THE ORGAN

AS A MIRROR OF ITS TIME

This page intentionally left blank
 T "iH E ORG

AS A MIRROR OF ITS TIME

NORTH EUROPEAN REFLECTIONS,

1610-2000

EDITED BY
KERALA J. SNYDER

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

2002
 OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS

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Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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This publication has been created within the European Commission cultural project ORSEV
(The Organ as a Symbol of the European Vision. Raphael Programme 1999)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The organ as a mirror of its time : north European reflections, 1610-2000 / edited by
Kerala J. Snyder
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references, discography and index.
ISBN 0-19-514414-7; 0-19-514415-5 (pbk.)
1. Organ (Musical instrument)—Scandinavia—History. 2. Organ (Musical
instrument)—Germany, Northern—History. I. Snyder, Kerala J.
ML570.1 ,O54 2002
786.5'1948—dc21 2001047643

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
 PREFACE

THIS BOOK INVITES THE READER TO PARTICIPATE IN A TOUR OF SIX CAREFULLY SE-
lected organs in North Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. It will be a leisurely
trip; we will linger in each place, considering the historical and economic cir-
cumstances under which the organ was built, listening to music played on it,
and learning how it has fared through the centuries. And we will make some
detours as we travel from place to place, pausing for interludes that do not deal
directly with our chosen organs.
The geographical limits of our tour are determined by the fact that this book
forms one component of a larger project, "Changing Processes in North Euro-
pean Organ Art, 1600-1970: Integrated Studies in Performance Practice and
Instrument Construction," conducted at Goteborg University and Chalmers Uni-
versity of Technology by the Goteborg Organ Art Center (GOArt), with financial
support from the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation, Dan Brandstrom,
Director. This research project ran concurrently with GOArt's building of the
North German organ in Orgryte New Church, Goteborg, completed in 2000.
This instrument was modeled largely on the Arp Schnitger organ in St. Jacobi,
Hamburg (1693), and thus two of our six organs were selected from the very
beginning. The other four, each of intrinsic artistic merit and historical interest
in its own right, fill in a chronological span through four centuries and form an
intricate web of connections, outlined in Chapter 1. The Compenius organ in
Frederiksborg Castle (1610) provides a link back to the Renaissance and serves
as our only example of an organ built for strictly secular purposes. The Cabman
organ at Leufsta Bruk (1728), one of the largest and best-preserved baroque
organs in all of Scandinavia, offers a unique example of an elegant instrument
built by the owner of an iron mill for the church in his factory town. Because
of its isolated location, it is not well known outside of Sweden, and yet E. Power
Biggs recorded on it in 1952. Working mainly in Paris, the greatest organ builder
of the nineteenth century, Aristide Cavaille-Coll, built only one organ in Scan-
dinavia, in the Jesus Church in Copenhagen (1890). Finally, the Marcussen
organ at Oscar's Church in Stockholm (1949) well represents the twentieth cen-
tury by mirroring two rather different trends: the organ reform movement and
avant-garde composition for the organ.
The stories that these organs have to tell are related here by many different
voices, in varying styles, and they can be read in different ways. The twenty-five
chapters of this book can of course be read consecutively from start to finish,
 vi PREFACE

but they need not be. Information about the organs themselves is found first in
the introductory chapter to each part, labeled "Exordium," and in the final chap-
ter, with further details related in chapters 4, 12, 15, and 21. Readers whose
primary interest lies in the history of ideas might want to begin with chapters 1,
3, 6, 9, 12, 13, 16, 24, and 25. Discussions of music played on these instruments
can be found in chapters 5, 1 1, and 23, while performance practice is considered
in chapters 4, 1 1, and 22. Organs other than our featured six appear in chapters
7, 10, 17, 18, 19, 24, and 25. The compact disk accompanying this volume
contains performances of works that are particularly appropriate to each of the
six organs; a short commentary on this program can be found at the end of
chapter 1.
Approximately half the authors of this book worked as regular members of
the GOArt research team on numerous projects besides this one, coming to-
gether periodically for conferences to report on our work and learn from one
another. Over the years a sense of cooperation and mutual respect developed
that is reflected in the fitting together of the chapters in this book. Without the
financial support of the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation and the wis-
dom of GOArt's founding director, Hans Davidsson, who assembled and led this
team, this book could not have been begun. But even a group as diverse and
knowledgeable as this did not possess all the expertise necessary to complete it
as we envisioned it. Therefore I am extremely grateful to the invited authors who
so richly contributed to this volume. My work as editor was immeasurably as-
sisted by GOArt's resident editorial team: Sverker Jullander, Paul Peeters, and
above all Joel Speerstra, who worked tirelessly as my assistant editor and turned
my groans into laughter.
With GOArt's support, I was able to become personally acquainted with all
six featured organs, and an anniversary trip to the far north of Scandinavia even
made it possible to visit the seventeenth-century organ in Overtornea (see chap-
ter 25). But the actual work of forming diverse contributions into a coherent
whole began in a villa overlooking the Mediterranean Sea, at the Ligurian Study
Center for the Arts and Humanities, thanks to a fellowship from the Bogliasco
Foundation. Back at home, I work in what may be the best of all library worlds
for a musicologist, with regular access to both the Sibley Music Library at the
Eastman School of Music (Daniel Zager, Librarian) and the Yale Music Library
(Kendall Crilly, Librarian). I would also like to thank Karl Schrom at Yale and
David Coppen and James Farrington at Sibley for their assistance. But even these
fine libraries did not have everything I needed, and I am indebted to a host of
colleagues for supplying me with additional information, among them Mats Ar-
vidsson, Goran Blomberg, Hans Fagius, Mark Falsjo, Per Kynne Frandsen, J0rgen
Haldor Hansen, Eva Helenius-Oberg, Ibo Ortgies, Andrew Johnstone, Sverker
Jullander, Rudof Kelber, Mads Kjersgaard, Robin Leaver, Johan Norrback, Bar-
 PREFACE Vll

bara Owen, Paul Peeters, Roger Sherman, Teri Towe, Axel Unnerback, Harald
Vogel, Joachim Walter, and Munetaka Yokota. Joel Speerstra and Pamela Ruiter-
Feenstra provided valuable assistance with translations from Swedish.
The compact disc that accompanies this book brings our featured organs to
life, and selecting the music for it was one of my most pleasurable activities as
editor. Its production lay in the capable hands of Erik Sikkema and Anna Frisk,
to whom I am most grateful.
My final thanks go to Jan Ling, who has acted as a guiding light to all my
work at GOArt; to my husband, Richard Snyder, without whose help and moral
support I could not have completed the editing of this book; and to those at
Oxford University Press — particularly Maribeth Payne, Ellen Welch, and Christi
Stanforth — who have brought it so smoothly from vision to reality.

Kerala J. Snyder
New Haven, Connecticut
January 2002
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 CONTENTS

CONTRIBUTORS XI

ILLUSTRATIONS xiii

CD CONTENTS xvii

PRAELUDIUM

\ ORGANS AS HISTORICAL AND AESTHETIC MIRRORS KERALA J. SNYDER I

P A R T I! C O U R T AND CITY

2 EXORDIUM: ORGANS BY COMPENIUS (1610) AND SCHNITGER (1693) 23

3 DUCAL COURTS AND HANSEATIC CITIES: POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES GISELA JAACKS 31
4 THE GENESIS AND RADIANCE OF A COURT ORGAN HARALD VOGEL 48
5 HAMBURG ORGANISTS IN LUTHERAN WORSHIP WILLIAM PORTER 60
6 THE ORGAN IN SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY COSMOLOGY
HANS DAVIDSSON 78

INTERLUDIUM PRIMUM

7 AN IDEAL ORGAN AND ITS EXPERTS ACROSS THE SEVENTEENTH

CENTURY DAVID YEARSLEY 93

PART II: A LARGE EUROPEAN ORGAN

IN A SMALL FACTORY TOWN

$ EXORDIUM: THE CAHMAN ORGAN AT LEUFSTA BRUK (1728) 113

9 AN ARCHITECTURAL TOUR OF LEUFSTA BRUK GORAN SODERSTROM 116
JO THE CAHMAN TRADITION AND ITS GERMAN ROOTS AXEL UNNERBACK 126

11 FROM CATHEDRAL TO RURAL PARISH: ORGANS AND ORGANISTS IN

EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SWEDEN EVA HELENIUS-OBERG AND
PAMELA RUITER-FEENSTRA137 137
12 BACH COMES LATE TO LEUFSTA BRUK: AN ORAL HISTORY
GORAN BLOMBERG 157
 X CONTENTS

INTERLUDIUM SECUNDUM

J3 THE MUSICAL CULTURES OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GERMANY

CELIA APPLEGATE 169

PART III! A F R E N C H ORGAN IN COPENHAGEN

14 EXORDIUM: THE CAVAILLE-COLL ORGAN IN THE JESUS CHURCH,

COPENHAGEN (1890) 187
15 FROM BEER TO BRICKS TO ORGAN PIPES: CARL JACOBSEN AND THE
JESUS CHURCH SVERKER JULLANDER 191
16 TECHNOLOGY AND THE ORGAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
BARBARA OWEN 213
17 ARISTIDE CAVAILLE-COLL: MASTER OF MASTERS
JESSE E. ESCHBACH AND LAWRENCE ARCHBOLD 230
J$ WALCKER AND CAVAILLE-COLL: A FRANCO-GERMAN COMPETITION
PAUL PEETERS 242

INTERLUDIUM TERTIUM

19 ON THE ORGAN PROBLEM [AS SEEN IN 1930] FRITZ HEITMANN 261

PART IV: R E V I V A L AND RENEWAL

20 EXORDIUM: THE MARCUSSEN ORGAN IN OSCAR'S CHURCH,

STOCKHOLM (1949) 267
21 THE ORGANS IN OSCAR'S CHURCH: SOURCES OF INSPIRATION AND
SOME CONTROVERSY BENGT HAMBRAEUS 273

22 THE TACITURN CHARISMA OF ALF LINDER KIM BERLY MARSHALL 287

23 FROM DARMSTADT TO STOCKHOLM: TRACING THE SWEDISH

CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW ORGAN STYLE
MARTIN HERCHENRODER 303

24 THE ORGAN AS SCRYING GLASS: IMAGES FROM THE ORGAN REFORM

MOVEMENT JOEL SPEERSTRA 322

POSTLUDIUM

25 A NEW ORGAN FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM KERALA J. SNYDER 339

BIBLIOGRAPHY 347

DISCOGRAPHY 361

INDEX 363
 CONTRIBUTORS

Celia Applegate, Associate Professor of History, University of Rochester

Lawrence Archbold, Professor of Organ and Enid and Henry Woodward College Organist,
Carleton College

Goran Blomberg, Organist, seventeenth-century organ in Overtornea, Sweden

Hans Davidsson, Associate Professor of Organ, Eastman School of Music; Research and
Artistic Director, Goteborg Organ Art Center

Jesse E. Eschbach, Professor of Organ, North Texas University

Bengt Hambraeus (1928-2000), late Professor Emeritus of Composition, McGill Univer-

sity

Eva Helenius-Oberg, Researcher, National Collections of Music, Stockholm

Martin Herchenroder, Professor of Music Theory, Universitat-Gesamthochschule, Siegen

Gisela Jaacks, Director, Museum fiir Hamburgische Geschichte

Sverker Juliander, Editor, Orgelforum; Director of Publications, Goteborg Organ Art Cen-
ter

Kimberly Marshall, Associate Professor of Organ, Arizona State University

Barbara Owen, Librarian, American Guild of Organists Organ Library, Boston University;
Music Director, First Religious Society, Newburyport
Paul Peeters, Librarian and Coordinator of Organ Documentation, Goteborg Organ Art
Center

William Porter, Professor of Organ, New England Conservatory of Music

Pamela Ruiter-Feenstra, Associate Professor of Organ, Eastern Michigan University
Kerala J. Snyder, Professor Emerita of Musicology, Eastman School of Music

Goran Soderstrom, Research Secretary, Committee for Stockholm Research; Executive

Secretary, Committee for the Protection of Stockholm's Beauty

Joel Speerstra, Director, Clavichord Workshop; Senior Researcher, Goteborg Organ Art
Center

Axel Unnerback, Senior Officer and Organ Expert, Swedish Central Board of National
Antiquities

Harald Vogel, Professor of Organ, Hochschule fiir Kunste, Bremen; Director, North-
German Organ Academy and the Organeum in Weener

David Yearsley, Assistant Professor of Music, Cornell University

xi
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 ILLUSTRATIONS

1-1. Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis (1650), plate XXIII. 2

1-2. Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis (1650), plate X. 4

1-3. Baron Charles De Geer (1729-78). 9

1-4. The Arp Schnitger organ (1699) in the Liibeck Cathedral. Courtesy of
Museum fiir Kunst und Kulturgeschichte der Hansestadt Liibeck. 12

2-1. The Esaias Compenius organ (1610) in Frederiksborg Castle. Photograph by

Annelise Olesen, 2001. Courtesy of Musikhistoriskmuseum, Copenhagen. 24

2-2. The Arp Schnitger organ (1693) in St. Jacobi Church, Hamburg, prior to
World War I. Courtesy of Museum fiir Hamburgishche Geschichte. 26

4-1. Keyboards of the Compenius organ, Frederiksborg Castle. Photograph by

Annelise Olesen, 1976. Courtesy of Musikhistoriskmuseum, Copenhagen. 49

4-2. Specification of the Compenius organ, in Michael Praetorius, Syntagma

musicum 11: De Organogmphia (1619), p. 189. 51

4-3. Universal range chart, in michael Praetorius,'Syntagma musicum 11: De

Organographia (1619), p. 20. 53

4-4. Range chart for the transverse flute family, in Michael Praetorius, Syntagma
musicum II: De Organographia (1619), p. 22. 54

4-5. Michael Praetorius, Syntagma musicum II, "Theatrum Instrumentorum"

(1620), plate IX, showing three transverse flutes. 54

4-6. Michael Praetorius, Syntagma musicum II, "Theatrum Instrumentorum"

(1620), plate XXXVII, showing the organ pipe "Offen Querfloit 4 Fuss" as
number 13, near the top. 55

6-1. The ellipitical orbits of the planets, as illustrated in Johannes Kepler,

Harmonices mundi libri V (1619), p. 186. 80

6-2. Copy of Kepler's illustration in Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia unii'ersalis

(1650), Book II, p. 376. 81

6-3. Athanasius Kircher's harmony of the planets, in Musurgia universalis (1650),

Book II, p. 383. 82

6-4. Duke Heinrich Julius of Braunschweig-Liineburg, portrait by Elias Holwein,

1603. Printed with permission of Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum, Braunschweig. 88

7-1. Andreas Werckmeister, Organum Grunigense redivivum (1705), title page. 100

xiii
 xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

8-]. The Johan Niclas Cahman organ (1728) in Leufsta Bruk Church.
Photograph by Axel Unnerback, 1964. Printed with permission of Antikvarisk-
topografiska arkivet, ATA, Stockholm. 114

9-1. Leufsta Bruk manor house and gardens before the fire of 1719; detail from
an anonymous painting. Photograph by Axel Unnerback. 119

9-2. Leufsta Bruk, painting by Elias Martin, c. 1790. Printed with permission of
Nordiska Museets arkiv. 121

9-3. Leufsta Bruk Church, exterior. Photograph by Axel Unnerback. 122

9-4. Leufsta Bruk Church, pulpit and altar. Photograph by Axel Unnerback.
Printed with permission of Antikvarisk-topografiska arkivet, ATA, Stockholm. 123

9-5. The Johan Niclas Cahman organ (1709-10) in Karlshamns Church. Printed
with permission of Antikvarisk-topografiska arkivet, ATA, Stockholm. 124

10-1. The Hans Henrich Cahman organ (1690) in Virestad Church. Photograph
by Axel Unnerback. 130

10-2. The Johan Niclas Cahman organ (1698) in Uppsala Cathedral. Printed
with permission of Antikvarisk-topografiska arkivet, ATA, Stockholm. 133

I I - ] . Abraham Abrahamsson Hiilphers, portrait by Branting Nilsson (?). Printed

with permission of the National Swedish Art Museums, Stockholm. 142

11-2. Den Svenska Koralpsalmboken (1697), chorale 173, "Jesu! tu tigh sielf
upwackte." 151
11-3. Johan Everhardt, Choral-Psalmbok (1744), title page. Printed with
permission of Statens Musiksamlingar: Musikmuseet, Stockholm. 152

11-4. Johan Everhardt, Choral-Psalmbok (1744), chorale 173, "Jesu tu tigh sielf
upwackte." Printed with permission of Statens Musiksamlingar: Musikmuseet,
Stockholm. 153

11-5. Johan Bjorkman, "Gradual-Bok, eller Then Svenska PsalmBoken," called

"Hybyboken 1763," chorale 173, "Jesu tu tigh sielf upwackte." On deposit at the
Svensk Koralregistrant, SKR, Institute of Musicology, Lund University. Printed
with permission of the owner, Elisabet Wentz-Janacek. 153

11-6. Johan Bjorkman, "Gradual-Bok, eller Then Svenska PsalmBoken," called

"Hybyboken 1763," alternate setting of "Jesu tu tigh sielf upwackte." On deposit
at the Svensk Koralregistrant, SKR, Institute of Musicology, Lund University.
Printed with permission of the owner, Elisabet Wentz-Janacek. 154

11-7. Music Library of Sweden, "Koralhandskrift A12," chorale 173, "Jesu tu tigh
sielf upwackte." Printed with permission. 155

12-1. Concert program from the 1938 Leufsta Bruk conference on church music. 164

14-1. The Aristide Cavaille-Coll organ (1890) in the Jesus Church, Copenhagen.
Photograph by Annelise Olesen, 2000. Courtesy of Musikhistoriskmuseum,
Copenhagen. 188
 ILLUSTRATIONS XV

15-1. Carl Jacobsen, portrait by August Jernsdorff, 1893. Printed with permission
of Det Nationalhistoriske Museum pa Frederiksborg, Hiller0d. 193

15-2. Jesus Church, Copenhagen, view of chancel, with Cavaille-Coll organ and
"Pillars of Christianity" frieze by Stephan Sinding. Printed with permission of Ny
Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. 199

J5-3. Jesus Church, Copenhagen, Apostles' Wall, with paintings by August

Jerndorff. Printed with permission of Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen. 200

15-4. Gustav Helsted (1857-1924), first organist at the Jesus Church,

Copenhagen. 205

17-1. Aristide Cavaille-Coll. Photograph by Adolphe Dallemagne, c. 1855.

Collection Loi'c Metrope—Gerard d'Ortho. Printed with permission. 231

18-1. Frankfurt, St. Paul's Church, exterior, 1848. Historisches Museum

Frankfurt am Main. Printed with permission. 243

18-2. The opening of the Nationalversammlung in St. Paul's Church, Frankfurt,

18 May 1848. © Bildarchiv PreuBischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin. 243

78-3. Frankfurt, St. Paul's Church, interior with Walcker organ (1833). Printed
with permission of Barenreiter Verlag, Kassel. 244

78-4. Eberhard Friederich Walcker. Printed with permission of Barenreiter

Verlag, Kassel. 245

20-1. The Marcussen and S0n organ (1949) in Oscar's Church, Stockholm.
Printed with permission of Antikvarisk-topografiska arkivet, ATA, Stockholm. 268

22-7. Alf Linder at the Oscar's Church organ. Printed with kind permission of
Judith Linder. 288

23-/. Radio Bremen concert, 4 May 1962; left to right, Hans Otte, Mauricio
Kagel, Gyorgy Ligeti, Bengt Hambraeus (composers); Karl-Erik Welin (organist),
Bo Nilsson, Giuseppe G. Englert (assistants). Printed with kind permission of
Bengt Hambraeus. 304

23-2. Bengt Hambraeus, Permutations and Hymn (manuscript, 1953), beginning.

Printed with kind permission of the composer. 309

23-3. Bengt Hambraeus, Etude pour orgue (manuscript, 1956), beginning. Printed
with kind permission of the composer. 310

23-4. Jan W. Morthenson, Encores, p. VII. From his New Organ Music, © 1974
AB Nordiska Musikforlaget, Stockholm. Printed by permission of Ehrlingforlagen
AB, Stockholm. 316

23-5. Bengt Hambraeus. Photograph by Michael Hambraeus, 1990. 317

23-6. Bengt Hambraeus, Ricercare per organo, p. 13. © 1979 AB Nordiska

Musikforlaget, Edition Wilhelm Hansen Stockholm. Printed by permission of
Ehrlingforlagen AB, Stockholm, and the composer. 318
 XVI ILLUSTRATIONS

23-7. Bengt Hambraeus, Riflessioni (manuscript, 1999), p. 14. Printed with kind
permission of the composer. 320

24-1. Dr. Einar Erici at the Nordstrom organ in Nykil Church. Photograph by
Axel Unnerback, 1960. 333

25-1. The North German organ (2000) in Orgryte New Church, Goteborg.
Photograph © Ulf Celander, 2000. 343
 CD CONTENTS

Tracks 1-6: Hans Fagius (Professor of Organ, Royal Conservatory of Music in Copen-
hagen) playing six dances from the Lublin tablature (c. 1540), on the Compenius organ
in Frederiksborg Castle, Hiller0d, Denmark. © BBC.
1. Corea super duos saltus. Running time: 1:52
2. Untitled. Running time: 0:52
3. Rocal fusa. Running time: 1:10
4. [Passamezzo antico]. Running time: 1:01
5. Hayduczky. Running time: 1:17
6. Jeszcze Marczynye [Passamezzo antico]. Running time: 1:01

Track 7: Harald Vogel playing Dieterich Buxtehude, Nunfreut euch lieben Christen g'mein
(BuxWV 210), on the Schnitger organ in St. Jacobi Church, Hamburg, Germany. ©
Musikproduktion Dabringhaus und Grimm. Running time: 15:19

Tracks 8-10: Alf Linder playing Johann Sebastian Bach, Trio Sonata in E-flat Major (BWV
525; recorded in 1971), on the Cabman organ at Leufsta Bruk, Sweden. © Swedish
Broadcasting Corporation.
8. I (untitled). Running time: 3:12
9. II (Adagio). Running time: 6:13
10 III (Allegro). Running time: 4:21

Track 11: Sverker Jullander playing Cesar Franck, Piece heroique, on the Cavaille-Coll
organ in the Jesus Church, Copenhagen, Denmark. © GOArt (Goteborg Organ Art Cen-
ter). Running time: 8:37

Track 12: Erik Bostrom playing the premier performance of Bengt Hambraeus, Riflessioni
(1999), on the Marcussen organ in Oscar's Church, Stockholm, Sweden. © Swedish
Broadcasting Corporation. Running time: 19:21

Track 13: Hans Davidsson playing Matthias Weckmann, Es ist das Heil uns kommen her,
versus 7, on the North German organ in Orgryte New Church, Goteborg, Sweden. ©
GOArt (Goteborg Organ Art Center). Running time: 4:29

xvii
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 P^ R A E L U D I U

\
ORGANS AS HISTORICAL AND AESTHETIC MIRRORS

KERALA J. SNYDER

THE ORGAN, MORE THAN ANY OTHER MUSICAL INSTRUMENT, INVITES US TO REFLECT
upon matters beyond music. A chamber organ in the knights' hall of a castle
calls us to dance and take pleasure in the movement of our bodies, while a
monumental organ in a cathedral draws us into a contemplation of the architec-
ture of the great room itself. Because so much of the mechanism of an organ
lies hidden from our eyes, we inquire how it works; and because most organs
are so very expensive, we ask who paid for them. As the highest sounds of its
mixtures and the lowest tones of its largest pedal pipes drift beyond our capacity
to hear them, we contemplate the possibility that they may reflect the unheard
music of the spheres. As we gaze at an organ's fagade, we see in its varying pipe
lengths proportions first discovered by the ancient Greeks. And if we cannot see
the organist seated behind the Ruckpositiv of a large church organ, we may
imagine that the Holy Spirit is playing it. It is the central thesis of this book that
organs have stories to tell about the times in which they were built that go far
beyond the music that was played on them.
In his Musurgia Universalis, published in 1650, the German Jesuit Athanasius
Kircher envisioned the organ as God's instrument for the creation of the world
(figure 1-1).' This organ has six stops, corresponding to the six days of creation,
each apparently consisting of a row of seven pipes in the fagade. Its six stop
knobs to the right and left of the keyboard, labeled Register] I—VI, are all drawn,
allowing wind to issue forth from every pipe, assuming that God, unseen, has
depressed some of the keys on the keyboard. Because every pipe is sounding in
a grand plenum, this must be the moment of the sixth day that marks the creation
of the human being: "But just as an artful organist, when he has previously gone
through and tried each of the stops separately, finally draws all the stops of the

1. Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis sive Ars Magna Consoni et Dissoni (1650; facsimile re-
print, ed. Ulf Scharlau, Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970), 2:366.
 2 FRAEf.UDIUM

Figure 1-1. Athanasius Kirchcr,

Musurgia Universalis (1650), plate
XXIII.

whole organ together in order to hear the general consonance of all the pipes,
so also the eternal Archmusician, after the separate preludes of the six days'
work, finally lets the entire great world-organ play, because he has created the
human being as the microcosmos, the most perfect creature,"2
In many respects the illustration of Kircher's allegorical organ resembles an
actual organ from about 1650, and an earthly reflection of that heavenly sound
of the full organ, the plenum, can be heard in verse 7 of Matthias Weckmann's
E$ ist das He.il uns kommen her (CD track 13). Any keyboard player will instantly
recognize, however, that there is something radically wrong with this keyboard:
instead of the normal alternation of groups of two and three sharps, Kircher s
has only groups of three. One can speculate as to why this is so: each of these
six groups of three delineates a set of seven keys that could correspond to the
seven pipes of each stop, or perhaps they represent the Trinity, or perhaps it is
a device to set this keyboard aside for God; underneath it is written "Thus the
eternal Wisdom of God plays in the world."
Kircher's allegorical organ appears in the final section of Musurgia universalis,
titled "Decachordon naturae," in which the entire universe—including the sing-

2. Kircher, Musurgia (1650), 2:367.

 O R G A N S AS H I S T O R I C A L AND A E S T H E T I C M I R R O R S 3

ing of the angels; the four elements of the world; and the bodily proportions,
rhythms, and emotions of the human being—is shown to consist of musical
proportions and is organized into ten stops of a world-organ. This may be com-
pared with an earlier section of the book, "Musica Organica, sive Musica In-
strumentali," which contains an extensive discussion of musical instruments,
complete with many detailed drawings, among them an organ (figure 1-2)/ Here
we see a similar layout of pipes in the facade, but a normal keyboard. Of par-
ticular interest is the depiction of the windchest, which Kircher characterizes as
the unseen "secret" of the organ. His figure 4 shows a slider chest, whereby
when the stop knob is pulled out, the slider (letters M, N, O, and P) moves and
its holes line up between those above, on which the pipes sit, and those below,
above the key channels, allowing the wind to enter the pipe if the key is de-
pressed. His figures 1 and 2 show how depressing a key (letter L) opens a pallet
(M) in the windchest (XY), allowing wind to flow to the key channel and thence
to any pipes whose stops are drawn.

Organs in Time and Space

Although the organ lends itself to allegorical interpretations such as Kircher's,

most organs are thoroughly grounded, both geographically and historically. The
six organs that constitute the focal points for this book are all located in northern
Europe: in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden.4 Thus it is no accident that five of
these six stand in Lutheran churches, for it was precisely in Germany and Scan-
dinavia that the Lutheran reformation of the sixteenth century had its greatest
impact. Martin Luther himself valued music highly, and the organ figured sig-
nificantly in orthodox Lutheran worship of the seventeenth century, as we learn
in chapter 5. All five of these church organs were intended to provide strong
support to congregational singing, which was not the case in Roman Catholic
churches until recently.
These five church organs are further grounded not just in a general northern
European culture but in specific churches: St. Jacobi in Hamburg; the Leufsta
Bruk Church in the Swedish town of the same name; the Jesus Church in Valby,
a section of Copenhagen; Oscar's Church in Stockholm; and the Orgryte New
Church in Goteborg. Each of these organs was built for the church in which it
remains today, and its case was designed to fit into the particular space in which
it resides. Nowhere can this be seen more clearly than in Leufsta Bruk, where
the organ was installed shortly after the completion of the church (figure 8-1).
The ceiling of the church is quite low, so this organ must take advantage of the

3. Kircher, Musmgia (1650), 1:512.

4. The geographical restriction to northern Europe is explained in the Preface.
 4 PRAELUDIUM

Figure 1-2. Athanasius Kircher,

Musurgia Universalis (1650), plate X.

available horizontal space. Moreover, the diagonal lines from the inner sides of
its pedal towers to the center of the Hauptwerk case mirror the staircases be-
neath the balcony, creating a total composition in the shape of a diamond (see
chapter 9). More than any other musical instrument, an organ tends to remain
in one place throughout its working life and to be designed as part of the ar-
chitecture of that place.
The Compenius organ (figure 2-1) provides a radical exception in this respect.
Originally built as a secular instrument for the pleasure palace of a German
duke, it was moved shortly after his death to Denmark, where it has stood in
three different rooms in two castles—presently in the court chapel of Frede-
riksborg Castle in Hiller0d. Although with 27 stops it is by no means a small
instrument, its case is completely self-contained and was never built into any
particular place. In fact, it was clearly designed to be transportable; all of the
screws are forged with numbers for ease of reassembly, and the case comes apart
in pieces that can easily be carried by a single person, except for the solid base.
Thus the whimsical-looking iron handles on either side are not only decorative
but eminently practical. 5 And the worldly nature of its decoration (see chapter

5. Private communication from Joel Speerstra.

 ORGANS AS HISTORICAL AND AESTHETIC MIRRORS < 5

6) serves as an important reminder that throughout its long history, the organ
was never intended solely for the church.
The rather narrow geographical circumscription of these six organs has led to
some interesting interrelationships among them. The closest is that between the
organs of St. Jacobi, Hamburg (1693), and the Orgryte New Church in Goteborg
(2000), whose specifications and pipe construction are based almost entirely on
those of the Hamburg organ. As a research project at a university, however, the
Orgryte organ represents a special case, which is discussed in greater detail in
chapter 25.
More surprising is the connection between the Compenius organ (1610) and
the Cavaille-Coll organ at the Jesus Church in Copenhagen (1890). By the time
of the building of the Jesus Church organ, Compenius's instrument had fallen
into a state of disrepair, and Frederiksborg Castle had become a national mu-
seum. Felix Reinburg, Cavaille-Coll's site supervisor in Copenhagen, was called
upon to inspect it, and this led to a proposal from Cavaille-Coll himself for a
renovation, which was carried out by Reinburg in 1895.6 And the Jesus Church
organ leads in turn to the one in Oscar's Church (1949), because the Marcussen
firm studied it thoroughly before building their first mechanical-action organ in
1931 (see chapter 24).
A direct familial lineage between builders can be traced between the organs
of St. Jacobi, Hamburg, and Leufsta Bruk. Gottfried Fritzsche, who had moved
to Hamburg from central Germany, performed a renovation on the St. Jacobi
organ in 1635, from which Arp Schnitger retained many pipes in his "new" organ
for St. Jacobi of 1693. Fritzsche's son Hans Christoph performed another ren-
ovation to the organ from 1655 to 1658 and subsequently became father-in-law
to his apprentice Hans Henrich Cabman. Cabman immigrated to Sweden and
founded the first important Swedish school of organ building in Stockholm; his
son, Johan Niclas Cabman, built the Leufsta Bruk organ in 1728 (see chapter
10). A further relationship exists between the cases of the St. Jacobi and Leufsta
Bruk organs. Christian Precht was one of two woodcarvers who worked on the
case of St. Jacobi, Hamburg. 7 His younger brother Burchard was born in Bremen
in 1651 and got his education in Hamburg from his older brother Christian. In
1674 Burchard moved to Sweden and subsequently became the country's most
important baroque wood carver. In the early 1700s he worked together with
Herman Buck in the Great Church (Storkyrkan) of Stockholm, and similarities
in style suggest that one of them carved the sculptures on the organ, altar, and
pulpit of the Leufsta Bruk Church (see chapter 9).

6. Cavaille-Coll's proposal and Reinburg's documentation of this restoration are printed in Povl Eller,
"Compenius-orglets historic," Dansk drbog for musikforskning 17 (1986): 33—45.
7. Custav Fock, Arp Schnitger und seine Schule: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Orgelbaues im Nord-
nnd Ostseekilstengebiet (Kasscl: Barenreiter, 1974), 59.
 6 RAELUDIUM

The organ of St. Jacob! is also related to the Compenius organ through its
wooden 8' Principal in the Brustwerk, which was built by Gottfried Fritzsche.
It bears a remarkable resemblance to the 8' and 4' Principals on the upper
manual of the Compenius organ,8 all of whose pipes are made of wood (see
chapter 4). Fritzsche might conceivably have seen the Compenius organ in
Hiller0d, but since both organ builders had originally come from central Ger-
many, it is perhaps more likely that they had a common model there.
A more general relationship exists between the Marcussen organ (1949) in
Oscar's Church in Stockholm and the organ in St. Jacobi, Hamburg, as well as
that in Leufsta Bruk. As a prime example of the Danish organ reform of the
mid— twentieth century (see chapter 24), the Oscar's Church organ returned to
the principles of baroque organ construction. One can immediately see this from
its case (figure 20-1), which clearly reflects the separate divisions, or Werke, of
the organ. The large central case contains the pipes of the Hauptwerk, the open-
ing beneath it houses the Brustwerk, and the Ruckpositiv hangs from the balcony
behind the organist's bench. Each of these divisions is played from a separate
manual, while the towers on either side contain the pipes governed by the pedal.
The Danish organ reform followed a similar movement established in Germany
during the 1920s, which took Schnitger's organ in St. Jacobi, Hamburg, as one
of its chief models. In addition to the Werkprinzip, builders influenced by the
organ reform movement returned to slider windchests and mechanical key action
such as Kircher illustrated in figure 1-2.

Patrons of the Organ

Since large organs are so expensive, the investigation of their financing often
reveals historical and economic information about the times in which they were
built. Most of them belong not to a single individual but to an institution, such
as a church, a concert hall, or a university, and the funds for their acquisition
come from a variety of sources. Three of the six organs featured in this book,
however, were funded by single individuals: Duke Heinrich Julius of
Braunschweig-Liineburg-Wolfenbiittel, Baron Charles De Geer of Leufsta Bruk,
and Carl Jacobsen, the owner of the Carlsberg Brewery in Copenhagen.
Duke Heinrich Julius (1564-1613; see figure 6-4) was himself intellectually
and artistically gifted in addition to being an extravagant collector and patron of
the arts. From the age of seven he had daily lessons at the keyboard with the
court organist Antonius Ammarbach; 9 he also studied painting. At twelve he was

8. Private communication from the organ builder Munetaka Yokota, who has inspected both organs.
9. Wolf Hobohm, "Zur Geschichte der David-Beck-Orgel in Groningen," in Bericht iiber das 5. Sym-
 ORGANS AS HISTORICAL AND AESTHETIC MIRRORS 7

inaugurated rector of the newly founded university of Helmstedt while simulta-

neously studying there, and at age fifteen he became bishop of the episcopal
estate of Halberstadt 10 and set up his own household at the bishop's residence in
Groningen, thirteen kilometers northeast of the city of Halberstadt. Soon after-
ward he began to remodel the castle, and for its chapel he commissioned a very
large organ, 59 stops on three manuals and pedal, built by David Beck from 1592
to 1596 (see chapter 7). He appointed Michael Praetorius court organist and
later Kapellmeister, and he also tried to hire John Dowland as his court lutenist.
Heinrich Julius's extravagant lifestyle differed markedly from that of his father,
Duke Julius, who lived frugally and whose primary concern had been for the
welfare of his people. By the time of Heinrich Julius's death his duchy was nearly
bankrupt. Among his expensive purchases must be counted the chamber organ
that he commissioned from his court organ builder Esaias Compenius, with its
facade pipes, keyboard and pedals veneered with ivory, solid silver stop knobs
and key arcades, and gilded pipe shades (see chapters 4 and 6).
Charles De Geer (1660—1730) represented the third generation of the De
Geer family to rule Leufsta Bruk (see table 9-1). Very little is known about him
apart from the fact that he was one of the wealthiest men in Sweden and had
both the courage and the means to rebuild the entire town of Leufsta Bruk—
iron foundry, administration building, manor house, church, and workers'
houses—after the Russians burned it all down in 1719 during the Great
Northern War. Furthermore, he supplied the new church with a magnificent
organ by Sweden's best organ builder, Johan Niclas Cabman, though the previous
church had had none. But De Geer died only two years after its completion, so
he had little time to enjoy it; that pleasure would fall to his heir, a nephew, also
named Charles (1720—78), who was only ten years old at the time and living in
the Netherlands. The young Charles received an excellent education there, in-
cluding the study of science at the university in Utrecht and music lessons,
possibly with the Utrecht organist and composer Karl Gottfried GeilfuB." He
returned to Sweden in 1738 and subsequently moved into the manor house at
Leufsta.
The younger Charles De Geer became one of the pioneers in the field of

posium zu Fragen des Orgelbans ini 17.-18. Jahrhundert, ed. Liteliriedrich Thorn (Blankenburg/Mi-
chaelstein: Die Kultur-und Forschungsstatte, 1985), 5 1 .
10. His grandfather, an ardent Roman Catholie, had secured the appointment to this Catholic epis-
copal estate for Heinrich Julius, even though he was being raised a Lutheran. In 1591 Heinrich
Julius introduced the Reformation into Halberstadt. See Hilda Liet/.mann, Herzog Heinrich Julius zu
Braunschiveig und Liineburg ( 7 5 6 4 - 7 6 7 3 ) : Personlichkeit und Wirken fur Kaiser und Reich (Braun-
schweig: Braunschweigischen Geschichtsvereins, 1993), 10-11.
11. Albert Dunning, "Die De Geer'schen Musikalien in Leufsta: Musikalische schwedisch-
niederlandische Beziehungen im 18. Jh.," Srensk tidskrifi for musikforskning 48 (1966): 190.
 8 PRAELUDIUM

entomology, and his work was still valued late in the twentieth century. He
corresponded frequently with his more famous contemporary Carolus Linnaeus
(1707—78), the Swedish botanist who developed the system for naming organisms
by genus and species. Between 1752 and 1778 De Geer published his magnum
opus, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des insectes.12 On the title page of the first
volume he is designated a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Sweden
and correspondent of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris; in figure 1-3 he
is seen wearing the Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa, which he received in
1772. 13
The younger Charles brought with him from the Netherlands an extensive
collection of printed and manuscript music, which he augmented during his years
at Leufsta Bruk. It consists mainly of chamber music, including sonatas and
concertos by Albinoni, Corelli, Handel, Tartini, Telemann, and Vivaldi. There
are also a number of opera scores, five of them by Rameau. Keyboard music
published in Amsterdam before 1738 by composers such as Johann Conrad
Baustetter, F. I. De Boeck, and Jacob Wilhelm Lustig may have been used for
Charles's own study. 14 A harpsichord was purchased for the manor house in
1746,15 and a positive organ from about this time is still there. It thus seems
quite possible that Charles might not only have enjoyed listening to music on
the organ in the Leufsta Bruk church, but also played it himself. It may even
have been the younger Charles, and not his uncle, who ordered the addition of
a Riickpositiv to the organ. 16 The original contract calls for an organ with only
one manual, and the Hauptwerk contains 5 divided stops, which normally are
found only on one-manual organs; they enable the organist to play with a dif-
ferent registration for each hand, as if there were two manuals.
Like Duke Heinrich Julius, Carl Jacobsen (1842-1914; see chapter 15 and
figure 15-1) inherited his wealth from a father who had devoted himself to the
family business, be it governing a duchy or brewing beer, and who disapproved
of his son's extravagant involvement with the arts. Carl's appreciation of sculp-
ture, painting, and architecture was awakened at the age of nine, on his first trip

12. Charles De Geer, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des insectes, 7 vols. (Stockholm: L. L. Grefing,
1752-78).
13. Per Inge Persson, Adrian C. Pont and Verner Michelsen, "Notes on the Insect Collection of
Charles De Geer, with a revision of his species of Fanniidae, Anthomyiidae and Muscidae (Diptera),"
Entomologica Scandinavian 15 (1984): 90.
14. Catalog in Dunning, "Die De Geer'schen Musikalien," 192—210.
15. Tomas Anfalt, "Offentlighet och privatliv: Om livet pa Leufsta herrgard pa 1700-talet," in
Herrgdrdskultur och salongsmiljo, ed. Erik Kjellberg (Uppsala: Uppsala University, Institutionen for
musikvetenskap, 1997), 6.
16. This idea was first suggested to me hy Goran Blomberg. Carl-Gustaf Lewenhaupt proposed the
organ builder Daniel Strahle as the builder of the Riickpositiv (Documentation av Cahmanorgeln i
Leufsta bruks kyrka [Uppsala: Lansstyrelsens meddelandeserie, 1998], 7). Strahle died at Leufsta
Bruk in 1746.
 O R G A N S AS H I S T O R I C A L AND AESTHETIC M I R R O R S 9

Figure 1-3. Baron Charles

De Geer (1729-78).

to Germany and Italy, and he studied the history of art at Copenhagen University,
along with the mathematics, physics, and chemistry that he would need to man-
age the brewery. He assembled an enormous collection of sculpture, which he
displayed at first in a museum at the brewery; when it outgrew that space, he
established the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek in 1897, which is still one of the glories
of Copenhagen. By 1879 he had funded a trust for procuring sculptures with
which to embellish public squares and gardens in Copenhagen.
Carl Jacobsen devoted a quarter of his inheritance and even more of his own
funds to the building of the Jesus Church in Valby, the Copenhagen suburb
where the brewery is located. Its architecture reflects that of churches in south-
ern Europe that had so impressed him, notably in Ravenna and Poitiers. For its
organ he chose the best builder in Europe, Aristide Cavaille-Coll. Jacobsen cut
the size of the organ down from its originally planned 40 stops to 20, however,
probably for financial reasons; even the 20-stop organ was extremely expensive
by Danish standards. But a glance at the interior of the church (figure 15-2)
shows that the organ does not play the prominent role in the decorative scheme
that it does in Leufsta Bruk; the complete design of its facade (figure 14-1) is
in fact obscured by the columns supporting the small arches within the chancel.
Carl Jacobsen's greater interest in art and architecture than in music seems to
be clearly reflected here.
Each of these three patrons inherited enormous wealth; Heinrich Julius's was
 10 PRAELUDIUM

based almost entirely on land, Charles De Geer's on a combination of land and

industry, and Carl Jacobsen's entirely on industry. The level of extravagance
with which these wealthy patrons endowed their organs seems to have dimin-
ished with each passing century. Also, both Heinrich Julius and Charles De
Geer the younger may well have played their organs themselves, while it is
unlikely that Carl Jacobsen did so. And whereas Heinrich Julius commissioned
his chamber organ purely for his own pleasure, for Charles De Geer the elder
and Jacobsen the organ formed part of the furnishings of churches that they
built for the welfare of their workers, even if De Geer also regarded the Leufsta
Church as his baronial chapel and Jacobsen used the Jesus Church as a family
shrine.
In the old Hanseatic cities, such as Hamburg and Liibeck, a different form
of patronage manifested itself. There a group of wealthy merchants formed an
oligarchy, not unlike that of Venice, and these men communally supported the
Hamburg opera, the Liibeck Abendmusiken, and the building of organs. After
the city hall, churches offered the best opportunity for cities to display their
prosperity, and the monumental organ facade on the west wall, as the most
prominent furnishing within the church, commanded the attention of all those
entering the building. Organists were the best-paid and most highly respected
musicians in these cities, and they often entertained visiting trade delegations
with an organ recital. At the beginning of the seventeenth century each of Ham-
burg's four main churches had a three-manual organ; by the end of the century
the number of manuals had risen to four. No other city in northern Europe could
compare with that.

The Organ and the Physics of Sound

Just as the organ prompts us to consider its geographical and historical place-
ment, it also demands that we understand something about the physics of sound.
One can play the piano for a lifetime without ever giving much thought to the
length of its strings, but one cannot sit down at an organ bench without being
immediately confronted with the lengths of its pipes: 8' stops produce normal
pitch, 4' stops sound an octave higher, and 16' stops sound an octave lower; the
ratio for the octave is 2:1 for pipe lengths, string lengths, or frequencies (see
figure 4-3). In the case of organ pipes, these measurements represent the sound-
ing length of the lowest pipe (usually C) of an open flue stop. The discovery of
the proportions for the octave, fifth (3:2), and fourth (4:3) are attributed to
Pythagoras.
The proportions of an organ are not just heard; they can often be seen in its
case as well. In Schnitger's organ for St. Jacobi, Hamburg (figure 2-2), for ex-
ample, the pipes of the 16' Principal stand in the facade of the Hauptwerk, and
 ORGANS AS HISTORICAL AND AESTHETIC MIRRORS 11

those of the 8' Principal in the Riickpositiv. Both cases consist of a central round
tower for the longest bass pipes, with C in the middle; pointed towers on the
sides that contain the pipes in the tenor range; and flat fields between them for
the highest pipes, with the upper flat fields of the Hauptwerk and the lower
ones of the Riickpositiv consisting of dummy pipes for the sake of appearance.
The Hauptwerk thus stands in a 2:1 proportion to the Riickpositiv, both aurally
and visually. The pedal towers on either side contain in their facades the fourteen
pipes from F to ft of the 32' Principal; the rest of its pipes are on the windchest
inside. The largest pipe is the 24' F in the center of the right tower (with Ft in
the left tower); thus the round towers of pedal, Hauptwerk, and Riickpositiv
stand in the ratio 3:2:1.
Schnitger's case for St. Jacobi may be compared with the case, similar in
arrangement but with different proportions, that he designed just six years later
for the Liibeck Cathedral (figure 1-4). Here the height of the arch did not permit
a 32' Principal in the pedal, so the longest pipe is the C of the 16' Principal in
the middle of the right pedal tower. The Hauptwerk is also based on a 16'
Principal, but in order to create a harmonious relationship with the pedal towers,
its facade pipes begin not with C but with F, a fourth higher (12'); the Riick-
positiv again contains the 8' Principal in its facade. Thus the round towers of
this organ stand in the ratio 4:3:2. Recause the ceiling height of Orgryte New
Church in Goteborg is similarly restrictive, the new North German organ there
(figure 25-1) took the Liibeck Cathedral facade as its model.
The physics of sound confronts the organist in another manner that can be
less harmonious. The beautiful 3:2 ratio of the perfect fifth, when multiplied
around the circle of fifths to produce the chromatic scale, does not close the
circle but ends on a pitch approximately Vs tone, or 23.46 cents, 17 higher (after
seven octaves have been subtracted) than the point of departure; this difference
is known as the Pythagorean comma. Flexibly intoned instruments, such as
voices and violins, can compensate for this problem quite easily, but keyboard
instruments, whose pitch is fixed, must be tempered in some way so that their
octaves will be in tune. And of all keyboard instruments, the question of tem-
perament is most critical for organs, both because their tone is so sustained and
because they are the most difficult to tune. 18
Since about the middle of the nineteenth century, nearly all keyboard instru-
ments have been tuned in equal temperament, whereby each fifth is diminished
by '/i2 Pythagorean comma, or approximately 2 cents. The organs of Leufsta
Rruk, the Jesus Church, and Oscar's Church are all tuned in equal temperament.

17. Cents are logarithms of ratios; one cent is 1/100 of an equally tempered semitone.
18. For a good discussion of temperaments for organs, see Charles A. Padgham, The Well-Tempered
Organ (Oxford: Positif Press, 1986).
Figure 1-4. The Arp Schnitger organ (1699) in the Liibeck Cathedral. Courtesy of
Museum fur Kunst und Kulturgeschichte der Hansestadt Liibeck.
 O R G A N S AS H I S T O R I C A L AND A E S T H E T I C M I R R O R S 13

Although its fifths are quite good, this temperament produces major thirds that
are about 14 cents sharper than the pure interval (see table 1-1). We generally
accept these out-of-tune thirds as the price that we must pay to have enharmonic
equivalence and every key equally in tune.
During the Renaissance another system of temperament that did produce
pure major thirds was in widespread use for keyboard instruments: quarter-
comma meantone. The comma meant here is the slightly smaller syntonic
comma, 21.5 cents, which represents the difference between four pure fifths
(less two octaves) and a pure major third with the proportion 5:4. Both the
Compenius and the Orgryte organs are tuned in quarter-comma meantone. In
this temperament, eleven fifths are each diminished by '/4 syntonic comma, but
the circle does not close, because the cumulative result is a shortening by 2*A
commas, where only one was needed. The twelfth fifth is called a "wolf," be-
cause it howls at an interval 41 cents sharper than the others. Organs tuned in
meantone generally begin the succession of fifths with E\> and end with Gtt, pro-
ducing eight pure major thirds and four diminished fourths that are unusable
(41 cents sharp) as major thirds: Ci—F, Fff-Bl>, Gtt-C, and B-Ek Since there is
no enharmonic equivalence, it is not possible to play in keys calling for thirds
such as A\>—C or B—Di. The range of usable pitch classes can be extended, how-
ever, by the provision of subsemitones, or split keys, so that the keys (and the
corresponding pipes) for both El> and Dl, as well as Gtt and Ak and occasionally
also Bl? and Aft, are present. The Orgryte organ has subsemitones; the Compen-
ius organ does not. Gottfried Fritzsche installed them in the Riickpositiv of the
St. Jacobi, Hamburg, organ in 1635, but Arp Schnitger did not retain them in
1693.
The period from the late seventeenth century until the early nineteenth wit-
nessed the discussion of many new temperament systems, as theorists and organ
builders grappled with the fact that composers were writing music that ventured
well beyond the old meantone limits, while equal temperament remained un-
acceptable to most organ builders and musicians. Various modifications of mean-
tone were tried; one of these, using a fifth-comma division, is currently in use
at St. Jacobi, Hamburg. There the diatonic keys sound almost as pure as they
do in quarter-comma meantone, while the howling of the wolf fifth has been
diminished considerably and the sharpness of the third B-Dft reduced to the
syntonic comma. The thirds Ak-C, Fl-Att, and Cl-Et are still larger (24 to 28
cents) and virtually unusable.
Two German theorists of this period wrote extensively on temperament: An-
dreas Werckmeister (1645-1706) and Johann George Neidhardt (c. 1685-1739).
Werckmeister closed the circle of fifths in 1681 with two unequal circulating
systems (also known as "well tempered"), one for use with more far-ranging keys
TABLE 1-1.
Tuning Systems Compared
Pure intervals, reckoned from C
proportions: M2, 9:8 m3, 6:5 M3, 5:4 P4, 4:3 P5, 3:2 M6, 5:3
C D E^ E F G A
cents: 204 316 386 498 702 884

Quarter-comma meantone:
] 1 fifths 1/4 syntonic comma, or 5 cents, flat; 1 unusable ("wolf," = 36 cents sharp), normally G\—E\> on organs.
8 major thirds pure; 4 unusable (41 cents sharp), normally Cft—£*, Fl—A*, Gt—Bi, and B—Dl on organs.
C Cl [D\>] D [D%] El. E F F# [G\>] G Gl [Al>] A [At] fit B C
0 76 117 193 269 310 386 503 579 620 697 773 814 890 965 1007 1082 1200

Modified meantone of St. Jacobi, Hamburg (1993)

7 fifths (F-C-G-D-A-E-B-F#) 1/5 syntonic comma, or 4.3 cents, flat; 3 fifths (Ff-Ct, Ct-Gt, E^-F) pure; E\>-B\> 1/10 Pythagorean comma sharp; Gt-Et 1/5 syntonic comma sharp.
Major thirds on C, D, F, and G close to pure (4 cents sharp); major thirds on Cl, Ft, Gl, and B still extremely sharp (21—28 cents).
C C* D Et E F Fl G Gl A B\> B C
0 88 195 296 391 502 586 698 790 892 1000 1088 1200

Neidhardt's 1724 Temperament for a Village (Neidhardt I)

4 fifths (C-G, G-D, D-A, A-E) 1/6 Pythagorean comma, or 4 cents, flat; 4 fifths (E-B, B-F#, At-Et, Et-Bt) 1/12 Pythagorean comma, or 2 cents, flat; remaining fifths pure.
Major thirds vary from 6 cents to 18 cents sharp; all usable; no "wolf" fifth.
C Cl/Dt D Dl/Et E F Ftt/Gt G Gl/At A Ai/Bl. B C
0 94 196 296 392 498 592 698 796 894 996 1092 1200

Equal temperament
All fifths 1/12 Pythagorean comma, or 2 cents, flat; all major thirds 14 cents sharp.
C Ctt/Dl. D Dtt/El. E F F*/Gl> G Gtt/At A Al/Bt B C
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

Syntonic comma (21.5 cents): the amount by which 4 pure fifths less 2 octaves exceed a pure major third.
Pythagorean comma (23.46 cents): the amount by which 12 pure fifths exceed 7 octaves.
To evaluate any interval, subtract the smaller cents value from the larger and compare the difference with the cents value of the pure interval.
 O R G A N S AS H I S T O R I C A L AND A li ST11 li 1 1 C M I R R O R S i !?

and the other for use with the old diatonic keys. 14 The first, later known as
Werckmeister III following the numeration in his Musikalische Temperatur
(1691), divides the Pythagorean comma equally among four fifths (C-G, G-D,
D—A, and B—Ftt) and tunes the rest pure. In the title of a 1706 publication,
Neidhardt called equal temperament the "best and easiest," 20 but in 1724 he
proposed a more sophisticated collection of three unequal circulating tempera-
ments for use in a village, a small city, and a large city, reserving equal temper-
ament for use at court. 2 1 All three of these unequal temperaments produce four
major thirds that are better than equal temperament, two that are the same, and
six that are worse. The good thirds become slightly better from the large city to
the small city to the village (where presumably the diatonic keys are more in
use), and the bad thirds worse, but all three favor the old meantone keys to a
lesser degree than does Werckmeister III. The advantage of unequal tempera-
ments such as these is that the differences between keys can be clearly heard
and exploited for affective purposes.
The organ at Leufsta Bruk is presently tuned in equal temperament, but one
must question whether it has always been that way, even in the absence of clear
evidence that the temperament has been changed. 22 And if Neidhardt's categories
had been applied to this organ, built four years after his 1724 publication, into
which of them would Leufsta have fit—the village or the court? If Charles De
Geer had been asked this question, he might well have replied that it was a
court organ; indeed it contained considerably more stops than the organ that was
built for the royal court in Stockholm in 1753. 2 " But Gahman himself seems to

19. Andreas Werckmeistcr, Orgelprobe . . . Benebenst einem kiirtzeu jedoch griindlichen Unterricht,
\Vic . . . ein Clavier ivohl zn teniperiren nnd ZH st'mi men se\, damit man nach heutiger Manier idle
moclos fictos in einer ertrliglichen nnd angenelunen harmoni rernehine ( T r a n k l u r l : Calvisius, 1681),
35.
20. Johann George Neidhardt, Resle nnd leichteste Teinperatur des Monochordi, verrnittelst welcher
das hentiges Tages hriinchliche Genus Diatonico-Ghronuiticmn eingcrichtet wird, daft idle Inten'alla,
nach gehoriger Proportion, einerley Sclnrebung iiberkommen, nnd sich daher die Modi regulares in idle
und iede Claves, in einer angenelunen Gleichheh, transponiren lassen . . . (Jena: J o h a n n Bielcken,
1706).
2 1. Johann George Neidhardt, Sectio canonis hannonici, zur vollen Richtigkeit dergenennn modidandi
(Konigsberg: Christ. Gottfr. Eckart, 1724), 12-15, 20. The first, for the village, is given in table 1-
1; this is the temperament "Neidhardt I" in Padgham, The Well-tempered Organ, 71—72. Neidhardt
designated this same temperament as best lor a small eity in 1732; see his Gcintzlich erschopfte,
Mathematische Abtheilnngen des Diatonisch-Chmnuitischen, ten/perirten canonis monoehordi (Konigs-
berg: Ghristoph Gottfried Hekart, 1732), 38, 40.
22. The organ was in equal temperament before the Mareussen restoration of 1963-64, and no
discussion of temperament d u r i n g the 1933 restoration by John Vesterlund has been preserved (pri-
vate communication from Axel Unncrback, 29 March 2001). However, the Moberg brothers, who
assisted Vesterlund at that time, told Goran Biomberg that Vesterlund had changed the organ to
equal temperament (private communication f r o m Goran Biomberg, 29 April 2001; on the Moberg
brothers, see chapter 12).
23. This organ had 17 stops on two manuals and a pull-down pedal. It was reconstructed by Mats
Arvidsson and Garl Gustav Lewenhaupt in 2000.
 16 S-ssas A E L U D

have favored an unequal circulating temperament at this time. In 1732 he wrote

to Bishop Erik Benzelius Jr.:

Thus to divide the twelve intervals which make up an octave on a keyboard

like a clock which counts out the day's twelve hours equally, for that I can
find no reasonable excuse or reason, for the harmonies would be just as true,
or rather just as false in one key as in another and thus just as wrong whateve
note the composer wished to use and the musician played. . . . For my part, I
think it has gone far enough when all the twelve intervals of the octave can
be tempered and adjusted so that all the fifths are beating rather little when
all the thirds are tolerably helped, so that one can enjoy playing in all keys, as
well in Ctt, Fft and Gfl major as in C, D, and F major. 24

If indeed the temperament of the Leufsta organ has been changed, it is not
alone; most historical organs have been altered in this respect over the years,
including the Compenius organ. When it was moved in 1791, its tuning wa
changed to what the organ builder C. F. Speer described as "the best tempera-
ment." But in his proposal for the renovation, Cavaille-Coll, who tuned his own
organs in equal temperament, specified that the Compenius should be "tuned
as originally, in an unequal temperament (with the wolf fifth)."25 In his report
on the renovation, Reinburg described the entire tuning process in detail, noting
that he had taken it from Dom Bedos.26 And indeed he followed Dom Bedos's
"old" tuning system, in which "eleven fifths are diminished by a quarter of a
comma."27

The Organ as Aesthetic Mirror

Tuning systems provide excellent reflections of the musical aesthetics prevailing

at the times of their most widespread use. Medieval composers and theorists
considered thirds to be dissonances and accepted only unisons, fourths, fifths,
and octaves as consonances. This aesthetic is mirrored in the Pythagorean tuning
of the medieval organ, in which all the fifths (except the wolf) are tuned perfectly,
making most of the thirds one syntonic comma sharp. 28 When thirds and sixths

24. From a letter of 15 April 1732 about the scientist Christopher Polhem's suggestion for an equal-
beating temperament (Linkopings stiftsbibliotek, handskriftssamlingen, N 12). Translation, with
slight modifications, from Mats Aberg and Herwin Troje, "The Choir Organ in the Kristine Church,
Falun," British Institute of Organ Studies 7 (1983): 53-54.
25. Eller, "Compenius," 34.
26. Eller, "Compenius," 44-45.
27. Francois Bedos de Celles, L'art dn facteur d'orgnes (1770; facsimile reprint edited by Christhard
Mahrenholz, Kassel: Hiirenreiter, 1965), 2:429.
28. For an excellent discussion of Pythagorean tuning, within the context of an anthology of medieval
organ music, see Kimberly Marshall, ed., Historical Organ Techniques and Repertoire, vol. 3, Late-
Medieval before 1460 (Colfax, N.C.: Wayne Leupold Editions, 2000).
 O R G A N S AS H I S T O R I C A L AND A E S T H E T I C M I R R O R S 17

were admitted as consonances during the fifteenth century, the tuning system
followed with meantone temperament, which was first discernible in Bartholo-
meo Ramos de Pareia's Musica pratica (Bologna, 1482) and later defined more
precisely by Giosefo Zarlino, Michael Praetorius, and others. Meantone temper-
ament brings Renaissance music to life, as can be heard in Hans Fagius's per-
formance of dances from the Lublin tablature (c. 1540; CD tracks 1—6) on the
Compenius organ. As is the case with most music of the period, these pieces
have signatures only for cantus durus (no flat) or cantus mollis (B\>) and do not
exceed the set of meantone pitch classes ascending by fifth from El» to Gl. The
harmony of these dances, which is almost totally dominated by what we would
call root-position triads, is definitely enhanced by the perfectly tuned thirds of
meantone temperament. This aesthetic, glorying in full-bodied consonance, can
still be heard in Matthias Weckmann's Es ist das Heil uns kommen her (CD track
13) from the mid-seventeenth century, played by Hans Davidsson on the full
plenum of the Orgryte organ.
New forces were also at work during the seventeenth century, however, and
they are reflected in the concurrent experimentation with temperament. Dieter-
ich Buxtehude's Nun freut euch lieben Christen g'mein, like most of his chorale-
based works, rarely exceeds the meantone limits; it is well suited to the modified-
meantone tuning of Hamburg's St. Jacobi organ. One of the properties of mean-
tone—and of unequal circulating temperaments as well—is the presence of un-
equal semitones, which impart much greater pathos to a chromatic melodic line
than is possible with equal temperament. At the entrance of the last chorale line
(CD track 7, at 09:39), whose text refers to the passion of Christ, Buxtehude
introduced a chromatic countermelody, whose affective impact is enhanced here
by the uneven semitones. A number of Buxtehude's free organ works cannot be
played on an organ tuned in meantone, however, and there is reason to believe
that the temperament of the organs in St. Mary's Church in Liibeck, where he
served as organist, was changed to Werckmeister III in 1683.29
Unequal temperaments continued to be in favor throughout the eighteenth
century, chiefly because they enhanced the differentiation of keys. As Neidhardt
wrote in his final publication on temperament, "Most do not find in [equal tem-
perament] what they seek. They say it lacks the changes in the beating of the
major thirds, and consequently in the movement of the various affections. >M() And
since most baroque composers would have agreed with Johann Mattheson that
the proper goal of all melody is to move the affections, 31 this was a serious issue.

29. See Kerala J. Snycler, Dieterich Buxtehude: Organist in Liibeck (New York: Schirmer, 1987), 84-
85, 354.
30. Neidhardt, Glintzlich erschopfte, Mathematische Abtheilungen, 40.
31. Johann Mattheson, Der vollkomene Capellmeister (1739; facsimile reprint edited by Margaretc
Reimann, Kasscl: Barenreiter, 1954), 207 [part 2, chapter 12, section 31].
 18 PRAELUDIUM

In 1776 Johann Philipp Kirnberger, a student of J. S. Bach, presented a system

of key classification in volume 2, number 1 of Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der
Musik that depended on unequal temperament. Of the connection with the
affections, he wrote:

It can be taken as a basic rule for judging scales that the major keys whose
thirds are completely pure possess most strongly the quality of the major mode,
and that the greatest roughness and finally even something like ferocity enter
into those major keys farthest removed from this purity. The same must also
be assumed of minor keys: Those whose thirds are purest have the most gentle
and pleasing tenderness and sadness, but those that are farthest removed from
this purity blend the most painful and adverse qualities into this character.' 52

Bach himself played organs in various temperaments—most of them unknown

to us—ranging from meantone through unequal temperaments to equal temper-
ament. His preferred tuning was most likely his own personal variant of unequal
temperament."
Equal temperament suits perfectly the theory and aesthetic of twelve-tone
music, such as Bengt Hambraeus's Permutations and Hymn, in which tone rows
are transposed to many different levels and absolute equality of tones is sought
(see chapter 23). Hambraeus's Riflessioni (CD track 12) is not a twelve-tone
work, but it is nonetheless rooted in the chromatic scale. The music of Franck,
with its chromatic harmony and enharmonic modulations, likewise depends on
equal temperament for its proper effect. The sections in B major of Piece her-
oique (CD track 11, at 03:01 and 06:55) provide first an oasis of calm and later
a triumphant conclusion in contrast with the agitated opening section in B minor.
But B major, with its key signature of five sharps, is one of the keys that are
most removed from purity in an unequal temperament and that Kirnberger might
have chosen to express roughness or even ferocity. This is surely not what Franck
intended here.
The design and specifications of organs also reflect the musical aesthetics of
their times, of course. The compact disc accompanying this book offers a re-
cording on each organ of a composition from its own era that draws upon the
particular characteristics of the instrument. Registrations are given in the "Ex-
ordium" chapter for each organ.
The Compenius organ, with its human scale and distinctly secular decoration,

32. Johann Philipp Kirnberger, The Art of Strict Musical Composition, translated by David Beach
and Jurgen Thym (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 340. See also Rita Steblin, A History
of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries (Ann Arbor: UMI Research
Press, 1983), 86.
33. See Mark Lindley, "A Quest for Bach's Ideal Style of Organ Temperament," in Stimmungen im
17. Und 18. Jahrhundert: Vielfalt oder Konfusion? ed. Gunter Fleischhauer et al. (Michaelstein: Stif-
tung Kloster Michaelstein, 1997), 45-67.
 ORGANS AS H I S T O R I C A L AND AESTHETIC M I R R O R S 19

invites us to dance to music copied down by the Polish organist Jan of Lublin
in the mid—sixteenth century (tracks 1—6). These anonymous dances represent
an international repertory, including two examples of the passamezzo antico.
Hans Fagius has chosen registrations that call to mind the consorts of instru-
ments that might have played for an evening of dancing in Hessen Castle: flutes,
crumhorns, and mixed consorts with viols.
Dieterich Buxtehude (c. 1637-1707) offers in Nun jrent euch lieben Christen
g'mein (BuxWV 210; track 7) one of the finest examples of the chorale fantasy,
a genre that flourished only briefly in North Germany, in which each phrase of
the chorale (example 1-1) is developed extensively in highly differentiated sec-
tions. Harald Vogel's performance in St. Jacobi, Hamburg, demonstrates the var-
ious ways in which this genre exploits the clearly delineated divisions of the large
Hanseatic organ: by playing a highly ornamented solo line on the Riickpositiv,
as at the beginning and end (13:38), or with echoes—between two manuals (04:
12), three manuals (08:34), and even four manuals (12:57). Buxtehude had only
three manuals on his Liibeck organs, but we can be sure that when he visited
Hamburg he found ways to use all tour manuals that were available on the organs
there.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685—1750) composed his Trio Sonata in E-flat Ma-
jor (BWV 525; tracks 8—10) at about the same time that Johan Niclas Cahman
built the Leufsta Bruk organ, although this piece may not have been played there
until the twentieth century. Alf Linder (see chapter 22) made this recording for
Swedish Radio in 1971. Bach's sonata, with its contrapuntal texture of three
independent lines for two manuals and pedal, also reflects the Werkprinzip of
the baroque organ, but in a single sustained way, as is typical for the eighteenth
century, as opposed to Buxtehude's constantly varying textures. The aristocratic
elegance and clarity of this organ provide a most appropriate vehicle for this
masterful composition.
Cesar Franck (1822—90) played the premiere of his Piece heroique (track 11)
in a recital on October 1, 1878, on the organ that Cavaille-Coll had built for the
five-thousand-seat auditorium in the Palais du Trocaclero, the central building
for the Universal Exposition in Paris that year. 34 That instrument had 66 stops
on four manuals and pedal, but Sverker Jullander demonstrates here that a much
smaller Cavaille-Coll organ can still convey the French symphonic style. One
immediately notices the subtle dynamic shadings that are possible with the use
of the swell pedal, as well as the dramatic entrance of the prepared reeds (at
06:14). Another characteristic Cavaille-Coll sound is the flute harmonique, which
enters in the upper voices at 03:04. The slower speech of the pipes, as compared

34 Rollin smith Playing the orgzan worjs of Cestar Frankm(nwe Pending Press,!997),
165
 20 PRAELUDIUM

Example 1-1. Nun freut euch lieben Christen g'mein (Archiv der Hansestadt Liibeck,
Marienkirche, Musik, MS 13, c. 1675

with a baroque organ, suits the homophonic texture, particularly its repeated
chords."
Concerning his Riflessioni, Bengt Hambraeus (1928-2000) states:

Riflessioni was written in the spring of 1999 as a commission from Oscar Parish
in Stockholm, Sweden, for the 50th anniversary of the 1949 Marcussen organ
(partly renovated in 1980 by Bruno Christensen & S0nner, when 240 combi-
nations, and a Register-crescendo, were added). The title of the work—reflec
tions—is directly inspired by the great organs in Oscar's Church. . . . As the
title indicates, there are numerous reflections, in this case from [Alf] Linder's
repertoire as I remember it—but transformed in many ways; music of Bach,
Reger, Bruhns, Reubke, Buxtehude. . . . -^

Hambraeus composed this work in memory of Alf Linder and dedicated it to

Linder's successor as organist of Oscar's Church, Erik Bostrom, who played the
premiere on 5 September 1999, which we hear on track 12. Hambraeus himself
specified the registrations in his score, which definitely reflect the post-1980
aesthetic; his use of the new register-crescendo is so pervasive (at 0:28—35; see
chapter 20 for others) that one could hardly guess simply from hearing it that
this instrument was built as a Werkprinzip organ.
Matthias Weckmann (c. 1616-74) served as organist at St. Jacobi, Hamburg,
during the years 1654-74, before Arp Schnitger built the organ that we now
know, which served as the chief model for the North German organ in Orgryte
New Church. But the organ that Weckmann played in Hamburg already had
four manuals and 59 stops, with subsemitones in its Riickpositiv that indicated
without a doubt that it was tuned in pure quarter-comma meantone. Also,
Schnitger incorporated into his new organ 25 stops by Hans Scherer and Gott-
fried Fritzsche from the organ that Weckmann played, which have been repli-
cated in the Orgryte organ. Thus, hearing the final versus of his set of variations

35. See Kurt Lueders, "Reflections on the Esthetic Evolution of the Cavaille-Coll Organ," in Charles
Brenton Fisk, Organ Builder: Essays in His Honor (Easthampton, Mass.: Westfield Center, 1986), 1:
128-30.
36. Bengt Hamhraeus, Riflessioni (photocopied manuscript, 1999), verso of title page.
 ORGANS AS HISTORICAL AND AESTHETIC MIRRORS <rs ) 21

Example 1-2. Es ist das Heil uns kommen her (Melodeyen Gesangbuch, Hamburg,
1604)

on the chorale Es ist das Heil uns kommen her (track 13) played by Hans Dav-
idsson on the full plenum of the Orgryte organ, with its pure meantone tuning,
brings us as close to the aesthetic of Weckmann's time as we can now get. In
this movement, the chorale (example 1-2) appears as a cantus firmus in the tenor,
surrounded by five other voices of dense counterpoint, two of them in the pedal.
The Orgryte organ is the only one of our six that was built specifically to play the
music of a bygone era—the seventeenth century—and thus it might appear that it
does not reflect its own time. But in fact it does, in several important respects.
To the aesthetic of our own time belongs the recognition that no one organ, no
matter how large or eclectic, is adequate to the task of performing every part of
the vast repertory for the instrument, which extends over seven centuries. We
know that the music of Cesar Franck is not at home on a neo-baroque organ,
and we have learned that pieces from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
that appear uninteresting on a modern instrument spring to life when played on
a mechanical-action organ with a short octave and the proper stops, tuned in
meantone. Furthermore, like its neighbor in Stockholm, the Orgryte instrument
has demonstrated that an organ that looks back to the past can also inspire
composers of the present. On 6 August 2000 Hans-Ola Ericsson (born 1958)
played the premiere of his mass for organ and tape, The Four Creatures' Amen,*7
which had been commissioned for the new organ by the Swedish Concert In-
stitute. The tape incorporates a vast array of sounds—including those of the
bellows, action, stop knobs, and wind system ol the Orgryte organ and recordings
of the Schnitger organs in Hamburg, Stade, and Norden—which Ericsson com-
bined artfully with his live performance. Finally, it is not only the completed
instrument itself, but even more the process of its building, recounted in chapter
25, that makes the Orgryte organ truly a new organ for a new millennium.

37. Ericsson's recording of this work on the Sauer organ ol Bremen Cathedral has been released by
Hochschule fiir Kiinste, Bremen.