Types of pollutant sampling and measurement:

Air quality monitoring:

Sampling and measurement of air pollutants generally known, as air quality

monitoring.
It is an integral component of any air pollution control programme.

Monitoring is important:

1. Air quality can be evaluated

2. Information is helpful in implementing control measures for reducing
pollutant concentration to acceptable levels
3. Assessing the effect of air pollution control strategies.

What is Air Sampling ?

A means of collecting contaminates from air to identify and
quantify the concentration of the contaminates.

Typically we need to concentrate the contaminates with some sort of

media. The exceptions is when we take “whole air samples” then the
concentration step takes place in the lab.
Concentration are calculated in either dimensionless terms:
ppm or ppb
or
Concentrations are calculated in mass per volume terms:
μg/m3 or mg/m3

Classification of sampling methods:

1. Sampling of impurities of every nature (Ranging from particulate

matter to gases)
2. Sampling under various environmental conditions (ranging from
samples taken from chimneys to samples taken in the open air)
3. Sampling methods varying according to the time factor (Ranging
from intermittent to continuous sampling)

Air Quality measurement is undertaken in two situations:

1. Ambient air quality measurement

2. Stack monitoring

Ambient air quality measurement: Where the pollutant levels in the

ambient atmosphere are measured.

Stack sampling: It deals with the pollutants emitted from a source such as
smoke stack and is known as stack sampling.

It provides information on the nature and quantities of various pollutants that

are emitted into the atmosphere.

Difficulties encountered in sampling:

1. Collecting samples of true representative character

2. Errors arising from methods used for the collection and separation of
the various components of pollution.

3. Difficulty in preventing any change in the concentration of particulate

matter in suspension, as a result of sampling operation.

1. Preliminary considerations and stages of sampling:

Following principles should be followed to ensure correct sampling

2. Statistical studies

Important to establish the basic data e.g. size and frequency of

sampling
It use the basic principles of the probability

3. Size of samples

The sample should be large enough to make analysis possible.

4. Change in the sample during and after sampling

5. Continuous and intermittent sampling

An automatic continuous recording apparatus is preferable.

6. Sampling of volatile constituents

Carry out sampling with large volumes of air (To avoid error)

7. Sampling of particulates
 Errors may be introduced due to agglomeration or breaking up of
particulate matter.

In order to eliminate the sources of error,

 Sampling should be carried out under conditions that are as iso
kinetics as possible
 A gas stream should be sampled as far as possible in the same
direction and at the same speed itself but never counter-current
 The collection surface should be as close as possible to the source of
the gas stream. To avoid reducing the efficiency of sampling, deposits
and condensation should not be allowed to form on the walls of
sampling vessels.

8. Sampling of waste gas

Difficulties are encountered due to high temperature, lack of

uniformity in the composition of gas flow and difference in speed due
to disturbances.

Hence to avoid error, the gas stream should be sampled at several

points and maximum number of samples should be taken to get the
average value.

9. Sampling in the open air

Difficulties arise due to,

 High dilution of the pollutants dispersed in air
 Consequent need to collect large number of samples
 Difficulty of sampling under isokinetic conditions.

To minimize the error of sampling continuous recording instruments

should be used and samples should be collected at various places. Also
meteorological data like wind speed and direction, should e collected to
know their effects on dilution or concentration of pollutant in the air.

Basic consideration of air sampling

1. The sample collected must be representative in terms of time and

location
2. The sample volume should be large enough to permit accurate
analysis
3. The sampling rate must be such as to provide maximum efficiency of
collection
4. The duration of sampling and frequency of sampling should reflect
accurately the occurrence of fluctuations in pollution level
5. The contaminants must not be modified or altered in the process of
collection

Instruments for sampling waste gases and for atmospheric sampling

1. Devices for general use

2. Devices for sampling gases and vapors

1. Devices for general use

Meters:

They are used to determine accurately the volume of the gas collected.
They are fitted with manometers and thermometers to indicate the
pressure and temperature of the gas stream sampled.

Probes:

They are tubes suitable for penetrating into the gas stream and should
be constructed of material, which are non-corrosive and which can
withstand special temperature conditions.

They should be constructed of materials (S. S, Glass or Quartz) that

do not react with the substances to be sampled.

A probe should have suitable length and diameter.

To ensure isokinetic sampling condition the opening of he probe

should face the gas stream to be sampled.

Suction Devices:

Any suction device that has the required volumetric capacity can be
used.
Vacuum pumps driven by electric motors are very commonly used.

2. Devices for sampling gases and vapors

Absorbers:

Effluent gases are passed through absorber (scrubbers) which contain

 liquid absorbents that remove one or more of the pollutants in the gas
stream.

The efficiency of this process depends on

1. Amount of surface contact between gas and liquid
2. Contact time
3. Concentration of absorbing medium
4. Speed of reaction between the absorbent and gas

Absorbent are being used to remove sulphur dioxide, hydrogen

sulphide, shulphur trioxide and fluorides and oxides of nitrogen

Equipments using the principle of absorption for the removal of

gaseous pollutants includes (1) Packed tower (2) Plate tower (3)
bubble cap plate tower (4) Spray tower (5) Liquid jet scrubber
absorber.

A gas can be sampled by means of a suitable absorption reagent. For

this purpose, U-shaped absorbers are used.

This absorber are filled with a certain amount of reagent and fitted
with a porous glass partition. So that the air or gas led into them
passes through the reagent solution in the form of fine bubbles thus
ensuring intimate contact
Sampling is carried out at an average rate of about 100 – 150 liters per
hour of gas stream
Oxides of sulphur, Oxides of nitrogen, Ammonia, Hydrogen
sulphide, Hydrochloric acid, Hydrofluoric acid, Hydrocynic acid,
ozone, H/C, organic solvent are measured (0.1 ppm by volume)

Sampling train

(i) Adsorbers:

Adsorption is brought about by aspiring the air or gas to be sampled

through adsorption column containing silica gel, activated charcoal or
another suitable agents.

After adsorption, the different pollutants can be extracted from the

column in various ways. e.g. by rising the temperature

Difficulties: Selecting a suitable adsorbing medium

 Application: used for ozone and light H/C

(ii) Condensers:

The gas stream sampled is cooled in suitable containers, thus bringing

about the condensation of the Volatile substances.

Condensation trap can be arranged either series or parallel at

decreasing temperature.

Using various coolants e.g. ice, liquid air or liquid nitrogen can
separate the components separated by fractional condensation.

Used for the sampling of odoriferous substances.

(iii) Collector under reduced pressure:

For some substances like nitric acid and aldehydes having high
molecular weight, absorption in aqueous solution is sometimes
incomplete.

In such cases, it is to use bottles of known volume of colleting under a

pressure reduced to 200 mm Hg or even less.

The absorbent solution chosen is first introduced into the bottle and
the pressure is thus reduced. Then the sample is admitted until the
internal and external pressures are equal and the container is shaken
continuously so as to ensure maximum absorption.

Use for sampling the oxides on N2

(iv) Plastics containers:

Special polyethylene bags are used for collecting and transporting

large volume of air.
Advantages:

They can be used for successive analysis of small fractions of sample

taken.
Polyethylene is inert with respect to many substances including SO2,
and formaldehyde
 Plastics bags are not suitable for collecting and storing aerosol
suspensions because of the possible generation of electrostatic
charges, as a result of which the aerosol tend to move towards the
walls and condense on them.

Used for grab sampling and sample storage before analysis

(v) Samples for Mass Spectrometric analysis

Sampling for mass spectrometric analysis can be carried out by

compressing the gas sample in a pressure flask so as to concentrate a
large quantity of gas in a small volume or by fling evacuated
containers.

Duration of Sampling Period:

Two types of sampling are used (1) Short period or Spot sampling and (2)
Continuous sampling

It is used to evaluate peak and average concentration over definite time

intervals.

Spot sampling:

Samples are collected over periods varying from less than 30 minutes to
several hours for specific proposes.

The choice of sampling period depends upon

 Nature of the component under study

 Its stability to oxidation, light or other factors such as sensitivity,

accuracy and precision of the analytical method to be used.

Short sampling is useful for the random checking of pollution at many

points.

Such samples have limited value because pollution levels fluctuate widely
depending on meteorological conditions, topographical features and various
factors associated with sources of pollution (e.g. Mass rates of emission of
pollutants form smoke stacks, the temperature, velocity and density of stack
gases the height of smoke stacks, the distribution of sources and downwind
distance form the sources to the points where the measurement are made).

Continuous sampling:

Techniques are useful in systematic studies of the nature and extent of air
pollution if the data are to be value for epidemiological surveys, for
evaluating the potential hazards to man, animal or vegetation and for control
programmes.

It can be carried out by the subsequent analysis of pollutant by appropriate

analytical techniques.

Location of sampling sites:

Sampling sites must be carefully selected so as o be representatives of the

area under study.

A representative number of sampling stations for a given area may be

established by means of a preliminary survey whose objectives should be

1. To gather information on the nature and magnitude of the emission

from principal sources of pollution.
2. To review the available climatologically and meteorological data
3. To gather data o the conc. Of pollutant in areas of severe and slight air
pollution

Collection of Gaseous air Pollutants:

1. Grab sampling
2. Absorption in liquid
3. Adsorption on solids
4. Freeze-out Sampling

1. Grab sampling

In grab sampling the sample is collected by filling an evacuated flask

or an inflatable bag.
Plastics bag are widely used.
Bag sampling: Disadvantages: Losses caused by moisture
condensation or diffusion through the walls of the bag.
The losses can be minimized by performing the analysis immediately
following collection.
Grab sampling may be taken using rigid wall containers made from
glass or stainless steel.
2. Absorption in liquid
Absorption separates the desire pollutant form air either through direct
solubility in the absorbing medium or by chemical reaction.
INSTRUMENTS
1. Fitted glass absorber 2. Impingers

1. Fitted glass absorber

The gas stream is broken up into extremely small bubbles, thus
promoting an intimate contact between the gas and the liquid.
Frits designated coarse (50micron m pore size) are used for air
sampling.
The glass frit can become blocked and is difficult to clean after
use. So pre filter the air prior to sampling.
 2. Impingers
In the Impingers the gas stream is impinged at high velocity
onto a flat surface thus providing good contact between the gas
and liquid.
The flat surface can be the bottom of the collector or a specially
designed pate.
Two types of Impingers: (1) Wet Impingers (2) Dry Impingers

Wet Impingers
Collect a prticle by causing them to impinge a surface
submerged in a liquid.

Dry Impingers:
Referred to as impactors collect particles by impaction on a dry
surface.

In both the apparatus, collection results as result of inertial

force as the particles tend to resist a change in the direction
when the air stream is deflected by a surface or other obstacle.
The efficient is very high whose diameter is 1  or grater.

There are two types if Impingers (wet collector)

(i) Greenberg- Smith
(ii) Midget type
Devices can handled sample flow rate of about 30 and 3 liter
per minute respectively
Easy to clean and maintain.

Standard large impingers

Midget fitted impingers Standard midget impingers

Dry cascade impactors are also used.

They are useful for simultaneous collecting and size differentiating of an
aerosol.

3. Adsorption on solids:

This method is based on the tendency of gases to be adsorbed on the surface

of solid materials.

The sample air is passed through a packed column containing a finely

divided solid adsorbent on whose surface the pollutants are retained and
concentrated.

Solid adsorbent: Granular porous solids: Activated Charcoal, Silica gel

After adsorption, the sample gases are desorbed for analysis.
This may be accomplished by heating the adsorbent to volatilize the trapped
materials or by washing it with a liquid solvent.

Most organic vapors are analyses by gas chromatographic techniques that

directly use the adsorption of the gases.

Disadvantages: Desorption of gases are complicated

4. Freeze out Sampling:

In freeze out sampling a series of cold traps, which are maintained at

progressively lower temperature, are used to draw the air sample, whereby
the pollutants are condensed.

The traps are brought to the laboratory, the samples are removed and
analyses by means of gas chromatographic, infrared or ultraviolet,
spectrophotometer, and mass spectrometry or by wet chemical means.
Disadvantages: Plugging of the system because of Ice formation

Coolants used for freeze-out traps

Coolant Temp. Attained (0C)

Ice-water 0
Ice-salt -21
Dry ice and acetone -79
Liquid air -147
Liquid oxygen -183
Liquid nitrogen -196
Collection of particulate pollutants:

Particulate pollutants

Settle due to the force of gravity Those that remain suspended as aerosols
(Particle size greater than 10m) (Smaller size)
Sedimentation Filtration
Impingement
Electrostatic
Thermal Precipitation

Sedimentation (Dust fall Jar):

Suitable for larger particles having a size more than 10 .

The jar method for dust fall is based on sedimentation.
Greasy slides can also be used for trapping the sedimented particles.

Dust fall jar with guard frame and stand

General considerations in site selections are:

1. The site should be free from overhead obstructions and away from
inference by local sources such as an incinerator or chimney.
2. The mouth of the dust fall collector should be no less than 2.5 m and
no more than 16 m above ground level, with a standard height of 6
m as recommended elevation
3. When sampling in urban areas, the dust fall collector should be set no
less than 10 stack lengths from an operating smoke stack and no
closer to vertical wall than the distance that provides an 300 angle
from the sampler to the top of the wall or roof.
 Advantages:

 Ease of procurement of 1-5 gram of weightable sample, on

which a number of chemical and physical analyses can be
performed.
 The method is simple and inexpensive and required no
electrical power or moving parts.

It facilitates:

(a) Collection of dust that is representative of a given industry or

community.
(b) Detection of process changes of a given industry
(c) Survey of a community to determine areas of high versus low
levels of dust pollution

Disadvantages:

 Lack of precision and inability to distinguish episode of peak

dust fall due to integration of he total sample weight over the
entire sampling period (up to 30 days)
 Particles collected are more less agglomerated and may not be
representative of the original from and size of particulate matter
suspended

Filtration:

The particulate matter form air can be sampled by passing the air through a
filter whose pore size is small enough to retain the particles.

The selection of filter depends on (1) Objectives of sampling (2) size of the
particles

Membrane filter: Study of the sizes and morphology

Glass fiber filter (nonhygroscopic): particles to be collected for measuring
their weight.
High Volume Filtration (The Hi-vol sampler):

Impaction on solid surface:

When an air stream is deflected after sticking a surface, the particles are
impacted due to inertial forces.

Collection efficiency is high for particle size 1 .

Sampler: Anderson impactor

Which has a series of plates with perforations having progressively

decreasing pore sizes. Petri plates provided with some sticky substances are
kept below these perforated plates.

The air passes through the larger pore size plate to smaller pore size plate.
At each stage, as the air passes through the plates it strikes the sticky surface
of the petri plates impacting the particles thereon.

The variation of the perforation sizes of h plates makes the velocity to vary,
which the separation of particles of different sizes on different plates.

Impingement in liquid:

The particles are separated form the air by the force of inertia as the air is
deflected after stricking the liquid surface.

The bubbler or impingers used for collection of particles are the same those
used for collection of gaseous pollutants.

Devices: (1) Green burg Smith standard

(2) Midget Impingers

Limitations:
Not widely used for particulates because of low sampling rates
Electrostatic Precipitation:

During operation a negative charge is imparted to wire placed axially inside

a cylinder that is positively charged.

When the particle laden air stream passes through the cylinder, the particles
acquire a negative charge from a corona discharge occurring on the central
wire.
The particles migrate towards the inner surface of the cylinder and are
removed for subsequent chemical or microscopic analysis.

Electrostatic Precipitator for collection of particulates (185 tivedi)

Thermal precipitation:

Thermal precipitators operate on the principle that small particles, under the
influence of a strong temperature gradient between two surfaces, have a
tendency to move towards the lower temperature and get deposited on the
colder of these two surfaces.

Theses temperature gradients are normally of the order of 3000 0C per

centimeter.

To maintain such high gradients the gas velocity through the sampling
device must be maintained low; this is usually between 10 and 200 ml per
minute depending on the type of device.

Efficiency: High (Small particles) & 100 % or particles in the size range
form 10m down to 0.01 m.
The particles are collected on a grid or a thin microscope cover glass for
later analysis.
 Centrifugal Methods:

Most centrifugal sampling devices are constructed on the principle of the

cyclone.

The dust-laden gas moving at high velocity is directed tangentially into acylindrical
chamber, in which it forms a confined vortex.

The centrifugal force tends to drive the suspended particles to the wall of thecyclone body,
from which they drop into a dust collection chamber.

An axial outlet is provided for the clean gas.

Advantages: procurement of a dry chemically pure sample

Disadvantages: particle size greater than 5 



Solution Impingers:

This consists of a drawn out tube through which air containing particlesflows into a
solution, where the particles are trapped.

Disadvantages: unable to collect both particulate and vapor species. For this
purpose oxidizing solution is used.

Application is limited because the collection solution can be operated only at low flow rate
(20 lit/min).

Application: high atmospheric particulates loading exits, Simultaneous collection of

particles and gases are required or alternative equipments are not available.
 NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

The notifications on National Ambient Air Quality Standards were published by the
Central Pollution Control Board in the Gazette of India. Extraordinary vide notification
No(s). S.O. 384(E), dated 11th April, 1994; S.O. 935(E), dated 14th October, 1998; and
S.O. 217 in Part III section 4, dated 18th November, 2009 [1].
S. Pollutant Time Concentration in Ambient Air
N Weighted Industrial, Ecologica Methods of
o. Measurement
Average Residential, lly
Rural Sensitive
an Area
dOther Area (notified
by Central
Governm
ent)
1 Sulphur Annual* 50 20  Improved West and
Gaeke
Dioxide(SO2), 24 h** 80 80
µg/m 3  Ultraviolet fluorescence

2 Nitrogen Annual* 40 30  Modified Jacob &Hochheiser (Na-Ar

Dioxide(NO2), 24 h** 80 80  Chemiluminescence
3
µg/m
3 Particulate Annual* 60 60  Gravimetric
Matter(size less 24 h** 100 100  TOEM
than 10µm or  Beta attenuation
PM10,
µg/m3
4 Particulate Annual* 40 40  Gravimetric
**
Matter (size less 24 h 60 60  TOEM
than 2.5 µm) or  Beta attenuation
PM2.5 ,
µg/m3
5 Ozone (O3), 8 h** 100 100  UV photometric
µg/m3 1 h** 180 180  Chemiluminesce
nceChemical
Method
6 Lead (Pb), Annual *
0.5 0.50  AAS/ICP method after
µg/m3 0 sampling on EPM 2000
24 h** 1.0 1.0
or equivalent filter paper
 ED-XRF using Teflon
filter
 7 Carbon 8 h** 02 02  Non Dispersive Infra
Monoxide Red

OR

EMISSION STANDARD

Emission standards are requirements that set specific limits to the amount of
pollutants that can be released into the environment. Many emissions
standards focus on regulating pollutants released by automobiles (motor
cars) and other powered vehicles but they can also regulate emissions from
industry, power plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel
generators. Frequent policy alternatives to emissions standards are
technology standards (which mandate Standards generally regulate the
emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides, particulate matter (PM)
or soot, carbon monoxide (CO), or volatile hydrocarbons (see carbon
dioxide equivalent).

AIR POLLUTION INDEX

The Air Pollution Index (API) is a simple and generalized way to describe
the air quality in. It is calculated from several sets of air pollution data. The
API level is based on the level of 5 atmospheric pollutants, namely sulfur
dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), suspended particulates (PM10),
carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O3) measured at the monitoring stations.
An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by government agencies to
communicate to the public how polluted the air is currently or how polluted
it is forecast to become. As the AQI increases, an increasingly large
percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe
adverse health effects. Different countries have their own air quality indices
which are not all consistent. Different countries also use different names for
their indices such as Air Quality Health Index, Air Pollution Index and
Pollutant Standards Index.

Air quality is defined as a measure of the condition of air relative to the

requirements of one or more biotic species or to any human need or
purpose.[1] To compute the AQI requires an air pollutant concentration from
a monitor or model. The function used to convert from air pollutant
concentration to AQI varies by pollutant, and is different in different
countries. Air quality index values are divided into ranges, and each range is
assigned a descriptor and a color code. Standardized public health advisories
are associated with each AQI range.

PSI Descriptor General Health Effects

0 - 50 None
51 - 100 Moderate Few or none for the general population
101 - Unhealthy Mild aggravation of symptoms among susceptible
200 persons
i.e. those with underlying conditions such as
chronic heart or lung ailments; transient symptoms
of irritation e.g. eye irritation, sneezing or
coughing in some of the healthy population.

201 - Very Unhealthy Moderate aggravation of symptoms and decreased

300 tolerance in persons with heart or lung disease; more
widespread symptoms of transient irritation in the
healthy population.
301 - Hazardous Early onset of certain diseases in addition to
400
significant aggravation of symptoms in susceptible
persons; and decreased exercise tolerance in
healthy persons.
Above Hazardous PSI levels above 400 may be life-threatening to ill
400 and elderly persons. Healthy people may
experience adverse
symptoms that affect normal activity.

LEGISLATION AND REGULATION

Short title, extent and commencement.

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

(1) This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1981.
(2) It extends to the whole of India, with effect from 16 May 1981.

(3) It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, appoint.

Definitions.

In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-

(a) "air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 2[(including
noise)] present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to
be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property
or environment;

(b) "air pollution" means the presence in the atmosphere of any air

(c) "approved appliances" means any equipment or gadget used for the
bringing of any combustible material or for generating or consuming any
fume, gas of particulate matter and approved by the State Board for the
purpose of this Act;

(d) "approved fuel" means any fuel approved by the State Board for the
purposes of this Act;

(e) "automobile" means any vehicle powered either by internal combustion

engine or by any method of generating power to drive such vehicle by
burning fuel;

(h) "chimney" includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or

through which any air pollutant may be emitted,

(i) "control equipment" means any apparatus, device, equipment or system

to control the quality and manner of emission of any air pollutant and
includes any device used for securing the efficient operation of any
industrial plant;
(j) "emission" means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of
any chimney, duct or flue or any other outlet;

(k) "industrial plant" means any plant used for any industrial or trade
purposes and emitting any air pollutant into the atmosphere;

4[(m) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means the person

who has control over the affairs of the factory or the premises, and includes,
in relation to any substance, the person in possession of the substance;]

Powers and functions of boards

Functions of Central Board.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the
performance, of its functions under the Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, IL974 (6 of 1974), the main functions of the Central Board
shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air
pollution in the country.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing

functions, the Central Board may-

(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the

improvement of the quality of air and the prevention, control or abatement of
air pollution;

(b) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the

prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(c) co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them;

(d) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out
and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution
and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(e) plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in

programmes for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such
terms and conditions as the Central Board may specify;

(f) organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the

prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(g) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air
pollution and the measures devised for its effective prevention, control or
abatement and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;

(h) lay down standards for the quality of air.,

(i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air

pollution;

(j) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

(3) The Central Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories

to enable the Central Board to perform its functions under this section
efficiently.
 FUNCTIONS OF STATE BOARDS.

(1) subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the
performance of its functions, if any, under the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), the functions of a State
Board shall be-

(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or

abatement of air pollution and to secure the execution thereof-,

(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;

(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;

(d) to collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of

persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes relating to prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution and to organise mass-education
programme relating thereto;

(e) to inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant
or manufacturing process and to give, by order, such directions to such
persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control
or abatement of air pollution;

(f) to inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think
necessary, assess the quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution in such areas;
(g) to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to
the standards for the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards
for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial plants and
automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere
from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft:

(h) to advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any
premises or location for carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air
pollution;

(i) to Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from

time to time, be entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State
Government;

(j) to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think
necessary for the proper discharge of its functions and generally for the
purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of this Act.

(2) A State Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to

enable the State Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently.

Powers under the Act

Power to declare air pollution control areas

Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emission from

automobiles.

Power of Board to make application to court for restraining person from

causing air pollution.
Restrictions on use of certain industrial plants.

Power to obtain information.

Power of entry and inspection.

PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE

Penalties for certain acts. Whoever-

(a) destroys, pulls down, removes, injures or defaces any pillar, post or stake
fixed in the ground or any notice or other matter put up, incsribed or placed,
by or under the authority of the Board, or

(b) obstructs any person acting under the orders or directions of the Board
from exercising his powers and performing his functions under this Act, or

(c) damages any works or property belonging to the Board, or

(d) fails to furnish to the Board or any officer or other employee of the
Board any information required by the Board or such officer or other
employee for the purpose of this Act, or

(e) fails to intimate the occurrence of the emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere in excess of the standards laid down by the State Board or the
apprehension of such occurrence, to the State Board and other prescribed
authorities or agencies as required under sub-section (1) of section 23, or

(f) in giving any information which he is required to give under this Act,
makes a statement which is false in any material particular, or
(g) for the purpose of obtaining any consent under section 21, makes a
statement which is false in any material particular shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with fine
which may extend to 29[ten thousand rupees] or with both.

Penalty for contravention of provisions of the Act.

Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or any order or

direction issued thereunder, for which no penalty has been elsewhere
provided in this Act, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which
may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand
rupees or with both, and in the case of continuing contravention, with an
additional fine which may extend to five thousand, rupees for every day
during which such contravention continues after conviction for the first such
contravention.)

40. Offences by companies.

(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company,
every person who, at the time the offence was committed, was directly in
charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the conduct of the
business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be
guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such
person liable to any punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the
offence was committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all due
diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
 Module 2: AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Lecture Topic No. of Hours (8)

1 Introduction to Air Pollution and Control 1
2 Particulate Emission Control by Mechanical Separation & 1
Wet
Gas Scrubbing
3 Design of Cyclones 1
4 Design of Fabric Filter 1
5 Particulate Emission Control by Electrostatic Precipitation 1
6 Design of ESP 1
7 Gaseous Emission Control by Adsorption 1
8 Gaseous Emission Control by Absorption 1
 Lecture 1
Introduction to Air Pollution and Control
 AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants in
the air in such quantities and for such durations which may be or tend to be
injurious to human, animal or plant life, or property, or which unreasonably
interferes with the comfortable usage of air.
Main cause of air pollution is Combustion
During combustion, elements in the fuel get burned in air to form various
air pollutants.

[Fuel (C, H, S, N, Pb, Hg, ash) [CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, Pb, Hg,
+ Air (N2 + O2)] SPM, RSPM, (PM10), VOCs] (2.1.1)

Types of Air Pollutants

 Primary pollutants: Pollutants which are being emitted into the air directly by
point/area/line sources.
Examples: CO, NOx, SO2, Pb, SPM, RSPM, VOCs
 Secondary pollutants: Pollutants which are getting formed from primary pollutants in the
atmosphere. Some of the reactions are catalyzed by sun light.
Examples: acid rains, smog, O3, H2O2, formaldehyde, peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)

Classification of Air Pollutants

Air pollutants can be classified into three broad categories:
 Natural Contaminants: Natural fog, pollen grain, bacteria and products of volcanic
eruption.
 Aerosols (Particulates): Dust, smoke, moist, fog.
 Gases and vapors:
o Sulfur compounds: SO2, SO3, H2S
o Nitrogen compounds: NO, NO2, NO3
o Oxygen compounds: O2, CO, CO2
o Halogen compounds: HF, HCl
o Organic compounds: Aldehydes. Hydrocarbons
o Radio active compounds: radioactive gases
 Figure 2.1.1: Air pollution sources

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

[A] Mobile Sources

Cleaner/Alternative Fuel
• Vaporization of Gasoline should be reduced.
• Oxygen containing additives reduce air requirement e.g., ethanol, MTBE (Hazardous).
– Methanol: (Less photochemically reactive VOC, but emits HCHO (eye irritant),
difficult to start in winters: Can be overcome by M85 (85% methanol, 15%
gasoline)
– Ethanol: GASOHOL (10% ethanol & 90% Gasoline),
– CNG: Low HC, NOx high, inconvenient refueling, leakage hazard.
– LPG: Propane, NOx high

Three-Way Catalytic Converter

A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:
 Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen
 Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
 Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water
[B] Stationary Sources
Pre-combustion Control
– Switching to less sulphur and nitrogen fuel
Combustion Control
– Improving the combustion process
– New burners to reduce NOx
– New Fluidized bed boilers
– Integrated gasification combined cycle
Post-Combustion Control
– Particulate collection devices
– Flue gas desulphurization

MAJOR INITIATIVES TAKEN FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN INDIA(DURING LAST

TWO DECADES) [1]
 National ambient air quality standards based on health impact evolved (1982, 1994, 2009).
 Emission standards for air polluting industries developed for major industries
 Implementation of standards in 17 categories of highly polluting industries and other
small/medium scale industries (stone crushers, brick kiln, re-rolling mills, etc.).
 Action plan implementation and pollution control in identified 24 problem areas [2].
 Coal beneficiation/clean coal technology –notification regarding use of beneficiated coal in
thermal power plant.
 Improvement in vehicular technology (Euro-1, Euro-2, Euro-3, Euro-4, CNG vehicles, 4
stroke engines, etc.)
 Improvement in fuel quality -diesel with low sulfur content (0.25% in whole country and
0.05% in metro cities)
 Gasoline-lead phased-out throughout the country since 2000 [2].

EMERGING NEW AREAS FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL IN INDIA

 Development of low cost ash removal technology from coal and promotion of clean coal
technologies
  Technology for reduction of fluoride emission (primary & Secondary) from pot room of
aluminum industries using Soderberg technology
 Development of NOx control standard for thermal power plants and refineries
 Prevention and control of fugitive emission in cement industry
 Use of high calorific value hazardous waste including petroleum coke in cement kiln
 Low cost flue gas desulphurization technology for thermal power plants
 Technology development of fugitive emission control from coke oven plants of iron & steel
industry [2].
 Development of technology and standard to control emission of VOC, methyl chloride, P2O5,
HCl, etc. from pesticide industry
 Development of odor control technology for paper & pulp industry and standardization the
method of odor measurement
 Fluidized bed combustion technology for solid fuel containing higher ash
 Development of improved design of Incinerators for Hazardous Waste.
 Control on emission of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) from engine using LPG, compressed
natural gas (CNG), low sulphur diesel, low sulphur petrol, etc.
 Apportionment study for fine particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5) in major cities
 Technology for mercury emission control from thermal power plants.
 Noise and emission control system for small DG sets (<200 kW)
 Development of stack height guidelines for thermal power plants and industries using
ventilation co-efficient of different regions in the country [3].
REFERENCES
[1] Sengupta, B. Experience of Air Pollution Control in Last Two Decades in India. Paper
Presented at ‘International Conference on Better Air Quality’ held at Agra during
December 6 – 8, 2004.
(http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/59100_sengupta.ppt).
[2] http://www.swedishtrade.se/PageFiles/159882/Fact%20Pack_Industrial%20Air%20Pollu
tion%20Control%20in%20India.pdf
Jorgensen, S. “Principles of Pollution Abatement: Air Pollution Problems", Burlington: Elsevier, 2000.[1]
 Lecture 2
Particulate emission control by mechanical
separation & wet gas scrubbing
 PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL BY MECHANICAL SEPARATION
The basic mechanism of removing particulate matter from gas stream is
classified as: 1) gravitational settling 2) centrifugal impaction 3) inertial
impaction 4) direct interception 5) diffusion and 6) electrostatic precipitation.
Equipment presently available, which make use of one or more of the above
mechanisms, fall into the following five broad categories: 1) gravitational settling
chambers 2) cyclone separators 3) fabric filters 4) electrostatic precipitator
[A] Gravitational Settling Chambers
Gravitational settling chambers are generally used to remove large, abrasive
particles (usually >50 µm) from gas stream. It provides enlarged areas to minimize
horizontal velocities and allow time for the vertical velocity to carry the particle to
the floor. The usual velocity through settling chambers is between 0.5 to 2.5 m/s.

Figure 2.2.1: Gravitation settling chamber [1]

Advantage: Low pressure loss, simplicity of design and maintenance.

Disadvantage: Requires larger space and efficiency is low. Only larger
sized particles are separated out.

Design of a gravitational settling chamber

If we assume that Stokes law applies we can derive a formula for calculating
the minimum diameter of a particle collected at 100% theoretical efficiency in a
chamber of length L.
 p

All particles larger than dp will also be removed with 100% efficiency, while
the efficiency for smaller particles is the ratio of their settling velocities to the
settling velocity of the dp particle.

[B] Cyclone Separators

A cyclone separator consists of a cylindrical shell, conical base, dust hopper
and an inlet where the dust-laden gas enters tangentially. Under the influence of
the centrifugal force generated by the spinning gas, the solid particles are thrown to
the wall of the cyclone as the gas spirals upward at the inside of the cone. The
particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the hopper. The operating
efficiency of a cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted
on the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the spreading
efficiency. The magnitude of the centrifugal force generated depends on particle
mass, gas velocity within the cyclone, and cyclone diameter.
 Where, Fc=centrifugal force, N; Mp=particulate mass, Kg; vi equals particle velocity
and R equals radius of the cyclone, m/s. From this equation, it can be seen that the
centrifugal force on the particles, and thus the collection efficiency of the cyclone
collector can be increased by decreasing R. Large-diameter cyclone have good
collection efficiencies for particles 40 to 50 µm in diameter.

Advantage: Relatively inexpensive, simple to design and maintain; requires less

floor area; low to moderate pressure loss.
Disadvantage: Requires much head room; collection efficiency is low for
smaller particles, quite sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.

[C] Fabric Filters

In a fabric filter system, the particulate-laden gas stream passes through a
woven or felted fabric that filters out the particulate matter and allows the gas to
pass through. Small particles are initially retained on the fabric by direct
interception, inertial impaction, diffusion, electrostatic attraction, and gravitational
settling. After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more efficient collection of
submicron particle is accomplished by sieving.
Filter bags usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable of removing
most particles as small as 0.5µm and will remove substantial quantity of particles
as small as 0.1 µm. Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long, can be utilized in a
bag house filter arrangement.
As particulates build up on the inside surface of the bags, the pressure drop
increases. Before the pressure drop becomes too severe, the bag must be relieved
of some of the particulate layer. Fabric filter can be cleaned intermittently,
periodically, or continuously [2].
Fabric and Fibre Characteristics: Fabric filter may be classified according to
filtering media: woven fabric or felt cloth. Woven fabrics have a definite long
range repeating pattern and have considerable porosity in the direction of gas
flow. These open spaces must be bridged by impaction of interception to form a
true filtering surface. Felted cloth consists of randomly oriented fibres, compressed
into a mat and needled to some loosely woven backing material to improve
mechanical strength. The choice of fabric fibre is based primarily on operating
temperature and the corrosiveness or abrasiveness of the particle. Cotton is the
least expensive fibre, and is preferably used in low temperature dust collection
service. Silicon coated glass fibre cloth is commonly employed in high temperature
applications. The glass fibre must be lubricated to prevent abrasion. All fibre may
be applied to the manufacture of woven and felt type fabrics.
Fabric Filter System: Fabric filter systems typically consist of a tubular bag or an
envelope, suspended or mounted in such manner that the collected particles fall
into hopper when dislodged from fabric. The structure in which the bags are
hanged is known as a bag-house.

Generally, particle laden gas enters the bag at the bottom and passes through
the fabric while the particles are deposited on the inside of the bag. The cleaning is
accomplished by shaking at fixed intervals of time [3].

Figure 2.2.2: Typical bag-house

Advantage: Fabric filters can give high efficiency, and can even remove very
 small particles in dry state.
Disadvantage: High temperature gasses need to be cooled. The flue gasses must
be dry to avoid condensation and clogging. The fabric is liable to chemical attacks.

[D] Electrostatic Precipitator

The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used device for
controlling particulate emission at industrial installations ranging from power
plants, cement and paper mills to oil refineries. Electrostatic precipitator is a
physical process by which particles suspended in gas stream are charged
electrically and, under the influence of the electrical field, separated from the gas
stream.

The precipitator system consists of a positively charged collecting surface

and a high- voltage discharge electrode wire suspended from an insulator at the top
and held in passion by weight t the bottom. At a very high DC voltage, of the order
of 50kV, a corona discharge occurs close to the negative electrode, setting up an
electric field between the emitted and the grounded surface [4].
The particle laden gas enters near the bottom and flows upward. The gas
close to the negative electrode is, thus, ionized upon passing through the corona.
As the negative ions and electrons migrate toward the grounded surface, they in
turn charge the passing particles. The electrostatic field then draws the particles to
the collector surface where they are deposited.
Periodically, the collected particles must be removed from the collecting surface.
This is done by rapping or vibrating the collector to dislodge the particles. The
dislodged particles drop below the electrical treatment zone and are collected for
ultimate disposal [5].
Advantage:
 Maintenance is nominal, useless corrosive and adhesive materials are present in flue
gases.
 They contain few moving parts.
  They can be operated at high temperature up to 300oC-450o C.
Disadvantage:
 Higher initial cost.
 Sensitive to variable dust loading and flow rates.
 They use high voltage, and hence may pose risk to personal safety of the staff.
 Collection efficiency reduces with time.

PARTICULATE EMISSION CONTROL BY WET GAS SCRUBBING

Wet scrubber removes particulate matter from gas streams by incorporating

the particles into liquid droplets directly on contact. The basic function of wet
scrubber is to provide contact between the scrubbing liquid, usually water and, the
particulate to be collected. This contact can be achieved in a variety of ways as the
particles are confronted with so-called impaction target, which can be wetted
surface as in packed scrubbers or individual droplets as in spray scrubbers [3]. The
basic collection mechanism is the same as in filters: inertial impaction, interception
and diffusion. Generally, impaction and interception are the predominant
mechanism for particles of diameter above 3 µm, and for particle of diameter
below 0.3 µm diffusion begins to prevail. There are many scrubber designs
presently available where the contact between the scrubbing liquid and the
particles is achieved in a variety of ways. The major types are: plate scrubber,
packed-bed scrubber, spray scrubber, venturi scrubber, cyclone scrubber, baffle
scrubber, impingement-entrainment scrubber, fluidized-bed scrubber.
[A] Plate scrubber
It contains a vertical tower containing one or more horizontal plates
(trays). Gas enters the bottom of the tower and must pass through perforations in
each plate as it flows countercurrent to the descending water stream. Collection
efficiency increases as the diameter of the perforations decreases. A cut diameter,
that collected with 50% efficiency, of about µm aerodynamic diameter can be
achieved with 3.2-mm-diameter holes in a sieve plate.
[B] Packed –bed scrubber
Operates similarly to packed-bed gas absorber. Collection efficiency
increases as packing size decreases. A cut diameter of 1.5 µm aerodynamic
diameter can be attained in columns packed with 2.5 cm elements.

Figure 2.4.1: Packed–bed scrubber

[C] Spray scrubber

Particles are collected by liquid drops that have been atomized by spray
nozzles. Horizontal and vertical gas flows are used, as well as spray introduced
co-current, countercurrent, or cross-flow to the gas.
Collection efficiency depends on droplet size, gas velocity, liquid/gas ratio,
and droplet trajectories. For droplets falling at their terminal velocity, the optimum
droplet diameter for fine- particle collection lies in the range 100 to 500 µm.
Gravitational settling scrubbers can achieve cut diameters of about 2.0 µm.
 The liquid/gas ratio is in the range 0.001 to 0.01 m3/ m3 of gas treated.
[D] Venturi scrubber
A moving gas stream is used to atomize liquids into droplets. High gas
velocities (60 to 120 m/s) lead to high relative velocities between gas and particles
and promote collection.
[E] Cyclone scrubber
Drops can be introduced into the gas stream of a cyclone to collect particles.
The spray can be directed outward from a central manifold or inward from the
collector wall.
[F] Impingement-Entrainment Scrubber:
The gas is forced to impinge on a liquid surface to reach a gas exit. Some of
the liquid atomizes into drops that are entrained by the gas. The gas exit is
designed so as to minimize the loss of entrained droplets.
[G] Fluidized-bed scrubber
A zone of fluidized packing is provided where gas and liquid can mix
intimately. Gas passes upward through the packing, while liquid is sprayed up from
the bottom and/or flows down over the top of the fluidized layer of packing [6].

REFERENCES
[1] Rao, C. S. “Environmental Pollution Control Engineering”, 2nd Edition, New Age
International, New Delhi, 2006.
[2] Spellman, F. R. “The Science of Air Concepts and Applications” 2nd Edition, Taylor and
Francis (CRC Press), 2008.
[3] http://www.cpcb.nic.in/oldwebsite/New%20Item/chapter-15.html
[4] Theodore, L. ‘Electrostatic Precipitators’ in “Air Pollution Control Equipment
Calculations”, Wiley, 2008.
[5] http://www.teriin.org/envis/times1-1.pdf
[6] Jumah, R. Y., A. S. Mujumdar. “Handbook of Industrial Drying: Dryer Emission Control
Systems”, 3rd Edition, CRC Press, 2006.
Lecture 3

Design of cyclones
 DESIGN OF CYCLONES
Cyclone separators utilizes a centrifugal forces generated by a spinning gas
stream to separate the particulate matters from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force
on particles in a spinning gas stream is much greater than gravity; therefore
cyclones are effective in the removal of much smaller particles than gravitational
settling chambers, and require much less space to handle the same gas volumes.
In operation, the particle-laden gas upon entering the cyclone cylinder
receives a rotating motion. The vortex so formed develops a centrifugal force,
which acts to particle radially towards the wall. The gas spirals downward to the
bottom of the cone, and at the bottom the gas flow reveres to form an inner vortex
which leaves through the outlet pipe [1].

Theory
In a ccyclone,
 the inertial separating force is the radial component of the
simple centrifugal force and is a function of the tangential velocity. The centrifugal
force can be expressed by Fc

The separation
 factor varies from 5 in large, low velocity units to 2500 in small,
high pressure units. Higher the separation factor better is the performance of the
cyclone.
In the cyclone, the gas, in addition to moving in a circular path, also moves
radially inwards between the inlet on the periphery and the exit on the axis. Since
the tangential velocities of the particle and the gas are the same, the relative
velocity between the gas and particle is simply equal to the radial velocity of the
gas. This result in a drag force on the particle towards the centre, and the
equilibrium radius of rotation of the particle can be obtained by balancing the
radial drag force and the centrifugal force:

The most satisfactory expression for cyclone performance is still the

empirical one. Lapple correlated collection efficiency in terms of the cut size dpe
which is the size of those particle that are collected with 50% efficiency. Particle
larger than dpe will have collection efficiency greater than 50% while the smaller
particle will be collected with lesser efficiency. The cut size is given by:

Problem 2.3.1: A conventional cyclone with diameter 0.5 m handles 4.0 m3/s of
standard air (µg=1.81×10-5 kg/m-s and ρg being negligible w.r.t ρp) carrying
particles with a density of 2500 kg/m3. For Ne=6, inlet width (b)=0.25 m, inlet
height (a)=0.5 m, determine the cut size of particle diameter.
Solution: Given
b=0.25, D=0.25×0.5=0.1
a=0.5, D=0.5×0.5=0.25
ρp=2500 kg/m3
µg=1.81×10-5
kg/m-s Q=4 m3/s
REFERENCES
http://www.epconindia.com/air-pollution-control-equipment.html
Lecture 4

Design of fabric filter

 DESIGN OF FABRIC FILTER
 Pressure drop and air-to-cloth ratio are the major design parameters in bag-house design.
 Higher pressure drops implies that more energy is required to pull the gas through the
system.
 Air-to-cloth ratio, also referred to as the face velocity, is the the volume flow of gas
received by a bag-house divided by the total area of the filtering cloth. This ratio is the
result of and is usually It is expressed as acfm/ft2. The air-to-cloth ratio determines the
unit size and thus, capital cost.
 Higher air-to-cloth ratio mean less fabric, therefore less capital cost. However, higher
ratio can lead to high pressure drop thus requiring higher energy. Also, more frequent bag
cleanings may be required, thus increasing the downtime.
 Fabric filters are classified by their cleaning method or the direction of gas flow and
hence the location of the dust deposit [1].
Pressure Drop: The pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drop across the filter
housing and across the dust-laden fabric.
 The pressure drop across the housing is proportional to the square of the gas-flow rate
due to turbulence.
 The pressure drop across the dust-laden fabric is the sum of the pressure drop across the
clean fabric and the pressure drop across the dust cake.
P  Pf  Pd  K1v  K2vw
(2.4.1)
Where, v=the filtration velocity; K1=the flow resistance of the clean fabric;
K2=the specific resistance of the dust deposit; w=the fabric dust areal density; K1 is
related to Frazier permeability, which is the flow through a fabric in cfm/ft2 of
fabric when the pressure drop across the fabric is 0.5 in w.g. as follows [1]:

 
K 1 Pa s m-1 
24590
FrazierPermeabiltiy(cfm/ft2 at 0.5in w.g.)
(2.4.2)
Evaluation of specific resistance K2 : The dust collected on a membrane
filter and K2 should be calculated from the increase in pressure drop (ΔP2- ΔP1)
with filter weight gain (M2- M1) as follows:
Problem 2.4.1. A fabric filter is to be constructed using bags that are 0.1 m in
diameter and 5.0 m long. The bag house is to receive 5 m3/s of air. Filtering
velocity is 2.0 m/min. Determine the number of bags required for a continuous
removal of particulate matter.
Solution:
At
N 
Ab
Qg
At 
u
Ab   dL
Given that: Diameter of bag (d) = 0.1 m; Length of bag (L) = 5 m; Flow rate
(Qg)= 5 m3/s; Filtering velocity (u)=2 m/min=0.0333 m/s.
5
Total area of filter  At   150 m 2
0.0333

Area of single bag  Ab  3.14 0.1 5.0  1.57 m2

150
N um ber of bags  N   95.54  96
1.57

The numbers of bags required for a continuous removal of particulate matter are 96.

Problem 2.4.2. A bag house is to design to handle 1000 m3/min of air. The
filtration takes place at constant pressure so that the air velocity through each bag
decreases during the time between clearing according to the relation
u  1
0 .267  0 .08 t

Where, u is in m3/m2 min of cloth and t is time in min.

The bags are shaken in sequence row by row on a 30 min cycle. Each bag is
20 cm in diameter and 3 m height. The bag house is to be square in x-section with
 30 cm spacing between bags and 30 cm clearance from the walls. Calculate the
number of bags required.
Solution:

Time (t)=30 min; d- Diameter of bag (d)=0.2 m; Length of bag (L)=3 m; Flow
rate (Qg)=1000 m3/min.
Average velocity (Vavg)=?
(m/min) Total area of filter
(At)=? (m2).
Area of single bag (Ab)=?
(m2). Number of bags
(N)=?
Put the values in equation, we get the average velocity

The numbers of bags required for a continuous removal of particulate matter are 553.
REFERENCE
[1] Altwicker, E. R., Canter, L. W. Cha, S. S., Chuang, K. T., Liu, D. H. F. Ramachandran,
G., Raufer, R. K., Reist, P.C., Sanger, A. R. Turk, A., Wagner, C. P. "Air Pollution",
Environmental Engineers Handbook, 2nd Edition, 1997.
 Lecture 5
Particulate emission control by electrostatic
precipitation
 ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most widely used collection

devices for particulates. An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particulate
collection device that removes particles from a flowing gaseous stream (such as
air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge.
ESP can be operated at high temperature and pressures, and its power
requirement is low. For these reasons the electrostatic precipitation is often the
preferred method of collection where high efficiency is required with small
particles.
ESP are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of
gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as
dust and smoke from the air stream [1].
In the electrostatic precipitation process the basic force which acts to
separate the particles from the gas is electrostatic attraction. The particles are
given an electrical charge by forcing them to pass through a corona, a region in
which gaseous ions flow. The electrical field that forces the charged particles to the
walls comes from electrodes maintained at high voltage in the center of the flow
lane [2].
Control of emissions from the industrial sources has served the threefold purpose of
1. Recovery of the for economic reason
2. Removal of abrasive dusts to reduce wear of fan component
3. Removal of objectionable natter from gases being discharged into the atmosphere

APPLICATION OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS:

 Pulp and paper mills, Non-ferrous metal industry, Chemical industry, Public buildings
and areas
 Cement recovery furnace, steel plant for cleaning Blast furnace gas.
 Removing tars from coke oven, sulphuric acid (Pyrite raw material ) , phosphoric acid
plant
  Petroleum industry for recovery of catalyst, carbon black, thermal power plant.

Table 2.5.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of ESP.

Advantages Disadvantages
High collection efficiency. High initial cost.
Low maintenance and operating costs. More space requirement.
Handles large volume of high Possible explosion hazards.
temperature gas.
Negligible treatment time. Production of poisonous gas.
Easy cleaning.

REQUIREMENT OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION PROCESS

 Source of high voltage
 Discharge and collecting electrode
 Inlet and outlet for gas
 A means for disposal of collected material
 Cleaning system, Outer casing.

STEPS IN ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATION

 Generation of Electric field high voltage Direct current 20-80kv.
 Generation of electric charges
 Transfer of electric charge to a dust particle.
 Movement of the charge dust particle in an electric field to the collection electrodes.
 Adhesion of the charge dust particle to the surface of the collection electrode.
 Dislodging of dust layer from collection electrode
 Collection of dust layer in a hopper
 Removal of the dust from the hopper.
 Collection Electrode

Electric Field

Discharge Electrode

Collection Electrode

Fig: Electrical Field Generation

Figure 2.5.1. Electrical field generation

Figure 2.5.2. Movement of dust and air in ESP

 PRINCIPLE OF ESP
Principle of ESP has four distinct phases as follows:
(I) Ionization or corona generation: When the potential difference between the wire and
electrode increases, a voltage is reached where an electrical breakdown of the gas occurs near the
wire. This electrical break down or ion discharge is known as corona formation and thereby gas
is transformed from insulating to conducting state.
Two types of corona discharge can be generated which are:
(a) Negative corona: In negative corona, discharge electrode is of negative polarity and the
process of electron generation occurs at narrow region
(b) Positive corona: When positive voltage is applied to discharge electrodes in the same way as
negative corona, large number of free electron and positive ions are generated. Or large number
of positive ions produced move towards collecting electrode and thus transfer charge to dust
particles upon collision.

Figure 2.5.3.Variation of field strength between wire and plate electrodes

 Negative coronas are more commonly used in industrial application, while
for cleaning air in inhabited space positive coronas are used. Due to ozone
generation in negative corona its application for air cleaning in inhabited area is
avoided.
(II) Charging of Particles: Particle charging takes place in region between the boundary of
corona glow and the collection electrode, where particles are subjected to the rain of negative
ions from the corona process. Mainly two mechanisms are responsible for particle charging.
Each mechanism becomes significant according to particle size ranges. For particles having
diameter greater than 1µm, field charging is dominant force; and for particle size less than 0.2
µm diffusion charging predominates.
(III) Migration and precipitation of particle:
(IV) Removal of deposited dust: Once collected, particle can be removed by coalescing and
draining, in the case of liquid aerosols and by periodic impact or rapping, in case of solid
material. In case of solid material, a sufficiently thick layer of dust must be collected so that it
falls into the hopper or bin in coherent masses to prevent excessive re-entrainment of the
material into the gas system [2].

TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

ESPs are configured in several ways. Some of these configurations have been
developed for special control action, and others have evolved for economic
reasons.
[A] SINGLE STAGE PRECIPITATORSPlate-Wire Precipitators
 In a plate-wire ESP, gas flows between parallel plates of sheet metal and high-voltage
electrodes.
 These electrodes are long wires weighted and hanging between the plates or are
supported there by mast-like structures (rigid frames).
 Within each flow path, gas flow must pass each wire in sequence as flows through the
unit.
 Plate-wire ESPs are used in a wide variety of industrial applications, including coal-fired
boilers, cement kilns, solid waste incinerators, paper mill recovery boilers, petroleum
refining catalytic cracking units, sinter plants, basic oxygen furnaces, open hearth
furnaces, electric arc furnaces, coke oven batteries, and glass furnaces [2, 3].
Flat Plate Precipitators
 A significant number of smaller precipitators [100,000 to 200,000 actual cubic feet per
minute (acfm)] use flat plates instead of wires for the high-voltage electrodes.
 A flat plate ESP operates with little or no corona current flowing through the collected
dust, except directly under the corona needles or wires [3].
 Flat plate ESPs seem to have wide application for high-resistivity particles with small (1
to 2 µm) mass median diameters
 Fly ash has been successfully collected with this type of ESP, but low-flow velocity
appears to be critical for avoiding high rapping losses.
Tubular Precipitators
 The original ESPs were tubular like the smokestacks they were placed on, with the high-
voltage electrode running along the axis of the tube.
 Tubular precipitators have typical applications in sulfuric add plants, coke oven by-
product gas cleaning (tar removal), and, recently, iron and steel sinter plants [2].
Wet Precipitators
 Any of the precipitator configurations discussed above may be operated with wet walls
instead of dry.
 The water flow may be applied intermittently or continuously to wash the collected
particles into a sump for disposal.
 The advantage of the wet wall precipitator is that it has no problems with rapping re-
entrainment or with back coronas.
 The disadvantage is the increased complexity of the wash and the fact that the collected
slurry must be handled more carefully than a dry product, adding to the expense of
disposal [4].

TWO-STAGE PRECIPITATORS
 The previously described precipitators are all parallel in nature, i.e., the discharge and
collecting electrodes are side by side.
 Two-stage precipitators are considered to be separate and distinct types of devices
compared to large, high-gas-volume, single-stage ESPs.
  The two-stage precipitator invented by Penney is a series device with the discharge
electrode, or ionizer, preceding the collector electrodes.
 Advantages of this configuration include more time for particle charging, less propensity
for back corona, and economical construction for small sizes [3].

OPERATIONAL ISSUES
 Pre-Scrubbing
 Wash-down sprays and wires
 Wet/dry Interface
 Current Suspension
 Sparking
 Mist Elimination

REFERENCES
[1] De Yuso, A. M., Izquierdo, M. T., Valenciano, R., Rubio, B. Toluene and n-hexane
adsorption and recovery behavior on activated carbons derived from almond shell wastes.
Fuel Processing Technology, 2013, 110 1–7.
[2] Theodore, L. ‘Electrostatic Precipitators’ in “Air Pollution Control Equipment
Calculations”, Wiley, 2008.
[3] http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/cs6ch3.pdf.
[4] http://icespx.com/
Lecture 6

Design of ESP
 DESIGN OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

Introduction
An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particle control device that uses electrical
forces to move the particles out of the flowing gas stream and onto collector plates.
The particles are given an electrical charge by forcing them to pass through a
corona, a region in which gaseous ions flow [1].

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR DESIGNING OF ESP

The efficiency of an ESP depends upon two factors
 The size of the unit i.e. total square ft. of the collecting plate area
 Amount of independent electrical energisation
In addition following details are required for designing an ESP
1. Source of the emission : Properties of the process by which the pollutants are produced
2. Particle size distribution
3. Chemical analysis of dust in relation to particle size
4. Specific eclectic resistivity of dust
5. Dust concentration of clean gas
6. Required dust concentration of clean gas(efficiency)
7. Properties of gas: composition, temperature, pressure.
8. Corrosive properties of gas
9. Gas flow rate
Apart from these variables the design of ESP also include the determination
of ancillary factors such as rappers to shake the dust loose from the plates,
automatic control system, measures for ensuring high-quality gas flow, dust
removal system, provisions for structural and heat insulation and performance
monitoring system [2].
Firstly size distribution of dust is determined; from the information of size
distribution of dust the migration velocity is calculated. After that number of
charge on a particle is calculated by using appropriate equation. On the basis of
precipitation rate the collecting surface area for a given efficiency at a particular
 flow rate is calculated by using Deutsch-Andersen relationship.

PARTICLE CHARGING

  

MIGRATION VELOCITY
The velocity of charged particle suspended in a gas under the influence
of an electric field is known as migration velocity. The particle migration velocity
is the most important parameter and is function of a large number of operation
quantities such as- Electric field strength, particle size, gas viscosity, properties of
the dust [3].
Principal forces acting on particle are gravitational force, electric force,
viscous force and inertial force.
qEC
Vpm 
3d
(2.6.4)
Where, Vpm=Particle migration velocity towards the collector electrode; q=ne,
value of n depends upon types on charging (diffusion or field); C=Cunningham
correction factor; E=Collector electric field; =gas viscosity; and d=particle size
(µm).
Table 2.6.1 Effective migration velocity (m/s) for various type of dusts.

Dust Migration Velocity (m/s)

Zinc Oxide 0.02-0.03
Sulfuric Acid 0.08-0.16
Metal Oxides 0.02-0.03
Calcium Carbonate 0.04-0.05
Smoke Fume pit coal furnace 0.02-0.11
Fly ash from lignite furnace 0.18-0.25
Blast furnace dust 0.05
Smelter dust 0.07-0.09
Blast furnace dust 0.05

COLLECTION EFFICIENCY OF ESP

The collection efficiency of an ESP as a function of gas flow rate and
precipitator size is given by the Deutsch-Andersen Equation
Assumptions:
a. Repulsion effect is neglected.
b. Uniform gas velocity throughout the cross section
c. Particles are fully charged by field charging.
d. No hindered settling effect.
 

The equation is related to gas velocity v and number n of the element for
pipe precipitators. If particles are of a solid, the collected particles are removed
from electrode by shaking it in a process known as rapping. If particles are of a
liquid, after collecting on the electrode the liquid then flows down the electrode by
action of gravity and collects at the bottom. The particle charging process is done
by means of corona surrounding a highly charged electrode, such as wire [4].

DUST RESISTIVITY
 Dust resistivity is the most important dust property.
 With high dust resistant a large voltage in the dust layer is observed accumulated by a
decreasing current.
 Specific Dust Resistivity: is the resistivity of a layer of dust will a layer thickness of 1 cm
over a collection area of 1m2
 The Specific dust resistivity is designed the symbol ρrs and measured in Ωcm

AR
rs  c m 
 (2.6.18)
 Where, Ac=collection area; Rm=mean electric resistivity; δ=dust layer thickness.

Table 2.6.1. Ranges for ESP design parameters

Parameter Range of values

Precipitation rate VP 1.0-10 m/min
Channel width, D 15-40 cm
Plate area 0.25-2.1m2/(m3/min)
Specific collection area 
Gas flow rate
Gas velocity u 1.2-2.5 m/s
Duct length 0.5-1.5(Not less than 1 for >99%)
Aspect ratio R= Height

Corona power ratio 1.75-17.5W/(m3/min)

Corona current ratio 50-750 µA/m2
Plate area per electrical set 460-7400 m2
Number of electrical section Ns
a. In the direction of gas flow 2-8
b. Total number of sections 1-10 bus sections/(1000 m3/min)
Spacing between sections 0.5-2m
Len, Lex 2-3m
Plate height; length 8-15m; 1-3m

Problem 2.6.1: A plate type ESP use in a cement plant for removing dust particles
consist of 10 equal channels. The spacing between plates is 15 cm and the plates
are 3 m high and 3 m long. Unit handles 20,000 m3/h of gas.
a) What is the efficiency of collection plates?
b) What is the collection rate of particles having density 9.2 gm/m3?
c) What should be the length of the plate for achieving efficiency of 99% keeping other
parameter same?
Solution:
   1
q    Qg  

Given: Particle migration velocity (Vpm)=0.1 m/sec; Number of plates (n)=10;

Height of plate (h)=3 m; Length of plate (l)=3 m; Gas flow rate (Qg)=20000
m3/h=2.7778 m3/sec; Density of particle (ρ)=9.2 g/m3.
Total area of collection plates (Ac)=2×10×3 m×3 m=180 m2.

l  95.9314m
a) The efficiency of collection plate is 96.08%.
b) The collection rate of particles having density is 49.1070g/sec.
c) Length of the plate for achieving efficiency of 99% keeping other parameter same is 95.93 m.

Problem 2.6.2: An ESP handles 107 ft3/min of gas. It uses 3.6 Amp current and has
28000 ft2 collection plate areas. At the present operating temperature, the dust
resistivity is 3×1011 Ω-cm. It has been suggested that the gas cooled to reduce the
dust resistivity to 7×1010 Ω-cm assuming that average dust thickness is 0.45 inch
and that voltage difference between the charging walls and outer surface of the
dust layer is 30 kV must be maintained in both cases. Estimate the reduction in
power requirement that cooling the gas to get neglect the effect of gas
temperature on charging and drift velocity.
Solution:
   I
V 
A
P V I
Given: Gas flow rate (Qg)=107 ft3/min; Current (I)=3.6 A; Total area of collection
 plates (Ac)=28000 ft2=26.01×106 cm2; Dust resistivity (1)=3×1011 Ω-cm; Dust
resistivity (2)=7×1010 Ω-cm; Dust thickness (=0.45 inch=1.143 cm. Assuming
that V1 is the voltage when dust resistivity is 1 (kV) and voltage is V2 when dust
resistivity is 2 (kV) and P is the power input (kW)

REFERENCES
[1] http://www.wind.arch.tkougei.ac.jp/APECWW/Report/2009/INDIAb.pdf
[2] Liu, D. H. F., Liptak, B. G., Bous, P. A. “Environmental Engineering Handbook”, 2nd
edition, CRC Press, LLC, Florida, 1997.
[3] Theodore, L. ‘Electrostatic Precipitators’ in “Air Pollution Control Equipment
Calculations”, Wiley, 2008.
[4] Peavy, H. S., Rowe, D. R., Tchobanoglous, G. “Environmental Engineering”, McGraw-
Hill, 1985.
 Lecture 7

Gaseous emission control by adsorption

 GASEOUS EMISSION CONTROL BY ABSORPTION AND ADSORPTION

INTRODUCTION
Combustion processes generate various primary and secondary air pollutants
such as carbon oxides (mainly CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx),
ozone, along with organic acid, inorganic acid, petrochemical oxidant gas and
hydrocarbons (HC). Different treatment processes are applied for controlling these
and other gaseous emissions. These processes include adsorption and absorption.
Selection of appropriate technique depends in part, physical and chemical
characteristic of specific gas and the vapour phase compounds present in the gas
stream.
For stationary air pollution sources, we can select single or combined air
pollution control technique. Variety of devices are used for controlling gaseous
pollutant, and choosing most cost effective, most cost efficient unit requires careful
attention to the particular operation for which control devices are intended. In order
to control the emissions within given standard emissions it is necessary to monitor
emissions carefully after selecting best control technique.

PROPERTIES OF GAS STREAM FOR SELECTION OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

The selection and design of a gaseous contaminant control system is done
based on some specific information concerning the gas stream to be treated.
Following are some factors considered during selection of a process
 Gas stream particulate matter characteristics
 Gas stream average and peak flow rates
 Gas stream average and peak temperatures
 Gas stream particulate matter average and peak concentrations
 Gas stream minimum, average, and maximum oxygen concentrations
 Contaminant average and peak concentrations
 Contaminant ignition characteristics
 ADSORPTION
In adsorption process the contaminant removal is done by passing a stream
of effluent gas through a pours solid material (adsorbent) contained in adsorption
bed. The surface of porous solid material attracts and holds the gas (the adsorbate)
by either by physical or chemical adsorption. The basic difference between physical
and chemical adsorption is the manner in which the gas molecule is bonded to the
adsorbent.

Table 2.7.1 Difference between physical and chemical adsorption

Physical Adsorption Chemical adsorption

Gas or vapour molecule is weakly Gas contaminant and is held
held tothe solid surface by strongly tothe solid surface by
intermolecular valence forces.
attractive forces.
It is accompanied Chemical reaction occurs
by capillary between the
condensation within the pores. adsorbent and the gaseous
contaminant.
Physical adsorption is easily Chemical reaction is usually
irreversible.
reversed bythe application of heat or
by reducing the
pressure.
Commonly used for the It is frequently used for the control
of acid
capture andconcentration
gases. Chemical adsorption is also
of organic compounds.
used forthe control of mercury
vapour.
Gas temperature is usually Chemical adsorption can be
maintained at conducted at
levels less than approximately higher temperatures(100°F to
120°F. 400°F)
Higher the boiling point greater will Much slower than the physical
beadsorption. adsorption.Amount of gas adsorb
depends upon
temperature and pressure.
 It is directly proportional to surface Liberates greater amount of heat and
areaavailable and multilayer hencerequires much energy.
adsorption can
take place.

SALIENT FEATURE OF ADSORPTION PROCESS

(1) Adsorption processes are used extensively on large-scale applications having solvent
vapour concentrations in the range of 10 to 10,000 ppm.
(2) Prior to becoming saturated with the solvents, the adsorbent is isolated from the gas
stream and treated to drive the solvent compounds out of the solid adsorbent and into a
small volume, high concentration gas stream.
(3) The desorbed gas stream is then treated to recover and reuse the solvents.
(4) The adsorbent is cooled (if necessary) and returned to adsorption service.
(5) Because the adsorbent is treated and placed back in service, these adsorption processes
are termed regenerative.
(6) Adsorption processes usually operate at efficiencies of 90% to 98% over long time
periods.

Table 2.7.2 Physical Properties of Major Type of Adsorbents

Adsorbent Internal Surface Area Pore Volume Bulk Dry Mean Pore
Porosity (m2/gm) (cm3/gm) density Diameter
(%) (gm/cm3) (Å)
Activated carbon 55-75 600-1600 0.8-1.2 0.35-0.50 1500-2000

Activated 30-40 200-300 0.29-0.37 0.90-1.00 1800-2000

alumina
Zeolite(Molecular 40-55 600-700 0.27-0.38 0.80 300-900
sieves)
Synthetic - 1080-1100 0.94-1.16 0.34-0.40 -
Polymers

STEPS IN ADSORPTION PROCESS

Adsorption occurs in three steps
Step 1: The contaminant diffuses from the bulk gas stream to the external surface
of the adsorbent material [1].
Step 2: The contaminant molecule migrate external surface to the macropores,
transitional pores, and micropores within each adsorbent.

Step 3: The contaminant molecule adheres to the surface in the pore. Following
figure illustrates this overall diffusion and adsorption process.

Figure 2.7.1: Adsorption steps

Steps 1 and 2 are diffusional processes that occur because of the concentration
difference between the bulk gas stream passing through the adsorbent and the gas
near the surface of the adsorbent. Step 3 is the actual physical bonding between the
molecule and the adsorbent surface. This step occurs more rapidly than steps 1 and
2 [2].
ADSORPTION-CAPACITY RELATIONSHIPS
Three types of equilibrium graphs are used to describe adsorption capacity,
(1) isotherm at constant temperature, (2) isobar at constant pressure, and (3)
isostere at constant amount of vapour adsorbed.
Isotherm: The isotherm is a plot of the adsorbent capacity versus the partial
pressure of the adsorbate at a constant temperature. Adsorbent capacity is usually
given as pound of adsorbate per 100 pound of adsorbent. These type of graphs are
used to estimate the quantity of adsorption. Isotherms can be concave upward,
concave downward, or “S” shaped [3, 4].
Isostere: The isostere is a plot of the natural log of the pressure versus the
reciprocal of absolute temperature (ln(p) vs. 1/T) at a constant amount of vapour
adsorbed. Adsorption isostere lines are straight for most adsorbate-adsorbent
systems. The isostere is important because the slope of the isostere corresponds to
the differential heat of adsorption. The total or integral heat of adsorption is
determined by integration over the total quantity of material adsorbed [4, 5].
Isobar: It is a plot of the amount of vapour adsorbed versus temperature at a
constant pressure. Below figure shows an isobar line for the adsorption of benzene
vapours on activated carbon.

Figure 2.7.2. Adsorption isobar for benzene adsorption onto carbon.

ADSORBENT REGENERATION METHODS
After a long period of operation and when adsorption bed becomes saturated
replacement or regeneration of the adsorbent bed is necessary in order to
maintain continuous operation. When the adsorbate concentration is high, and/or
the cycle time is short (less than 12 hours), replacement of the adsorbent is not
feasible, and in-situ regeneration is required. Regeneration is accomplished by
reversing the adsorption process, usually increasing the temperature or decreasing
the pressure [3, 4, 6].
Following four main methods used commercially for regeneration.
Thermal Swing: The bed is heated so that the adsorption capacity is reduced to a
lower level. The adsorbate leaves the surface of the carbon and is removed from
the vessel by a stream of purge gas. Cooling must be provided before the
subsequent adsorption cycle begins.
Pressure Swing: The pressure is lowered at a constant temperature to reduce the
adsorbent capacity.
Inert Purge Gas Stripping: The stripping action is caused by an inert gas
that reduces the partial pressure of the contaminant in the gas phase, reversing the
concentration gradient. Molecules migrate from the surface into the gas stream [3,
4, 7].
Displacement Cycle: The adsorbates are displaced by a preferentially adsorbed
material. This method is usually a last resort for situations in which the adsorbate is
both valuable and heat sensitive and in which pressure swing regeneration is
ineffective.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF ADSORPTION SYSTEM

Temperature: For physical adsorption processes, the capacity of an adsorbent
decreases as the temperature of the system increases. With increase in the
temperature, the vapour pressure of the adsorbate increases, raising the energy
level of the adsorbed molecules. Adsorbed molecules now have sufficient energy to
overcome the van der Waals’ attraction and migrate back to the gas phase.
Molecules already in the gas phase tend to stay there due to their high vapour
pressure.
 Figure 2.7.3. Carbon capacity versus gas stream temperature

Pressure: Adsorption capacity increases with an increase in the partial pressure of

the vapour. The partial pressure of a vapour is proportional to the total pressure of
the system. Any increase in pressure will increase the adsorption capacity of a
system. The increase in capacity occurs because of a decrease in the mean free path
of vapour at higher pressures [7, 8].
Gas velocity: The gas determines the contact or residence time between the
contaminant stream and adsorbent. The slower the contaminant stream flows
through the adsorbent bed, the greater the probability of a contaminant molecule
reaching an available site.
In order to achieve 90% or more capture efficiency, most carbon adsorption
systems are designed for a maximum airflow velocity of 100 ft/min (30 m/min)
through the adsorber. A lower limit of at least 20 ft/min (6 m/min) is
maintained to avoid flow problems such as channeling. Gas velocity through the
adsorber is a function of the cross-sectional area of the adsorber for a given volume
of contaminant gas.
Humidity: Activated carbon has more affinity towards nonpolar hydrocarbons
over polar water vapour. The water vapour molecules in the exhaust stream exhibit
strong attractions for each other rather than the adsorbent. At high relative
humidity, over 50%, the number of water molecules increases to the extent that
they begin to compete with the hydrocarbon molecules for active adsorption sites.
This reduces the capacity and the efficiency of the adsorption system [8].

Bed Depth: Providing a sufficient depth of adsorbent is very important in

achieving efficient gas removal due to the rate that VOC compounds are adsorbed
in the bed. There are practical minimum and maximum limits to the bed depth.

Figure 2.7.4. Mass transfer zone

REFERENCES
[1] Khare, M., Sinha, M. Computer Aided Simulation of Efficiency of an Electrostatic
Precipitator. Journal of Environmental International, 2006, 23 (1-6), 451-462.
[2] http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Catalytic-Converter.
[3] Theodore, L. ‘Adsorbers’ in “Air Pollution Control Equipment Calculations”, Wiley,
2008.
[4] Spellman, F. R. "Gaseous Emission Control", Environmental Engineer’s Mathematics
Handbook, Taylor & Francis, Inc., 2004.
[5] Mycock, J. C., McKenna, J. D., Theodore, L. “Air pollution control engineering and
technology”, Lewis publishers, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 1995.
[6] Liu, D. H. F., Liptak, B. G., Bous, P. A. “Environmental Engineering Handbook”, 2nd
edition, CRC Press, LLC, Florida, 1997.
[7] Peavy, H. S., Rowe, D. R., Tchobanoglous, G. “Environmental Engineering”, McGraw-
Hill, 1985.
[8] http://www.scribd.com/doc/37001353/81836-03b.
 Lecture 8

Gaseous emission control by absorption

1
 ABSORPTION
Absorption is a process where transfer of a gaseous component from gas phase to
liquid phase takes place. More specifically in air pollution control, absorption
involves the removal of objectionable gaseous contaminant from a process stream
by dissolving them in liquid. Common terms used in absorption process are as
follows:
1. Absorbent: the liquid, usually water, into which contaminant is absorbed
2. Absorbate or solute The gaseous contaminant being absorbed, such as SO2, H2S, etc.
3. Carrier gas: the inert portion of gas stream, usually air, from which the contaminant is to
be removed [1].
4. Interface: the area where the gas phase and the absorbent contact each other.
5. Solubility: the capability of the gas to be dissolved in a liquid.
Absorption equipment used to remove gaseous contaminants are referred to as
absorber or wet scrubber. Wet scrubbers usually cannot be operated to optimize
simultaneous removal of both gases and particulate matter. In designing absorber
from gaseous emissions, optimum mass transfer can be accomplished by:
1. Providing a large interfacial contact area.
2. Providing good mixing between gas and liquid phases.
3. Allowing sufficient residence or contact time between the phases.
4. Ensuring a high degree of solubility of the contaminant in the absorbent [1].

MECHANISM OF ABSORPTION
The gaseous contaminant are removed in absorption process by passing
(contacting) a contaminated laden gas through a liquid. The following three steps
occur during this process:
Step1: The pollutant diffuses from bulk area of the gas phases to the gas
liquid interface. Step2: gaseous pollutant transfer across the interface to the
liquid phase. This second step is extremely rapid.
Step3: The pollutant diffuses bulk area of the liquid, making room for
additional gas molecule to absorb.
The rate of mass transfer (absorption) is dependent on the diffusion rate in either
the gas phase or liquid phase. The diffusion rate of gaseous pollutant molecule
2
 through a gas is always faster than its diffusion rate through the liquid because
molecules in the gas are further apart than are molecules in the liquid. However
the mass transfer rate depends primarily upon the solubility of the pollutant in the
liquid [1].

SOLUBILITY
Solubility of contaminant affects the amount of contaminant that can be adsorbed.
It is a function of both the temperature and, to a lesser extent pressure of a system.
As we increase the temperature of the system the amount of gas that can be
absorbed by liquid decreases, while as with increasing the pressure generally
absorption increases. The solubility data are analyzed by equilibrium diagram [2].
Under certain conditions, Henry’s law may also be used to express equilibrium
solubility of gas liquid system, henry’s is expresses as

Restriction on Henry’s law:

1. Henry’s law can be used to predict solubility only when the equilibrium line is straight.
2. Henry’s law does not hold good for gases that react or dissociate upon dissolution.

ABSORPTION UNIT
SPRAY TOWER
Spray towers are useful for large volume handling with relatively low
pressure drop and high efficiency. In general smaller the droplet size the greater
the turbulence, the more chance for absorption of the gas. Absorbing liquid

3
usually water is sprayed through the contaminated gas and the absorbent
contaminant solution falls downwards for removal while clean gas exits through
an outlet valve in the top of unit. Moisture eliminator reduces the amount of
moisture in the gases being released. Spray tower has less gas liquid interfacial
area so they are less effective in removal of gaseous contaminant.

Figure 2.8.1. Spray Tower

PLATE OR TRAY TOWER

This type of tray contains horizontal trays or plate that provides large gas
liquid interfacial areas. The polluted air is introduced from one side of the bottom
of the column, rise up through the opening in each tray, and the rising gas prevents
the liquid from draining through the opening. Due to repeated contact of gas and
liquid the contaminant are removed and the clean air emerges from the top.
In bubble cap tray column, the contaminated gas moves upward until they
strike the cap, at which point they are diverted downward and discharged as small
bubbles from slots at the bottom of the caps [3]. Since gas continues flow in
upward direction so repeated interaction takes place and contaminated gas is
removed and clean gas emerged from the top. The contaminant- laden liquid flows
to the bottom and is drawn off.

4
Figure 2.8.2. Schematic diagram of bubble cap tray tower

5
PACKED TOWER: In packed tower the contact time between vapour and
liquid is increased by introducing packing. The packing material has a large surface
to volume ratio and a large void ratio that offers minimum resistance to gas flow.
Generally packed tower are operated counter currently, with gas entering at
the bottom of tower and liquid entering from the top. Liquid flows over the surface
of the packing in a thin film causing continuous contact with the gases [4, 5].
Packed towers are highly efficient but they become easily clogged when gas
with high particulate loads are introduced.

Figure 2.8.3. Counter current flow packed tower

REFERENCES
[1] http://www.scribd.com/doc/37001353/81836-03b
[2] http://www.buc.edu.in/sde_book/msc_air.pdf
[3] http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOGtrain.nsf/fabbfcfe2fc93dac85256afe00483cc4/f74ae7
4c6531c97d85256b6c006d9c99/$FILE/si412c_lesson11.pdf

6
 [4] Spellman, F. R. "Gaseous Emission Control", Environmental
Engineer’s MathematicsHandbook, Taylor & Francis, Inc., 2004.
[5] Mycock, J. C., McKenna, J. D., Theodore, L. “Air pollution control
engineering andtechnology”, Lewis publishers, Boca Raton, Fla, USA, 1995.