Research Methods

INE704
Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang
 RESEARCH METHODS
Module Code: INE704
Lecturer-in-charge: Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang (BEc, GDM, MBA, MSc, DBA, PGDE)

Key Components Sub Components Percentage

 Class
Participation
Process (10%) 30%
Assessment  Homework (20%)
Method of  In-class activities
Assessment (Bonus points)
Mid-term  Multiple-choice
quizzes (at home 20%
Assessment
via LMS)
 Multiple-choice
Final Assessment quizzes 50%
(Open book exam)
 CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Methods
Chapter 2: Reviewing the literature
Chapter 3: Formulating a research problem
Chapter 4: Selecting a study design
Chapter 5: Selecting a data collection method (Midterm
Exam)
Chapter 6: Writing a research proposal
Chapter 7: Processing data
Chapter 8: Displaying data
1. Kumar, R. (2019). Research Methodology. A Step-by-Step Guide for
Beginners (5th ed.). Washington: SAGE Publications.
2. Trần Tiến Khai (2014). Phương pháp nghiên cứu kinh tế- Kiến thức cơ
bản. TP. HCM: Nhà xuất bản Lao động xã hội.
3. Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research
methods for business students (8th ed.). Harlow: Prentice Hall.
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
Widely used in the business field
Compatible with multiple databases (i.e. Excel)
To download SPSS, instructions, analytical data
files, and assignments:
https://hoangln1.wixsite.com/ppnckh
 Additional reading:

1/ Pallant, J. (2001). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data

analysis using SPSS for Windows (versions 10 and 11): SPSS student version
11.0 for Windows. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.
​
2/ Hoàng, Trọng & Chu, Nguyễn Mộng Ngọc (2008) Phân tích dữ liệu
nghiên cứu với SPSS. TPHCM: NXB Hồng Đức.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO
RESEARCH METHODS

Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the reasons for doing research;
Recognise different types of research
from the perspective of applications,
objectives and enquiry modes;
Understand the characteristics and
requirements of a research process;
Understand and adhere to ethical
standards in research.
Your business is changing.
l •
competition is changing.

..

Doing business without data is

like driving with your eyes
closed
 RESEARCH-AN INTEGRAL PART
OF YOUR PRACTICE

Why is research important?

Nguồn: www.frac.tl/work/marketing-research/why-startups-fail-study/
 RESEARCH-AN INTEGRAL PART
OF YOUR PRACTICE

Mistakes caused by lack of research

Parker Pen
Co.
introduced the
world's
inkless
ballpoint pen
in 1935
 RESEARCH-AN INTEGRAL PART
OF YOUR PRACTICE

Mistakes caused by lack of research

Coca-Cola
launched
"New Coke"
with new
packaging
and flavours
in 1985
 RESEARCH-AN INTEGRAL PART
OF YOUR PRACTICE

Mistakes caused by lack of research

Elon Musk
unveiled
Cybertruck in
2019 at Tesla
Design
Studio-Los
Angeles
 APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH

Applications of research in practice

More than a set of skills, research is a way of

thinking:
 Examining critically various aspects of your daily
professional work;
 Understanding and formulating the guiding
principles; and
 Developing and testing new theories to enhance
your practice.
 APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH

Applications of research in practice

Examples of how we think about real-world

problems:
 What are the cultural differences between the domestic
market and the target international market? (Parker Pen Co.);
 Is there a positive effect between the new packaging and
flavours on the consumer's choice? (Coca Cola);
 What is the percentage of defective products in the test
sample? Is there enough statistical evidence that this rate
adheres to "AQL 2.5" (Acceptable Quality Limit at 2.5%)?
(Cybertruck)
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Definitions of research

The word "research" is composed of two syllables,

"re" and "search". "re" as a prefix means "a new or
over gain" and "search" as a verb means "examine
closely and carefully";
In science, the roles of research are not only to solve
practical problems (applied research) but also to
develop new knowledge (pure research).
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Definitions of research

Research is "a structured inquiry that utilises

acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and creates new knowledge that is
generally applicable" (Grinnell, 1993: 4);
In brief, research is "a systematic investigation
to find answers to a problem" (Burns, 1997: 2)
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Definitions of research

From these definitions it is clear that research is a

process for collecting, analysing and interpreting
information to answer questions. These imply that
research:
 is undertaken within a framework of a set of
philosophies;
 uses procedures, methods and techniques that
have been tested for their validity and reliability;
 is designed to be unbiased and objective.
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Characteristics of research

But to qualify as research, the process must have

certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be:
Controlled
Rigorous
Systematic
Valid & Verifiable
Empirical
Critical
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Characteristics of research
 Controlled
 In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome.
 A particular event is seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship.
 Some relationships are more complex than others.
 Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and
interacting factors.
 In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to link the
effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.
 In the study of causation, the establishment of this linkage is essential; however,
in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is extremely difficult – and often
impossible – to make the link.
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Characteristics of research
 Rigorous
 You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
 Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical
and the social sciences and within the social sciences.
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Characteristics of research
 Systematic
 Some procedures must follow others.
 This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical sequence.
 The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way.
 Valid & Verifiable
 This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
 RESEARCH: WHAT DOES IT
MEAN?

Characteristics of research
 Empirical
 This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard
evidence gathered from information collected from real-life
experiences or observations.

 Critical
 Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed
is crucial to a research enquiry.
 The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any
drawbacks.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Application perspective

 Pure research involves developing and testing theories and

hypothesis that are intellectually challenging but may or may
not have application at the present time.
 Pure research is also concerned with the development,
examination, verification and refinement of research
methods, procedures, techniques and tools.
 Examples are developing a sampling technique that can be
applied to a particular situation; developing a strategy to
asses the validity of a procedure; developing an instrument
to measure a stress level in human beings; and finding the
best way of measuring the people’s attitude.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Application perspective

 Applied research, on the other hand, deals with the

application of existing research techniques, procedures and
methods for the purpose of collection of information about
various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or
phenomenon
 The information gathered can be used in other way, for:
 Policy formulation
 Administration, and

 Enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon

 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Objectives perspective
 Descriptive research attempts to describe information about,
say, the living conditions of the community, or describes
attitude of the community towards a particular issue.
 For example, it may attempt to describe:
 the types of service provided by an organization
 the administrative structure of an organization
 the living conditions of the people residing in flood areas
 the needs of a community
 the attitude of employees towards management
 how a child feels living in a house with domestic violence.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Objectives perspective
 Correlational research is to identify or establish the existence of a
relationship between two or more aspects of a situation, for example:
 What is the impact of advertisement campaign on the sale of the product?
 What is the relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack?
 What is the relationship between fertility and mortality?
 What is the relationship between technology and unemployment?
 What is the effect of home environment on educational achievements?
 What is relationship between consumption and income?
 What is relationship between investment and rate of interest or investment and income
or investment and saving?
 What is relationship between the use of sophisticated technology and unemployment?
 What is relationship between growth income and skilled labor force?
 What is relationship between education and consumption behaviors?
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Objectives perspective

 Explanatory research attempts to clarify why or how there is a

relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type
of research attempts to explain, for example:
 How effective advertisement campaign promotes the sale of the product
 Why stressful living results in heart attack
 Why decline in mortality followed by fertility decline
 How technology affects the unemployment?
 How the home environment affects children’s level of academic achievements?
 How income affects consumption?
 How rate of interest determines the level of investment?
 How savings affect the level of investment?
 How technology affects the rate of employment?
 How skilled labor force contributes toward the growth?
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Objectives perspective
 Exploratory research is one when a study is undertaken
with the objective either to explore an area where little is
known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study.
 When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is
also called feasibility study or a pilot study.
 It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to explore
area about which s/he has little or no knowledge.
 In short it is a small-scale study which is undertaken to
decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed study.
 Exploratory studies are also carried out to develop, refine
and/or test measurement tools and procedures.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Inquiry perspective

 Quantitative research attempts to quantify the variation in a

phenomenon, problem, event, or issue. Examples of
quantitative aspects of research study are:
 How many people have a particular problem?
 How many people hold a particular attitude?
 How female labor force participation is affected by
various socio-economic factors?
 How residential statuses of the inhabitants affect the
consumption behaviors?
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Inquiry perspective

 Qualitative research is more appropriate to determine the

nature of a problem, issue, or phenomenon. The study will be
qualititative if the purpose is to:
 Describe a situation, phenomenon, problem, or event;
 If the analysis is done to establish the variation in the
situation, phenomenon, problem, or event without
quantifying it; and
 The description of an observed situation, the historical
enumeration of events, an account of the different
opinions people have about the issue, and a description of
the living conditions of a community are examples of
qualitative research.
 RESEARCH PROCESS

Definition

The research process is:

a sequence of actions taking place in sequence and
associated with the knowledge base as well as logical
thinking steps;
to demonstrate a series of steps in thinking and
applying knowledge of research methods and
specialised knowledge;
a sequence of actions starting from identifying the
research problem to the last step of finding the answer
to the problem posed.
 RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process

S1 • Formulating a research problem

S2 • Conceptualising a research design
S3 • Constructing an instrument
S4 • Selecting a sample
S5 • Writing a research proposal
S6 • Collecting data
S7 • Processing data
S8 • Writing a research report
 RESEARCH PROCESS

Research Process
Phase Giai
Giai đoạn II
đoạn II
Phase Phase II Phase III

Deciding Planning Conducting

Main task What to How to

research? conduct? What are the
(What is the (What is an conclusions?
research appropriate (The required
problem?) research design?) information)

Operational 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Steps
RESEARCH PROCESS
ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

Research Research
information information
providers users

Respondents
 ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

Research information providers

Unethical pricing
Unnecessary or unwarranted research services;
Client confidentiality issues;
Use of “black-box” methodologies (EX: Do not provide
information about how the methodology works).
 ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

IS IT SEEN AS ETHICAL PRACTICE IN RESEARCH?

ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

RESPECT RIGHTS OF RESPONDENTS

 ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

AVOID USING SENSITIVE QUESTIONS

 ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

Research information users

Requesting proposals without intent to purchase;
Deceptively promising future business;
Overstating or understating research findings.
 ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

Respondents

Providing dishonest answers or faking

behaviour (EX: provide biased feedback; avoid
offending others by understating any
dissatisfaction; tendency to over- or under-
report...)
ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

BIASED FEEDBACK
ETHICS IN
RESEARCH PRACTICES

OVER-REPORT
 HOMEWORK

Excercise 1
Give 3 examples of each of the followings (do not use
sample examples):
1/ Descriptive research (EX: To describe age
characteristics of customers using Coca Cola; To
describe average spending per month on mobile
phones);
2/ Causal research (EX: Working part-time has a
negative effect on school results; Age of customers has
a negative effect on the number of carbonated soft
drinks consumed)
 CHAPTER 2:
REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the functions of the literature
review in research;
Identify the process of conducting a
literature search;
Develop theoretical and conceptual
frameworks;
Select an appropriate presentation of a
literature review;
Create in-text citations and reference lists.
 PLACE OF LITERATURE REVIEW
IN RESEARCH

Structure of a research
Abstract;
Introduction;
Literature Review;
Methodology;
Results;
Discussion and Conclusions;
Reference.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Definition

The review of literature is a summary of all the

reviews from previous research literatures related to
the current study carried out by a researcher.
It helps to discover what is already known about the
research problem and what more has to be done;
Indicate the contributions of the proposed research to
existing knowledge (e.g. research gaps not previously
studied) by integrating proposed research results with
existing knowledge.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Functions of a literature review

For a particular study, a literature review will help:

1) Clarify your research problem (S1);
2) Improve your research methodology (S2-4);
3) Broaden your knowledge base in your research
area (S8);
4) Enable you to contextualise your findings (S8).
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Functions of a literature review

1) Clarify your research problem:

 Because it helps to better understand the topic 
formulating the research problem;
 Identifying research gaps from previous related
research.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Functions of a literature review

2) Improve your research methodology:

 Synthesise and evaluate processes and methods
similar to your proposed methodology;
 Decide the best methodology to solve your
research problem.
EX: Assign meanings to travelling photos via canonical
correlation analysis.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Functions of a literature review

3) Broaden your knowledge base in your research area:

 Help readers get an overview of previous
research related to your topic;
 Discover what is already known about your
research problem (to avoid duplication);
 Identify relevant theories and research gaps
related to your topic.
 LITERATURE REVIEW

Functions of a literature review

4) Enable you to contextualise your findings:

 Are your research results consistent with existing
theories?
 How are your research results different from
previous research?
 What are your theoretical contributions to
existing knowledge?
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

Steps in a literature review process

S4:
Developing a
S3: conceptual
Developing a framework
theoretical
S2: Reviewing framework
the selected
literature

S1:
Searching
for the
existing
literature
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

You must have at least some idea of the broad subject
area and of the problem you wish to investigate, to set
parameters for your search. Next, you compile a
bibliography for this broad area. There are three sources
that you can use to prepare a bibliography:
• Books
• Journals
• Internet
What are the pros and cons of the above sources?
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

• Books:
 Search for books by using the subject catelogue or
keywords;
 See the popularity of books through the number of
citations;
 Examine the contents of each book to double-check their
relevance;
 Use Endnote or Pro-cite to create a bibliography for your
research.
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

• Journals:
 Locate the journals that are appropriate;
 Look at citation indices or abstract indices to identify
and/or read the abstracts;
 Search electronic databases:
• Citation indices. EX: Arts & Humanities Index
(A&HCI); Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI).
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

• Internet:
 Use an academic search engine like Google Scholar
instead of Google;
 Use keywords with Boolean terms (like AND, OR, NOT,
or " ") to narrow down the search.
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S1: Searching for the existing literature

 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S2: Reviewing the selected literature

Read the selected literature critically to pull together themes
and issues:
 Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis,
the methodologies adopted (i.e. study design, sample size and its
characteristics, measurement procedures, etc.) and the criticisms of
them;
 Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other
situations;
 Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among
researchers and give your opinion about the validity of these
differences;
 Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known – the gaps that
exist in the body of knowledge.
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S3: Developing a theoretical framework

Universal Theory
• EX: Common traits for an effective leader
include: confidence, dependability, sense
of humour, emotional stability, and
enthusiasm...

Context-specific theory
• EX: Western leaders often empower their
followers while Eastern leaders often take
power.
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW
EX: The theoretical framework of a study entitled “Effective leadership models
between the West and the East”
- For Stakeholders (i.e. business owners, leaders): Why is it important to practise a
context-appropriate leadership model? What is its purpose?
- Historical and Philosophical Perspectives : Beginning the review with the
definitions of the concept, a historical overview of emerging leadership models,
cultural perspectives underpinning the concept.
- Implementation Strategies: What strategies have been used to help leaders develop
their leadership effectiveness in each context?
- Differences of opinion among researchers: What personality traits will determine
the effectiveness of Eastern versus Western leaders? How are these personality traits
different?
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

S4: Developing a conceptual framework

The conceptual framework is the basis of your research
problem. Whereas the theoretical framework consists of the
theories or issues in which your study is embedded, the
conceptual framework describes the aspects you selected
from the theoretical framework to become the basis of your
enquiry.
 EX: Subjective measurement of an effective leader can be
based on the assessment of the members involved. Objective
measures can be profits, margins, sales growth or market
share (Mills, 2009).
 PROCESS OF CONDUCTING A
LITERATURE REVIEW

Writing the literature review

Read Write
• Keywords • The contents
• Website • Read quickly • The level of • Critical
• Read importance thinking
carefully • Synthesising
Search Categorise
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Purposes of creating citations

Provide
Avoid
citation
plagiarism
sources

Verify citations
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Definition of citation

Citation is a brief
description of the
source of
information used
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Citation styles
APA (American
Psychological Association)
MLA (Modern Language
Association)
The Harvard system
Chicago manual of style
ISO 690
….
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Citation styles
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Citation styles
In-text APA MLA Harvard Chicago
citation
1 author Graber (2002) Doris Graber "media are most Doris Graber
(direct suggests that suggests that “media influential in suggests that
quotation) “media are most are most influential areas in which “media are most
influential in in areas in which the the audience influential in
areas in which the audience knows knows areas in which
audience least” (210). least”(Graber the audience
knows least” (p. 2002) knows least.”1
210).
More than Graber et al. Doris Graber et al "..." (Graber et Doris Graber et
2 authors (2020) suggest (2020) suggest that al 2002) al suggest that
(direct that "..." (p.300) "..." (300) "..." 1
quotation)
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Citation styles

End-text APA MLA Harvard Chicago

citation
References Klaphake, E. Klaphake, Pollan, M Pollan, M, The
(End-text (1999). My life as Elizabeth. My Life 2006, The Omnivore’s
citations) an English as an English Omnivore’s Dilemma: A
professor. Professor. Dilemma: A Natural
Bellevue, Bellevue, Natural History of
Nebraska: Nebraska: History of Four Meals
Bellevue Bellevue Four Meals, (New York:
University Press. University Press. New York: Penguin,
1999. Penguin,99- 2006), 99–
100. 100.
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Steps for creating citations

1. Note all the details of the documents, including the

number of pages from which the information was
retrieved;
2. Place in-text citations at appropriate places in the
manuscript;
3. Provide a list of references at the end of the
manuscript.
Note: There must be a coherence between in-text citations and
end-text citations (or references) (on the 1-1 basis)
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

In-text citations in APA style

 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

End-text references in APA style

 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

End-text references in APA style

 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

End-text references in APA style

 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

End-text references in APA style

 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

End-text references in APA style

 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Rules when creating end-text references

References: a list of all documents cited in the

article;
Bibliography: a list of all references (i.e.
background readings);
Normally, a research paper only needs a list of
documents cited in the text (or References).
 IN-TEXT AND END-TEXT
CITATIONS

Rules when creating end-text references

 HOMEWORK

Exercise 2
Please identify relevant keywords for a topic of your interest and
then use Google Scholar to search for:
1/ 2 books;
2/ 2 journals;
3/ Create a list of end-text references for these documents in the
APA style (please arrange in the alphabetical order from A→Z).
CHAPTER 3: FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand the importance of formulating

a research problem;
Recognise different sources of research
problems and steps in formulating a
research problem;
Explain how to formulate research
objectives;
Describe how to develop research
questions and research hypotheses.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Why is a research problem important?

 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Sources of research problems in applied research

Symptom:
Decline in
sales
revenue

Problem:
Change in
customers’
taste
 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Sources of research problems in applied research

 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

The biggest mistake of Coca-Cola

 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Sources of research problems in pure research

 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Sources of research problems in pure research

 THE IMPORTANCE OF A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?

Broadly speaking, any question that you want answered and
any assumption or assertion that you want to challenge or
investigate can become a research problem or a research
topic;
Formulating a research problem requires considerable
knowledge of both the subject area and research
methodology;
In a pure research, a problem must also show the
contribution of the proposed research to existing knowledge
(e.g. the research gaps).
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Formuation of a research problem

S1 • Identify a broad field or subject area of your interest

S2 • Dissect the broad area into subareas

S3 • Select what is of most interest to you (research problem)

S4 • Raise your research questions

S5 • Formulate research objectives

S6 • Assess your research objectives

• Consider whether or not you are sufficiently interested in the study,
S7 and have adequate resources to undertake it
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S1: Identify a broad field or subject area

Economics?
Psychology?
Management? etc.
→ What are the shortcomings, difficulties and obstacles
in society that current knowledge cannot explain? (What
is the novelty of the research problem?)
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S2: Dissect the broad area into subareas

 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S3: Select what is of most interest to you

 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S3: Select what is of most interest to you

Your own interest in the issue (or the research

problem);
Relevance to your expertise;
Your knowledge about the problem;
The concepts of your interest are measurable;
Availability of data;
Ethical issues involved.
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S3: Select what is of most interest to you

Is it an interesting research problem?
 Is it an important issue?
 Does it duplicate any previous research?
 Is it specific enough?
 Does it have any practical contribution?
 Does it have any theoretical contribution?
 Does it have any implication for methodology?
 Is it suitable for your major or expertise?
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S3: Select what is of most interest to you

New
perspective
New argument/
New hypothesis
New
variable(s)
Is it a novel research
problem? New area

New context New industry

New
background
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

S3: Select what is of most interest to you

Is it a feasible research problem?

 Is it consistent with your knowledge?
 Can you collect the data?
 Can it be built on the existing theory, knowledge
and experience you have?
 Do you have adequate resources to undertake it?
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Common mistakes when defining a research problem

The problem is too broad or too

1 narrow and not problematic.
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Common mistakes when defining a research problem

EX:
 Too broad: Lean manufacturing practices of enterprises in
Ho Chi Minh City
 Too narrow: Descriptive analysis of enterprises practising
lean manufacturing in Ho Chi Minh City
 Appropriate but not problematic: The impact of lean
manufacturing practices on operational performance for
enterprises in Ho Chi Minh City
 Appropriate and problematic: A multi-group analysis of
the impact of lean manufacturing practices on operational
performance: Does the national culture matter?
 STEPS IN FORMULATING A
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Common mistakes when defining a research problem

Misunderstandings between “Management

2 Decision Problems” & “Research Problems”

Management Decision Problems Research Problems

Ask what the decision maker needs Ask what information is needed
to do and how it should be obtained
Action oriented Information oriented

Focus on symptoms Focus on the problem definition

 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Definition of a research aim

 " A research aim is a brief statement of the

purpose of the research project. It is often
written as a sentence stating what you intend to
achieve through your research" (Saunders et
al., 2019: 44).
 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Differences between research aim & objectives

Research Goal/Research Aim: expresses "what" your
research is about.
Research Objectives: express "how" you intend to structure
the research process to achieve your research aim.
Indicate specific aspects of the topic that you want to
investigate within the main framework of your study;
Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing your
objectives (e.g. "to determine", "to find out", "to analyse",
"to measure" and "to explore").
 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Chracteristics of the wording of objectives

 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Chracteristics of the wording of objectives

What information should be

Who are your respondents? collected?
(EX: consumers) (EX: consumers' satisfaction)

Research
Objectives

Specific measurement used to Use words familiar to

collect the data the respondents
(EX: consumers' satisfaction with
product quality)
 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Chracteristics of the wording of objectives

 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Chracteristics of the wording of objectives

Symptom Loss of sales
Research problem Inappropriate advertising campaign
Research aim To determine the effectiveness of the current
advertising campaign
Research objectives  To determine whether consumers can recall
the advertisement
 To identify whether the advertisement
will be interpreted accurately
 To evaluate the influence of the advertisement
on attitudes towards the product.
 FORMULATING RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES

Group discussion:
1. Should we set a new price for our products?
2. To determine the cost of goods sold (COGS) for these new products.
3. What is the cost of goods sold (COGS) for these new products?
4. What is the price of similar products sold in the market?
5. To analyse the relationship between the cost of goods sold and the revenue.
6. What is the consumer's perceived value of these new products (e.g. high quality/low
price/value for money)?
7. To determine consumers' perceptions of different pricing strategies including break-even
price, price at an expected profit of 20% on cost, and price at a target ROI of 25%.

In the above sentences, which one refers to the management

decision problem, the research problem, and the research
objective?
 RAISING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Sources for developing research questions

Nhận
Research
thức vấn Research
Problem
đề Questions

Research
Objectives
 RAISING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Types of a research question

Descriptive Relational Comparative

question question question
• Describe a • Seek to assess the • Examine the
specific problem relationship difference
related to 1 between two or between two or
variable (EX: more variables or more groups
What are the age groups based on one or
characteristics of (EX: Does the more dependable
consumers in the respondent's variables (EX: Is
target market?) income affect their there a difference
spending?) in revenue between
these market
segments?)
 RAISING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Group discussion:
Symptom Loss of sales
Research problem Inappropriate advertising campaign
Research aim To determine the effectiveness of the current
advertising campaign
Research objectives  To determine whether consumers can recall
the advertisement
 To identify whether the advertisement
will be interpreted accurately
 To evaluate the influence of the advertisement
on attitudes towards the product.
Please formulate research questions from those research objectives.
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Sources for developing research hypothesis

Nhận
Research
thức vấn Research Research
Problem
đề Questions Hypotheses

Research
Objectives
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Definition of a hypothesis
"Hypotheses are statements that are taken for
true for the purposes of argument or
investigation" (Burns & Bush, 2014: 58)
 EX: Average monthly spending on mobile phone usage
in Ho Chi Minh City is more than 300 thousand VND.
 For 2 variables: There is a significant relationship
between respondents' monthly income and their spending
on mobile phone usage in Ho Chi Minh City
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Null hypothesis (Ho)

Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement about a population
parameter that a researcher will try to disprove (Null)
with the collected data.
EX: Ho: There is NO significant relationship between
respondents' monthly income and their spending on
mobile phone usage in Ho Chi Minh City
Note: Hypothesis always uses the population
parameter, not the sample parameter. However, it is
not an issue if you write the hypothesis in words
instead of using parameters.
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Alternative hypothesis (H1)

Alternative hypothesis (HA or H1) is a statement that
directly contradicts the null hypothesis. It is a
hypothesis that a researcher will seek to strengthen with
collected data.
EX: H1: There is a significant relationship between
respondents' monthly income and their spending on mobile
phone usage in Ho Chi Minh City
Note: Always use the "="; "≤" or "≥" sign in the null
hypothesis. So the alternative hypothesis must use the
"≠", ">" or "<" sign.
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Directional vs. Non-directional hypothesis

Non-directional (2-tailed) hypothesis: does not specify
the direction of expected difference or relationship
H1
X1 Y
H1
X1 X2

Directional (1-tailed) hypothesis: states the direction of

the predicted difference or relationship
H1(+)
X1 Y
H1(-)
X1 Y
H1(+)
X1 X2
H1(-)
X1 X2
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Types of a research hypothesis

Descriptive Hypothesis
• Include 1 variable (or Univariate Hypothesis)
• RQ: What is the percentage of customers who are not satisfied with the product?
• H1: The percentage of customers who are not satisfied with the product is above
50%.
Relational Hypothesis
• Express the relationship between two or more variables or groups
• RQ: Does gender affect the amount of products consumed?
• H1: Gender has a positive effect on the amount of products consumed
Comparative Hypothesis
• Examine the difference between two or more groups based on one or more
dependable variables
• RQ: Is there a significant difference in the amount of products consumed between
market segments?
H1: There is a significant difference in the number of products consumed between
market segments
 DEVELOPING RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES

Group discussion:

Research Questions
1. What criteria do customers use when choosing this cafeteria?
2. What are the age characteristics of consumers in this target market?
3. Is there a significant relationship between respondents' monthly income
and their spending on mobile phone usage in Ho Chi Minh City?
4. Is there a significant difference in the number of products consumed
between male and female consumers?

Based on the research questions (RQs) above, please

suggest one or more corresponding hypotheses.
 REASSESSING YOUR OBJECTIVES

Evaluating the costs and benefits of a research

Benefits from a research > Costs spent on a research

 REASSESSING YOUR OBJECTIVES

Evaluating the costs and benefits of a research

 Can the problem and/or opportunity be resolved using

existing information and managerial judgment?
 Is adequate information available within the company’s
internal record systems to address the problem?
 Is there enough time to conduct the necessary research
before the final managerial decision must be made?
 REASSESSING YOUR OBJECTIVES

Evaluating the costs and benefits of a research

 Do the benefits of having the additional information

outweigh the costs of gathering the information?
 Will the research provide useful feedback for decision
making?
 Will this research give our competitors too much
information about our marketing strategy?
 REASSESSING YOUR OBJECTIVES

Evaluating the costs and benefits of a research

Implications
Theoretical
for
contributions
methodology

Practical
contributions
 HOMEWORK

Each group selects 2 research articles in the area of ​interest

from Google Scholar. With the selected articles, please
provide your answers in the box:

Tasks Paper 1 [Title] Paper 2 [Title]

1. Define research problem
2. Define research aim &
objectives
3. Formulate research questions
4. Identify relevant hypotheses

5. Create end-text citations

(references) for each article
CHAPTER 4: SELECTING A STUDY
DESIGN
Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Understand what research design means;

Explain the important functions of research
design;
Distinguish between different types of
research designs;
Identify the corresponding data collection
methods of each study design;
Select the appropriate research approach
(qualitative or quantitative) for each research
design.
 RESEARCH DESIGN

Definition

A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of

investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems;
It includes an outline of what the investigator will do
from writing the hypotheses and their operational
implications to the final analysis of data (i.e. study
design, data collection method, sampling technique,
analytical technique and how you are going to
communicate your findings)
 RESEARCH DESIGN

Functions

Conceptualise an operational plan to

undertake the various procedures and
tasks required to complete your study;
Ensure that these procedures are adequate
to obtain valid, objective and accurate
answers to the research questions (e.g.
the control of variance).
RESEARCH DESIGN

Basic contents in a research design

• Who will constitute the study population?

Population • Will a sample or the whole population be selected?
and Sample • How will the sampling frame be identified?

Data • If a sample is selected, how will it be contacted?

collection • What method of data collection will be used and why?
method • How will ethical issues be taken care of?

Data
processing • How is the data preliminary analysed?
• What techniques are used to analyse the data? Why?
and analysis
methods
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By objectives perspective

Exploratory
Research

Causal Descriptive
Research Research
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By the number of contacts, the reference period,

and the nature of of the investigation
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By the number of contacts

 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By the number of contacts

 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By the number of contacts

 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By the reference period

Retrospective studies investigate a phenomenon,
situation, problem or issue that has happened in the past
(e.g. the respondents' recall of the situation).
Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a
phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or outcome in
the future.
Retrospective–prospective studies focus on past trends
in a phenomenon and study it into the future.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By inquiry perspective

Qualitative
Quantitative
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By objectives perspective
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of consent form in an exploratory study

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of consent form in an exploratory study

 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of a conceptual model from an

exploratory study
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of a supply chain descriptive analysis

from a qualitative study
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of a descriptive analysis results on

brand awareness from a quantitative research
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of a conceptual model testing results

from a quantitative study
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

By the nature of the investigation

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Three types of variables

Independent variable is a variable (often denoted by
X) whose variation does not depend on that of another.
Dependent variable is a variable (often denoted by Y)
whose value depends on that of another.
Controlled variable is not a variable of interest in the
study, but it is controlled because it could influence the
outcomes. Meanwhile, extraneous variable is any
variable you’re not interested in studying as well as
controlling that could also have some effect on the
dependent variable.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Example of variables in an experimental design

EX: Customer loyalty = f(Product quality, Before-sale
services, After-sale services)
 Dependent variable: Customer loyalty (Effect)
 Independent variables: Product quality, Before-sale
services, After-sale services (Cause)
 Extraneous variable: Customer experience (have
some effect on the dependent variable but it is
NOT controlled)
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Group discussion:
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Changes in the dependent variable

In any causal relationship, changes in the dependent
variable may be attributed to three types of variable: :

"Max-Min-Con" principle of variance (Kerlinger, 1986:

286): 1/ Maximise experimental variable, 2/ Minimise
error variance; 3/ Control extraneous variance.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental design
The following two methods ensure that the control and
experimental groups are comparable with one another:
Randomisation: ensures that the two groups are
comparable with respect to the variable(s). It is
assumed that if the groups are comparable, the extent
to which extraneous variables are going to affect the
dependent variable is the same in each group.
Matching: is another way of ensuring that the two
groups are comparable so that the effect of
extraneous variables will be the same in both groups.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental design with 1 independent variable

Experimental Group Control Group
Determine the number Compare Determine the number
of customers who of customers who
choose to buy the At one point in time choose to buy the
product product
t0
DO NOT change
Change product
product packaging
packaging design
design

Determine the number Determine the number

of customers who Compare of customers who
choose to buy the choose to buy the
product
At one point in time product
t1
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental design with 2 independent variables

 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental design with 2 independent variables

 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Traditional experimental design

 Experimental notations:
EG: O1 X O2
CG: O3 O4
 Horizontal dimension: indicates the movement of
events through time (e.g. before and after the
intervention).
 Vertical dimension: indicates the events occured
simultanously.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quasi-experimental design
 One-Shot Case Study (or After-only design)
- Experimental notations: EG: X O1
 One-group pretest-posttest design
- Experimental notations: EG: O1 X O2
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Quasi-experimental design (Cont')

 Static group comparison design
- Experimental notations: EG: X O1
CG: O2
 Time-series design
- Experimental notations:
EG: O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Solomon four group design

- Is a research design that attempts to take into account the
influence of pretesting on subsequent posttest results
- Experimental notations: EG1: O1 X O2
CG1: O3 O4
EG2: X O5
CG2: O6
- Test Effect: TE = (O2-O1); (O2-O4); (O5 – O6); (O4-O3);
(O2-O1)-(O4-O3)
 RESEARCH APPROACH

Qualitative research design

Qualitative research is usually in a form of exploratory

research;
It is an approach that seeks to describe and analyse
cultural and behavioural characteristics of people and
groups of people from the researcher's point of view.
Qualitative research methods allow the discovery of
important topics that researchers may not have covered
before.
 RESEARCH APPROACH

Quantitative research design

Quantitative research is an approach directed at the

design of quantitative observations of variables,
measurement methods, and the applications of univariate
analysis and/or multivariate analysis to discover facts
about social phenomena.
 RESEARCH APPROACH

Qualitative versus Quantitative research

SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 HOMEWORK
You are the marketing manager for Lego toys. You intend to
develop and launch a new product line of Lego toys and plan to
collect data from your target market to support the success of this
product line. Please select the appropriate research design and data
collection method(s) by answering below questions:
Questions Answers
1. What is the appropriate research design
(exploratory, descriptive, causal) for the above
topic? Why?
2. Which research approach should be chosen?
Why?

3. What data collection methods can be proposed

for the chosen research design?
CHAPTER 5: SELECTING A DATA
COLLECTION METHOD
Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Distinguish between different types of data
(secondary and primary data, qualitative and
quantitative data);
Describe steps in the primary data collection
process;
Determine how to calculate the minimum sample
size needed in quantitative and qualitative
research;
Identify primary data collection methods suitable
for a selected research design;
Classify different sampling techniques (i.e.
probability and non-probability sampling
techniques).
 RESEARCH DATA

Definition

Research data can be defined as "recorded factual

material commonly retained by and accepted in the
scientific community as necessary to validate
research findings" (Engineering and Physical
Sciences Research Council [EPSRC], n.d.);
Although the majority of research data is in digital
format, all data in any format can be used as
research data.
 RESEARCH DATA

Classification

Based on the data collection method used:

 Primary data: Information collected first-time for the
specific purpose of a study either by the researcher or by
someone else is called primary data..
 Secondary data: This type of data which already exists
but you extract for the purpose of your study is called
secondary data..
RESEARCH DATA
 RESEARCH DATA

Sources of secondary data

Organisation URL address

General Statistics Office of Vietnam http://www.gso .gov.vn

Ho Chi Minh City Statistical Office http://pso.hochiminhcity.gov.vn

United Nations Economic and Social http://www.unescap.org /stat/data

Commission for Asia and the Pacific
United Nations http://data.un.org

International Monetary Fund (IMF) http://www.imf.org /en/data

World Bank http://www.worldbank .org

Business Monitor International (BMI) https://businessmonitorinternational.wordpress.com

RESEARCH DATA

Nguồn: World Bank (n.d.)

 RESEARCH DATA

Classification

Based on the characteristics of data:

 Qualitative data: is data presented in the form of
words, reflecting the unmeasurable characteristics of
things or phenomena (e.g. the mean value cannot be
calculated).
 Quantitative data: is any quantifiable information
that can be used for mathematical calculation or
statistical analysis (e.g. the mean value can be
calculated).
 RESEARCH DATA

Group discussion:
Scenario 1: A researcher directly surveys 400 enterprises in
Ho Chi Minh City to find out the main business areas of
these enterprises.
Scenario 2: For the same purpose, the researcher collects
published data from the General Statistics Office of Vietnam
on the main business fields of enterprises in Ho Chi Minh
City.
Which data is seen as primary data and which one is seen as
secondary data? Explain why?
 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Primary data collection process

Identify
Calculate a
Identify appropriate
minimum
Identify the concepts / primary data
sample size
population variables to collection
& determine
be studied methods &
the sample
techniques
 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Definitions
Population: is the complete set group of individuals who you want
to study about.
Sample: is any subset of the population selected to collect
information.
Observation: refers to data from an individual study subject or
sampled unit.
Sample size: refers to the number of participants or observations
included in a study;
Sampling frame: is a list of all individuals forming the population;
Concepts/Variables: A variable is a property of people or object
that takes on different values
 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Primary data collection process
Population Sample

Descriptive statistics

Observation
 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Why do sampling?

Sampling is done because you usually

cannot gather data from the entire
population;
If a sample is selected for your study, it
is neccessary to ensure that your sample
must be large enough and
representative of the population.
 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
Group discussion:

To study the average score on the math

placement test of students from Ho Chi
Minh University of Banking, the
transcripts of 250 students were reviewed.
Please indicate the study population,
sample, and observation?
 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE
A minimum sample size in a quantitative study

The formula only applies to quantitative

research (qualitative research has its own rules);
There is no fixed formula for determining a
sample size;
The sample size depends on the size of the
population;
In order for the research results to be accurate
and reliable, the larger the sample size, the
better is the estimation.
 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE

Formula for calculating a sample size

according to Cochran
1/ Unable to determine the population (Without N parameter)
Decide the allowable error level (e.g. the allowable error level is
usually less than 5%; the optimal level is usually 3%)
Decide the confidence level (e.g. 80%; 85%; 90%; 95%; 99%)
Formula: 2
Z *p(1-p)
n=
e2
n = the sample size
Z = the Z value corresponding to the confidence level
p = the estimated proportion of observations with attribute in
question (normally p has a value of 50%)
e = the allowable error level
Source: Cochran (2007: 75)
 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE

Formula for calculating a sample size

according to Cochran
2/ Able to determine the population (With N parameter)
Formula: 2
Z *p(1-p)
e2
n=
Z2*p(1-p)
1 + ( 2 *N
)
n = the sample size
e
Z = the Z value corresponding to the confidence level
p = the estimated proportion of observations with attribute in
question (normally p has a value of 50%)
e = the allowable error level
Source: Cochran (2007: 76)
 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE

The Z value corresponding to the

confidence level
Confidence level Zα/2
80% 1.28

85% 1.44

90% 1.65

95% 1.96

99% 2.58

Source: Hoàng & Chu (2008: 507)

 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE

Exercise:

Researchers conduct a survey to estimate the

average income of Vietnamese people. The
Vietnamese population is roughly about 96
million people. They expect at least 95% of the
results they investigate to be reliable. The
allowable error level is 3%. So what is a suitable
minimum sample size for their study?
CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE

Z2*p(1-p)
e2
n=
Z2*p(1-p)
1 + ( )
e2 *N
1.962*0.5(1-0.5)
0.032
n=
1.962*0.5(1-0.5)
1 +( )
0.03 *96000000
2

n = 1067.099 ≈ 1068 people

 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE
Using Survey Monkey for calculating a sample size
Use SurveyMonkey to calculate a minimum sample
size in a quantitative study:
https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/sample-size-
calculator/
 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE
Using Survey Monkey for calculating a sample size
 CALCULATING A MINIMUM
SAMPLE SIZE
A minimum sample size in a qualitative study

Qualitative research for the purpose of exploring or

understanding the problem is usually based on a
small sample. The sample size will be based on "the
concept of data saturation point" as followings:
Data collection methods Data saturation point
in qualitative research
Interviews About 15-20 people
Focus Groups About 4-6 groups & 8-12 people for each group
Observations About 10-20 people
Projective Techniques About 15-20 people

Source: Bell, Bryman & Harley (2019: 397)

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Research objective and data collection methods

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Desk Research

Desk research is also known as secondary data-

driven research.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Qualitative data collection methods

Observations
Interviews

Projective
Techniques Focus Groups
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

In-depth Interview
It is a qualitative data collection method that refers to
"repeated face-to-face [1 on 1] encounters between the
researcher and informants with an interview guide [a
list of questions to ask but questions that are not
included in the guide may be asked as the interviewer
picks up on things said by interviewees] directed
towards understanding informants’ perspectives on
their lives, experiences, or situations as expressed in
their own words" (Bell et al., 2019: 436).
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Example of an interview guide

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Basic stages in an interview process

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Focus Group
 It is "a qualitative data collection method in which
the researcher asks a group of participants about
an issue to be discussed and leads the discussion
with a semi-structured discussion guide [a list of
questions to ask but questions that are not included
in the guide may be asked as the interviewer picks
up on things said by interviewees]. During the
discussion, the group of participants can naturally
interact and discuss topics of interest related to the
problem raised" (Bell et al., 2019: 463).
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Example of a topic agenda for a focus group

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Basic stages in a focus group process

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Observation

It is a qualitative data collection method in

which the researcher will record [either written
or visual record] the behavior of the research
subjects in the natural environment to
understand the influence of the surrounding
environment on their behavior and experience
(Bell et al., 2019: 404).
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Classifications of observational techniques

Based on the structure of an agenda
• Semi-structured Observation
• Unstructured Observation
Based on the researcher's involvement
• Participant Observation
• Non-participant Observation
Based on the researcher's presence
• Covert Observation
• Overt Observation
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Basic stages of observation method

Planning for Execution of the Generalisation of

observation observation the observation
• Determine your • Making adequate • Using the content
research objectives arrangements for analysis
[or topics to the target group technique to
observe]; Create a • Observing and analyse movies
research guide; recording facts and images or
Decide the revealed instantly text
observational • Asking for • Reporting the
method; Select the permission if research results
target group; Decide using tape
the length and time- recorders or
intervals and place of video cameras
observation, and
sampling technique
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Some obstacles when using observation

Research subjects change their behaviour when being
observed;
Misinterpretation due to the subjective bias of the
observer;
The inability to observe unobservable phenomenon
(e.g. attitudes, motivations).
→ A suitable data collection method only when the
observed subject feels natural and the situations can be
controlled by the researcher.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Projective Techniques
It is a qualitative data collection method in which the researcher
will collect data indirectly through:
 Word Association
EX: What comes to your mind first when I say Coca-Cola?
 Sentence Completion
EX: My favorite thing about shopping at Coopmart is.....
 Role Playing
EX: If you were the CEO, what would you do to increase your customer
satisfaction?
 Brand Personification
EX: Imagine that Coca-Cola and Perpsi are two people, please describe their
characteristics and personalities.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

Example of word associations

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Research objective and data collection methods

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Survey (for the purpose of descriptive analysis)

It is a quantitative data collection method in which
data is systematically collected from a group of people
[sample] for the purpose of calculating the sample
parameters that characterise the data (Hoàng & Chu,
2008: 3).
EX: Calculating the indicators measuring the central
tendency (e.g. mean, median, mode, quartiles, percentiles)
and dispersion (e.g. range, interquartile range, variance,
standard deviation, coefficient of variation) of the sample.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Survey (for the purpose of descriptive analysis)

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
CAUSAL RESEARCH

Research objective and data collection methods

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
CAUSAL RESEARCH

Survey (for the purpose of inferential analysis)

It is a quantitative data collection method in which
data is systematically collected from a group of
people [sample] for the purpose of modelling the
causal relationships between variables or making
inferences about the population parameters.
EX: using estimation and/or hypothesis testing
techniques to make inferences about the population.
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
CAUSAL RESEARCH

Survey (for the purpose of inferential analysis)

 DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN
CAUSAL RESEARCH

Experiment
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES FOR
COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
Sampling techniques
Random sampling

Systematic
Probability sampling
Sampling
Cluster sampling

Stratified
Sampling sampling
technique
Convenience
sampling
Non-
probability Judgmental
sampling sampling

Quota sampling
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Definition

Probability sampling: is a technique for

systematically selecting a sample from the
population in which every unit in the
population has a chance to be selected.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling: is a technique in

which each unit has an equal chance of
being selected into the sample. To do this,
the researcher needs to have a list of all
individuals forming the population (also
known as a sampling frame).
EX: Lucky draw or pulling names from a hat
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling (or Interval sampling):

is a sampling technique in which the first
unit is chosen at random. Subsequent
sample units are taken from the first unit
at intervals of 1k, 2k, 3k, and so forth.
EX: Given N = 100; n = 10; k = 100/10 = 10. If the first randomly
selected number is 2, the subsequent selected numbers will be 12, 22,
32, 42, 52, 62, 72, 82, 92.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Systematic sampling
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Systematic sampling (Cont')

EX 2: Select 10 customers from a list of 56 customers
using the systematic sampling technique; Given N = 56;
n = 10; k = N/n = 5.6 → k = 6 (always round up)
If the first randomly chosen number is 15, the subsequent
selected numbers will be: 21; 27; 33; 39; 45; 51; 1; 7; 13.
= 51+6-56 = 1
If the first randomly selected number is 32. What numbers
will the sample consist of?
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling (or Multi-stage sampling): is a
sampling technique in which the population is
divided into multiple blocks then the researcher
simply randomly selects M clusters such that the
total number of units of these clusters is greater
than the minimum sample size. This technique
requires the researcher to have a list of clusters.
EX: Given N = the population of HCMC; the cluster used to subdivide
the population can be district or ward etc.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling: is a sampling

technique in which the population is
divided into strata so that the units in the
same stratum have similar characteristics.
The sample units are then selected from
these strata using a simple random
sampling technique.
EX: stratification by income or educational level.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Summary

Probability sampling Pros Cons

Simple random sampling Easy to use Not feasible when the

population is too large
Systematic sampling Convenient and cost- Bias error if the sampling
effective frame is sorted by classes
Cluster sampling Effective Criteria for dividing the
population into clusters
are subjective
Stratified sampling Able to maintain The stratification criteria
important characteristics must be relevant
of the population
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Definition

Non-probability sampling: is a method of

selecting units from a population using a
subjective (i.e. non-random) method. The
non-probability sample cannot be seen as
representative to estimate the entire
population, but it is acceptable in
exploratory research.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling: is a non-probability

sampling technique in which only population
units that are most convenient for researchers
are selected into the sample.
EX: Convenience in terms of geographical distance (e.g. choosing
sample units near the researcher's place); or saving time (e.g. selecting
the first 100 customers entering the store).
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience sampling technique - Other terms

 Accidental sampling: is
also based upon
convenience in
accessing the sampling
population.
EX: selecting the first 100 customers
entering the store.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Convenience sampling technique - Other terms

 Snowball sampling: Selected units will

recommend other units [based on their
networks] to participate in the study.
EX: The researchers select 50 customers they have information. These
customers are then asked to select other people into the sample.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Judgmental sampling

Judgmental sampling: is a non-probability

sampling technique of selecting a sample
that is not random but based on someone's
judgment (e.g. the researcher, an expert
etc.)
EX: Only small and medium enterprises (SMEs) were selected for the
study because these enterprises account for 95% of Vietnamese
enterprises.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Quota sampling

Quota sampling: is a non-probability

sampling technique in which the researcher
decides the proportion of sample units of each
category [or quota]. Each sample unit of each
category is then selected using the convenience
or judgmental sampling technique.
EX: Given n = 100. If the chosen male/female ratio is 50/50; 50 men
and 50 women are then selected based upon the convenience sampling
technique.
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Summary

Non-probability
Pros Cons
sampling
Convenience sampling Convenient and cost-
effective There is a bias error in
Judgmental sampling Effective (if based on sampling. The sample
expert judgment) selected is not
Quota sampling Able to maintain representative of the
important characteristics population
of the population
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Definition of questionnaire

Questionnaire is a written set of questions that

are given to people in order to collect facts or
opinions about something;
It is important to distinguish a questionnaire
(e.g. a written set of close-ended questions in
quantitative research) from an interview guide
(e.g. a written set of open-ended questions in
qualitative research).
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Contents of the questions

When writing the questionnaire, the researcher must
answer the following questions:
 Do respondents understand the questions?
 Do respondents have the information they need to
answer?
 Are respondents ready to answer?
 Is there any reason for them to hesitate to provide
their answers?
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Forms of the questions

Open - Ended Question: is a question in which the possible responses
are not given and the respondents need to write down their answers in
their words. There are 3 types of open-ended questions:
 Freely open-ended questions (EX: What do you think about this
price?)
 An exploratory open-ended question (EX: Please specify other
answers:....)
 Open-ended questions using projective techniques (EX:
Heineken beer gives you the feeling of.......)
Close- Ended Question: is a question in which the possible answers
are set out.
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Wording of the questions

Requirements for wording when formulating
questions:
 Always use simple and everyday language
(e.g. low price at the begining instead of
penetration pricing);
 Avoid using local languages or slangs (e.g.
hết sẩy, bá cháy etc.);
 Avoid using long sentences;
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Wording of the questions (Cont')

 Words need to be clear and specific as possible (e.g.
Are you satisfied with your canteen?);
 Do not ask double-barrelled questions [a question
within a question] (e.g. How often and how much
time do you spend on each visit?)
 Do not ask leading questions [a question which, by its
contents, structure or wording, leads a respondent to
answer in a certain direction] (e.g. Your lecturer is
good, isn’t it?)
 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Format of the questionnaire

The researcher should pay attention to the
external appearance of the questionnaire:
 Paper and printing quality;
 Eye-catching presentation;
 Leave enough space to answer;
 Design a showcard if neccessary.
 HOMEWORK
You are a marketing manager for Coopmart and recently this retail
supermarket system has shown signs of declining revenue in the Ho Chi
Minh City market. The problem was due to the emergence of online sales
channels. Before proceeding with a research, you need to calculate the
minimum sample size and determine the appropriate sampling technique.
 1/ Please calculate the minimum sample size: with the population size
(N) of 96 million people; the confidence level at 95%; and the allowable
error level at 3%.
 2/ Give an example of each of the following probability sampling
methods:
2.1. Simple random sampling
2.2. Stratified sampling
 3/ Give an example of each of the following non-probability sampling
methods:
3.1. Convenience sampling
3.2. Quota sampling
 REFERENCES
Bryman, A., Bell, E., & Harley, B. (2019). Business Research
Methods (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cochran, W. G. (2007). Sampling techniques. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council [EPSRC]
(n.d.). Scope and benefits. Retrieved from
https://epsrc.ukri.org/about/standards/researchdata/scope/
Survey Monkey (n.d.). Sample size calculator. Retrieved from
https://www.surveymonkey.com/mp/sample-size-calculator/
Trọng, H., & Ngọc, C. N. M. (2008). Phân tích dữ liệu nghiên
cứu với SPSS tập 1. TP. HCM: NXB Hồng Đức.
World Bank (n.d.). Vietnam. Retrieved from
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/FR.INR.RINR?locations
=VN
CHAPTER 6: WRITING A RESEARCH
PROPOSAL & REPORT
Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Understand the purposes of a research report;
Explain how to structure and write a research
proposal and a research report;
Understand the issues of preparing reports (i.e.
written and oral forms);
Determine how to present a scientific research
report.
 PURPOSES OF A RESEARCH
REPORT

Why is it important?

"No matter how well

designed and executed
research projects are, if
the results cannot
communicate
effectively with the
audiences, the project is
considered
unsuccessful"
(Hair et al., 2012: 342)
 PURPOSES OF A RESEARCH
REPORT

Main purposes

It is a means of
systematically arranging
data together with
analysis and
interpretation of research
results;
Help the audiences assess
the quality and
effectiveness of research.
 PURPOSES OF A RESEARCH
REPORT

Main purposes

In applied research, it is
the basis for managers to
make final decisions;
In pure research, a
research report is seen as
a reference source for
further studies.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Definition and roles

Research proposal is a plan of a proposed research
project (Saunders et al., 2016: 53).
Its roles are to:
 Create a specific outline for a research project;
 Let the audiences visualise the research journey
with an appropriate destination and plan.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Contents of a research proposal

A research proposal should contain the

following information about your study:
 What are you going to research?
 How do you plan to find the answer to what
you propose?
 What is the most effective research strategy
to research your problem? And why?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Contents of a research proposal

• Title page • Proposed chapters of

• Table of contents the report (if needed)
• Abstract • Problems and
• Introduction limitations of the
• Objectives or study (if any)
research questions • Proposed time frame
• Research scope • References
• Literature review • Appendices (if
• Research needed)
methodology
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Contents of a research proposal

1. Title page
Present the research topic, time period, student's full
name, and an institution's name
2. Table of contents
List all headings and subheadings with page numbers
3. Abstract
Briefly present the main contents of the research
proposal
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Title page
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Table of contents
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Abstract

Introduction

Research gap

Key theories

Research aim

Expected
results
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Introduction

Start with a very broad perspective of the main

subject area, before gradually narrowing the
focus to the central problem under investigation;
Provide an overview of the main area under
study, a historical perspective (development,
growth, etc.) pertinent to the study area;
Discuss philosophical or ideological issues
relating to the topic;
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Introduction (Cont')

Trends in terms of prevalence (if appropriate);

Major theories (if any);
The main issues, problems and advances in the
subject area under study;
Important theoretical and practical issues
relating to the central problem under study;
The main findings relating to the core issue(s).
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Introduction - The research problem

Identify the research problem that is the foundation of your

research;
Specify the various aspects of/perspectives on these issues;
Identify the main gap in the existing body of knowledge;
Raise some of the main research questions that you want to answer
through your study;
Identify what knowledge is available concerning your questions,
specifying the differences of opinion in the literature regarding
these questions if differences exist;
Develop a rationale for your study with particular reference to how
your study will fill the identified gap.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

EX: You plan to study the relationships between national cultural dimensions,
lean manufacturing practices and operational performance. The introduction
will include:
- Definition and roles of lean manufacturing;
- Research trends relating to lean manufacturing;
- Previous research on the relationship between lean manufacturing and operational
performance;
- The current state of the application of lean manufacturing among nations;
- The reasons why the application of lean manufacturing in practice has not brought the
desired effect;
- Research gap: the problem of national culture heterogeneity may be one of the reasons;
- Research problem: a new perspective in which national culture and lean production have
an integrative, not mutually exclusive, relationship can help open "the black box".
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Introduction-Important practical issues

Why is this topic urgent?

Why is this topic suitable for you in terms of your
expertise and experience?
Will this topic help improve or solve any problems
for the business / work that you are working or in
charge of?
If the problem is solved, what benefits will the
company gain?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Objectives of the study

Objectives should be clear, complete, and

specific;
In qualitative research, the presentation of
research objectives is not as precise as in
quantitative studies. Qualitative research
only needs to provide an overall research
aim.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research Aim: To analyse the relationships between national

cultural dimensions, lean manufacturing practices, and
operational performance of enterprises in Ho Chi Minh City.
Research Objectives:
- To conduct a descriptive analysis of enterprises that have been
applying lean manufacturing in Ho Chi Minh City;
- To identify national cultural dimensions that affect lean
manufacturing practices and operational performance of
enterprises in Ho Chi Minh City;
- To examine the direction and strength of national cutural
dimensions on the relationship between lean manufacturing
practices and operational performance.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research scope

To what extent is your study being conducted?

 Who are the participants?
 Where is the research being done?
 When are secondary data (if any) being
collected?
 When are primary data (if any) being
collected?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Literature review

This section includes:

Theoretical framework : consists of the
theories or issues in which your study is
embedded;
Conceptual framework: describes the
aspects you selected from the theoretical
framework to become the basis of your
enquiry.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Example of a literature review

 Overview of national culture: the concept of "culture"
and "national culture"; Hofstede's theory of national
cultural dimensions; national cultural dimensions of
Vietnam;
 Overview of lean manufacturing: definition of lean
manufacturing; general principles of lean
manufacturing; common lean manufacturing practices;
 Overview of measurement methods of operational
performance when applying lean manufacturing;
 Previous findings on the relationship between national
cultural dimensions and lean production.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Conceptual framework: is a theoretical

structure about the assumptions (hypothesis),
principles or rules about the relationships
between variables in the proposed research. It is
related to variables including independent
variables and dependent variables that form the
proposed research model.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Example of a proposed conceptual model

 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

This section will include:

Research process and design;
Data collection methods, sampling
techniques, sample size;
Analytical methods.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Source: Bryman and Bell (2011: 390)

 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

Research design:
 Which research design (i.e. descriptive, causal,
or exploratory research) is being chosen ? Why?
 Which research method/approach (i.e.
quantitative or qualitative) is being chosen?
Why?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

Sampling procedure:
 What is the research population?
 What is the sampling framework being used in
the study? (if using a probability sampling
technique)
 What sampling method (i.e. probability or non-
probability) is being used?
 How are the participants being chosen?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

Sampling procedure (Cont'):

What is the sample size?
How is it calculated?
How many participants are you going to choose
into your sample? Does it meet the minimum
sample size requirement?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

Data collection methods:

 What data collection method (i.e. survey,
experiment, observation, or interview) is being
used? How are the participants being contacted
(i.e. in person, by email, or by phone)? Why?
 How is the data being collected? (describe the
process of collecting primary data from the
participants)
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

Questionnaire design:
 What types of questions (i.e. closed or open-
ended) and what types of scales (i.e. nominal,
ordinal, interval, or ratio scale) are being used?
 How is the questionnaire being designed?
 How are the language and expressions in the
questionnaires being tested prior to the main
study?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research methodology

Analytical methods:
 How data is being analysed?
 What analytical method (e.g. regression, factor
analysis, SEM, etc.) is being used?
 What analytical tool (e.g. Excel, SPSS, NVivo
or Ethnograph) is being used?
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Proposed chapters of the report

• Title page • Chapter 3: Research
methodology
• Table of contents
• Chapter 4: Research
• Abstract results
• List of abbreviations • Chapter 5: Conclusions
and discussion
• List of tables
• Chương 6: Research
• List of figures limitations and
• Acknowledgements recommendations
• References
• Declarations
• Appendices
• Chapter 1:
Introduction (Note that the contents of
the subsections must be
• Chapter 2: specified)
Literature review
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Research limitations

 What are the possible causes of research errors

(e.g. sampling and non-sampling error)?
 What are the recommendations for addressing
these limitations in future research?
(Note: Limitations of the research must be objective, not
subjective.)
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Proposed time frame

You must set yourself dates as you need to

complete the research within a certain time-
frame;
List the various operational steps you need to
undertake and indicate against each date by
which you aim to complete that task;
Remember to keep some time towards the end
as a ‘cushion’ in case the research process does
not go as smoothly as planned.
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Proposed time frame

 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

References

List all data sources, books, newspapers, documents,

and so forth used in your research proposal;
Use the APA referencing style and sort the reference list
from A→Z
(https://www.citationmachine.net/apa/cite-a-book)
 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Example of a reference list

 RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Appendices

Provide supplementary material (e.g. the

questionnaire or interview guide) that is not an
essential part of the text itself but which may be
helpful in providing a more comprehensive
understanding of the research problem;
The appendix should be ​in the alphabet order from
A→Z
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For a written report

When writing a report, the
following basic principles
should be kept in mind:
 Easy to follow;
 Use clear and well-structured
sentences;
 Always use simple and
everyday language.
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For a written report

 Use graphs, figures, tables to

support the report;
 Consistency in the
presentation (e.g. headings
and subheadings, font face,
font size, referencing style,
etc.).
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For an oral report

Preparation Presentation Q&A

stage stage stage
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For an oral report

Preparation Giai đoạn Giai đoạn

stage trình bày trả lời

Who are the audiences?

People with preconceived notions
People who are hesitant or lack of stance
People who are analytical and critical
People with synthesis skills
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For an oral report

Preparation Giai đoạn Giai đoạn

stage trình bày trả lời

Check out presentation aids (e.g. sounds, lights,

writing boards, etc.)
Pay attention to the length of the presentation and the
time allowed;
Practise the presentation in advance.
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For an oral report

Preparation Presentation Giai đoạn

stage stage trả lời
 Provide an overview of the research project and the
contents to be presented;
 Present issues clearly and specifically;
 Use tables and figures as illustrations;
 Be confident, understand the contents to be presented,
and attracts the audiences (e.g. using eye-contact) to
the presentation;
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For an oral report

Preparation Presentation Giai đoạn

stage stage trả lời
Try to create a comfortable atmosphere, present rather
than read each written word;
Ask the audiences to ask questions after the
presentation is over;
Pay attention to eye contact, body language, and tone
of voice.
 ISSUES OF PREPARING A
RESEARCH REPORT

For an oral report

Preparation Presentation Q&A

stage stage stage
Pay attention to the questions given; Feel free to ask
for repeating the question if necessary; Do not avoid
answering;
 Do not forget to thank the person who asked the
question;
The question must be answered in a concise, clear,
and straight-to-the-point manner; Use pictures and
data to support your answer.
 HOMEWORK

Collect one quantitative and one qualitative

research proposal. What are the differences (if
any)?
Find out how a research proposal is approved
at Ho Chi Minh University of Banking;
Write a research proposal using a topic of
your interest.
CHAPTER 7: PROCESSING DATA

Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the process of processing data

in qualitative and quantitative research;
Understand how to analyse data in
qualitative and quantitative studies;
Recognise the role of computers in data
analysis.
 STEPS IN DATA PROCESSING

Source: Kumar (2019: 254)

STEPS IN DATA PROCESSING

Qualitative research: the

focus is on the basis of the
analysis of the information
obtained; whether it is the
content, the speech, the
narrative or the analysis of the
event

Quantitative research: the

main focus in data analysis is
deciding how to analyse the
information obtained to
answer each question you ask.
 EDITING THE DATA

Definition
Editing consists of scrutinising the completed research instruments
to identify and minimise, as far as possible, errors, incompleteness,
misclassification and gaps in the information obtained from the
respondents;
The task of editing data is to convert raw data into refined data;
In qualitative research, editing involves transcribing the records into
a written form (or called transcripts) and checking the translation. In
quantitative research, editing the raw data includes checking the
contents for completeness, and checking the responses for internal
consistency.
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Qualitative data analysis process

 According to Glaser
1. Data 2. Data
and Strauss (1967), reduction display
the qualitative data
analysis process
consists of three
3.
main stages: Conclusions
&
verification
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Qualitative data analysis softwares

 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data with NVivo

Right-click on "Internals"
to create "New Folder"
(e.g. Interviews, Pictures,
Audio)
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data with NVivo

In the
"Interviews"
folder, right-
click and
select
"Import"
(Import the
data file to be
analysed)
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data with NVivo

Select
"Nodes"
then right
click on the
"Nodes"
interface and
select "New
Node"
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data with NVivo

 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data with NVivo

Check all nodes by

selecting
"View"→"Highlight"
(select "Coding for
All Nodes" &
"Coding Stripes"
(select "Nodes
Recently Coding"
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Example of coding images with NVivo

 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Example of coding videos with NVivo

 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Example of a code book in qualitative research

In qualitative
analysis, "code" is
called "node";
The code book is
often presented in
the Appendix.
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Example of a concept map

 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Example of a conceptual model

 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

The main tasks in a qualitative analysis

Build a story to describe a situation, episode, event, or case;

Identify key themes emerging from your field notes or
transcripts and extensively cite them in a verbatim format;
In addition, you can quantify (e.g. frequency of repetition of
nodes, relationships between nodes, etc.) the main themes to
provide their popularity and significance.
 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Example of coding agreement

 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Editing the data

Completeness

Check the data Logic of the answers

Errors
Clean the
data
Going back to the
respondent

Correct the Recalling the

data respondent's answers

Eliminating the
respondent's answers
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative data analysis softwares

 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Measurement scale

To measure
length, height,
weight
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Types of measurement scales

Measurement scale: is a concept used to

measure the levels of a phenomenon being
studied. In statistics, there are four common
measurement scales including:
1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Types of measurement scales

Nominal scale: is used for variables with

qualitative characteristics (or non-metric
variables). It is used to classify research objects
by using texts. The sequence in which
subgroups are listed makes no difference as
there is no relationship and order among
subgroups.
EX: gender, ethnicity, religion, marital status, etc.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Types of measurement scales

Ordinal scale: has the characteristics of a
nominal scale. However, subgroups have a
relationship to one another. Moreover, these
subgroups are arranged in ascending or
descending order.
EX: _ Ranking of market shares (first place, second place,
etc.)
_ Monthly income (Below average-less than 10 mil
VND/month, Average-from 10 to 15 mil VND/month,
Above average-more than 15 mil VND/month)
Thang đo khoảng:
khoảng cách giữa các phân nhóm nó bằng nhau.
Xác điịnh được khoảng cách. Gía trị không có ý nghĩa thực tế
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Tất cả thang đo đo lường đánh giá, thái độ đều mặc định là
thang đo khoảng.
Khi thiết kế thang đo đo lường đánh giá, thái độ, số điểm lựa
chọn nên là số lẻ (3,5,7,9). Vì ta cần có điểm giữa để thể hiện
điểm trung lập
độ Ph trong nước

Types of measurement scales

Interval scale: has all the characteristics of an
ordinal scale. However, intervals between two
points are of equal distance. An interval scale,
moreover, has a zero point with an arbitrary
presence. This means that the value of zero has
no real meaning.
EX: _ Attitudinal scale (very dissatisfied, dissatisfied,
neutral, satisfied, very satisfied)
_ Factory performance on a scale of 0 to 100
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Types of measurement scales

Ratio scale: has all the properties of an interval
scale, meaning that the distance between two
points in a ratio scale is also equal in distance.
However, this scale has a true zero point,
meaning the value of zero is not arbitrary.
EX: You weigh 80 kg and your brother weighs 40 kg,
meaning that you weigh twice as much as your brother in
any unit of measurement (e.g. kg, pound, ton). Hence
variables (e.g. age, height, weight, etc.) all use the ratio
scale.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Types of measurement scales

Summary
Scale Order Interval Zero point Examples
khoảng
thứ bậc
cách

Nominal scale X X X Gender, ethnicity, religion,

Dữ liệu phi tham số
marital status
(non-metric data)
Ordinal scale √ X X Ranking order

Interval scale √ √ X Attitudinal scale

Dữ liệu phi tham số
(metric data)
Ratio scale √ √ √ Age, height, weight
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative data analysis process

Checking
Editing Coding Analysing
missing
the data the data the data
values
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data

Data coding (coding) is the process of converting
responses into numeric codes for easily inputing and
processing (e.g. 1-Male; 2-Female);
Variables' values and labels are presented in the
"Variable View" window in SPSS;
The coded data is displayed in the form of a matrix
called the data matrix in the "Data View" in SPSS.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data

mã hoá dữ liệu trong

pp định lượng là mã Coding close-ended Coding open-ended
hoá dạng chữ thành
dạng số, gắn mã vào
questions questions
cấc lựa chọn
• Assign numbers • Categorise the
(starting with 1) to answers into groups
the answers based on their
meanings
• Assign numbers
(starting with 1)
according to the
number of groups
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data

Question Variable Value Code
Q1 Gender Male 1
Female 2
Q2 Occupation Student 1
Private employee 2
Government employee 3
Self-employee 4
Housewife 5
Others 6
Q20 Attitude towards Very poor 1
product quality Poor 2
Fair 3
Good 4
Very good 5
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Group discussion:

Suggest how to code the data below:

Biến nhị phân( Binary
variable (eg., 0 and 1)
là những biến chỉ có 2
Single answer Multiple answers
phân nhóm. Tuy nhiên,
thay vì đc mã hoá vs 1
và 2 thì biến nhị phân • Please indicate your education • Please tick on the softwares
lại được mã hoá vs 0
và 1. Biến nhị phân cho
level: you can use:
ta dữ liệu tham số thay • ☐ High school diploma • ☐ MS Office
vì phi tham số
• ☐ Bachelor degree or • ☐ NVivo
equivalent • ☐ ATLAS.ti
• ☐ Master degree and above • ☐ SPSS
• ☐ Others • ☐ Stata
• ☐ Others
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Group discussion:

Suggest how to recode the reverse coded data:

Question Answer
Compared to this bank, there are other banks with 1: Totally
which I am satisfied disagree -
5: Totally
agree
Compared to this bank, there are NOT many other 1: Totally
banks with which I am satisfied (Reverse coded) disagree -
5: Totally
agree
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data in SPSS

Note: If the input data is in Vietnamese, it

must be converted into unicode:
Edit→Options→Character Encoding for
Data and Syntax → Choose "Unicode"
Define and label each variable;
Assign a number to each answer.
EX: “No” = 1, “Yes” = 2
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data in SPSS

Variable name: each question in the questionnaire needs

a separate variable name. The rules for naming variables
are as follows:
 Variable names should be unique (not the same as other
variables)
 Should start with a letter
 Do not include a full stop mark (.), or symbols
 Not allowed to include SPSS commands (e.g. all, ne, eq,
to, le, it, by, or, gt, and, not, ge, with)
 No more than 64 characters (preferably less than 8
characters)
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data in SPSS

SPSS - Exercise 1

Open a new dataset in SPSS;

Open the file (Staff_codebook.pdf);
Define variables according to the code book in
SPSS.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data in SPSS

SPSS - Exercise 2
Open data with Excel as "Files of type". Then
open the file named "khao sat.xlsx";
Recode the data by choosing:
Transform→Recode into Same Variables→Select the
variables to be recoded into "String Variables" and then
choose "Old and New Values".
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Coding the data in SPSS

SPSS - Exercise 2 (Cont')

Define each variable:
"Name" (new variables' names): MucDoBVMT;
DaTungSuDung_OHCB; CamNhanGiaHT; GiaDeXuat;
DongYSuDung
"Type": choose "Numeric"
"Value": create a label for each corresponding value
(EX: 1=Not very interested→5=Very interested)
"Measure": define appropriate scales for each variable.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Checking missing values

To detect missing values that have not been detected at
the "editing" stage;
To check missing values:
 Find missing values in the "Data View" in SPSS;
 Use frequency tables;
 Filter/Delete missing values with commands: Data→Select
Cases→If condition is satisfied→Missing
Values→Missing/Nmiss
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Find missing values in the "Data View"

 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Find missing values via frequency tables

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Option 1: Replace the missing

values
Choose Transform→
Replace Missing
Values
 Note: only suitable
for quantitative
data using ratio
scale.
 Not recommended
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Option 2: Delete missing values

Choose Data→Select Cases→If condition
is satisfied→Missing Values →Nmiss
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Option 2: Delete missing values (Cont')

Select the valid observations with the "If"
command and then delete the missing
observations with "Delete unselected cases"
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Recheck after deleting missing values

Choose Analyze→Descriptive Statistics
→Frequencies
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Analysing the quantitative data

 Descriptive statistics: is a means of describing features
of a data set by generating summaries about data
samples.
EX: Calculating indicators measuring central tendency (i.e.
mean, median, median, interquartile, percentile) or
dispersion (i.e. range, interquartile range, variance, standard
deviation, coefficient of variation); creating frequency
tables; and displaying the data with graphs.
 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Analysing the quantitative data

 Inferential statistics: is a branch of statistics that makes
the use of various analytical tools to draw inferences
about the population data from sample data.
EX: Estimation or hypothesis testing.
 HOMEWORK

Open the file named "Sample_Dataset.xlsx" in

SPSS;
Tasks:
1/ Recode all variables;
2/ Define all variables.
 REFERENCES
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The Discovery of
Grounded Theory-Strategies for Qualitative Research.
London: Weiderfeld and Nicolson.
Kumar, R. (2019). Research Methodology. A Step-by-Step
Guide for Beginners. Washington: SAGE Publications.
CHAPTER 8: DISPLAYING DATA

Dr. Le Nguyen Hoang

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Select appropriate methods of

communicating and displaying analysed
data in quantitative and qualitative
research;
Understand how to present data in
tables;
Distinguish different types of graphs
and understand how to use them to
represent data.
 DISPLAYING DATA

Main purpose
The main purpose of using data display techniques is to make the
findings easy and clear to understand, and to provide extensive and
comprehensive information in a succinct and effective way;
The choice of a particular method should be determined primarily by
your impressions / knowledge of your likely readership’s familiarity with
the topic and with the research methodology and statistical procedures.
There are four ways of communicating and displaying the analysed data :
text, tables, graphs, and statistical measures.
 DISPLAYING DATA

Text as a form of data display method

Text is the most common method of communication in both
quantitative and qualitative research, especially the latter.
Displaying text should be thematic [written around various
themes of your report]; findings should be integrated into the
literature citing references using an acceptable system of
citation; your writing should follow a logical progression of
thought; and the layout should be attractive and pleasing to
the eye.
 DISPLAYING TEXT

Create
subheadings
for each topic

Use direct
quotations to
support your
arguments
 DISPLAYING TEXT

ghi lại biểu cảm của người

được nghiên cứu

The research diary

can also be used for
analysis in
qualitative research
(please note the in-
text citations)
 IMPORTANT

DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Displaying numerical data

It is a popular method of communication in quantitative research;

It is necessary to distinguish the characteristics of numeric data before
displaying: dữ liệu phân nhóm
 Categorical data [data categorised based on properties] (the mean value
cannot be calculated) generated from nominal or ordinal scales (EX:
Male/Female; Below average-less than 10 mil VND/month, Average-from
10 to 15 mil VND/month, Above average-more than 15 mil
VND/month)→Frequency tables, Bar/Pie charts;
dữ liệu liên tục
 Continuous data [data that can take any value within a range] (the mean
value can be calculated) generated from interval or ratio scales (EX: age,
income, attitude) → Data binning (if needed), Frequency tables, Any charts.
phân nhóm dữ liệu
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Data binning
Based on one (or several) certain criteria to group numbers of more-or-less
continuous values into a smaller number of "bins" [Note that continuous
data will be converted into categorical data after binning]

Categorical Data:
Continous Data: ko liền nhau, có
liền nhau, ko có khoảng khoảng cách-> Biến
cách-> Biến đang trình đang trình bày ở dạng
bày ở dạng liên tục phân nhóm
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Data binning
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

cách để nhóm biến

phân nhóm
Binning categorical data

If the number of a variable's values is small, there is no need

to bin (e.g. gender, marital status, etc.);
If the variable has many values, then group similar values into
a bin (EX: "nationality" variable – there are 223 nationalities in
the world. In this case, we can group by "continent" or "region")
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data

If the variation is small, each variable's value will form a

bin.
Number of children Number of households
0 90
1 187
2 326
3 152
4 70
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA
Cách phân bổ dữ liệu liên tục

Binning continuous data

If the variation is large, you need to group numbers of more-or-less

continuous values into a smaller number of "bins".
phân tổ đều Equal Width Binning: Bins have equal width with a range of each bin
Productivity (product/hour) Number of workers
[30; 35) 5
[35; 40) 10
[40; 45) 19
[45; 50) 13
[50; 55) 3
Total 50
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data

phân tổ mở:
khoảng cách giữa
các tổ ko đều
nhau, các phân tổ
Fixed Width Binning: you can specify a value used to calculate the
không có giới hạn
dưới và trên
“width” of the bin.
Revenue (million VND) Number of enterprises
< 1000 5
[1000; 2000) 15
[2000; 3000) 27
[3000; 4000) 13
≥ 4000 10
Total 60
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data in SPSS

To convert continuous data

(using interval or ratio scale)
into categorical data (using
ordinal scale);
Choose
"Transform"→"Visual
Binning"
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data in SPSS

Select a variable with

"Scale" measure into
"Variables to
Bin"→Click
"Continue"
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data in SPSS

Name the variable after binning
(called "Binned Variable")
The default label for the
variable after binning will be
"Variable Name (Binned)"
Remember the min & max
value of the variable when
binning
Choose "Make Cutpoints"
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data in SPSS

Choose "Equal Width Intervals"
If the width of a bin is called "h",
then: (Xmin+h)
 First Cutpoint Location: (Xmax-Xmin)/h
h
(Xmin+h)
 Number of Cutpoints:
(Xmax-Xmin)/h
(round up)
 Width: h
→ Apply
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Binning continuous data in SPSS

Choose "Make Labels" to
automatically create labels
for each bin;
Click "OK";
SPSS will annouce that
"binning specifications
will create 1 variable".
Click "OK" to complete.
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating frequency tables

tần số tần số tích luỹ tần suất tích luỹ

Frequency Percentage Cummulative Cummulative

Value
fi (%) frequency percentage
X1 f1 d1 f1 d1
X2 f1 d2 f1+f2 d1+d2
... ... ... ... ...
Xk fk dk f1+f2+...+fk =n d1+d2+...+dk = 100

Total n 100
tần suất= quy đổi
phần trăm tương
ứng của nó.
d1= f1/n *100
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating frequency tables

Example of the number of calls per hour to the customer service center
Frequency Percentage Cummulative Cummulative
24-hour time
(number of calls) (%) frequency percentage
[2; 5) 3 6.3 3 6.3

[5; 8) 4 8.3 7 14.6

[8; 11) 11 22.9 18 37.5

[11; 14) 13 27.1 31 64.6

[14; 17) 9 18.8 40 83.4

[17; 20) 6 12.5 46 95.9

[20; 23) 2 4.1 48 100

Total 48 100
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 1 variable in SPSS

Choose "Analyze"→"Descriptive Statistics"→"Frequencies"

Note: can use for both categorical and continuous data.
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 1 variable in SPSS

Example of the frequency table for "Do tuoi" after equal

width binning
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 1 variable in SPSS

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 2 variables

EX: Monthly spending of 200 students in 3 regions (i.e. North, Central

and South of Vietnam)

Million VND
Spending
Region <1.5 1.5 – 2 >2
North 30 40 20
Central 30 20 10
South 10 25 15
Total 70 85 45
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 2 variables in SPSS

Choose "Analyze"→"Descriptive Statistics"→"Crosstabs"

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 2 variables in SPSS

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Creating a frequency table for 2 variables in SPSS

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Drawing charts in SPSS

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Histogram is used to display a
biểu đồ Histogram sửcontinuous variable (using "scale"
dụng cho biến liên
tục ( ko có khoảng measure). This chart consists of a
cách giữa các cột) series of rectangles drawn side by

side without any space between

them;
One of its axis must represent the
frequency; 1 trục thể hiện tần số
Histogram also helps observe the
distribution of a variables (e.g.
comparison with a normal
Trong thống kê chỉ có 2 biểu đồ thể hiện
distribution). biến liên tục là biểu đô Histogram và biểu
đồ nhánh và lá (Stem-and-Leaf Prof)
phân phối chuẩn
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Frequency polygon is a
biểu đồ Đa giác tần
số ( Histogram + các line graph of class
đường nối) sử dụng
cho biến liên tục ( ko frequency plotted against
có khoảng cách giữa
các cột) class midpoint. It can be
obtained by joining the
midpoints of the tops of
the rectangles in the
histogram.
Only use for continuous
variable .
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Bar chart compares different
categories of data using
rectangular bars that represent
the value of the data (for
categorical variable);
After binning, continuous data
will be converted into
categorical data (using an
ordinal scale). Thus you do NOT
analyse the distribution of the
variable with a bar chart.
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Pie chart is a circular
statistical graphic which is
divided into slices to
illustrate numerical
proportions;
Only use for categorical
variables, and thus should
display a corresponding
percentage for each slice.
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Line chart is used to
display a continuous
variable;
Suitable for displaying
time-series data
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Box and whisker plot: is a graph that
exhibits data from a five-number
summary, including: 1/ Minimum value; Min=2 Median = 12 Max=28
2/ Q1 or 1st Quartile; 3/ Median or Q2 or
25% 25%
2nd Quartile; 4/ Q3 or 3rd Quartile; 5/ 25% 25%
Maximum value;
If the box are at the center → the data is
symmetric around the median;
Only use for a continuous variable.
biểu đồ hộp và râu:
Min Q1 Median Q3 Max
biến liên tục
25% 25%
25% 25%
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

quan sát thứ 93 được

. các giá trị đột biến xem là giá trị đột biến
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

Stem-and-Leaf Plot: is a diagram that quickly summarises data while maintaining the
individual data points.
EX: Statistical results on productivity (product/hour) of 17 workers are as follows:
44; 46; 47; 49; 63; 64; 66; 68; 68; 72; 72; 75; 76; 81; 84; 88; 106

Frequency Stem Leaf

4 4 4679 Key: 4|4 = 44 product/hour

0 5 Leaf unit: 1.0
5 6 34688 Stem unit: 10.0
4 7 2256
3 8 148
0 9
1 10 6
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 1 variable in SPSS

 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 2 variables in SPSS

Stacked bar chart is a
form of bar chart that
shows the composition
and comparison of a few
variables, either relative
or absolute, over time.
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 2 variables in SPSS

Population pyramid is a
graphical illustration of
the distribution of a
population by age groups
and sex.
 DISPLAYING NUMERICAL DATA

Statistical chart for 2 variables in SPSS

Scatter Diagram is a
graph in which the values
of two variables are
plotted along two axes,
and the pattern of the
resulting points revealing
any correlation present..
 HOMEWORK

Each group chooses its own statistical survey

topic.
Tasks for each group:
1/ Collect data relating to the chosen topic (the
data must have at least 3 variables and the
number of observations is at least 30);
2/ Create a frequency table for each variable;
3/ Draw a suitable graph for each variable.