A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central

processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few

integrated circuits. It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts
digital data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its
memory, and provides results as output. It is an example of sequential digital
logic, as it has internal memory. Microprocessors operate on numbers and
symbols represented in the binary numeral system.

The advent of low-cost computers on integrated circuits has transformed

modern society. General-purpose microprocessors in personal computers are
used for computation, text editing, multimedia display, and communication
over the Internet. Many more microprocessors are part of embedded
systems, providing digital control of a myriad of objects from appliances to
automobiles to cellular phones and industrial process control.

During the 1960s, computer processors were constructed out of small and
medium-scale ICs each containing from tens to a few hundred transistors.
For each computer built, all of these had to be placed and soldered onto
printed circuit boards, and often multiple boards would have to be
interconnected in a chassis. The large number of discrete logic gates used
more electrical power—and therefore, produced more heat—than a more
integrated design with fewer ICs. The distance that signals had to travel
between ICs on the boards limited the speed at which a computer could
operate. The integration of a whole CPU onto a single chip or on a few chips
greatly reduced the cost of processing power. The integrated circuit
processor was produced in large numbers by highly automated processes, so
unit cost was low. Single-chip processors increase reliability as there are
many fewer electrical connections to fail. As microprocessor designs get
faster, the cost of manufacturing a chip (with smaller components built on a
semiconductor chip the same size) generally stays the same.

The first microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were used for
electronic calculators, using binary-coded decimal (BCD) arithmetic on 4-bit
words. Other embedded uses of 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors, such as
terminals, printers, various kinds of automation etc., followed soon after.
Affordable 8-bit microprocessors with 16-bit addressing also led to the first
general-purpose microcomputers from the mid-1970s on.

The latest microprocessors available are :

Bulldozer is Advanced Micro Devices' (AMD) Accelerated

Processing Unit (APU) codename for the server and desktop processors
released on October 12, 2011 with family 15h micro architecture, the
successor to the family 10 h (K10) micro architecture M-SPACE design
methodology. Bulldozer is designed from scratch, not a development of
earlier processors. The core is specifically aimed at 10-125 watt TDP
computing products. AMD claims dramatic performance-per-watt efficiency
improvements in high-performance computing (HPC) applications with
Bulldozer cores. According to AMD, Bulldozer-based CPUs are based on
Global Foundries' 32 nm Silicon on insulator (SOI) process technology and
reuses the approach of DEC for multitask computer performance with the
arguments of, according to press notes, "balances dedicated and shared
computer resources to provide a highly compact, high core count design that
is easily replicated on a chip for performance scaling." In other words, by
eliminating some of the "redundant" elements that naturally creep into
multicore designs, AMD has hoped to take better advantage of its hardware
capabilities, while using less power. Bulldozer is the first major redesign of
AMD’s processor architecture since 2003, when the firm launched its K8
processors, and also features two 128-bit FMA-capable FPUs which can be
combined into one 256-bit FPU. This design is accompanied by two integer
clusters, each with 4 pipelines (the fetch/decode stage is shared). Bulldozer
will also introduce shared L2 cache in the new architecture. AMD's marketing
service calls this design a "Module". A 16-threads processor design would
feature eight of these "modules", but the operating system will recognize
each "module" as two logical cores.

AMD 10h

The AMD Family 10h, or K10, is a microprocessor microarchitecture by

AMD. Though there were once reports that the K10 had been canceled, the
first third-generation Opteron products for servers were launched on
September 10, 2007, with the Phenom processors for desktops following and
launching on November 11, 2007 as the immediate successors to the K8
series of processors (Athlon 64, Opteron, 64-bit Sempron). In 2003, AMD
outlined the features for upcoming generations of microprocessors after the
K8 family of processors in various events and analyst meetings, including the
Microprocessor Forum 2003. The outlined features to be deployed by the
next-generation microprocessors are as follows:

 Threaded architectures.
 Chip level multiprocessing.
 Huge scale MP (multi-processor) machines.
 10 GHz operation.
 Much higher performance superscalar, out of order CPU core.
 Huge caches.
 Media/vector processing extensions.
 Branch and memory hints.
 Security and virtualization.
 Enhanced Branch Predictors.
 Static and dynamic power management.
 Fabrication Technologies
  Supported DRAM standards.
 Higher computational throughput.

Intel Core i7

Intel Core is a brand name used for various mid-range to high-end

consumer and business microprocessors made by Intel.

In general, processors sold as Core are more powerful variants of the same
processors marketed as entry-level Celeron and Pentium. Similarly,
identically or more capable versions of Core processors are also sold as Xeon
processors for the server and workstation market.

The original Core brand refers to Intel's 32-bit mobile dual-core x86 CPUs
that derived from the Pentium M branded processors. The processor family
used a more enhanced version of the Intel P6 microarchitecture. It emerged
in parallel with the NetBurst microarchitecture (Intel P68) of the Pentium 4
brand, and was a precursor of the 64-bit Core microarchitecture of Core 2
branded CPUs. The Core brand comprised two branches: the Duo (dual-core)
and Solo (Duo with one disabled core, which replaced the Pentium M brand
of single-core mobile processor).

The Core brand was launched on January 6, 2006 by the release of the 32-bit
Yonah CPU – Intel's first dual-core mobile (low-power) processor. Its dual-
core layout closely resembled two interconnected Pentium M branded CPUs
packaged as a single die (piece) silicon chip (IC). Hence, the 32-bit
microarchitecture of Core branded CPUs – contrary to its name – had more in
common with Pentium M branded CPUs than with the subsequent 64-bit Core
microarchitecture of Core 2 branded CPUs. Despite a major rebranding effort
by Intel starting January 2006, some computers with the Yonah core
continued to be marked as Pentium M.

The Core series is also known for being the first Intel processor to be used as
the main CPU for an Apple Macintosh computer. The Core Duo was the CPU
for the first generation MacBook Pro while the Core Solo appeared in Apple's
Mac mini line. Core Duo signified the beginning of Apple's shift to Intel
processors across their entire line.

Core i3
Released on January 20, 2011, the Core i3-2xxx line of desktop and mobile
processors is a direct replacement of the 2010 "Clarkdale" Core i3-5xx and
"Arrandale" Core i3-3xxM models, based on the new microarchitecture. While
they require new sockets and chipsets, the user-visible features of the Core
i3 are largely unchanged, including the lack of support for Turbo Boost and
AES-NI. Unlike the Sandy Bridge based Celeron and Pentium processors, the
Core i3 line does support the new Advanced Vector Extensions.

Core i5
In January 2011, Intel released new quad-core Core i5 processors based on
the "Sandy Bridge" microarchitecture at CES 2011. New dual-core mobile
processors and desktop processors arrived in February 2011.

The Core i5-2xxx line of desktop processors are mostly quad-core chips, with
the exception of the dual-core Core i5-2390T, and include integrated
graphics, combining the key features of the earlier Core i5-6xx and Core i5-
7xx lines. The suffix after the four-digit model number designates unlocked
multiplier (K), low-power (S) and ultra-low-power (T).

The desktop CPUs now all have four non-SMT cores (like the i5-750), with the
exception of the i5-2390T. The DMI bus is running at 5 GT/s.

The mobile Core i5-2xxxM processors are all dual-core chips like the previous
Core i5-5xxM series and share most the features with that product line.

Core i7
The Core i7 brand remains the high-end for Intel's desktop and mobile
processors, featuring the Sandy Bridge models with the largest amount of L3
cache and the highest clock frequency. Most of these models are very similar
to their smaller Core i5 siblings. The quad-core mobile Core i7-2xxxQM/XM
processors follow the previous "Clarksfield" Core i7-xxxQM/XM processors,
but now also include integrated graphics.