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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2017.2670525, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications

ENHANCING POWER TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION TO

IMPROVE SECURITY AND DEPENDABILITY

Copyright Material IEEE

Paper No. PCIC PH-

Lubomir Sevov, PE Umar Khan Zhiying Zhang, PE

Senior Member, IEEE Member, IEEE Senior Member, IEEE
GE Digital Energy - Multilin GE Digital Energy - Multilin GE Digital Energy - Multilin
Markham, ON L6E 1B3, Canada Markham, ON L6E 1B3, Canada Markham, ON L6E 1B3, Canada
Lubomir.Sevov@GE.com UmarNaseem.Khan@GE.com Zhiying.Zhang@GE.com

Abstract - Current differential principle is a well- phases with the neutral phase, where a beam relay with
known principle used for protection of transformers, two coils is balanced as long as both voltages were
motors, generators, buses, and any other type of power equal. This was followed by many other attempts to
equipment with input and output current measurements. compare currents from a three-phase system during
Further, the principle is used in developing percent symmetrical conditions.
differential protection which can be programmed to the In 1904, Mr. Merz and Mr. Price first patented the
desired sensitivity for detecting in-zone faults, and differential protection based on a comparison of the
security during external faults. This protection currents measured at both sides of power system
dependability is usually achieved by modeling a component. Two CTs were installed on both sides of the
differential-restraining characteristic with two regions, equipment. The secondary windings of the current
operating and non-operating, and tracking the real transformers were connected such that during normal
differential restraint ratio during faults. Some external operation, the vector sum of the currents would be zero.
faults with high DC offset and high X/R system time A single differential relay was used to trip both sides to
constant would easily saturate the installed current protect the power transformer. The disadvantage of this
transformers (CTs), which in return would cause high system was that when the current transformers were
differential/restraint ratio above the preset characteristic operating under a no-load condition, the circuit would
into the operating region. In such cases, the differential experience a high voltage. A bridge circuit was used to
protection would operate and cause unwanted measure the current difference between both CTs, as
transformer trip. shown in, Fig. 1.
This paper focuses on some enhancements applied to The first percent differential protection [1] was
the differential principle of the main differential invented in 1929 by Mr. McColl, who added a restraining
protection; it also defines guidance on how to setup the winding to avoid false tripping. He assembled the
protection for better sensitivity and security. The paper is protection using two electromagnets which would move
supported by fault cases, showing the improved security an arm of balance, as depicted in Fig. 2. One
and dependability during internal/external faults with and electromagnet uses the geometrical sum of currents for
without CT saturation. restraining (biased relay), and the other one uses the
geometrical difference for tripping. As a result the
Index Terms – CT saturation, slope, breakpoint, tripping current proportional to the through-fault current
differential protection(87), phasor, internal fault, external had to be larger to cause a trip, hence the name
fault, differential/restraint trajectory “percent differential”.
During that time, however, the current differential
I. INTRODUCTION principle could only be developed to a certain level, as
all discoveries were based on arranging currents, using
The power transformer is one of the most expensive interposing CTs for currents scaling, phase shifts, and
components in the electric power system, and as such it relays with electromagnetic coils.
needs to be properly protected during internal faults.
Transformers experience many transient faults that can
saturate the winding CTs used by the differential IA IB
protection. Saturated CT during through-faults can lead
to unwanted differential protection operation and trip the
transformer breakers.

II. HISTORY OF THE

Id=0
DIFFERENTIALPROTECTION

Towards the end of the 19th century [1] some Fig. 1 First attempt to apply differential protection to
engineers in Germany developed the differential a transformer
protection principle that compares two DC voltage

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computations:

A. CT Mismatch and Scaling of Currents

Since the transformer’s primary job is to either step-

down or step-up voltages, in most of the cases the
phase-to-phase voltages for each transformer winding
are different. The different winding voltages lead to
different winding currents that are reversely proportional
to the voltage ratio. Since currents measured at both
windings are different in magnitude, CTs installed on
Fig. 2 First percent differential protection
both sides are also different in ratings, class accuracy,
knee-point saturation voltage, primary current rating, etc.
Later, differential principle was implemented for As a rule of thumb, a satisfactory performance of C-class
detection of fault in any equipment with measurable CTs selected for transformer differential protection can
input and output currents. The major difference between be obtained if the voltage formed by multiplying the
old and today’s differential relay can be found in the way maximum symmetrical CT secondary current during
of processing the currents by the protective devices. internal fault and the total CT secondary burden is less
Today’s devices uses internal magnitude and angle than half of the C-class voltage rating of that CT [4]. This
compensation rather than using external interposing allows some room for DC offset (asymmetry) and
CTs. In additions, modern differential relays perform DC remanence before the CT saturates. A more accurate
filtering, signal digitization, and calculate the restraining rule to avoid CT saturation for the maximum
current based on the programmed equations. These asymmetrical external fault current, requires CTs with C
relays apply pre-programmed differential/restraint voltage rating of (1+X/R) times the burden voltage
characteristics and algorithms with integrated security appearing for the maximum symmetrical external fault
and dependability. [4].
The magnitudes of the winding currents measured
III. TRANSFORMER DIFFERENTIAL by the protective device are usually very different from
PROTECTION (87T) each other, and if summed together would result in the
non-zero differential current. Therefore, scaling of the
Nowadays the transformer differential protection currents to a common base is needed. Some devices
resides in microprocessor based relays, which perform calculate the CT mismatch by programming a tap for
signal processing, filtering, currents compensation, and each winding current [6], while other devices
computation of differential and restraint currents. The automatically calculate the CT mismatch based on
protection is offered with certain level of sensitivity, transformer ratings [3].
security and dependability during faults. Some When tap selection method is used, it is important to
algorithms use simple characteristic to distinguish make the ratio between the taps to be reversely
between external and internal faults, while others are proportional to the ratio of the nominal currents from the
more complex, [5]-[6], and involve more protection transformer windings. Using tap method, winding 1 and
principles. In general, the more complex algorithms winding 2 currents at the secondary of the current
provide better security during external faults by tolerating transformer can be calculate as
current transformer saturation and inhibiting the
protection to operate. By doing so, the relay 1 ∗ 1
1 1
manufacturers provide the user with a wide range of CT 1
selection, to allow the protection to work with even
smaller and low rated CTs that can easily saturate. 2 ∗ 2
The protective device providing transformer differential 2 2
2
protection is usually connected to the current
transformers from both transformer windings, as
Mismatch between winding 1 and 2 currents can be
depicted in Fig. 3. They perform the following major
calculate as

1
3
2

where
1 , 2 – rated CT secondary currents of
winding 1 and winding 2 CTs
1 , 2 – rated primary currents of
winding 1 and winding 2 CTs
–mismatch between winding currents and winding
Fig.3 Simple diagram of percent differential CTs
protection applied to transformer

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1 , 2 are defined by (4) and (5) In the past, the phase shift compensation has been
compensated externally by connecting the secondary
circuits from the CTs installed on the Wye winding in
1 4 Delta, and the CTs from the Delta winding in Wye. This
1 ∗ √3
way the phase shift compensation is performed by the
Delta CTs from the Wye winding. The advantages of
2 5 using this method are external compensation of
2 ∗ √3 transformer phase shift and elimination of zero-
sequence current. The disadvantage of this method is
The method resembles the selection of taps for that some other protective functions from the relay will
electromechanical relays and has some disadvantages: need to use the same Delta connected CTs. Thus pickup
(a) the tap selection is based on discrete values, and the settings need to be higher than Wye connected CTs by
exact matching of currents depends on the resolution of the square root of three.
the tap values; (b) tap values with low resolution would In modern relays, the external phase shift
introduce constant error that can be seen as a small compensation is not so common, since the new digital
differential current during normal loading conditions. relays, [2]&[3], automatically perform internal phase shift
Once the mismatch is computed, the relay compensation while all CTs are connected in Wye.
engineer needs to find a pair of taps (one per winding) When all transformer CTs are connected in Wye, the
from the ones available on the relay, and make the same currents introduced to the relay terminals replicate the
ratio , or make the closest possible ratio to the one transformer phase shift, i.e. 30, 60, 120, etc., with the
from the winding secondary currents. Calculation of the addition of 180 degrees incurring from the mirrored
new mismatch in percentage is then performed based on polarity of the CTs with respect to the transformer.
(6). These relays measure the shifted winding currents and
apply a set of equations. For example, following set of
0
,% 6 equations can be used to compensate the 30 phase
shift between Wye and delta windings currents.

ia  ib 
As mentioned, other protective devices calculate CT
mismatch automatically and perform the scaling without ia comp  
the need of tap calculation [2], [3]. These devices 3 
calculate scaling factors (SFs) very accurately and apply 
ib  ic 
them to the corresponding winding currents. For these ib comp    (9)
devices, one of the windings is selected as a reference 3 
and the scaling factors are computed based on that 
ic  ia 
reference using (7) and (8). For example, if winding 1 is ic comp  
3 
selected as a magnitude reference winding then the 
scaling factor (SF) for each winding is calculated as
follow: The phase compensated Wye currents are then
compared with the Delta phase reference currents. With
1 ∗ 1 the applied phase compensation and encountering the
1 1 7
1 ∗ 1 mirrored CT polarities with respect to the transformer,
the relay sees the both windings currents 180 out of
2 ∗ 2 phase.
2 8 Fig. 4(a)&(b) shows phase current phasors to
1 ∗ 1
illustrate the phase compensation performed by the
Further, the device multiplies the current measured relay.
from each winding by the corresponding scaling factor, The applied set of equations depends on the type of
and the currents become equal in magnitude. transformer group selected on the relay. The standard
phase shifts seen on conventional type power
B. Transformer Phase Shift Compensation transformers are in multiples of 30 degrees, and many
transformer differential relays provide a pre-set table for
The windings wound on each leg of a three-phase selection of the transformer type. This pre-set table
transformer can be connected in a number of ways to contains combinations of Wye, Delta and Zig-Zag
satisfy the application of the transformer in the power windings for two and three winding transformers. Some
system. Some windings are connected in “Star” (Wye relays provide high resolution when programming the
connection), Zig-Zag, with the start point either grounded transformer phase shift angle and are capable to
or ungrounded, while others are connected in Delta to perform compensation even for transformers with non-
provide ground insolation. Phase shift is encountered standard phase shifts [3].
when the connection arrangement of the windings is
different, for example primary winding connected in
Delta and secondary winding connected in Wye.

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a) Single Slope

(a)

b) Two slopes, one breakpoint

(b)
0
Fig. 4 (a) 30 phase shift between primary and
secondary currents of Y/ transformer, (b) CT
secondary currents and phase shift compensation
applied by the relay

IV. DIFFERENTIAL/RESTRAINT
CHARACTERISTIC c) Two slopes, one breakpoint. Slopes
projected from 0
The current differential protection uses magnitude
and phase shift compensated currents to form
differential and restraint currents, and compare their ratio
against preset characteristic. The characteristic reflects
the desired sensitivity for detecting internal faults as well
as the desired security during external faults. Depending
on the protective device the characteristic can have a
different shape. Some characteristics include single
slope as shown in Fig. 5(a), while others have two
slopes Fig.5(b)-(d). Differential characteristic, Fig. 5(d),
includes a smooth cubic spline curve connecting the d) Two slopes, two breakpoints with smooth
cross-point between slope S1/breakpoint BP1 with the curve between slopes
cross-point of slope S2/breakpoint BP2.
Regardless of the type of characteristics, the main Fig. 5 Common diff./restr. characteristic shapes
purpose of the differential characteristic is to compare
the differential/restraint (Id/Ir) ratio detected in real time
against the ratio defined by the characteristic. where
The differential current is the vector sum of the i(w1)comp is the winding 1 compesated current
compensated input currents of the windings and can be i(w2)comp is the winding 2 compesated current
calculated using (10)
While the computation of differential current is
1 2 10 always the same, computation of the restraint current
can be defined by one of following equations.

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‘Average’ method and external faults with and without CT saturation.

From Fig. 7, the first trajectory (far right) reflects the
1 2 differential/restraint currents ratio during an external fault
11 with light CT saturation with the highest point falling into
2
the safe no-operation region below slope 2. The second
‘Sum’ method trajectory (second from right) reflects external fault with
severe CT saturation. In this case, the distortion caused
1 2 12 by the CT saturation leads to a ratio that exceeds
‘Scaled Sum’ method characteristic with the highest point falling into the
operating region. In such a case, the 87T protection
1 would produce unwanted trip. The third trajectory (third
1 2 13 from right), reflects light CT saturation during an internal
‘Geometrical Average’ method fault. The fourth trajectory is a straight line (first on the
left) and reflects the case of internal fault without CT
saturation. This straight line describes 1:1 ratio between
1 . 2 14 differential and restraint current. This is so, because in
this example the differential current is computed as a
vector sum of the currents from both sides of the
‘Maximum’ method
transformer using (16), and the restraint current is
computed as the maximum of both currents using (17).
max 1 , 2 15
With zero current from winding 2 CT during the fault and
no CT saturation of winding 1 CT, the ID/IR ratio would be
V. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FAULTS equal 100% using (18).
Power transformers experience all types of power 1 2 1 16
system faults, Fig. 6, which are generally defined as
internal and external faults. Internal faults include faults
in the transformer windings, tank, insulation, bushings, max 1 , 2 1 17
tap changer, and all other components in the zone
between the current transformers. The transformers also 1
,% 100% 18
experience all types of transients caused by faults 1
outside the transformer differential zone. Some of these
external faults would occur close to the transformer VI. SECURING THE PROTECTION DURING
location, while others would be far from it. EXTERNAL FAULTS
With respect to the 87T protection, the common
signature during fault condition is the sudden increase of The enhancement of the protection consists of two
currents. Depending on the number of power sources parts [5]: the first part is associated with detection of an
connected to the transformer, the fault currents during external fault, and the second part is related to checking
internal fault can be either from one winding only, or the directions on the per-phase basis from both
from the other winding/windings as well. During external windings. The directional check is performed if the actual
faults the increase of currents is always observed from differential/restraint ratio falls into the operation region
both windings CTs. The currents compensated by the above the characteristic. The directional check would
relay during external fault may not be always identical in then confirm if the fault is external or internal. If the
magnitude and opposite by phase, as in many cases detection confirms external fault, the 87T protection is
these currents are distorted due to CT saturation. High inhibited from operation.
magnitude fault currents with full offset and long DC time
constant tend to easily saturate the CTs. High burden
impedance connected at the CT secondary terminals
makes the CT saturation even worse. If such current
distortion is not accounted during programming of the
transformer percent differential protection, an unwanted
operation may occur. Fig. 7 shows patterns of internal

Fig. 7 Differential/restraint trajectories during internal

Fig. 6 Transformer zone of 87T protection
and external faults with and without CT saturation

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A. Detection of External Fault

The detection of an external faults is performed by

comparing the ”maximum of” restraint current against a
threshold (Fig. 8) computed as an average breakpoint
between the values of the user-programmed Breakpoint
1 (BP1) and Breakpoint 2 (BP2). At the same time, the
differential/restraint ratio during the fault is computed if it
falls below an average slope based on user-
programmed Slope 1 (S1) and Slope 2 (S2) values. The
point of the average slope and the average breakpoint
appears in the middle of the smooth intermediate curve
(Fig.8). Flag “SAT” is generated and retained for a
period of time to allow for the fault trajectory to develop
completely, i.e., either cross the characteristic into the
operating region or stay in the safe non-operation zone. Fig. 9 Differential/restraint trajectories with external
The directional check is performed only after initiation of fault detection
SAT flag, and only if the trajectory crosses the
characteristic into the operating region. saturation condition is generated, and the directional flag
is not checked, the fault is cleared fast without any
B. Directional Flag additional time. On the other hand, during an external
fault the signature of the ID/IR trajectory is to move to the
The value of the directional flag (Fig.9) determines right from the normal condition and cross the saturation
whether the fault is internal or external in nature [5]. detection line. The saturation (SAT) flag is triggered
Directional flag equal zero indicates an external fault high, and the protection will wait for the directional flag.
(angle difference between the winding compensated In case, the ID/IR trajectory goes above the characteristic
currents bigger than 90 deg), and flag equal 1 indicates into the operating area, the algorithm checks the angle
an internal fault (angle difference less than 90 degrees). difference between the currents and defines the value of
Considering the ID/IR trajectories of Fig. 7, it can be the directional flag. A directional flag equal to zero
seen that applying the external fault detection condition indicates an external fault. It is worth mentioning here
(Fig. 9) trajectories of the both external faults would that during CT saturation, the angle difference between
trigger SAT flag. However, the directional check will be the saturated and the non-saturated currents remains
performed only for the case of external fault and severe bigger than 90 degrees. The directional flag would
CT saturation at the point of crossing into the operating change from 0 to 1, in cases of evolving fault, i.e. from
region (second from right). external to internal.
The relay applies a simple logic (Fig.11) involving the
generated flags: differential flag (DIF), saturation flag C. The Art of Defining the Characteristic
(SAT), and directional flag (DIR).
The two trajectories of Fig. 7 related to internal fault The values of the pickup level, S1, S2, BP1, and BP2
would not trigger SAT flag, and the protection would not shall be carefully defined to optimize the response of the
need to check directional flag in terms to produce 87T protection during internal and external faults. For
operation and trip. Following the logic of Fig. 10 during this purpose, the data from the power transformer
internal faults, the ID/IR trajectory goes straight into the nameplate, CT saturation characteristics, burden, as well
operating region producing only DIF flag. Since no as minimum and maximum fault currents, and X/R of the
system are needed. The target for the protection
engineer is to set the slopes and the breakpoints and
achieve the desired sensitivity during internal faults, as
well as the desired security during external faults.
Finding the maximum fault current including the X/R of
the system that would not cause CT saturation would
help to program BP1. Finding the lowest fault current

Fig. 8 Logic flags during external fault Fig. 10 87T security logic

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including X/R of the system that would cause the worst TABLE 1
CT to saturate and output secondary current with at least
half-cycle saturation free time, would help in
CT1 CT2 Operating Time (sec)
programming breakpoint 2. The selection of slope 1 Fault Fault
Case Burden Burden Relay Relay with
would correspond to the differential currents that would #
Type Location
(ohms) (ohms) without EDP EDP
be seen for through currents (restraint) with magnitudes
1 A‐g F1 15 4 0.01164 0.0168
less than breakpoint 1, while the selection of slope 2 2 BC F1 15 4 0.012 0.01872
value is associated with the degree of CT saturation 3 ABC F1 15 4 0.01212 0.0168
during external faults. 4 A‐g F1 15 4 0.01176 0.01656
5 A‐g F3 0 15 0 0
6 BC F3 0 15 0.03804 0
VII. REAL TIME DIGITAL SIMULATION 7 ABC F3 0 15 0.0222 0
8 A‐g F3 0 15 0 0
Dynamic testing using real-time digital simulation 9 A‐g F3 0 13 0 0
(RTDS) [7] was performed to check the differential 10 BC F3 0 13 0.01992 0
11 ABC F3 0 13 0.021 0
protection security and dependability after the 12 A‐g F3 0 13 0 0
implementation of the enhancement. The performed 13 A‐g F3 0 10 0 0
tests included applying internal, external and evolving 14 A‐g F3 0 8 0 0
15 BC F3 0 14 0.01944 0
faults. The evolving faults included: external to internal, 16 BC F3 0 12 0.0192 0
internal to internal, external to external, and internal to 17 BC F3 0 10 0.01884 0
external. 18 BC F3 0 8 0.01956 0
The RTDS model , as shown in Fig. 11, consists of 19 BC F3 0 7 0.23508 0
20 BC F3 0 6 0.2874 0
Delta/Wye power transformer supplied by two power 21 BC F3 0 5 0.23508 0
sources, one connected on each side. The tests were 22 BC F3 0 4 0.2364 0
performed for various system conditions and fault types 23 BC F3 0 20 0.01788 0
24 ABC F3 0 20 0.02136 0
such as three phase(ABC, ABC-g), phase to phase(AB, 25 ABC F3 0 18 0.0198 0
BC, CA), two phase to ground(AB-g, BC-g, CA-g), and 26 ABC F3 0 16 0.0396 0
phase to ground(A-g, B-g, C-g). In order to simulate high 27 ABC F3 0 14 0.02196 0
28 ABC F3 0 12 0.06648 0
and low fault current magnitudes, each fault type was 29 ABC F3 0 10 0.02184 0
applied at different fault location (F1, F2, F3), varying 30 BC F3 0 9 0.02088 0
fault resistance (low and high), CT saturation (light to 31 BC F3 0 8 0.06876 0
32 BC F3 0 7 0.02724 0
severe) level, and transformer loading (60%, 100%, 33 BC F3 0 6 0.23688 0
130% and 150%). 34 BC F3 0 5 0.285 0
Table 1 shows performance comparison between
two relays with and without enhanced differential In the moderate CT saturation case, the CT saturates in
protection (EDP). As it can be seen during internal faults the first quarter of the second power cycle, resulting in
(case#1-4) both relays properly operate, and trip within significant increase of restraint current (Fig. 12(b). Fig.
50Hz power cycle. However, during external faults, the 12(c) shows phase B current with light CT saturation that
relay without EDP falsely trips in the events of external starts in the first quarter of the fourth power cycle,
BC and ABC faults with CT saturation (case#6, 7, 10, resulting in even bigger restraint current.
11, 15-34), while the relay with EDP remains secure and
does not trip for all these cases.
Fig. 12 shows the CT primary and secondary
current of Phase B during external BC fault with severe,
moderate, and light saturation, and Fig. 13 shows the
trajectory of phase B ID/IR ratio corresponding to the
degree of CT saturation. In the case of severe CT
saturation, it can be seen in Fig. 12(a) that CT saturates
in the first quarter of the first power cycle, resulting in the
high false differential current while the increase of the
restraint current is not significant (solid line from Fig. 14).

Fig. 12 Signatures of Phase B current at CT

secondary and primary sides for an external BC fault
Fig. 11 Power System Test Model with (a) severe, (b) moderate, and (c) light CT
saturation

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[2] 845 Transformer Protection System, Instruction

Manual (GE Publication GEK-119651A, 2015).
[3] T60 Transformer Management Relay, Instruction
Manual (GE Publication GEK-119627A, 2015).
[4] IEEE C37.110–2007,Guide for the Application of
Current Transformers Used for Protective Relaying
Purposes.
[5] B. Kasztenny, L. Sevov, G. Brunello ; “Digital Low-
Impedance Bus Differential Protection – Review of
Principles and Approaches”, 51st Annual
Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, Texas
A&M, 2001
[6] John J Winders, Jr. “Power Transformers Principles
and Applications” (2002)
[7] RTDS Inc., Real Time Digital Simulator, Reference
Manual (RTDS Publication, Manitoba, Canada
2004).
Fig. 13 Phase B differential/restraint trajectories [8] Lubomir Sevov, Umar Khan, Zhiying Zhang
during an external BC fault with severe, moderate “Enhancing power transformer differential protection
and light CT saturation to improve security and dependability”, 2016
Petroleum and Chemical Industry Technical
During external faults with CT saturation, the typical Conference (PCIC)
differential characteristic slope setting will help prevent
operation of the differential protection, but only up to
certain degree. During severe CT saturation conditions, X. VITAE
the false differential current is much significant, while the
increase of restraint current is not that significant, and Lubomir Sevov (M’90) received his M.Sc. degree from
can result in protection mal-operation (solid line in Fig. Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria in 1990. After
13). In such conditions, if only the differential/restraint graduation, he worked as a protection and control
characteristic was set as a trip/no-trip criteria, the severe engineer for National Electric Company (NEC) Bulgaria.
CT saturation would cause operation during the fault. Mr. Sevov joined GE Multilin in 1998, where he currently
In this case the additional CT saturation detection works as a senior application engineer in the research
technique and the directional check helped to secure the and development team. In the last eight years, Mr.
protection against operating on external fault. The Sevov has been mainly involved in the design and
trajectories from Fig. 12(b)&(c) corresponding to application of industrial protective relays and controls.
moderate and light CT saturations during external faults His areas of interests include feeder, bus and
do not exceed the characteristic and do not require transformer protection, control, monitoring, and
directional checks, as shown in Fig.13. diagnostic.
Lubomir is a registered professional engineer in the
VIII. CONCLUSIONS province of Ontario, Canada. He is a senior member of
IEEE, and chair of the PSRC K1 working group
The transformer percent differential protection is not developing a Guide for the Application of Protective
reliable enough during external fault, if the Relaying for Phase-Shifting Transformers.
differential/restraint characteristic is the only one criteria
providing security. The saturation of CTs during external Umar Khan (M’08) received his B.E. degree from
faults could lead to cases of dangerously high Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute (GIKI), Pakistan, in 2005,
differential/restraint ratios crossing the characteristic into and M.Sc. degree from Wroclaw University of
the operating region and causing unwanted trip. The Technology, Wroclaw, Poland, in 2009, and Ph.D.
help of early CT saturation detection, as well as degree in electrical power system from University of
directionality check are vital for the protection to provide Western Ontario, Canada, in 2013. Since 2013, he is
additional security during external faults. Careful working with GE Digital Energy, Canada. His current
analysis of the system including the power transformer, areas of interest are power system protection, control
and current transformers, is needed to set the protection and monitoring.
for optimum performance.
Zhiying Zhang (S’92, M’94, SM’09) received his B.Sc.
and M.Sc. degrees from the North China Institute of
IX. REFERENCES Electric Power (now North China Electric Power
University-NCEPU) in 1982 and 1985 respectively, and a
[1] W. Schossig, “Introduction to the History of Ph.D. degree in 1994 from the University of Manitoba,
Differential Protection” PAC World magazine Canada, all in Electrical Engineering. From 1982 to
(Summer, 2008) 1989, he worked as an electrical engineer in China in the
Electric Power Dispatching Center of Hebei Province in

0093-9994 (c) 2016 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2017.2670525, IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications

Shijiazhuang, and in the Electric Power Planning and

Engineering Institute in Beijing respectively. From 1993
to 2007, he worked in APT Power Technologies and
later NxtPhase T&D Corporation in Winnipeg, Canada,
in various technical positions in the area of protective
relay design, research and development. In 2007, he
joined GE Multilin, Markham, ON, Canada, as a senior
application engineer, and currently he is a principal
applications engineer with the same company. Zhiying is
a registered professional engineer in the province of
Ontario and a senior member of IEEE..

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