has
been highly gratifying to find that the relationships among different organisms shown by
molecular phylogeny match the classification scheme
EVOLUTION SHOULD NOT BE EQUATED WITH ‘PROGRESS’
• In an exercise of tracing the family trees of species, we need to remember certain things.
Firstly, there are multiple branches possible at each and every stage of this process.

• So it is not as if one species is eliminated to give rise to a new one. A new species has
emerged.

• But that does not necessarily mean, like the beetle example we have been thinking about,
that the old species will disappear. It will all depend on the environment.

• Also, it is not as if the newly generated species are in any way ‘better’ than the older one.

• It is just that natural selection and genetic drift have together led to the formation of a
population that cannot reproduce with the original one.
• So, for example, it is not true that human beings have evolved from chimpanzees. Rather,
both human beings and chimpanzees have a common ancestor a long time ago.

• That common ancestor is likely to have been neither human or chimpanzee.

• Also, the first step of separation from that ancestor is unlikely to have resulted in modern
chimpanzees and human beings.

• Instead, the two resultant species have probably evolved in their own separate ways to
give rise to the current forms.
• In fact, there is no real ‘progress’ in the idea of evolution. Evolution is simply the
generation of diversity and the shaping of the diversity by environmental selection.

• The only progressive trend in evolution seems to be that more and more complex body
designs have emerged over time.

• However, again, it is not as if the older designs are inefficient.So many of the older and
simpler designs still survive.

• In fact, one of the simplest life forms – bacteria – inhabit the most inhospitable habitats
like hot springs, deep-sea thermal vents and the ice in Antarctica.

• In other words, human beings are not the pinnacle of evolution, but simply yet another
species in the teeming spectrum of evolving life.
Human Evolution
• The same tools for tracing evolutionary relationships – excavating, time-dating and
studying fossils, as well as determining DNA sequences – have been used for studying
human evolution.

• There is a great diversity of human forms and features across the planet.

• So much so that, for a long time, people used to talk about human ‘races’. Skin color used
to be the commonest way of identifying these so-called races.

• Some were called yellow, some black, white or brown. Over recent years, the evidence
has become very clear.

• The answer is that there is no biological basis to the notion of human races. All humans
are a single species.
Evolution — Ladder versus Tree
• Not only that, regardless of where we have lived for the past few thousand years, we all
come from Africa.

• The earliest members of the human species, Homo sapiens, can be traced there. Our
genetic footprints can be traced back to our African roots.

• A couple of hundred thousand years ago, some of our ancestors left Africa while others
stayed on.

• While the residents spread across Africa, the migrants slowly spread across the planet –
from Africa to West Asia, then to Central Asia, Eurasia, South Asia, East Asia.
• They travelled down the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines to Australia, and they
crossed the Bering land bridge to the Americas.

• They did not go in a single line, so they were not travelling for the sake of travelling,
obviously.

• They went forwards and backwards, with groups sometimes separating from each other,
sometimes coming back to mix with each other, even moving in and out of Africa.

• Like all other species on the planet, they had come into being as an accident of
evolution, and were trying to live their lives the best they could.
THANKYOU..
Light – Reflection and
Refraction
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-10TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
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• We see a variety of objects in the world around us. However, we are unable to see
anything in a dark room.

• On lighting up the room, things become visible. What makes things visible? During the
day, the sunlight helps us to see objects. An object reflects light that falls on it.

• This reflected light, when received by our eyes, enables us to see things. We are able to
see through a transparent medium as light is transmitted through it.

• There are a number of common wonderful phenomena associated with light such as
image formation by mirrors, the twinkling of stars, the beautiful colors of a rainbow,
bending of light by a medium and so on.

• A study of the properties of light helps us to explore them. By observing the common
optical phenomena around us, we may conclude that light seems to travel in straight
lines.
• The fact that a small source of light casts a sharp shadow of an opaque object points to
this straight-line path of light, usually indicated as a ray of light.

• In this Chapter, we shall study the phenomena of reflection and refraction of light using
the straight-line propagation of light.

• These basic concepts will help us in the study of some of the optical phenomena in
nature.

• We shall try to understand in this Chapter the reflection of light by spherical mirrors
and refraction of light and their application in real life situations.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
• A highly polished surface, such as a mirror, reflects most of the light falling on it. You are
already familiar with the laws of reflection of light.

• Let us recall these laws –

• (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, and
• (ii) The incident ray, the normal to the mirror at the point of incidence and the reflected
ray, all lie in the same plane.
• These laws of reflection are applicable to all types of reflecting surfaces including
spherical surfaces.

• You are familiar with the formation of image by a plane mirror. What are the properties of
the image?

• Image formed by a plane mirror is always virtual and erect. The size of the image is equal
to that of the object.
• The image formed is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. Further, the
image is laterally inverted.

• The curved surface of a shining spoon could be considered as a curved mirror. The most
commonly used type of curved mirror is the spherical mirror.

• The reflecting surface of such mirrors can be considered to form a part of the surface of a
sphere. Such mirrors, whose reflecting surfaces are spherical, are called spherical mirrors.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror may be curved inwards or outwards.

• A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, that is, faces towards the
center of the sphere, is called a concave mirror.

• A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is called a convex mirror.
The schematic representation of these mirrors.

• You may now understand that the surface of the spoon curved inwards can be
approximated to a concave mirror and the surface of the spoon bulged outwards can be
approximated to a convex mirror.

• Before we move further on spherical mirrors, we need to recognize and understand the
meaning of a few terms.
Schematic representation of spherical mirrors; the shaded side is non-reflecting
• These terms are commonly used in discussions about spherical mirrors. The center of
the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is a point called the pole.

• It lies on the surface of the mirror. The pole is usually represented by the letter P.

• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a part of a sphere. This sphere has a
centre. This point is called the centre of curvature of the spherical mirror.

• It is represented by the letter C. Please note that the center of curvature is not a part of
the mirror. It lies outside its reflecting surface.

• The center of curvature of a concave mirror lies in front of it. However, it lies behind the
mirror in case of a convex mirror.

• The radius of the sphere of which the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror forms a
part, is called the radius of curvature of the mirror.
(a) Concave mirror (b) Convex mirror
• It is represented by the letter R. You may note that the distance PC is equal to the radius
of curvature.

• Imagine a straight line passing through the pole and the center of curvature of a
spherical mirror.

• This line is called the principal axis. Remember that principal axis is normal to the mirror
at its pole.
• The paper at first begins to burn producing smoke. Eventually it may even catch fire. Why
does it burn?

• The light from the Sun is converged at a point, as a sharp, bright spot by the mirror. In
fact, this spot of light is the image of the Sun on the sheet of paper.

• This point is the focus of the concave mirror. The heat produced due to the concentration
of sunlight ignites the paper.
• The distance of this image from the position of the mirror gives the approximate value of
focal length of the mirror.

• A number of rays parallel to the principal axis are falling on a concave mirror. Observe the
reflected rays.

• They are all meeting/intersecting at a point on the principal axis of the mirror. This point is
called the principal focus of the concave mirror.

• How are the rays parallel to the principal axis, reflected by a convex mirror? The reflected
rays appear to come from a point on the principal axis.

• This point is called the principal focus of the convex mirror. The principal focus is
represented by the letter F.

• The distance between the pole and the principal focus of a spherical mirror is called the
focal length. It is represented by the letter f.
• The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is by-and-large spherical. The surface, then,
has a circular outline.

• The diameter of the reflecting surface of spherical mirror is called its aperture. In Fig.10.2,
distance MN represents the aperture.

• We shall consider in our discussion only such spherical mirrors whose aperture is much
smaller than its radius of curvature.

• Is there a relationship between the radius of curvature R, and focal length f, of a spherical
mirror?

• For spherical mirrors of small apertures, the radius of curvature is found to be equal to
twice the focal length.

• We put this as R = 2f . This implies that the principal focus of a spherical mirror lies
midway between the pole and center of curvature.
Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors
• You have studied about the image formation by plane mirrors. You also know the nature,
position and relative size of the images formed by them.

• How about the images formed by spherical mirrors? How can we locate the image
formed by a concave mirror for different positions of the object? Are the images real or
virtual? Are they enlarged, diminished or have the same size?

• You will see in the above Activity that the nature, position and size of the image formed
by a concave mirror depends on the position of the object in relation to points P, F and C.
The image formed is real for some positions of the object.

• It is found to be a virtual image for a certain other position. The image is either
magnified, reduced or has the same size, depending on the position of the object.
Image formation by a concave mirror for different positions of the object
Representation of Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors Using Ray Diagrams
We can also study the formation of images by spherical mirrors by drawing ray diagrams.

Consider an extended object, of finite size, placed in front of a spherical mirror. Each small
portion of the extended object acts like a point source.

An infinite number of rays originate from each of these points. To construct the ray diagrams,
in order to locate them image of an object, an arbitrarily large number of rays emanating
from a point could be considered.

However, it is more convenient to consider only two rays, for the sake of clarity of the ray
diagram.

These rays are so chosen that it is easy to know their directions after reflection from the
mirror.
• The intersection of at least two reflected rays give the position of image of the point
object.

(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis, after reflection, will pass through the principal focus in
case of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the principal focus in case of a convex
mirror.(1)

(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus of a concave mirror or a ray which is directed
towards the principal focus of a convex mirror, after reflection, will emerge parallel to the
principal axis.(2)

(iii) A ray passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror or directed in the
direction of the centre of curvature of a convex mirror, after reflection, is reflected back
along the same path. The light rays come back along the same path because the incident ray
fall on the mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface.(3)
(iv) A ray incident obliquely to the principal axis, towards a point P (pole of the mirror), on
the concave mirror Is reflected obliquely. The incident and reflected rays follow the laws of
reflection at the point of incidence (point P), making equal angles with the principal axis.

• Remember that in all the above cases the laws of reflection are followed. At the point of
incidence, the incident ray is reflected in such a way that the angle of reflection equals
the angle of incidence.

(a) Image formation by Concave Mirror the ray diagrams for the formation of image by a
concave mirror for various positions of the object.
Ray diagrams for the image formation by a concave mirror
Uses of concave mirrors
Concave mirrors are commonly used in torches, search-lights and vehicles headlights to get
powerful parallel beams of light. They are often used as shaving mirrors to see a larger
image of the face. The dentists use concave mirrors to see large images of the teeth of
patients. Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar
furnaces.
(b) Image formation by a Convex Mirror We studied the image formation by a concave
mirror. Now we shall study the formation of image by a convex mirror.

We consider two positions of the object for studying the image formed by a convex mirror.
First is when the object is at infinity and the second position is when the object is at a finite
distance from the mirror. The ray diagrams for the formation of image by a convex mirror for
these two positions of the object
Formation of image by a convex mirror
You can see a full-length image of a tall building/tree in a small convex mirror. One such
mirror is fitted in a wall of Agra Fort facing Taj Mahal. If you visit the Agra Fort, try to observe
the full image of Taj Mahal. To view distinctly, you should stand suitably at the terrace
adjoining the wall.

Uses of convex mirrors

• Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles.

• These mirrors are fitted on the sides of the vehicle, enabling the driver to see traffic
behind him/her to facilitate safe driving.

• Convex mirrors are preferred because they always give an erect, though diminished,
image. Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards.

• Thus, convex mirrors enable the driver to view much larger area than would be possible
with a plane mirror
Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirrors
While dealing with the reflection of light by spherical mirrors, we shall follow a set of sign
conventions called the New Cartesian Sign Convention.

In this convention, the pole (P) of the mirror is taken as the origin. The principal axis of the
mirror is taken as the x-axis (X’X) of the coordinate system. The conventions are as follows –

(i) The object is always placed to the left of the mirror. This implies that the light from the
object falls on the mirror from the left-hand side.

(ii) All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.

(iii) All the distances measured to the right of the origin (along + x-axis) are taken as positive
while those measured to the left of the origin (along – x-axis) are taken as negative.
(iv) Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along + y-axis) are
taken as positive.
(v) Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along –y-axis) are
taken as negative.

• The New Cartesian Sign Convention These sign conventions are applied to obtain the
mirror formula and solve related numerical problems.

Mirror Formula and Magnification

In a spherical mirror, the distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u).

The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the image distance (v).

You already know that the distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal
length (f) .

There is a relationship between these three quantities given by the mirror formula which is
expressed as
1+ 1 = 1
v u f

• This formula is valid in all situations for all spherical mirrors for all positions of the object.
You must use the New Cartesian Sign Convention while substituting numerical values for
u, v, f, and R in the mirror formula for solving problems.

Magnification
Magnification produced by a spherical mirror gives the relative extent to which the image of
an object is magnified with respect to the object size.

It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object. It is usually
represented by the letter m.

If h is the height of the object and h¢ is the height of the image, then the magnification m
produced by a spherical mirror is given by
m = Height of the image ( )
Height of the object ( )
The New Cartesian Sign Convention for spherical mirrors
M=h’
h
The magnification m is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v). It can
be expressed as:
Magnification (m) = h’ = -v
h h
• You may note that the height of the object is taken to be positive as the object is usually
placed above the principal axis.

• The height of the image should be taken as positive for virtual images. However, it is to
be taken as negative for real images.

• A negative sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is real. A
positive sign in the value of the magnification indicates that the image is virtual.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
Light seems to travel along straight-line paths in a transparent medium. What happens
when light enters from one transparent medium to another?

Does it still move along a straight-line path or change its direction? We shall recall some of
our day-to-day experiences.

You might have observed that the bottom of a tank or a pond containing water appears to
be raised.

Similarly, when a thick glass slab is placed over some printed matter, the letters appear
raised when viewed through the glass slab.

Why does it happen? Have you seen a pencil partly immersed in water in a glass tumbler? It
appears to be displaced at the interface of air and water.
You might have observed that a lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger
than its actual size, when viewed from the sides. How can you account for such
experiences?

Let us consider the case of the apparent displacement of a pencil, partly immersed in water.
The light reaching you from the portion of the pencil inside water seems to come from a
different direction, compared to the part above water.

This makes the pencil appear to be displaced at the interface. For similar reasons, the
letters appear to be raised, when seen through a glass slab placed over it.

Does a pencil appear to be displaced to the same extent, if instead of water, we use liquids
like kerosene or turpentine? Will the letters appear to rise to the same height if we replace
a glass slab with a transparent plastic slab?
• You will find that the extent of the effect is different for different pair of media. These
observations indicate that light does not travel in the same direction in all media.

• It appears that when travelling obliquely from one medium to another, the direction of
propagation of light in the second medium changes. This phenomenon is known as
refraction of light.

• Let us understand this phenomenon further by doing a few activities.

• The coin becomes visible again on pouring water into the bowl. The coin appears slightly
raised above its actual position due to refraction of light.
Refraction through a Rectangular Glass Slab
• To understand the phenomenon of refraction of light through a glass slab In this Activity,
you will note, the light ray has changed its direction at points O and O¢.

• Note that both the points O and O¢ lie on surfaces separating two transparent media.
Draw a perpendicular NN’ to AB at O and another perpendicular MM¢ to CD at O¢.

• The light ray at point O has entered from a rarer medium to a denser medium, that is,
from air to glass. Note that the light ray has bent towards the normal.

• At O¢, the light ray has entered from glass to air, that is, from a denser medium to a rarer
medium.

• The light here has bent away from the normal. Compare the angle of incidence with the
angle of refraction at both refracting surfaces AB and CD.
A ray EO is obliquely incident on surface AB, called incident ray. OO¢ is the refracted ray and
O¢ H is the emergent ray.

You may observe that the emergent ray is parallel to the direction of the incident ray. Why
does it happen so?

The extent of bending of the ray of light at the opposite parallel faces AB (air-glass
interface) and CD (glass-air interface) of the rectangular glass slab is equal and opposite.

This is why the ray emerges parallel to the incident ray. However, the light ray is shifted
sideward slightly.

What happens when a light ray is incident normally to the interface of two media? Try and
find out.
Now you are familiar with the refraction of light. Refraction is due to change in the speed of
light as it enters from one transparent medium to another. Experiments show that
refraction of light occurs according to certain laws.

The following are the laws of refraction of light.

(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for
the light of a given color and for the given pair of media.

This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction. (This is true for angle 0 < i < 90o)
If i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction, then,
Sin t
Sin r = constant
• This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to
the first.

The Refractive Index

You have already studied that a ray of light that travels obliquely from one transparent
medium into another will change its direction in the second medium.

The extent of the change in direction that takes place in a given pair of media may be
expressed in terms of the refractive index, the “constant” appearing on the right-hand side.

The refractive index can be linked to an important physical quantity, the relative speed of
propagation of light in different media.

It turns out that light propagates with different speeds in different media. Light travels
fastest in vacuum with speed of 3×108 m s–1. In air, the speed of light is only marginally less,
compared to that in vacuum. It reduces considerably in glass or water.
• The value of the refractive index for a given pair of media depends upon the speed of
light in the two media, as given below.

• Consider a ray of light travelling from medium 1 into medium 2.

• Let v1 be the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 be the speed of light in medium 2. The
refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is given by the ratio of the speed
of light in medium 1 and the speed of light in medium 2. This is usually represented by
the symbol n21. This can be expressed in an equation form as

N21=Speed of light in medium 1 = v1

Speed of light in medium 2 v2

• By the same argument, the refractive index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2 is
represented as n12. It is given by
 n
12 = Speed of light in medium 2 = v2
Speed of light in medium 1 v1

• If medium 1 is vacuum or air, then the refractive index of medium 2 is considered with
respect to vacuum.

• This is called the absolute refractive index of the medium. It is simply represented as
n2.

• If c is the speed of light in air and v is the speed of light in the medium, then, the
refractive index of the medium nm is given by

Nm = Speed of light in air =c

Speed of light in the medium v
• The absolute refractive index of a medium is simply called its refractive index.

• From the Table you can know that the refractive index of water, nw = 1.33. This means
that the ratio of the speed of light in air and the speed of light in water is equal to 1.33.

• Similarly, the refractive index of crown glass, ng =1.52. Such data are helpful in many
places. However, you need not memories the data.
• Note from Table that an optically denser medium may not possess greater mass
density.

• For example, kerosene having higher refractive index, is optically denser than water,
although its mass density is less than water.

MORE TO KNOW
The ability of a medium to refract light is also expressed in terms of its optical density.
Optical density has a definite connotation. It is not the same as mass density. We have
been using the terms ‘rarer medium’ and ‘denser medium’ in this Chapter. It actually
means ‘optically rarer medium’ and ‘optically denser medium’, respectively. When can we
say that a medium is optically denser than the other? In comparing two media, the one
with the larger refractive index is optically denser medium than the other. The other
medium of lower refractive index is optically rarer. The speed of light is higher in a rarer
medium than a denser medium. Thus, a ray of light travelling from a rarer medium to a
denser medium slows down and bends towards the normal. When it travels from a denser
medium to a rarer medium, it speeds up and bends away from the normal.
Refraction by Spherical Lenses
You might have seen watchmakers using a small magnifying glass to see tiny parts.

Have you ever touched the surface of a magnifying glass with your hand? Is it plane surface
or curved? Is it thicker in the middle or at the edges? The glasses used in spectacles and that
by a watchmaker are examples of lenses. What is a lens? How does it bend light rays? We
shall discuss these in this section.

A transparent material bound by two surfaces, of which one or both surfaces are spherical,
forms a lens.

This means that a lens is bound by at least one spherical surface. In such lenses, the other
surface would be plane.

A lens may have two spherical surfaces, bulging outwards. Such a lens is called a double
convex lens.
• It is simply called a convex lens. It is thicker at the middle as compared to the edges.

• Hence convex lenses are also called converging lenses. Similarly, a double concave lens
is bounded by two spherical surfaces, curved inwards.

• It is thicker at the edges than at the middle. Such lenses diverge light rays Such lenses
are also called diverging lenses. A double concave lens is simply called a concave lens.

• A lens, either a convex lens or a concave lens, has two spherical surfaces. Each of these
surfaces forms a part of a sphere.

• The centres of these spheres are called centres of curvature of the lens. The centre of
curvature of a lens is usually represented by the letter C.
• Since there are two centers of curvature, we may represent them as C1 and C2. An
imaginary straight line passing through the two centers of curvature of a lens is called its
principal axis. The central point of a lens is its optical center.

• It is usually represented by the letter O. A ray of light through the optical centre of a lens
passes without suffering any deviation.

• The effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is called its aperture.

• We shall confine our discussion in this Chapter to such lenses whose aperture is much
less than its radius of curvature and the two centers of curvatures are equidistant from
the optical center O.

• Such lenses are called thin lenses with small apertures. What happens when parallel rays
of light are incident on a lens? Let us do an Activity to understand this.
• The paper begins to burn producing smoke. It may even catch fire after a while. Why
does this happen?

• The light from the Sun constitutes parallel rays of light. These rays were converged by
the lens at the sharp bright spot formed on the paper.

• In fact, the bright spot you got on the paper is a real image of the Sun. The concentration
of the sunlight at a point generated heat. This caused the paper to burn.

• Now, we shall consider rays of light parallel to the principal axis of a lens. What happens
when you pass such rays of light through a lens?
• Several rays of light parallel to the principal axis are falling on a convex lens.

• These rays, after refraction from the lens, are converging to a point on the principal axis.
This point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the lens.

• Let us see now the action of a concave lens Several rays of light parallel to the principal
axis are falling on a concave lens.

• These rays, after refraction from the lens, are appearing to diverge from a point on the
principal axis.

• This point on the principal axis is called the principal focus of the concave lens.
• If you pass parallel rays from the opposite surface of the lens, you get another principal
focus on the opposite side.

• Letter F is usually used to represent principal focus. However, a lens has two principal
foci. They are represented by F1 and F2.

• The distance of the principal focus from the optical center of a lens is called its focal
length. The letter f is used to represent the focal length.

• How can you find the focal length of a convex lens? In this Activity, the distance between
the position of the lens and the position of the image of the Sun gives the approximate
focal length of the lens.
Image Formation by Lenses
Lenses form images by refracting light. How do lenses form images? What is their nature?
Let us study this for a convex lens first.

Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a convex lens for various positions
of the object
• Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a concave lens for various
positions of the object

• A concave lens will always give a virtual, erect and diminished image, irrespective of
the position of the object.
Image Formation in Lenses Using Ray Diagrams

We can represent image formation by lenses using ray diagrams. Ray diagrams will also help
us to study the nature, position and relative size of the image formed by lenses.

For drawing ray diagrams in lenses, alike of spherical mirrors, we consider any two of the
following rays –

(i) A ray of light from the object, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction from a convex
lens, passes through the principal focus on the other side of the lens(a). In case of a concave
lens, the ray appears to diverge from the principal focus located on the same side of the
lens
(ii) A ray of light passing through a principal focus, after refraction from a convex lens, will
emerge parallel to the principal axis.A ray of light appearing to meet at the principal focus of
a concave lens, after refraction, will emerge parallel to the principal axis.

(iii) A ray of light passing through the optical center of a lens will emerge without any
deviation.

• The ray diagrams for the image formation in a convex lens for a few positions of the
object.(FIG-A) The ray diagrams representing the image formation in a concave lens for
various positions of the object.( FIG-B)
FIGURE-A The position, size and the nature of the image formed by a convex lens for various positions of the object
Nature, position and relative size of the image formed by a concave lens
Sign Convention for Spherical Lenses
• For lenses, we follow sign convention, similar to the one used for spherical mirrors.

• We apply the rules for signs of distances, except that all measurements are taken from
the optical center of the lens.

• According to the convention, the focal length of a convex lens is positive and that of a
concave lens is negative. You must take care to apply appropriate signs for the values of u,
v, f, object height h and image height h¢.

Lens Formula and Magnification

• As we have a formula for spherical mirrors, we also have formula for spherical lenses.

• This formula gives the relationship between object distance (u), image-distance (v) and
the focal length (f ). The lens formula is expressed as
1 - 1 = 1
v u f

lens formula given above is general and is valid in all situations for any spherical lens. Take
proper care of the signs of different quantities, while putting numerical values for solving
problems relating to lenses.
Magnification
The magnification produced by a lens, similar to that for spherical mirrors, is defined as the
ratio of the height of the image and the height of the object. Magnification is represented by
the letter m. If h is the height of the object and h¢ is the height of the image given by a lens,
then the magnification produced by the lens is given by,
m = Height of the Image = h
Height of the object h

Magnification produced by a lens is also related to the object-distance u, and the image-
distance v. This relationship is given by
Magnification (m ) = h¢/h = v/u
Power of a Lens
• You have already learnt that the ability of a lens to converge or diverge light rays depends
on its focal length.

• For example, a convex lens of short focal length bends the light rays through large angles,
by focusing them closer to the optical centre.

• Similarly, concave lens of very short focal length causes higher divergence than the one
with longer focal length.

• The degree of convergence or divergence of light rays achieved by a lens is expressed in

terms of its power.

• The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It is represented by the
letter P. The power P of a lens of focal length f is given by
• The SI unit of power of a lens is ‘diopter’. It is denoted by the letter D. If f is expressed in
meters, then, power is expressed in diopters.

• Thus, 1 diopter is the power of a lens whose focal length is 1 meter. 1D = 1m–1. You may
note that the power of a convex lens is positive and that of a concave lens is negative.

• Opticians prescribe corrective lenses indicating their powers. Let us say the lens
prescribed has power equal to + 2.0 D. This means the lens prescribed is convex.

• The focal length of the lens is + 0.50 m. Similarly, a lens of power – 2.5 D has a focal
length of – 0.40 m. The lens is concave.
• Many optical instruments consist of a number of lenses. They are combined to increase
the magnification and sharpness of the image.

• The net power (P) of the lenses placed in contact is given by the algebraic sum of the
individual powers P1, P2, P3, … as P = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

• The use of powers, instead of focal lengths, for lenses is quite convenient for opticians.

• During eye-testing, an optician puts several different combinations of corrective lenses of

known power, in contact, inside the testing spectacles’ frame.

• The optician calculates the power of the lens required by simple algebraic addition.

• For example, a combination of two lenses of power + 2.0 D and + 0.25 D is equivalent to a
single lens of power + 2.25 D.
• The simple additive property of the powers of lenses can be used to design lens
systems to minimise certain defects in images produced by a single lens.

• Such a lens system, consisting of several lenses, in contact, is commonly used in

the design of lenses of camera, microscopes and telescopes.
THANKYOU…
The Human Eye and
the Colourful World
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-11TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• You have studied in the previous chapter about refraction of light by lenses. You also
studied the nature, position and relative size of images formed by lenses.

• How can these ideas help us in the study of the human eye? The human eye uses light and
enables us to see objects around us.

• It has a lens in its structure. What is the function of the lens in a human eye? How do the
lenses used in spectacles correct defects of vision? Let us consider these questions in this
chapter.

• We have learnt in the previous chapter about light and some of its properties. In this
chapter, we shall use these ideas to study some of the optical phenomena in nature.

• We shall also discuss about rainbow formation, splitting of white light and blue color of
the sky.
THE HUMAN EYE
• The human eye is one of the most valuable and sensitive sense organs. It enables us to
see the wonderful world and the colors around us.

• On closing the eyes, we can identify objects to some extent by their smell, taste, sound
they make or by touch.

• It is, however, impossible to identify colors while closing the eyes.

• Thus, of all the sense organs, the human eye is the most significant one as it enables us to
see the beautiful, colourful world around us.

• The human eye is like a camera. Its lens system forms an image on a light-sensitive screen
called the retina. Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the cornea.

• It forms the transparent bulge on the front surface of the eyeball. The eyeball is
approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm
HUMAN EYE
• Most of the refraction for the light rays entering the eye occurs at the outer surface of the
cornea.

• The crystalline lens merely provides the finer adjustment of focal length required to focus
objects at different distances on the retina.

• We find a structure called iris behind the cornea. Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm that
controls the size of the pupil.

• The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light entering the eye.

• The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on the retina. The retina is a
delicate membrane having enormous number of light-sensitive cells.

• The light-sensitive cells get activated upon illumination and generate electrical signals.
These signals are sent to the brain via the optic nerves.
• The brain interprets these signals, and finally, processes the information so that we
perceive objects as they are.

DO YOU KNOW?
Damage to or malfunction of any part of the visual system can lead to significant loss of
visual functioning. For example, if any of the structures involved in the transmission of light,
like the cornea, pupil, eye lens, aqueous humor and vitreous humor or those responsible for
conversion of light to electrical impulse, like the retina or even the optic nerve that transmits
these impulses to the brain, is damaged, it will result in visual impairment . You might have
experienced that you are not able to see objects clearly for some time when you enter from
bright light to a room with dim light. After sometime, however, you may be able to see
things in the dim-lit room. The pupil of an eye acts like a variable aperture whose size can be
varied with the help of the iris. When the light is very bright, the iris contracts the pupil to
allow less light to enter the eye. However, in dim light the iris expands the pupil to allow
more light to enter the eye. Thus, the pupil opens completely through the relaxation of the
iris.
Power of Accommodation
• The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material. Its curvature can be modified to
some extent by the ciliary muscles.

• The change in the curvature of the eye lens can thus change its focal length. When the
muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin.

• Thus, its focal length increases. This enables us to see distant objects clearly. When you
are looking at objects closer to the eye, the ciliary muscles contract.

• This increases the curvature of the eye lens. The eye lens then becomes thicker.

• Consequently, the focal length of the eye lens decreases. This enables us to see nearby
objects clearly.
• The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called accommodation.

• However, the focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below a certain minimum
limit. Try to read a printed page by holding it very close to your eyes.

• You may see the image being blurred or feel strain in the eye. To see an object
comfortably and distinctly, you must hold it at about 25 cm from the eyes.

• The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most distinctly without strain, is
called the least distance of distinct vision. It is also called the near point of the eye.

• For a young adult with normal vision, the near point is about 25 cm. The farthest point
upto which the eye can see objects clearly is called the far point of the eye.

• It is infinity for a normal eye. You may note here a normal eye can see objects clearly that
are between 25 cm and infinity.
• Sometimes, the crystalline lens of people at old age becomes milky and cloudy. This
condition is called cataract. This causes partial or complete loss of vision. It is possible to
restore vision through a cataract surgery.

Do You Know
Why do we have two eyes for vision and not just one?
There are several advantages of our having two eyes instead of one. It gives a wider field of
view. A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150° with one eye and of about
180° with two eyes. The ability to detect faint objects is, of course, enhanced with two
detectors instead of one. Some animals, usually prey animals, have their two eyes
positioned on opposite sides of their heads to give the widest possible field of view. But our
two eyes are positioned on the front of our heads, and it thus reduces our field of view in
favour of what is called stereopsis. Shut one eye and the world looks flat – two-dimensional.
Keep both eyes open and the world takes on the third dimension of depth. Because our eyes
are separated by a few centimetres, each eye sees a slightly different image. Our brain
combines the two images into one, using the extra information to tell us how close or far
away things are.
DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION
• Sometimes, the eye may gradually lose its power of accommodation. In such conditions,
the person cannot see the objects distinctly and comfortably.

• The vision becomes blurred due to the refractive defects of the eye.

• There are mainly three common refractive defects of vision.

• These are (i) myopia or near-sightedness, (ii) Hypermetropia or farsightedness, and (iii)
Presbyopia. These defects can be corrected by the use of suitable spherical lenses.
We discuss below these defects and their correction.

Myopia
• Myopia is also known as near-sightedness. A person with myopia can see nearby objects
clearly but cannot see distant objects distinctly.

• A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity. Such a person may see
clearly upto a distance of a few metres.

• In a myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and not at
the retina itself.

• This defect may arise due to (i) excessive curvature of the eye lens, or (ii) elongation of
the eyeball.

• This defect can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable power. A concave lens of
suitable power will bring the image back on to the retina and thus the defect is corrected.
(a), (b) The myopic eye, and (c) correction for myopia with a concave lens
(b) Hypermetropia
• Hypermetropia is also known as far-sightedness. A person with hypermetropia can see
distant objects clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.

• The near point, for the person, is farther away from the normal near point (25 cm).

• Such a person has to keep a reading material much beyond 25 cm from the eye for
comfortable reading.

• This is because the light rays from a close by object are focused at a point behind the retina
.

• This defect arises either because (i) the focal length of the eye lens is too long, or (ii) the
eyeball has become too small. This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of
appropriate power.
• Eye-glasses with converging lenses provide the additional focusing power required for
forming the image on the retina.
(a), (b) The hypermetropic eye, and (c)
correction for hypermetropia
N = Near point of a
hypermetropic eye.
N’ = Near point of a
normal eye.
(c) Presbyopia
• The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with ageing. For most people,
the near point gradually recedes away.

• They find it difficult to see nearby objects comfortably and distinctly without corrective
eye-glasses.

• This defect is called Presbyopia. It arises due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary
muscles and diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.

• Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia. Such people often
require bi-focal lenses.

• A common type of bi-focal lenses consists of both concave and convex lenses. The upper
portion consists of a concave lens.
• It facilitates distant vision. The lower part is a convex lens. It facilitates near vision.

• These days, it is possible to correct the refractive defects with contact lenses or through
surgical interventions
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM
You have learnt how light gets refracted through a rectangular glass slab.

For parallel refracting surfaces, as in a glass slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident
ray. However, it is slightly displaced laterally.

How would light get refracted through a transparent prism? Consider a triangular glass
prism. It has two triangular bases and three rectangular lateral surfaces.

These surfaces are inclined to each other. The angle between its two lateral faces is called
the angle of the prism.

Let us now do an activity to study the refraction of light through a triangular glass prism.
• Here PE is the incident ray, EF is the refracted ray and FS is the emergent ray. You may
note that a ray of light is entering from air to glass at the first surface AB.

• The light ray on refraction has bent towards the normal. At the second surface AC, the
light ray has entered from glass to air. Hence it has bent away from normal.

• Compare the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction at each refracting surface of
the prism. Is this similar to the kind of bending that occurs in a glass slab?

• The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray bend at an angle to the
direction of the incident ray.

• This angle is called the angle of deviation. In this case ÐD is the angle of deviation. Mark
the angle of deviation in the above activity and measure it.
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
You must have seen and appreciated the spectacular colors in a rainbow. How could the
white light of the Sun give us various colors of the rainbow?

Before we take up this question, we shall first go back to the refraction of light through a
prism. The inclined refracting surfaces of a glass prism show exciting phenomenon.

The prism has probably split the incident white light into a band of colors. Note the
colors that appear at the two ends of the color band. What is the sequence of colors
that you see on the screen?

The various colors seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. The
acronym VIBGYOR will help you to remember the sequence of colors.
The band of the colored components of a light beam is called its spectrum.

You might not be able to see all the colors separately. Yet something makes each color
distinct from the other. The splitting of light into its component colors is called dispersion.

You have seen that white light is dispersed into its seven-colour components by a prism.
Why do we get these colors?

Different colors of light bend through different angles with respect to the incident ray, as
they pass through a prism.

The red light bends the least while the violet the most. Thus the rays of each color emerge
along different paths and thus become distinct. It is the band of distinct colors that we see in
a spectrum.
Recombination of the spectrum of white light
• Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight.

• He tried to split the colors of the spectrum of white light further by using another similar
prism.

• However, he could not get any more colors. He then placed a second identical prism in an
inverted position with respect to the first prism.

• This allowed all the colors of the spectrum to pass through the second prism. He found a
beam of white light emerging from the other side of the second prism.

• This observation gave Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven colors. Any
light that gives a spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.
• A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower. It is caused by
dispersion of sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere.

• A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the Sun.

• The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the incident sunlight,
then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.

• Due to the dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colors reach the observer’s
eye.

• You can also see a rainbow on a sunny day when you look at the sky through a waterfall or
through a water fountain, with the Sun behind you.
Rainbow in the sky Rainbow formation
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
• You might have observed the apparent random wavering or flickering of objects seen
through a turbulent stream of hot air rising above a fire or a radiator.

• The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the air further up.

• The hotter air is lighter (less dense) than the cooler air above it, and has a refractive
index slightly less than that of the cooler air.

• Since the physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not stationary, the
apparent position of the object, as seen through the hot air, fluctuates.

• This wavering is thus an effect of atmospheric refraction (refraction of light by the earth’s
atmosphere) on a small scale in our local environment.

• The twinkling of stars is a similar phenomenon on a much larger scale. Let us see how we
can explain it.
Twinkling of stars
• The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight, on
entering the earth’s atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the
earth.

• The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of gradually changing refractive index.

• Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal, the apparent position of the
star is slightly different from its actual position.

• The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual position when viewed near the
horizon.

• Further, this apparent position of the star is not stationary, but keeps on changing slightly,
since the physical conditions of the earth’s atmosphere are not stationary, as was the case
in the previous paragraph.
Apparent star position due to atmospheric refraction
• Since the stars are very distant, they approximate point-sized sources of light.

• As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent
position of the star fluctuates and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers – the
star sometimes appears brighter, and at some other time, fainter, which is the twinkling
effect.

• Why don’t the planets twinkle? The planets are much closer to the earth, and are thus
seen as extended sources.

• If we consider a planet as a collection of a large number of point-sized sources of light, the

total variation in the amount of light entering our eye from all the individual point-sized
sources will average out to zero, thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.
Advance sunrise and delayed sunset
• The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes
after the actual sunset because of atmospheric refraction.

• By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.

• The actual and apparent positions of the Sun with respect to the horizon.

• The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.

• The apparent flattening of the Sun’s disc at sunrise and sunset is also due to the same
phenomenon.
Atmospheric refraction effects at sunrise and sunset
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
• The interplay of light with objects around us gives rise to several spectacular phenomena
in nature.

• The blue colour of the sky, colour of water in deep sea, the reddening of the sun at sunrise
and the sunset are some of the wonderful phenomena we are familiar with.

• In the previous class, you have learnt about the scattering of light by colloidal particles.

• The path of a beam of light passing through a true solution is not visible. However, its path
becomes visible through a colloidal solution where the size of the particles is relatively
larger.
Tyndall Effect
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles.

These particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of dust and
molecules of air.

When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam becomes visible. The
light reaches us, after being reflected diffusely by these particles.

The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to Tyndall effect
which you have studied in Class IX.

This phenomenon is seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a
small hole.
• Thus, scattering of light makes the particles visible. Tyndall effect can also be observed
when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.

• Here, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter light. The colour of the scattered light
depends on the size of the scattering particles.

• Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light while particles of larger size scatter light of
longer wavelengths.

• If the size of the scattering particles is large enough, then, the scattered light may even
appear white.
Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue?
• The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the
wavelength of visible light.

• These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than
light of longer wavelengths at the red end.

• The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light.

• Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the
blue colour (shorter wavelengths) more strongly than red.

• The scattered blue light enters our eyes. If the earth had no atmosphere, there would not
have been any scattering. Then, the sky would have looked dark.
Reddening of the Sun at sunrise and sunset
• The sky appears dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes, as scattering is not
prominent at such heights.

• You might have observed that ‘danger’ signal lights are red in colour. Do you know why?
The red is least scattered by fog or smoke. Therefore, it can be seen in the same colour at
a distance.

• Colour of the Sun at Sunrise and Sunset

• Have you seen the sky and the Sun at sunset or sunrise? Have you wondered as to why the
Sun and the surrounding sky appear red?

• Let us do an activity to understand the blue colour of the sky and the reddish appearance
of the Sun at the sunrise or sunset.
• You will find fine microscopic sulphur particles precipitating in about 2 to 3 minutes.

• As the sulphur particles begin to form, you can observe the blue light from the three
sides of the glass tank.

• This is due to scattering of short wavelengths by minute colloidal sulphur particles.

• Observe the colour of the transmitted light from the fourth side of the glass tank facing
the circular hole.

• It is interesting to observe at first the orange red colour and then bright crimson red
colour on the screen.
This activity demonstrates the scattering of light that helps you to understand the bluish
colour of the sky and the reddish appearance of the Sun at the sunrise or the sunset.

Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through thicker layers of air and larger distance in
the earth’s atmosphere before reaching our eyes .

However, light from the Sun overhead would travel relatively shorter distance. At noon, the
Sun appears white as only a little of the blue and violet colors are scattered.

Near the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are scattered away by the
particles. Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths.

This gives rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun.

THANKYOU…
Electricity
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-12TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• Electricity has an important place in modern society.

• It is a controllable and convenient form of energy for a variety of uses in homes, schools,
hospitals, industries and so on.

• What constitutes electricity? How does it flow in an electric circuit? What are the factors
that control or regulate the current through an electric circuit?

• In this Chapter, we shall attempt to answer such questions. We shall also discuss the
heating effect of electric current and its applications.
ELECTRIC CURRENT AND CIRCUIT
• We are familiar with air current and water current. We know that flowing water constitute
water current in rivers.

• Similarly, if the electric charge flows through a conductor (for example, through a metallic
wire), we say that there is an electric current in the conductor.

• In a torch, we know that the cells (or a battery, when placed in proper order) provide
• flow of charges or an electric current through the torch bulb to glow.

• We have also seen that the torch gives light only when its switch is on. What does a switch
do? A switch makes a conducting link between the cell and the bulb.

• A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric circuit.

• Now, if the circuit is broken anywhere (or the switch of the torch is turned off ), the current
stops flowing and the bulb does not glow.
• How do we express electric current? Electric current is expressed by the amount of
charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

• In other words, it is the rate of flow of electric charges. In circuits using metallic wires,
electrons constitute the flow of charges.

• However, electrons were not known at the time when the phenomenon of electricity
was first observed.

• So, electric current was considered to be the flow of positive charges and the direction of
flow of positive charges was taken to be the direction of electric current.

• Conventionally, in an electric circuit the direction of electric current is taken as opposite

to the direction of the flow of electrons, which are negative charges.
• If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the current I,
through the cross-section is

I= Q
t
• The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb (C), which is equivalent to the charge contained in
nearly 6 × 1018 electrons. (We know that an electron possesses a negative charge of 1.6 ×
10–19 C.)

• The electric current is expressed by a unit called ampere (A), named after the French
scientist, Andre-Marie Ampere (1775–1836).

• One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb of charge per second, that is, 1 A =
1 C/1 s.
• Small quantities of current are expressed in milliampere (1 mA = 10–3 A) or in
microampere (1 μA = 10–6 A). An instrument called ammeter measures electric current
in a circuit.

• It is always connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.

• The schematic diagram of a typical electric circuit comprising a cell, an electric bulb, an
ammeter and a plug key.

• Note that the electric current flows in the circuit from the positive terminal of the cell to
the negative terminal of the cell through the bulb and ammeter
More to Know
‘Flow’ of charges inside a wire
How does a metal conduct electricity? You would think that a low-energy electron would
have great difficulty passing through a solid conductor. Inside the solid, the atoms are
packed together with very little spacing between them. But it turns out that the
electrons are able to ‘travel’ through a perfect solid crystal smoothly and easily, almost
as if they were in a vacuum. The ‘motion’ of electrons in a conductor, however, is very
different from that of charges in empty space. When a steady current flows through a
conductor, the electrons in it move with a certain average ‘drift speed’.
One can calculate this drift speed of electrons for a typical copper wire carrying a small
current, and it is found to be actually very small, of the order of 1 mm s-1. How is it then
that an electric bulb lights up as soon as we turn the switch on? It cannot be that a
current starts only when an electron from one terminal of the electric supply physically
reaches the other terminal through the bulb, because the physical drift of electrons in
the conducting wires is a very slow process. The exact mechanism of the current flow,
which takes place with a speed close to the speed of light, is fascinating, but it is beyond
the scope of this book. Do you feel like probing this question at an advanced level?
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• What makes the electric charge to flow? Let us consider the analogy of flow of water.

• Charges do not flow in a copper wire by themselves, just as water in a perfectly

horizontal tube does not flow.

• If one end of the tube is connected to a tank of water kept at a higher level, such that
there is a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube, water flows out of
the other end of the tube.

• For flow of charges in a conducting metallic wire, the gravity, of course, has no role to
play; the electrons move only if there is a difference of electric pressure – called the
potential difference – along the conductor.

• This difference of potential may be produced by a battery, consisting of one or more

electric cells.
• The chemical action within a cell generates the potential difference across the terminals
of the cell, even when no current is drawn from it.

• When the cell is connected to a conducting circuit element, the potential difference sets
the charges in motion in the conductor and produces an electric current.

• In order to maintain the current in a given electric circuit, the cell has to expend its
chemical energy stored in it.

• We define the electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit
carrying some current as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the
other – Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)

V = W/Q
• The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V), named after Alessandro Volta
(1745–1827), an Italian physicist.

• One volt is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the
other.

Therefore, 1 volt = 1 joule

1 coulomb
• The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter.

• The voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the
potential difference is to be measured.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
• We know that an electric circuit, comprises a cell (or a battery), a plug key, electrical
component(s), and connecting wires.

• It is often convenient to draw a schematic diagram, in which different components of

the circuit are represented by the symbols conveniently used.

• Conventional symbols used to represent some of the most commonly used electrical
components.
Symbols of some commonly used components in circuit diagrams
OHM’S LAW
In 1827, a German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854) found out the relationship
between the current I, flowing in a metallic wire and the potential difference across its
terminals.

The potential difference, V, across the ends of a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains
the same.

This is called Ohm’s law. In other words –

VI
Or V/I = constant
=R
Or V = IR
In R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its
resistance.

• It is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it. Its SI unit is
ohm, represented by the Greek letter W. According to Ohm’s law,
R = V/I

• If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 W.
• That is, 1 ohm = 1 volt
1 ampere
1 Ohm:

• 1 ohm (Q) of resistance (R) is equal to the flow 1A of current through a conductor between
two points having a potential difference equal to 1V.
This means; 1Ω = 1V1A

• From the expression of Ohm’s Law, it is obvious that electric current through a resistor is
inversely proportional to resistance.

• This means electric current will decrease with an increase in resistance and vice versa. The
graph of V (potential difference) versus I (electric current) is always a straight line.
Graph of Potential Difference (V) Vs Electric Current (I)
Voltage, i.e. Potential difference (V) = ?
We know, from Ohm’s Law that,
R = VI
15 Ω = V15A
V = 225V
FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS
It is observed that the ammeter reading decreases to one-half when the length of the wire
is doubled. The ammeter reading is increased when a thicker wire of the same material and
of the same length is used in the circuit. A change in ammeter reading is observed when a
wire of different material of the same length and the same area of cross-section is used. On
applying Ohm’s law, we observe that the resistance of the conductor depends (i) on its
length, (ii) on its area of cross-section, and (iii) on the nature of its material. Precise
measurements have shown that resistance of a uniform metallic conductor is directly
proportional to its length (l ) and inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (A). That
is,

Rµl
and R µ 1/A
Combining
Rµl
A
or R=r l
A
where r (rho) is a constant of proportionality and is called the electrical resistivity of the
material of the conductor.

The SI unit of resistivity is W m. It is a characteristic property of the material.

The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10–8 W m to 10–6 W m.

They are good conductors of electricity. Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the
order of 1012 to 1017 W m.

Both the resistance and resistivity of a material vary with temperature.

The resistivity of an alloy is generally higher than that of its constituent metals. Alloys do not
oxidise (burn) readily at high temperatures.

For this reason, they are commonly used in electrical heating devices, like electric iron,
toasters etc.
• Tungsten is used almost exclusively for filaments of electric bulbs, whereas copper and
aluminium are generally used for electrical transmission lines.
RESISTANCE OF A SYSTEM OF RESISTORS
• In preceding sections, we learnt about some simple electric circuits. We have noticed how the current through a
conductor depends upon its resistance and the potential difference across its ends.

• In various electrical gadgets, we often use resistors in various combinations. We now therefore intend to see how Ohm’s
law can be applied to combinations of resistors.

• There are two methods of joining the resistors together. An electric circuit in which three resistors having resistances R1,
R2 and R3, respectively, are joined end to end.

• Here the resistors are said to be connected in series. A combination of resistors in which three resistors are connected
together between points X and Y. Here, the resistors are said to be connected in parallel.
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel
Resistors in Series
When resistors are joined from end to end, it is called in series. In this case, the total resistance of the system is
equal to the sum of the resistance of all the resistors in the system.

Let, three resistors R1, R2, and R3 get connected in series.

Potential difference across A and B = V
Potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 = V1, V2 and V3
Current flowing through the combination = I
We, know that
V= V1 + V2 + V3 …. (i)
According to Ohm’s Law :
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ….. (ii)
Let, total resistance = Rs
Then, V = IRs …(iii)
From equations (i) and (ii) and (iii)
IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

When the resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is the
same and is equal to the total current.
Resistors in Parallel
When resistors are joined in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance of the system is
equal to the sum of reciprocal of the resistance of resistors.

Let three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel.

Potential difference across point A and B = V
Total current flowing between point A and B = I
Currents flowing through resistors R1, R2 and R3 = I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
We, know that,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
Since, the potential difference across R1, R2, and R3 is the same = V
According to Ohm’s Law,
• In parallel combination, the potential difference across each resistor is the same and is
equal to the total potential difference.
• The total current through the circuit can be calculated by adding the electric current
through individual resistors.
• Total = 6A + 48A + 30A + 12A + 24A = 120A
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
We know that a battery or a cell is a source of electrical energy.

The chemical reaction within the cell generates the potential difference between its two
terminals that sets the electrons in motion to flow the current through a resistor or a system
of resistors connected to the battery.

Where does this energy go? A part of the source energy in maintaining the current may be
consumed into useful work (like in rotating the blades of an electric fan).

Rest of the source energy may be expended in heat to raise the temperature of gadget. We
often observe this in our everyday life.

For example, an electric fan becomes warm if used continuously for longer time etc.

On the other hand, if the electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors
only connected to a battery; the source energy continually gets dissipated entirely in the
form of heat.
This is known as the heating effect of electric current. This effect is utilised in devices such
as electric heater, electric iron etc. Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of
resistance R.

Let the potential difference across it be V. Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows
across. The work done in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V is VQ.

Therefore, the source must supply energy equal to VQ in time t. Hence the power input to
the circuit by the source is

P = V Q/t = VI
Or the energy supplied to the circuit by the source in time t is P  t, that is, VIt. What
happens to this energy expended by the source? This energy gets dissipated in the resistor
as heat. Thus for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t is
H = VIt
• Applying Ohm’s law [Eq. (12.5)], we get
H = I2 Rt (12.21)
• This is known as Joule’s law of heating.

• The law implies that heat produced in a resistor is (i) directly proportional to the square
of current for a given resistance, (ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given
current, and (iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the
resistor.

• In practical situations, when an electric appliance is connected to a known voltage

source, is used after calculating the current through it, using the relation I = V/R.
Practical Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current
The generation of heat in a conductor is an inevitable consequence of electric current.

In many cases, it is undesirable as it converts useful electrical energy into heat.

In electric circuits, the unavoidable heating can increase the temperature of the components
and alter their properties.

However, heating effect of electric current has many useful applications.

The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric heater are
some of the familiar devices based on Joule’s heating.

The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the filament
must retain as much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it gets very hot and emits
light. It must not melt at such high temperature.
• A strong metal with high melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used
for making bulb filaments.

• The filament should be thermally isolated as much as possible, using insulating support,
etc.

• The bulbs are usually filled with chemically inactive nitrogen and argon gases to prolong
the life of filament.

• Most of the power consumed by the filament appears as heat, but a small part of it is in
the form of light radiated.
Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric circuits. It protects
circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current.

The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or
an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc.

If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of the
fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit.

The fuse wire is usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with metal
ends.

The fuses used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc. For an electric
iron which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220)
A, that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A
fuse must be used.
ELECTRIC POWER
You have studied in your earlier Class that the rate of doing work is power.

This is also the rate of consumption of energy. The rate at which electric energy is dissipated
or consumed in an electric circuit. This is also termed as electric power.

The power P is given by

P = VI
Or P = I2R = V2/R

The SI unit of electric power is watt (W). It is the power consumed by a device that carries 1
A of current when operated at a potential difference of 1 V.
Thus,
1 W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1 V A (12.23)
• The unit ‘watt’ is very small. Therefore, in actual practice we use a much larger unit called
‘kilowatt’. It is equal to 1000 watts.

• Since electrical energy is the product of power and time, the unit of electric energy is,
therefore, watt hour (W h).

• One watt hour is the energy consumed when 1 watt of power is used for 1 hour. The
commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (kW h), commonly known as ‘unit’.

1 kW h = 1000 watt × 3600 second

= 3.6 × 106 watt second
= 3.6 × 106 joule (J)
THANKYOU…
Magnetic Effects of
Electric Current
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-13
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• In the previous Chapter on ‘Electricity’ we learnt about the heating effects of electric
current.

• What could be the other effects of electric current? We know that an electric current-
carrying wire behaves like a magnet.

• The electric current through the copper wire has produced a magnetic effect.

• Thus we can say that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other.

• Then, what about the reverse possibility of an electric effect of moving magnets?

• In this Chapter we will study magnetic fields and such electromagnetic effects.

• We shall also study about electromagnets and electric motors which involve the magnetic
effect of electric current, and electric generators which involve the electric effect of
moving magnets.
Compass needle is deflected on passing an electric current through a metallic conductor
MAGNETIC FIELD AND FIELD LINES
• We are familiar with the fact that a compass needle gets deflected when brought near a
bar magnet.

• A compass needle is, in fact, a small bar magnet. The ends of the compass needle point
approximately towards north and south directions.

• The end pointing towards north is called north seeking or north pole. The other end that
points towards south is called south seeking or south pole.

• Through various activities we have observed that like poles repel, while unlike poles of
magnets attract each other.
Iron filings near the bar magnet align themselves along the field lines.
• The iron filings arrange themselves in a pattern as shown in the diagram.

• Why do the iron filings arrange in such a pattern? What does this pattern demonstrate?
The magnet exerts its influence in the region surrounding it.

• Therefore the iron filings experience a force. The force thus exerted makes iron filings to
arrange in a pattern.

• The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected, is
said to have a magnetic field.

• The lines along which the iron filings align themselves represent magnetic field lines.

• Are there other ways of obtaining magnetic field lines around a bar magnet? Yes, you can
yourself draw the field lines of a bar magnet.
Drawing a magnetic field line with the help of a compass needle
Field lines around a bar magnet
• Magnetic field is a quantity that has both direction and magnitude.

• The direction of the magnetic field is taken to be the direction in which a north pole of
the compass needle moves inside it.

• Therefore it is taken by convention that the field lines emerge from north pole and merge
at the south pole.

• Inside the magnet, the direction of field lines is from its south pole to its north pole. Thus
the magnetic field lines are closed curves.

• The relative strength of the magnetic field is shown by the degree of closeness of the field
lines.

• The field is stronger, that is, the force acting on the pole of another magnet placed is
greater where the field lines are crowded.
• No two field-lines are found to cross each other. If they did, it would mean that at the
point of intersection, the compass needle would point towards two directions, which is
not possible.

MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR

Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Straight Conductor
• Magnetic field lines due to current a current carrying straight conductor.

• A current carrying straight conductor has magnetic field in the form of concentric circles,
around it.

• Magnetic field of current carrying straight conductor can be shown by magnetic field
lines.

• The direction of magnetic field through a current carrying conductor depends upon the
direction of flow electric current.
A simple electric circuit in which a straight copper wire is placed parallel to and over a compass needle. The deflection in
the needle becomes opposite when the direction of the current is reversed.
(a) A pattern of concentric circles indicating the field lines of a magnetic field around a straight
conducting wire. The arrows in the circles show the direction of the field lines. (b) A close up of
the pattern obtained
• Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric current is flowing
from south to north.

• In this case, the direction of magnetic field will be anticlockwise. If the current is flowing
from north to south, the direction of magnetic field will be clockwise.

• The direction of magnetic field, in relation to direction of electric current through a

straight conductor can be depicted by using the Right Hand Thumb Rule. It is also known
as Maxwell’s Corkscrew Rule.
Right-Hand Thumb Rule
• A convenient way of finding the direction of magnetic field associated with a current-
carrying conductor.

• Imagine that you are holding a current-carrying straight conductor in your right hand
such that the thumb points towards the direction of current.

• Then your fingers will wrap around the conductor in the direction of the field lines of the
magnetic field.

• This is known as the right-hand thumb rule. This rule is also called Maxwell’s corkscrew
rule. If we consider ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction of the current, then the
direction of the rotation of corkscrew is the direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic Field due to a Current through a Circular Loop

• We have so far observed the pattern of the magnetic field lines produced around a current-
carrying straight wire.

• Suppose this straight wire is bent in the form of a circular loop and a current is passed
through it. How would the magnetic field lines look like?

• We know that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying straight wire depends
inversely on the distance from it.

• Similarly at every point of a current-carrying circular loop, the concentric circles

representing the magnetic field around it would become larger and larger as we move away
from the wire.

• By the time we reach at the center of the circular loop, the arcs of these big circles would
appear as straight lines.
Magnetic field lines of the field produced by a current-carrying circular loop
• Every point on the wire carrying current would give rise to the magnetic field appearing as
straight lines at the center of the loop.

• By applying the right hand rule, it is easy to check that every section of the wire
contributes to the magnetic field lines in the same direction within the loop.

• We know that the magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire at a given point
depends directly on the current passing through it.

• Therefore, if there is a circular coil having n turns, the field produced is n times as large as
that produced by a single turn.

• This is because the current in each circular turn has the same direction, and the field due
to each turn then just adds up.
Magnetic Field due to a Current in a Solenoid
• A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire wrapped closely in the shape of a
cylinder is called a solenoid.

• The pattern of the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying solenoid is . Compare the
pattern of the field with the magnetic field around a bar magnet. Do they look similar?

• Yes, they are similar. In fact, one end of the solenoid behaves as a magnetic north pole,
while the other behaves as the south pole.

• The field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines.

• This indicates that the magnetic field is the same at all points inside the solenoid. That is,
the field is uniform inside the solenoid.

• A strong magnetic field produced inside a solenoid can be used to magnetize a piece of
magnetic material, like soft iron, when placed inside the coil. The magnet so formed is
called an electromagnet.
Field lines of the magnetic field through and around a current A current-carrying solenoid coil is used to magnetize
carrying solenoid. steel rod inside it – an electromagnet.
FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
• We have learnt that an electric current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic
field.

• The field so produced exerts a force on a magnet placed in the vicinity of the conductor.

• French scientist Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836) suggested that the magnet must also
exert an equal and opposite force on the current-carrying conductor.

• The displacement of the rod in the above activity suggests that a force is exerted on the
current-carrying aluminum rod when it is placed in a magnetic field.

• It also suggests that the direction of force is also reversed when the direction of current
through the conductor is reversed.
• Now change the direction of field to vertically downwards by interchanging the two poles
of the magnet. It is once again observed that the direction of force acting on the current-
carrying rod gets reversed

• It shows that the direction of the force on the conductor depends upon the direction of
current and the direction of the magnetic field.

• Experiments have shown that the displacement of the rod is largest (or the magnitude of
the force is the highest) when the direction of current is at right angles to the direction of
the magnetic field.

• According to this rule, stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of your left hand
such that they are mutually perpendicular.

• If the first finger points in the direction of magnetic field and the second finger in the
direction of current, then the thumb will point in the direction of motion or the force
acting on the conductor.
Fleming’s left-hand rule
• Devices that use current-carrying conductors and magnetic fields include electric
motor, electric generator, loudspeakers, microphones and measuring instruments.

• In the next few sections we shall study about electric motors and generators.
More to Know
Magnetism in medicine
An electric current always produces a magnetic field. Even weak ion currents that travel
along the nerve cells in our body produce magnetic fields. When we touch something, our
nerves carry an electric impulse to the muscles we need to use. This impulse produces a
temporary magnetic field. These fields are very weak and are about one-billionth of the
earth’s magnetic field. Two main organs in the human body where the magnetic field
produced is significant, are the heart and the brain. The magnetic field inside the body
forms the basis of obtaining the images of different body parts. This is done using a
technique called Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Analysis of these images helps in
medical diagnosis. Magnetism has, thus, got important uses in medicine.
ELECTRIC MOTOR
• An electric motor is a rotating device that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy.

• Electric motor is used as an important component in electric fans, refrigerators, mixers,

washing machines, computers, MP3 players etc.

• Do you know how an electric motor works? .

• The coil is placed between the two poles of a magnetic field such that the arm AB and
CD are perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

• The ends of the coil are connected to the two halves P and Q of a split ring. The inner
sides of these halves are insulated and attached to an axle.

• The external conducting edges of P and Q touch two conducting stationary brushes X
and Y, respectively.
• Current in the coil ABCD enters from the source battery through conducting brush X and
flows back to the battery through brush Y.

• Notice that the current in arm AB of the coil flows from A to B. In arm CD it flows from C
to D, that is, opposite to the direction of current through arm AB.

• On applying Fleming’s left hand rule for the direction of force on a current-carrying
conductor in a magnetic field.

• We find that the force acting on arm AB pushes it downwards while the force acting on
arm CD pushes it upwards.

• Thus the coil and the axle O, mounted free to turn about an axis, rotate anti-clockwise. At
half rotation, Q makes contact with the brush X and P with brush Y.
• Therefore the current in the coil gets reversed and flows along the path DCBA. A
device that reverses the direction of flow of current through a circuit is called a
commutator.

• In electric motors, the split ring acts as a commutator. The reversal of current also
reverses the direction of force acting on the two arms AB and CD.

• Thus the arm AB of the coil that was earlier pushed down is now pushed up and the
arm CD previously pushed up is now pushed down.

• Therefore the coil and the axle rotate half a turn more in the same direction.

• The reversing of the current is repeated at each half rotation, giving rise to a
continuous rotation of the coil and to the axle.
• The commercial motors use (i) an electromagnet in place of permanent magnet; (ii) large
number of turns of the conducting wire in the current carrying coil; and (iii) a soft iron
core on which the coil is wound.

• The soft iron core, on which the coil is wound, plus the coils, is called an armature. This
enhances the power of the motor.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
• We have studied that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field
such that the direction of current is perpendicular to the magnetic field, it experiences a
force.

• This force causes the conductor to move. Now let us imagine a situation in which a
conductor is moving inside a magnetic field or a magnetic field is changing around a
fixed conductor.

• What will happen? This was first studied by English physicist Michael Faraday. In 1831,
Faraday made an important breakthrough by discovering how a moving magnet can be
used to generate electric currents.

• You can also check that if you had moved south pole of the magnet towards the end B of
the coil, the deflections in the galvanometer would just be opposite to the previous case.
• When the coil and the magnet are both stationary, there is no deflection in the
galvanometer.

• It is, thus, clear from this activity that motion of a magnet with respect to the coil
produces an induced potential difference, which sets up an induced electric current in
the circuit.
Moving a magnet towards a coil sets up a Current is induced in coil-2 when current in
current in the coil circuit, as indicated by coil-1 is changed
deflection in the galvanometer needle.
• In this activity we observe that as soon as the current in coil-1 reaches either a steady
value or zero, the galvanometer in coil-2 shows no deflection.

• From these observations, we conclude that a potential difference is induced in the coil-2
whenever the electric current through the coil–1 is changing (starting or stopping).

• Coil-1 is called the primary coil and coil-2 is called the secondary coil.

• As the current in the first coil changes, the magnetic field associated with it also changes.
Thus the magnetic field lines around the secondary coil also change.

• Hence the change in magnetic field lines associated with the secondary coil is the cause
of induced electric current in it.

• This process, by which a changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current in

another conductor, is called electromagnetic induction.
• In practice we can induce current in a coil either by moving it in a magnetic field or by
changing the magnetic field around it. It is convenient in most situations to move the coil
in a magnetic field.

• The induced current is found to be the highest when the direction of motion of the coil is
at right angles to the magnetic field. In this situation, we can use a simple rule to know
the direction of the induced current.

• Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of right hand so that they are
perpendicular to each other.

• If the forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb shows the
direction of motion of conductor, then the middle finger will show the direction of
induced current. This simple rule is called Fleming’s right-hand rule.
Fleming’s right-hand rule
ELECTRIC GENERATOR
• Based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the experiments studied above
generate induced current, which is usually very small.

• This principle is also employed to produce large currents for use in homes and industry.

• In an electric generator, mechanical energy is used to rotate a conductor in a magnetic

field to produce electricity.

• An electric generator, consists of a rotating rectangular coil ABCD placed between the two
poles of a permanent magnet.

• The two ends of this coil are connected to the two rings R1 and R2. The inner side of
these rings are made insulated. The two conducting stationary brushes B1 and B2 are
kept pressed separately on the rings R1 and R2, respectively.
• The two rings R1 and R2 are internally attached to an axle. The axle may be mechanically
rotated from outside to rotate the coil inside the magnetic field. Outer ends of the two
brushes are connected to the galvanometer to show the flow of current in the given
external circuit.

• When the axle attached to the two rings is rotated such that the arm AB moves up (and
the arm CD moves down) in the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnet.

• Let us say the coil ABCD is rotated clockwise in the arrangement. By applying Fleming’s
right-hand rule, the induced currents are set up in these arms along the directions AB
and CD.

• Thus an induced current flows in the direction ABCD. If there are larger numbers of turns
in the coil, the current generated in each turn adds up to give a large current through the
coil.
• This means that the current in the external circuit flows from B2 to B1. After half a
rotation, arm CD starts moving up and AB moving down. As a result, the directions of the
induced currents in both the arms change, giving rise to the net induced current in the
direction DCBA.

• The current in the external circuit now flows from B1 to B2. Thus after every half rotation
the polarity of the current in the respective arms changes.

• Such a current, which changes direction after equal intervals of time, is called an
alternating current (abbreviated as AC). This device is called an AC generator.

• To get a direct current (DC, which does not change its direction with time), a split-ring type
commutator must be used.

• With this arrangement, one brush is at all times in contact with the arm moving up in the
field, while the other is in contact with the arm moving down. We have seen the working
of a split ring commutator in the case of an electric motor
• Thus a unidirectional current is produced. The generator is thus called a DC generator.

• The difference between the direct and alternating currents is that the direct current
always flows in one direction, whereas the alternating current reverses its direction
periodically.

• Most power stations constructed these days produce AC. In India, the AC changes
direction after every 1/100 second, that is, the frequency of AC is 50 Hz.

• An important advantage of AC over DC is that electric power can be transmitted over long
distances without much loss of energy.
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
• In our homes, we receive supply of electric power through a main supply (also called
mains), either supported through overhead electric poles or by underground cables.

• One of the wires in this supply, usually with red insulation cover, is called live wire (or
positive).

• Another wire, with black insulation, is called neutral wire (or negative). In our country,
the
• potential difference between the two is 220 V.

• At the meter-board in the house, these wires pass into an electricity meter through a
main fuse.

• Through the main switch they are connected to the line wires in the house. These wires
supply electricity to separate circuits within the house.
A schematic diagram of one of the common domestic circuits
• Often, two separate circuits are used, one of 15 A current rating for appliances with
higher power ratings such as geysers, air coolers, etc.

• The other circuit is of 5 A current rating for bulbs, fans, etc. The earth wire, which has
insulation of green colour, is usually connected to a metal plate deep in the earth near
the house.

• This is used as a safety measure, especially for those appliances that have a metallic
body, for example, electric press, toaster, table fan, refrigerator, etc.

• The metallic body is connected to the earth wire, which provides a low-resistance
conducting path for the current.

• Thus, it ensures that any leakage of current to the metallic body of the appliance keeps
its potential to that of the earth, and the user may not get a severe electric shock.
• A schematic diagram of one of the common domestic circuits. In each separate circuit,
different appliances can be connected across the live and neutral wires.

• Each appliance has a separate switch to ‘ON’/‘OFF’ the flow of current through it. In
order that each appliance has equal potential difference, they are connected parallel to
each other.

• Electric fuse is an important component of all domestic circuits. We have already studied
the principle and working of a fuse in the previous chapter.

• A fuse in a circuit prevents damage to the appliances and the circuit due to overloading.
Overloading can occur when the live wire and the neutral wire come into direct contact.
(This occurs when the insulation of wires is damaged or there is a fault in the appliance.)
• In such a situation, the current in the circuit abruptly increases.

• This is called short-circuiting. The use of an electric fuse prevents the electric circuit
and the appliance from a possible damage by stopping the flow of unduly high
electric current.

• The Joule heating that takes place in the fuse melts it to break the electric circuit.

• Overloading can also occur due to an accidental hike in the supply voltage.
Sometimes overloading is caused by connecting too many appliances to a single
socket.
THANKYOU….
 Sources of
Energy
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-14TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• In Class IX, we learnt that the total energy during a physical or chemical process is
conserved. Why, then, do we hear so much about the energy crisis? If energy can neither
be created nor destroyed, we should have no worries!

• We should be able to perform endless activities without thinking about energy

resources!

• This riddle can be solved if we recall what else we learnt about energy. Energy comes in
different forms and one form can be converted to another.

• For example, if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the plate is
converted mostly to sound energy when it hits the ground.

• If we light a candle, the process is highly exothermic so that the chemical energy in the
wax is converted to heat energy and light energy on burning. What other products are
obtained when we burn a candle?
• The total energy during a physical or chemical process remains the same but suppose we
consider the burning candle again – can we somehow put together the heat and light
generated along with the products of the reaction to get back the chemical energy in the
form of wax?

• Let us consider another example. Suppose we take 100 mL of water which has a
temperature of 348 K (75°C) and leave it in a room where the temperature is 298 K
(25°C).

• What will happen? Is there any way of collecting all the heat lost to the environment and
making the water hot once it has cooled down?

• In any example that we consider, we will see that energy, in the usable form, is dissipated
to the surroundings in less usable forms. Hence, any source of energy we use, to do work,
is consumed and cannot be used again.
WHAT IS A GOOD SOURCE OF ENERGY?
• What can then be considered a good source of energy? We, in our daily lives, use energy
from various sources for doing work.

• We use diesel to run our trains. We use electricity to light our street-lamps. Or we use
energy in our muscles to cycle to school.

• The muscular energy for carrying out physical work, electrical energy for running various
appliances, chemical energy for cooking food or running a vehicle all come from some
source.

• We need to know how do we select the source needed for obtaining the energy in its
usable form.
• After going through the two activities above, we can see that the particular source of
energy, or fuel, we select for performing some work depends on many different factors.
For example, while selecting a fuel, we would ask ourselves the following questions.
(i) How much heat does it release on burning?
(ii) Does it produce a lot of smoke?
(iii) Is it easily available?

• Can you think of three more relevant questions to ask about a fuel? Given the range of
fuels we have today, what are the factors which would limit our choices when it comes
to a particular task like cooking our food? Would the fuel selected also depend on the
work to be done?

• For example, would we choose one fuel for cooking and another for heating the room in
winter?
We could then say that a good source of energy would be one
• which would do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass,
• be easily accessible,
• be easy to store and transport, and
• perhaps most importantly, be economical.
CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
Fossil Fuels
In ancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy. The energy of flowing
water and wind was also used for limited activities.

Can you think of some of these uses? The exploitation of coal as a source of energy made
the industrial revolution possible.

Increasing industrialization has led to a better quality of life all over the world. It has
also caused the global demand for energy to grow at a tremendous rate.

The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels – coal and petroleum.

Our technologies were also developed for using these energy sources.

But these fuels were formed over millions of years ago and there are only limited reserves.
A model to demonstrate the process of thermoelectric production
• The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy, so we need to conserve them.

• If we were to continue consuming these sources at such alarming rates, we would soon
run out of energy!

• In order to avoid this, alternate sources of energy were explored. But we continue to be
largely dependent on fossil fuels for most of our energy requirements.

• Burning fossil fuels has other disadvantages too. The air pollution caused by burning of
coal or petroleum products.

• The oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur that are released on burning fossil fuels are
acidic oxides.

• These lead to acid rain which affects our water and soil resources. In addition to the
problem of air pollution, recall the green-house effect of gases like carbon dioxide
• The pollution caused by burning fossil fuels can be somewhat reduced by increasing the
efficiency of the combustion process and using various techniques to reduce the escape
of harmful gases and ashes into the surroundings.

• Besides being used directly for various purposes – in gas stoves and vehicles, do you know
fossil fuels are the major fuels used for generating electricity?

• Let us produce some electricity at our own small plant in the class and see what goes into
producing our favorite form of energy.
• This is our turbine for generating electricity. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a
rotor-blade assembly.

• The moving fluid acts on the blades to spin them and impart energy to the rotor.

• Thus, we se that basically we need to move the fan, the rotor blade, with speed which
would turn the shaft of the dynamo and convert the mechanical energy into electrical
energy — the form of energy which has become a necessity in today’s scenario.

• The various ways in which this can be done depends upon availability of the resources.
Thermal Power Plant
• Large amount of fossil fuels are burnt every day in power stations to heat up water to
produce steam which further runs the turbine to generate electricity.

• The transmission of electricity is more efficient than transporting coal or petroleum over
the same distance. Therefore, many thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil
fields.

• The term thermal power plant is used since fuel is burnt to produce heat energy which is
converted into electrical energy.
Hydro Power Plants
• Another traditional source of energy was the kinetic energy of flowing water or the
potential energy of water at a height.

• Hydro power plants convert the potential energy of falling water into electricity.

• Since there are very few water-falls which could be used as a source of potential energy,
hydro power plants are associated with dams.

• In the last century, a large number of dams were built all over the world, a quarter of our
energy requirement in India is met by hydro power plants.
A schematic view of a hydro power plant
• In order to produce hydel electricity, high-rise dams are constructed on the river to
obstruct the flow of water and thereby collect water in larger reservoirs.

• The water level rises and in this process the kinetic energy of flowing water gets
transformed into potential energy.

• The water from the high level in the dam is carried through pipes, to the turbine, at the
bottom of the dam.

• Since the water in the reservoir would be refilled each time it rains (hydro power is a
renewable source of energy) we would not have to worry about hydro electricity sources
getting used up the way fossil fuels would get finished one day.
• But, constructions of big dams have certain problems associated with it.

• The dams can be constructed only in a limited number of places, preferably in hilly
terrains.

• Large areas of agricultural land and human habitation are to be sacrificed as they get
submerged.

• Large eco-systems are destroyed when submerged under the water in dams.

• The vegetation which is submerged rots under anaerobic conditions and gives rise to large
amounts of methane which is also a green-house gas.

• It creates the problem of satisfactory rehabilitation of displaced people.

• Opposition to the construction of Tehri Dam on the river Ganga and Sardar Sarovar project
on the river Narmada are due to such problems.
Improvements in the Technology for using Conventional Sources of Energy
Bio-Mass
We mentioned earlier that wood has been used as a fuel for a long time.

If we can ensure that enough trees are planted, a continuous supply of fire-wood can be
assured. You must also be familiar with the use of cow-dung cakes as a fuel.

Given the large live-stock population in India, this can also assure us a steady source of fuel.

Since these fuels are plant and animal products, the source of these fuels is said to be bio-
mass.

These fuels, however, do not produce much heat on burning and a lot of smoke is given out
when they are burnt.
Schematic diagram of a bio-gas plant
• Therefore, technological inputs to improve the efficiency of these fuels are necessary.

• When wood is burnt in a limited supply of oxygen, water and volatile materials present
in it get removed and charcoal is left behind as the residue.

• Charcoal burns without flames, is comparatively smokeless and has a higher heat
generation efficiency.

• Similarly, cow-dung, various plant materials like the residue after harvesting the crops,
vegetable waste and sewage are decomposed in the absence of oxygen to give bio-gas.

• Since the starting material is mainly cow-dung, it is popularly known as ‘gobar-gas’. Bio-
gas is produced in a plant.
• The plant has a dome-like structure built with bricks. A slurry of cow-dung and water is
made in the mixing tank from where it is fed into the digester.

• The digester is a sealed chamber in which there is no oxygen. Anaerobic micro-organisms

that do not require oxygen decompose or break down complex compounds of the cow-
dung slurry.

• It takes a few days for the decomposition process to be complete and generate gases like
methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide.

• The bio-gas is stored in the gas tank above the digester from which they are drawn
through pipes for use. Bio-gas is an excellent fuel as it contains up to 75% methane.

• It burns without smoke, leaves no residue like ash in wood, charcoal and coal burning.

• Its heating capacity is high. Bio-gas is also used for lighting.

• The slurry left behind is removed periodically and used as excellent manure, rich in
nitrogen and phosphorous.

• The large-scale utilization of bio-waste and sewage material provides a safe and
efficient method of waste-disposal besides supplying energy and manure.

Wind Energy
• We saw in Class IX how unequal heating of the landmass and water bodies by solar
radiation generates air movement
• and causes winds to blow.

• This kinetic energy of the wind can be used to do work. This energy was harnessed by
windmills in the past to do mechanical work.

• For example, in a water-lifting pump, the rotatory motion of windmill is utilized to lift
water from a well. Today, wind energy is also used to generate electricity.
• A windmill essentially consists of a structure similar to a large electric fan that is erected
at some height on a rigid support.

• To generate electricity, the rotatory motion of the windmill is used to turn the turbine of
the electric generator.

• The output of a single windmill is quite small and cannot be used for commercial
purposes.

• Therefore, a number of windmills are erected over a large area, which is known as wind
energy farm. The energy output of each windmill in a farm is coupled together to get
electricity on a commercial scale.
• Wind energy is an environment-friendly and efficient source of renewable energy. It
requires no recurring expenses for the production of electricity.

• But there are many limitations in harnessing wind energy. Firstly, wind energy farms can
be established only at those places where wind blows for the greater part of a year.

• The wind speed should also be higher than 15 km/h to maintain the required speed of
the turbine.

• Furthermore, there should be some back-up facilities (like storage cells) to take care of
the energy needs during a period when there is no wind.

• Establishment of wind energy farms requires large area of land. For a 1 MW generator,
the farm needs about 2 hectares of land.
• The initial cost of establishment of the farm is quite high. Moreover, since the tower
and blades are exposed to the vagaries of nature like rain, Sun, storm and cyclone, they
need a high level of maintenance.

ALTERNATIVE OR NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

• With technological progress, our demand for energy increases day by day. Our life-
styles are also changing, we use machines to do more and more of our tasks.

• Our basic requirements are also increasing as industrialization improves our living
standards.

• As our demand for energy increases, we need to look for more and more sources of
energy.

• We could develop the technology to use the available or known sources of energy
more efficiently and also look to new sources of energy.
• Any new source of energy we seek to exploit would need specific devices developed with
that source in mind.

• We shall now look at some of the latest sources of energy that we seek to tap, and the
technology designed to capture and store energy from that source.

Solar Energy
• The Sun has been radiating an enormous amount of energy at the present rate for nearly
5 billion years and will continue radiating at that rate for about 5 billion years more.

• Only a small part of solar energy reaches the outer layer of the earth’s atmosphere.

• Nearly half of it is absorbed while passing through the atmosphere and the rest reaches
the earth’s surface.
A solar cooker
• A black surface absorbs more heat as compared to a white or a reflecting surface under
identical conditions.

• Solar cookers and solar water heaters use this property in their working. Some solar
cookers achieve a higher temperature by using mirrors to focus the rays of the Sun.

• Solar cookers are covered with a glass plate. Recall what we have learnt about the
green-house effect. Does this explain why a glass plate is used?

• It is easy to see that these devices are useful only at certain times during the day.

• This limitation of using solar energy is overcome by using solar cells that convert solar
energy into electricity.

• A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5–1 V and can produce about 0.7 W of electricity
when exposed to the Sun.
• A large number of solar cells are, combined in an arrangement called solar cell panel that
can deliver enough electricity for practical use Silicon, which is used for making solar cells,
is abundant in nature but availability of the special grade silicon for making solar cells is
limited.

• The entire process of manufacture is still very expensive, silver used for interconnection
of the cells in the panel further adds to the cost.

• In spite of the high cost and low efficiency, solar cells are used for many scientific and
technological applications.

• Artificial satellites and space probes like Mars orbiters use solar cells as the main source
of energy.

• Radio or wireless transmission systems or TV relay stations in remote locations use solar
cell panels.
• Traffic signals, calculators and many toys are fitted with solar cells. The solar cell panels
are mounted on specially designed inclined roof tops so that more solar energy is
incident over it.

• The domestic use of solar cells is, however, limited due to its high cost.
Energy from the Sea
Tidal Energy
• Due to the gravitational pull of mainly the moon on the spinning earth, the level of water
in the sea rises and falls.

• If you live near the sea or ever travel to some place near the sea, try and observe how
the sea-level changes during the day.

• This phenomenon is called high and low tides and the difference in sea-levels gives us
tidal energy. Tidal energy is harnessed by constructing a dam across a narrow opening to
the sea.

• A turbine fixed at the opening of the dam converts tidal energy to electricity. As you can
guess, the locations where such dams can be built are limited.
Wave Energy
• Similarly, the kinetic energy possessed by huge waves near the seashore can be trapped in
a similar manner to generate electricity.

• The waves are generated by strong winds blowing across the sea. Wave energy would be a
viable proposition only where waves are very strong.

A wide variety of devices have been developed to trap wave energy for rotation of turbine
and production of electricity.
Ocean Thermal Energy
• The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the Sun while the water in
deeper sections is relatively cold.

• This difference in temperature is exploited to obtain energy in ocean-thermal-energy

conversion plants.

• These plants can operate if the temperature difference between the water at the surface
and water at depths up to 2 km is 20 K (20°C) or more.

• The warm surface-water is used to boil a volatile liquid like ammonia. The vapours of the
liquid are then used to run the turbine of generator.

• The cold water from the depth of the ocean is pumped up and condense vapour again to
liquid.

• The energy potential from the sea (tidal energy, wave energy and ocean thermal energy) is
quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation is difficult.
Geothermal Energy
• Due to geological changes, molten rocks formed in the deeper hot regions of earth’s crust
are pushed upward and trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots’.

• When underground water comes in contact with the hot spot, steam is generated.
Sometimes hot water from that region finds outlets at the surface.

• Such outlets are known as hot springs. The steam trapped in rocks is routed through a
pipe to a turbine and used to generate electricity.

• The cost of production would not be much, but there are very few commercially viable
sites where such energy can be exploited.

• There are number of power plants based on geothermal energy operational in New
Zealand and United States of America.
Nuclear Energy
• How is nuclear energy generated? In a process called nuclear fission, the nucleus of a
heavy atom (such as uranium, plutonium or thorium), when bombarded with low-energy
neutrons, can be split apart into lighter nuclei.

• When this is done, a tremendous amount of energy is released if the mass of the original
nucleus is just a little more than the sum of the masses of the individual products.

• The fission of an atom of uranium, for example, produces 10 million times the energy
produced by the combustion of an atom of carbon from coal.

• In a nuclear reactor designed for electric power generation, such nuclear ‘fuel’ can be part
of a self-sustaining fission chain reaction that releases energy at a controlled rate.

• The released energy can be used to produce steam and further generate electricity.
KNOW MORE
In a nuclear fission, the difference in mass, Dm, between the original nucleus and the product
nuclei gets converted to energy E at a rate governed by the famous equation,
E = Dm c2,
first derived by Albert Einstein in 1905, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. In nuclear
science, energy is often expressed in units of electron volts (eV): 1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19 joules.
It is easy to check from the above equation that 1 atomic mass unit (u) is equivalent to about
931 mega electron volts (MeV) of energy. Nuclear power reactors located at Tarapur
(Maharashtra), Rana Pratap Sagar (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (UP),
Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Karnataka) have the installed capacity of less than 3% of the
total electricity generation capacity of our country. However, many industrialised countries
are meeting more than 30% of their electrical power needs from nuclear reactors.
Nuclear fusion
• Currently all commercial nuclear reactors are based on nuclear fission.

• But there is another possibility of nuclear energy generation by a safer process called
nuclear fusion. Fusion means joining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus, most
commonly hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create helium, such as
• 2H + 2H ® 3He (+ n)

• It releases a tremendous amount of energy, according to the Einstein equation, as the

mass of the product is little less than the sum of the masses of the original individual
nuclei.

• Such nuclear fusion reactions are the source of energy in the Sun and other stars. It
takes considerable energy to force the nuclei to fuse.
• The conditions needed for this process are extreme – millions of degrees of temperature
and millions of pascals of pressure.

• The hydrogen bomb is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear bomb based on
the fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb.

• This nuclear bomb is embedded in a substance which contains deuterium and lithium.

• When the nuclear bomb (based on fission) is detonated, the temperature of this
substance is raised to 107 K in a few microseconds.

• The high temperature generates sufficient energy for the light nuclei to fuse and a
devastating amount of energy is released.
• The major hazard of nuclear power generation is the storage and disposal of spent or
used fuels – the uranium still decaying into harmful subatomic particles (radiations).

• Improper nuclear-waste storage and disposal result in environmental contamination.

• Further, there is a risk of accidental leakage of nuclear radiation. The high cost of
installation
• of a nuclear power plant, high risk of environmental contamination and limited
availability of uranium makes large-scale use of nuclear energy prohibitive.

• Nuclear energy was first used for destructive purposes before nuclear power stations
were designed.

• The fundamental physics of the fission chain reaction in a nuclear weapon is similar to
the physics of a controlled nuclear reactor, but the two types of device are engineered
quite differently.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES
• We have studied various sources of energy in the previous sections.

• Exploiting any source of energy disturbs the environment in some way or the other.

• In any given situation, the source we would choose depends on factors such as the ease of
extracting energy from that source, the economics of extracting energy from the source,
the efficiency of the technology available and the environmental damage that will be
caused by using that source.

• Though we talk of ‘clean’ fuels like CNG, it would be more exact to say that a particular
source is cleaner than the other.

• We have already seen that burning fossil fuels causes air pollution. In some cases, the
actual operation of a device like the solar cell may be pollution-free, but the assembly of
the device would have caused some environmental damage.
• Research continues in these areas to produce longer lasting devices that will cause less
damage throughout their life.

HOW LONG WILL AN ENERGY SOURCE LAST US?

• We saw earlier that we cannot depend on the fossil fuels for much longer.

• Such sources that will get depleted some day are said to be exhaustible sources or non-
renewable sources of energy.

• On the other hand, if we manage bio-mass by replacing the trees we cut down for fire-
wood, we can be assured of a constant supply of energy at a particular rate.

• Such energy sources that can be regenerated are called renewable sources of energy.
• Renewable energy is available in our natural environment, in the form of some continuing
or repetitive currents of energy, or is stored in such large underground reservoirs that the
rate of depletion of the reservoir because of extraction of usable energy is practically
negligible.
THANKYOU…
OUR ENVIRONMENT
CLASS-10TH CHAPTER-15TH
CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
• We have heard the word ‘environment’ often being used on the television, in
newspapers and by people around us.

• Our elders tell us that the ‘environment’ is not what it used to be earlier;
others say that we should work in a healthy ‘environment’; and global
summits involving the developed and developing countries are regularly held
to discuss ‘environmental’ issues.

• In this chapter, we shall be studying how various components in the

environment interact with each other and how we impact the environment.
ECO-SYSTEM — WHAT ARE ITS COMPONENTS?
All organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms and human beings as
well as the physical surroundings interact with each other and maintain a
balance in nature.

All the interacting organisms in an area together with the non-living

constituents of the environment form an ecosystem.

Thus, an ecosystem consists of biotic components comprising living organisms

and abiotic components comprising physical factors like temperature, rainfall,
wind, soil and minerals.

For example, if you visit a garden you will find different plants, such as grasses,
trees; flower bearing plants like rose, jasmine, sunflower; and animals like frogs,
insects and birds.
All these living organisms interact with each other and their growth,
reproduction and other activities are affected by the abiotic components of
ecosystem.
• So a garden is an ecosystem. Other types of ecosystems are forests, ponds
and lakes. These are natural ecosystems while gardens and crop-fields are
humanmade (artificial) ecosystems.

• We have seen in earlier classes that organisms can be grouped as producers,

consumers and decomposers according to the manner in which they obtain
their sustenance from the environment.

• Let us recall what we have learnt through the self sustaining ecosystem
created by us above.

• Which organisms can make organic compounds like sugar and starch from
inorganic substances using the radiant energy of the Sun in the presence of
chlorophyll?

• All green plants and certain bacteria which can produce food by
photosynthesis come under this category and are called the producers.
• Organisms depend on the producers either directly or indirectly for their
sustenance?

• These organisms which consume the food produced, either directly from
producers or indirectly by feeding on other consumers are the consumers.

• Consumers can be classed variously as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and

parasites.

• Can you give examples for each of these categories of consumers? Imagine the
situation where you do not clean the aquarium and some fish and plants have
died.

• Have you ever thought what happens when an organism dies? The
microorganisms, comprising bacteria and fungi, break-down the dead remains
and waste products of organisms.
• What will happen to the garbage, and dead animals and plants in their
absence? Will the natural replenishment of the soil take place, even if
decomposers are not there?

Food Chains and Webs

• We have formed a series of organisms feeding on one another. This series or
organisms taking part at various biotic levels form a food chain.

• Each step or level of the food chain forms a trophic level. The autotrophs or the
producers are at the first trophic level.

• They fix up the solar energy and make it available for heterotrophs or the
consumers.

• The herbivores or the primary consumers come at the second, small carnivores
or the secondary consumers at the third and larger carnivores or the tertiary
consumers form the fourth trophic level.
Food web, consisting of many food chains
• Thus the interactions among various components of the environment involves
flow of energy from one component of the system to another.

• As we have studied, the autotrophs capture the energy present in sunlight and
convert it into chemical energy. This energy supports all the activities of the
living world.

• From autotrophs, the energy goes to the heterotrophs and decomposers.

• However, as we saw in the previous Chapter on ‘Sources of Energy’, when one

form of energy is changed to another, some energy is lost to the environment in
forms which cannot be used again.

• The flow of energy between various components of the environment has been
extensively studied and it has been found that –

The green plants in a terrestrial ecosystem capture about 1% of the energy of

sunlight that falls on their leaves and convert it into food energy.
• When green plants are eaten by primary consumers, a great deal of energy is
lost as heat to the environment, some amount goes into digestion and in doing
work and the rest goes towards growth and reproduction.

• An average of 10% of the food eaten is turned into its own body and made
available for the next level of consumers.

• Therefore, 10% can be taken as the average value for the amount of organic
matter that is present at each step and reaches the next level of consumers.

• Since so little energy is available for the next level of consumers, food chains
generally consist of only three or four steps.

• The loss of energy at each step is so great that very little usable energy
remains after four trophic levels.
• There are generally a greater number of individuals at the lower trophic levels
of an ecosystem, the greatest number is of the producers.

• The length and complexity of food chains vary greatly. Each organism is
generally eaten by two or more other kinds of organisms which in turn are
eaten by several other organisms

• So instead of a straight line food chain, the relationship can be shown as a

series of branching lines called a food web.
• From the energy flow diagram, two things become clear.

• Firstly, the flow of energy is unidirectional. The energy that is captured by the
autotrophs does not revert back to the solar input and the energy which passes
to the herbivores does not come back to autotrophs.

• As it moves progressively through the various trophic levels it is no longer

available to the previous level.

• Secondly, the energy available at each trophic level gets diminished

progressively due to loss of energy at each level.

• Another interesting aspect of food chain is how unknowingly some harmful

chemicals enter our bodies through the food chain.

• You have read in Class IX how water gets polluted. One of the reasons is the
use of several pesticides and other chemicals to protect our crops from diseases
and pests.
• These chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into the water
bodies.

• From the soil, these are absorbed by the plants along with water and
minerals, and from the water bodies these are taken up by aquatic plants
and animals.

• This is one of the ways in which they enter the food chain. As these chemicals
are not degradable, these get accumulated progressively at each trophic
level.

• As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum
concentration of these chemicals get accumulated in our bodies.

• This phenomenon is known as biological magnification. This is the reason

why our food grains such as wheat and rice, vegetables and fruits, and even
meat, contain varying amounts of pesticide residues.
HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT?
• We are an integral part of the environment. Changes in the environment affect
us and our activities change the environment around us.

• We have already seen in Class IX how our activities pollute the environment.

• In this chapter, we shall be looking at two of the environmental problems in

detail, that is, depletion of the ozone layer and waste disposal.

Ozone Layer and How it is Getting Depleted

• Ozone (O3) is a molecule formed by three atoms of oxygen.

• While O2, which we normally refer to as oxygen, is essential for all aerobic
forms of life. Ozone, is a deadly poison.

• However, at the higher levels of the atmosphere, ozone performs an essential

function. It shields the surface of the earth from ultraviolet (UV) radiation from
the Sun.
This radiation is highly damaging to organisms, for example, it is known to cause
skin cancer in human beings.

Ozone at the higher levels of the atmosphere is a product of UV radiation acting

on oxygen (O2) molecule.

The higher energy UV radiations split apart some molecular oxygen (O2) into free
oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms then combine with the molecular oxygen to form
ozone as shown—
UV
O2⎯⎯⎯→ +
+2 →3 ( ZNE)
• The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in the 1980s.

• The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is manufactured
chemicals, especially manufactured halocarbon refrigerants, solvents,
propellants, and foam- blowing agents (chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs,
halons). Since the early 1970's, scientists observed reduction in stratospheric
ozone and it was found more prominent in Polar Regions. ODS substances have
a lifetime of about 100 years.

• Ozone can be destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts; the most

important are the hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical
(NO·), chlorine radical (Cl·) and bromine radical (Br·). The dot is a notation to
indicate that each species has an unpaired electron and is thus extremely
reactive
• In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) succeeded in
forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at 1986 levels.

• It is now mandatory for all the manufacturing companies to make CFC-free

refrigerators throughout the world.

• Managing the Garbage we Produce In our daily activities, we generate a lot

of material that are thrown away. What are some of these waste materials?
What happens after we throw them away? Let us perform an activity to find
answers to these questions.
We have seen in the chapter on ‘Life Processes’ that the food we eat is digested by
various enzymes in our body.

Have you ever wondered why the same enzyme does not break-down everything
we eat?

Enzymes are specific in their action, specific enzymes are needed for the break-
down of a particular substance.

That is why we will not get any energy if we try to eat coal! Because of this, many
human-made materials like plastics will not be broken down by the action of
bacteria or other saprophytes.

These materials will be acted upon by physical processes like heat and pressure,
but under the ambient conditions found in our environment, these persist for a
long time.
• Substances that are broken down by biological processes are said to be
biodegradable. How many of the substances you buried were biodegradable?

• Substances that are not broken down in this manner are said to be non-
biodegradable. These substances may be inert and simply persist in the
environment for a long time or may harm the various members of the eco-
system.

• Improvements in our life-style have resulted in greater amounts of waste

material generation.

• Changes in attitude also have a role to play, with more and more things we use
becoming disposable. Changes in packaging have resulted in much of our waste
becoming nonbiodegradable.
THANKYOU…
 Sustainable
Management of
Natural Resources
CLASS -10TH CHAPTER-16TH
 CONTACT ME
Ranjeeta@studyiq.com - email id
Instagram – ranjeeta1208
Telegram - https://t.me/drranjeeta
‘Living in harmony with nature’ is not new to us. Sustainable living has always been an
integral part of India’s tradition and culture.

It has been integrated with our long-lasting traditions and practices, customs, art and
crafts, festivals, food, beliefs, rituals and folklore.

Ingrained within us is the philosophy that ‘entire natural world be in harmony’ which is
reflected in the famous phrase in Sanskrit ‘Vasudhaiv kutumbakam’ that means “the entire
earth is one family”.

The phrase is mentioned in ‘Mahaupanishad’, that is probably a part of the ancient Indian
text, Atharva Veda.
• In Class IX we have already learnt about some natural resources like soil, air and water
and how various components are cycled over and over again in nature.

• Also, we learnt in the previous chapter about the pollution of these resources because
of some of our activities. In this chapter, we shall look at some of our resources and
how we are using them.

• Maybe we should also think about how we ought to be using our resources so as to
sustain them and conserve our environment.

• We shall be looking at our natural resources like forests, wildlife, water, coal and
petroleum and see what are the issues at stake in deciding how these resources are to
be managed for sustainable development along with the input from our traditional
practices.
• We often hear or read about environmental problems. These are often global-level
problems and we feel helpless to bring any change.

• There are international laws and regulations, and then there are our own national laws
and acts for environmental protection. There are also national and international
organizations working towards protecting our environment.

• Awareness about the problems caused by unthinkingly exploiting our resources has been
a fairly recent phenomenon in our society.

• And once this awareness rises, some action is usually taken. You must have heard about
the Ganga Action Plan. This multi-crore project came about in 1985 because the quality of
the water in the Ganga was very poor.

• Coliform is a group of bacteria, found in human intestines, whose presence in water

indicates contamination by disease-causing microorganisms.
Total coliform count levels in the Ganga
• We need not feel powerless or overwhelmed by the scale of the problems because there
are many things we can do to make a difference. You must have come across the five R’s to
save the environment: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose and Recycle. What do they refer
to?
• Refuse: This means to say No to things people offer you that you don’t need. Refuse to buy
products that can harm you and the environment, say No to single-use plastic carry bags.

• Reduce: This means that you use less. You save electricity by switching off unnecessary
lights and fans. You save water by repairing leaky taps. Do not waste food. Can you think of
other things that you can reduce the usage of ?

• Reuse: This is actually even better than recycling because the process of recycling uses
some energy. In the ‘reuse’ strategy, you simply use things again and again. Instead of
throwing away used envelopes, you can reverse it and use it again.

• The plastic bottles in which you buy various food-items like jam or pickle can be used for
storing things in the kitchen. What other items can we reuse?
Repurpose: This means when a product can no more be used for the original purpose, think
carefully and use it for some other useful purpose. For example, cracked crockery, or cups
with broken handles can be used to grow small plants and as feeding vessels for birds.

Recycle: This means that you collect plastic, paper, glass and metal items and recycle these
materials to make required things instead of synthesising or extracting fresh plastic, paper,
glass or metal. In order to recycle, we first need to segregate our wastes so that the material
that can be recycled is not dumped along with other wastes.

Does your village/town/ city have a mechanism in place for recycling these materials?

Even while making everyday choices, we can make environment friendly decisions.

For doing this, we need to know more about how our choices affect the environment, these
effects may be immediate or longterm or long-ranging.
• The concept of sustainable development encourages forms of growth that meet current
basic human needs, while preserving the resources for the needs of future generations.
Economic development is linked to environmental conservation.

• Thus sustainable development implies a change in all aspects of life.

• It depends upon the willingness of the people to change their perceptions of the socio-
economic and environmental conditions around them, and the readiness of each
individual to alter their present use of natural resources.
WHY DO WE NEED TO MANAGE OUR RESOURCES?
• Not just roads and buildings, but all the things we use or consume– food, clothes, books,
toys, furniture, tools and vehicles – are obtained from resources on this earth.

• The only thing we get from outside is energy which we receive from the Sun.

• Even this energy is processed by living organisms and various physical and chemical
processes on the earth before we make use of it.

• Why do we need to use our resources carefully? Because these are not unlimited and with
the human population increasing at a tremendous rate due to improvement in health-care,
the demand for all resources is increasing at an exponential rate.

• The management of natural resources requires a long-term perspective so that these will
last for the generations to come and will not merely be exploited to the
hilt for short-term gains. This management should also ensure equitable distribution of
resources so that all, and not just a handful of rich and powerful people, benefit from the
development of these resources.

Another factor to be considered while we exploit these natural resources is the damage we
cause to the environment while these resources are either extracted or used.

For example, mining causes pollution because of the large amount of slag which is discarded
for every tonne of metal extracted.

Hence, sustainable natural resource management demands that we plan for the safe disposal
of these wastes too.

The present day global concerns for sustainable development and conservation of natural
resources are of recent origin as compared to the long tradition and culture of nature
conservation in our country.
Principles of conservation and sustainable management were well established in the pre-
historic India. Our ancient literature is full of such examples where values and sensitivity of
humans towards nature was glorified and the principle of sustainability was established at
its best.
FORESTS AND WILDLIFE
• Forests are ‘biodiversity hotspots’. One measure of the biodiversity of an area is the
number of species found there.

• However, the range of different life forms (bacteria, fungi, ferns, flowering plants,
nematodes, insects, birds, reptiles and so on) found, is also important.

• One of the main aims of conservation is to try and preserve the biodiversity we have
inherited. Experiments and field studies suggest that loss of diversity may lead to loss of
ecological stability.
Stakeholders
We all use various forest produce. But our dependency on forest resources varies. Some of
us have access to alternatives, some do not. When we consider the conservation of forests,
we need to look at the stakeholders who are –

(i) the people who live in or around forests are dependent on forest produce for various
aspects of their life

(ii) the Forest Department of the Government which owns the land and controls the
resources from forests.

(iii) the industrialists – from those who use ‘tendu’ leaves to make bidis to the ones with
paper mills – who use various forest produce, but are not dependent on the forests in any
one area.

(iv) the wildlife and nature enthusiasts who want to conserve nature in its pristine form.
• Let us take a look at what each of these groups needs/gets out of the forests. The local
people need large quantities of firewood, small timber and thatch.

• Bamboo is used to make slats for huts, and baskets for collecting and storing food
materials. Implements for agriculture, fishing and hunting are largely made of wood, also
forests are sites for fishing and hunting.

• In addition to the people gathering fruits, nuts and medicines from the forests, their cattle
also graze in forest areas or feed on the fodder which is collected from forests.

• Do you think such use of forest resources would lead to the exhaustion of these resources?
Do not forget that before the British came and took over most of our forest areas, people
had been living in these forests for centuries.

• They had developed practices to ensure that the resources were used in a sustainable
manner.
• After the British took control of the forests (which they exploited ruthlessly for their own
purposes), these people were forced to depend on much smaller areas and forest
resources started becoming over-exploited to some extent. 4

• The Forest Department in independent India took over from the British but local
knowledge and local needs continued to be ignored in the management practices.

• Thus vast tracts of forests have been converted to monocultures of pine, teak or
eucalyptus. In order to plant these trees, huge areas are first cleared of all vegetation.

• This destroys a large amount of biodiversity in the area. Not only this, the varied needs of
the local people – leaves for fodder, herbs for medicines, fruits and nuts for food – can no
longer be met from such forests.

• Such plantations are useful for the industries to access specific products and are an
important source of revenue for the Forest Department.
• Do you know how many industries are based on forest produce?

• A short count reveals timber, paper, lac and sports equipment. Industries would consider
the forest as merely a source of raw material for its factories.

• And huge interest-groups lobby the government for access to these raw materials at
artificially low rates.

• Since these industries have a greater reach than the local people, they are not interested
in the sustainability of the forest in one particular area.

• For example, after cutting down all the teak trees in one area, they will get their teak
from a forest farther away.

• They do not have any stake in ensuring that one particular area should yield an optimal
amount of some produce for all generations to come. What do you think will stop the
local people in behaving in a similar manner?
Lastly, we come to the nature and wildlife enthusiasts who are in no way dependent on the
forests, but who may have considerable say in their management.

The conservationists were initially taken up with large animals like lions, tigers, elephants and
rhinoceros.

They now recognize the need to preserve biodiversity as a whole. But shouldn’t we recognize
people as forming part of the forest system?

There have been enough instances of local people working traditionally for conservation of
forests.

For example, the case of Bishnois community living in western Rajasthan on the border of the
Thar desert.

Conservation of forest and wildlife has been a religious tenet for them.
These nature-loving people have for centuries, been conserving the flora and fauna to the
extent of sacrificing their lives to protect the environment.

They are living with the basic philosophy that all living things have a right to survive and
share all resources.

The Government of India has recently instituted an ‘Amrita Devi Bishnoi National Award for
Wildlife Conservation’ in the memory of Amrita Devi Bishnoi, who in 1731 sacrificed her life
along with 363 others for the protection of ‘khejri’ trees in Khejrali village near Jodhpur in
Rajasthan.

Studies have shown that the prejudice against the traditional use of forest areas has no
basis.

Here is an example – the great Himalayan National Park contains, within its reserved area,
alpine meadows which were grazed by sheep in summer. Nomadic shepherds drove their
flock up from the valleys every summer.
• When this national park was formed, this practice was put to an end.

• Now it is seen that without the regular grazing by sheep the grass first grows very tall,
and then falls over preventing fresh growth.

• Management of protected areas by keeping the local people out or by using force cannot
possibly be successful in the long run.

• In any case, the damage caused to forests cannot be attributed to only the local people –
one cannot turn a blind eye to the deforestation caused by industrial needs or
development projects like building roads or dams.

• The damage caused in these reserves by tourists or the arrangements made for their
convenience is also to be considered
• We need to accept that human intervention has been very much a part of the forest
landscape.

• What has to be managed in the nature and what may be the extent of this intervention?

• Forest resources ought to be used in a manner that is both environmentally and

developmentally sound – in other words, while the environment is preserved, the
benefits of the controlled exploitation go to the local people, a process in which
decentralised economic growth and ecological conservation go hand in hand.

• The kind of economic and social development we want will ultimately determine
whether the environment will be conserved or further destroyed.

• The environment must not be regarded as a pristine collection of plants and animals. It is
a vast and complex entity that offers a range of natural resources for our use.
Management of forest
We need to consider if the goals of all the above stakeholders with regard to the
management of the forests are the same.

Forest resources are often made available for industrial use at rates far below the market
value while these are denied to the local people.

The Chipko Andolan (‘Hug the Trees Movement’) was the result of a grassroot level effort to
end the alienation of people from their forests.

The movement originated from an incident in a remote village called Reni in Garhwal, high-
up in the Himalayas during the early 1970s.

There was a dispute between the local villagers and a logging contractor who had been
allowed to fell trees in a forest close to the village.
On a particular day, the contractor’s workers appeared in the forest to cut the trees while the
men folk were absent.

Undeterred, the women of the village reached the forest quickly and clasped the tree trunks
thus preventing the workers from felling the trees.

Thus thwarted, the contractor had to withdraw. Inherent in such a competition to control a
natural resource is the conservation of a replenishable resource.

Specifically the method of use was being called into question. The contractor would have
felled the trees, destroying them forever.

The communities traditionally lop the branches and pluck the leaves, allowing the resource
to replenish over time.
The Chipko movement quickly spread across communities and media, and forced the
government, to whom the forest belongs, to rethink their priorities in the use of forest
produce.

Experience has taught people that the destruction of forests affected not just the availability
of forest products, but also the quality of soil and the sources of water.

Participation of the local people can indeed lead to the efficient management of forests. An
Example of People’s Participation in the Management of Forests.

In 1972, the West Bengal Forest Department recognised its failures in reviving the degraded
Sal forests in the south-western districts of the state.

Traditional methods of surveillance and policing had led to a ‘complete alienation of the
people from the administration’, resulting in frequent clashes between forest officials and
villagers.
• Forest and land related conflicts in the region were also a major factor in fuelling the
militant peasant movements led by the Naxalites. Accordingly, the Department changed
its strategy, making a beginning in the Arabari forest range of Midnapore district.

• Here, at the insistence of a far-seeing forest officer, A.K. Banerjee, villagers were involved
in the protection of 1,272 hectares of badly degraded sal forest.

• In return for help in protection, villagers were given employment in both silviculture and
harvesting operations, 25 per cent of the final harvest, and allowed fuelwood and fodder
collection on payment of a nominal fee.

• With the active and willing participation of the local community, the sal forests of Arabari
underwent a remarkable recovery – by 1983, a previously worthless forest was valued Rs
12.5 crores.4
WATER FOR ALL
Water scarcity are closely correlated to the regions of acute poverty?

A study of rainfall patterns does not reveal the whole truth behind the water availability in
various regions in India.

Rains in India are largely due to the monsoons. This means that most of the rain falls in a few
months of the year.

Despite nature’s monsoon bounty, failure to sustain water availability underground has
resulted largely from the loss of vegetation cover, diversion for high water demanding crops,
and pollution from industrial effluents and urban wastes.

Irrigation methods like dams, tanks and canals have been used in various parts of India since
ancient times.
• These were generally local interventions managed by local people and assured that the
basic minimum requirements for both agriculture and daily needs were met throughout the
year.

• The use of this stored water was strictly regulated and the optimum cropping patterns
based on the water availability were arrived at on the basis of decades/centuries of
experience, the maintenance of these irrigation systems was also a local affair.

• The arrival of the British changed these systems as it changed many other things.

• The conception of large scale projects – large dams and canals traversing large distances
were first conceived and implemented by the British and carried on with no less gusto by
our newly formed independent government.

• These mega-projects led to the neglect of the local irrigation methods, and the government
also increasingly took over the administration of these systems leading to the loss of
control over the local water sources by the local people.
Dams
Why do we seek to build dams? Large dams can ensure the storage of adequate water not
just for irrigation, but also for generating electricity, as discussed in the previous chapter.

Canal systems leading from these dams can transfer large amounts of water over great
distances.

For example, the Indira Gandhi Canal has brought greenery to considerable areas of
Rajasthan.

However, mismanagement of the water has largely led to the benefits being cornered by a
few people.

There is no equitable distribution of water, thus people close to the source grow water
intensive crops like sugarcane and rice while people farther downstream do not get any
water.
• The woes of these people who have been promised benefits which never arrived are
added to the discontentment among the people who have been displaced by the building
of the dam and its canal network.

• In the previous chapter, we mentioned the reasons for opposition to the construction of
large dams, such as the Tehri Dam on the river Ganga.

• You must have read about the protests by the Narmada Bachao Andolan (‘Save the
Narmada Movement’) about raising the height of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the river
Narmada. Criticisms about large dams address three problems in particular –

• (i) Social problems because they displace large number of peasants and tribals without
adequate compensation or rehabilitation,
• (ii) Economic problems because they swallow up huge amounts of public money without
the generation of proportionate benefits,
• iii) Environmental problems because they contribute enormously to deforestation and
the loss of biological diversity.

• The people who have been displaced by various development projects are largely poor
tribals who do not get any benefits from these projects and are alienated from their
lands and forests without adequate compensation.

• The outsees of the Tawa Dam built in the 1970s are still fighting for the benefits they
were promised.
Water Harvesting
Watershed management emphasises scientific soil and water conservation in order to
increase the biomass production.

The aim is to develop primary resources of land and water, to produce secondary resources
of plants and animals for use in a manner which will not cause ecological imbalance.

Watershed management not only increases the production and income of the watershed
community, butalso mitigates droughts and floods and increases the life of the downstream
dam and reservoirs.

Various organisations have been working on rejuvenating ancient systems of water

harvesting as an alternative to the ‘megaprojects’ like dams.
• These communities have used hundreds of indigenous water saving methods to capture
every trickle of water that had fallen on their land; dug small pits and lakes, put in place
simple watershed systems, built small earthen dams, constructed dykes, sand and
limestone reservoirs, set up rooftop water-collecting units.

• This has recharged groundwater levels and even brought rivers back to life.

• Water harvesting is an age-old concept in India. Khadins, tanks and nadis in Rajasthan,
bandharas and tals in Maharashtra, bundhis in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, ahars
and pynes in Bihar, kulhs in Himachal Pradesh, ponds in the Kandi belt of Jammu region,
and eris (tanks) in Tamil Nadu, surangams in Kerala, and kattas in Karnatakaare some of
the ancient water harvesting, including water conveyance, structures still in use today.

• Water harvesting techniques are highly locale specific and the benefits are also localised.
Giving people control over their local water resources ensures that mismanagement and
over-exploitation of these resources is reduced/removed.
• In largely level terrain, the water harvesting structures are mainly crescent shaped earthen
embankments or low, straight concrete-andrubble “check dams” built across seasonally
flooded gullies.

• Monsoon rains fill ponds behind the structures. Only the largest structures hold water year
round; most dry up six months or less after the monsoons.

• Their main purpose, however, is not to hold surface water but to recharge the ground
water beneath. The advantages of water stored in the ground are many.

• It does not evaporate, but spreads out to recharge wells and provides moisture for
vegetation over a wide area. In addition, it does not provide breeding grounds for
mosquitoes like stagnant water collected in ponds or artificial lakes.

• The groundwater is also relatively protected from contamination by human and animal
waste.
COAL AND PETROLEUM
We have seen some of the issues involved in the conservation and sustainable use of
resources like forests, wildlife and water.

These can meet our needs perpetually if we were to use them in a sustainable manner.

Now we come to yet another important resource – fossil fuels, that is, coal and petroleum,
which are important sources of energy for us.

Since the industrial revolution, we have been using increasing amounts of energy to meet
our basic needs and for the manufacture of a large number of goods upon which our lives
depend.

These energy needs have been largely met by the reserves of coal and petroleum.

The management of these energy sources involves slightly different perspectives from those
resources discussed earlier.
• Coal and petroleum were formed from the degradation of bio-mass millions of years ago
and hence these are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter how
carefully we use them.

• And then we would need to look for alternative sources of energy. Various estimates
exist as to how long these resources will last if the present rate of usage continues.

• It is estimated that our known petroleum resources will last us for about forty years and
the coal resources will last for another two hundred years.
But looking at other sources of energy is not the only consideration when we look at the
consumption of coal and petroleum.

Since coal and petroleum have been formed from bio-mass, in addition to carbon, these
contain hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur.

When these are burnt, the products are carbon dioxide, water, oxides of nitrogen and
oxides of sulphur.

When combustion takes place in insufficient air (oxygen), then carbon monoxide is formed
instead of carbon dioxide.

Of these products, the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous
at high concentrations and carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.
• Another way of looking at coal and petroleum is that they are huge reservoirs of carbon
and if all of this carbon is converted to carbon dioxide, then the amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is going to increase, leading to intense global warming. Thus,
we need to use these resources judiciously.

• Some simple choices can make a difference in our energy consumption patterns. Think
over the relative advantages, disadvantages and environment-friendliness of the
following –
(i) Taking a bus, using your personal vehicle or walking/cycling.
(ii) Using LED bulbs or fluorescent tubes in your homes.
(iii) Using the lift or taking the stairs.
(iv) Wearing an extra sweater or using a heating device (heater or ‘sigri’) on cold days.
• The management of coal and petroleum also addresses the efficiency of our machines.

• Fuel is most commonly used in internal combustion engines for transportation and recent
research in this field concentrates on ensuring complete combustion in these engines in
order to increase efficiency and also reduce air pollution.

AN OVERVIEW OF NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

• Sustainable management of natural resources is a difficult task. In addressing this issue, we
need to keep an open mind with regard to the interests of various stakeholders.

• We need to accept that people will act with their own best interests as the priority.

• But the realisation that such selfish goals will lead to misery for a large number of people
and a total destruction of our environment is slowly growing.

• Going beyond laws, rules and regulations, we need to tailor our requirements, individually
and collectively, so that the benefits of development reach everyone now and for all
generations to come.
THANKYOU…