Unit 3

Digital Data Transmission

 What is Line Coding?
 The input to a digital system is in the form of sequence
of digits.

 The input can be from the sources such as data set, computer,
digitized voice (PCM), digitalTV orTelemetry equipment.

 Line coding is the process in which the digital input is

coded into electrical pulses or waveforms for the
transmission over channel.

 Regenerative Repeaters are used at regular intervals along a

digital transmission line to detect the incoming digital signal and
to transmit the new clean pulse for the further transmission along
the line.
Line Coding
 Line Coding
 There are many ways of assigning pulses (waveforms) to the
digital data.

 For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1”

and a low voltage level (0 or -V) could represent a “0”.
Line Coding-Examples
 Line Coding
Signal element versus Data element
 Data element (1s & 0s) are what we need to send and signal
elements (+V & -V voltages) are what we can send.
 Data elements are being carried and signal elements are the
carriers.

 The data rate defines the number of bits sent per sec - bps. It
is often referred to the bit rate.
 The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in a
second and is measured in bauds.
Line Coding
 Line Coding Requirements
 Small transmission bandwidth
 Power efficiency: as small as possible for required data rate
and error probability
 Error detection/correction
 Timing information: clock must be extracted from data
 Transparency: all possible binary sequences can be
transmitted.
LINE CODING
 Unipolar NRZ
 All signal levels are on one side of the time axis -
either above or below.

 NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of

this code. The signal level does not return to zero during
a symbol transmission.
 Polar - NRZ
 The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
 Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two
voltages. E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
 There are two versions:
 NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and
negative for the other.
 NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in
polarity determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1” symbol
inverts the polarity a “0” does not.
Polar - NRZ
 Question

1. Draw the graph of the NRZ-I scheme using each of the

following data stream assuming that the last signal
level has been positive.
a. 11111111
b. 00000000
c.00110011
d. 01010101
 Problem with NRZ coding
 The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the
sender and receiver clocks are not synchronized. The receiver
does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is
starting.
 Polar - RZ
 The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -
.
 Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from
high to zero or from low to zero.

 Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol value.

Polar - Biphase: Manchester and
Differential Manchester
 Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L and
RZ schemes.
 Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to
low or low to high. Uses only two voltage levels.
 Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the
NRZ-I and RZ schemes.
 Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level
at the beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol
value. One symbol causes a level change the other does not.
Polar - Biphase: Manchester
and Differential Manchester
Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
 Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols
(note not transitions to zero as in RZ).
 Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates
between + & -.
 Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0” symbol is
represented by zero voltage and the “1” symbol
alternates between +V and -V.
 Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
 Multilevel Schemes
 We use the notation mBnL, where m is the no of data
elements in a symbol, B represents binary data, n represents
the length of the signal pattern and L is the number of signal
levels.

 A letter is often used in place of L : B(binary) for L=2, T

ternary) for L=3 and Q(quaternary) for L=4
Multilevel 2B1Q Scheme
 Applications of Line Coding
 NRZ encoding: RS232 based protocols

 Manchester encoding: Ethernet networks

 Differential Manchester encoding: token-ring networks

 NRZ-Inverted encoding: Fiber Distributed Data Interface

(FDDI)

 2B1Q scheme: high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (HDSL)

Scrambling
 Scrambling is a technique that does not increase the
number of bits and does provide synchronization.

 Problem with technique like Bipolar AMI(Alternate Mark

Inversion) is that continuous sequence of zero’s create
synchronization problems.
Scrambling techniques
 B8ZS(Bipolar with 8-zero substitution)
This technique is similar to Bipolar AMI except when eight
consecutive zero-level voltages are encountered they are
replaced by the sequence,”000VB0VB”.
 V(Violation), is a non-zero voltage which means signal have
same polarity as the previous non-zero voltage. Thus it is
violation of general AMI technique.
 B(Bipolar), also non-zero voltage level which is in accordance
with the AMI rule (i.e., opposite polarity from the previous
non-zero voltage).
B8ZS(Bipolar with 8-zero substitution)
HDB3(High-density bipolar 3-zero)
 In this technique four consecutive zero-level voltages are
replaced with a sequence “000V” or “B00V”.
 Rules for using these sequences:
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is
odd, the substitution pattern will be “000V”, this helps
maintaining total number of nonzero pulses even.
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is
even, the substitution pattern will be “B00V”. Hence even
number of nonzero pulses is maintained again.
HDB3(High-density bipolar 3-zero)
 HDB3 scrambling technique:

 Explanation – After representing first two 1’s of data we

encounter four consecutive zeros. Since our last substitutions
were two 1’s(thus number of non-zero pulses is even).
 So, we substitute four zeros with “B00V”.
Pulse Transmission over Band Limited
Channel

 A digital signal is a composite analog

signal with an infinite bandwidth.

 A signal can not be time-limited and

band-limited simultaneously.
 Pulse Transmission over Band Limited
Channel
 Baseband transmission of a digital signal that preserves
the shape of the digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.
 Pulse Transmission over Band Limited
Channel
 In practice, communications channels have a limited
bandwidth, and hence transmitted pulses tend to
deviate from the assumed rectangular shape and be
spread during transmission.

 Spreading of a pulse beyond its interval cause it to interfere

with neighboring pulses. This is known as Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI) which cause error in correct detection
of the pulses.
Inter Symbol Interfernce
Intersymbol Interference
 For the input data stream:
1 0 1 1 0 1
A
0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

 The channel output is the superposition of each bit’s output:

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

Resultant
Channel Output
1 0 1 1 0 1 Waveform

0 Tb 2Tb 3Tb 4Tb 5Tb

 Pulse Shaping
 Nyquist proposed that a zero–ISI pulse p(t) must satisfy the
condition

sinc pulse
 Nyquist’s First Method for Zero ISI

ISI occurs but, NO ISI is present at the sampling instants.

 Eye Pattern
 The ISI & other signal degradation can be studied conveniently on oscilloscope
through Eye pattern.

 A random binary pulse sequence is sent over the channel. The channel output is
applied to the input of an oscilloscope.

 The time base of the scope is kept same as the interval of one pulse
(Tb).

 The oscilloscope shows the superposition of several traces which is

the input signal cut up every Tb and then superimposed.

 The eye pattern looks like a human eye and hence the name eye diagram.
 Consider the transmission of binary
signal by polar rectangular pulses.

 If the channel bandwidth is infinite

the eye pattern will be as shown in
fig. a

 If channel is not distortion less,

received pulses will ne rounded and
spread out. If ISI is eliminated at the
sampling instants, the eye pattern
will be as shown in fig. b.

 If ISI is not zero at sampling instants,

pulses values will deviate from thei
full sacle values and which causes a
blur and closing eye partially at
midpoint. Fig. c
 Eye Pattern
 The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the
received signal can be sampled without error from intersymbol interference.
The preferred time for sampling is the instant of time at which the eye is open
the widest.

 The sensitivity of the system to timing errors is determined by the rate of

closure of the eye as the sampling time is varied.

 The height of the eye opening defines the noise margin of the system.

 When the effect of ISI is severe, traces from the upper portion of the eye
pattern cross traces from the lower portion and the eye is completely closed.

 In this situation, it is impossible to avoid errors due to the presence of

intersymbol interference in the system.