Group Theory

Postgraduate Lecture Course

Prof. André Lukas

Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford

MT 2014, weeks 1 – 8, Thu 2pm-3pm, Fri 11am-1pm

Fisher Room, Denys Wilkinson Building
This document is available at:
http://www-thphys.physics.ox.ac.uk/people/AndreLukas/grouptheory.pdf

Outline
1) Groups and representations

2) Finite groups

3) Lie groups

a) Lie groups
b) Lie algebras

4) Examples

a) Lorentz and Poincaré group

b) SU (n) and tensor methods
c) SO(n), spinor representations

5) Classification of simple Lie algebras

6) Representations and Dynkin formalism

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Course information
Modern theories of particle physics are based on symmetry principles and use
group theoretical tools extensively. Besides the standard Poincaré/Lorentz in-
variance of all such theories, one encounters internal (continuous) groups such
as SU (3) in QCD, SU (5) and SO(10) in grand unified theories (GUTs), and E6
and E8 in string theory. Discrete groups also play an important role in particle
physics model building, for example in the context of models for fermion masses.
The main purpose of this course is to develop the understanding of groups and
their representations, including finite groups and Lie groups. Emphasis is placed
on a mathematically satisfactory exposition as well as on applications to physics
and practical methods needed for ”routine” calculations.

Literature
• W. Fulton and J. Harris, ”Representation Theory”, Springer, Graduate
Texts in Mathematics.

• T. Bröcker and T. tom Dieck, ”Representations of Compact Lie Groups”,

Springer, Graduate Texts in Mathematics.

• H. Boerner, ”Representations of groups: with special consideration for the

needs of modern physics”, North-Holland Pub. Co., 1963.

• R. Slansky, “Group Theory for Unified Model Building”, Phys. Rep. 79

(1981) 1.

• B. G. Wybourne, “Classical Groups for Physicists”, Wiley (1974).

• M. Gourdin, “Unitary Symmetries”, North Holland (1967).

• R. N. Cahn, “Semi-Simple Lie Algebras and Their Representations”, Ben-

jamin/Cummings (1984).

• H. Georgi, “Lie Algebras in Particle Physics”, Benjamin/Cummings (1982).

Prerequisites
The course assumes knowledge of

• linear algebra

• the groups SO(3) and SU (2), as, for example, encountered in the context
of quantum mechanics

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It will help to have come across the following subjects

• some basic differential geometry

• the SU (3) quark model

• gauge-field theories

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 Group Theory
Problem Sheet 1
Date: Nov 19, 2013, Deadline: Dec 3, 2013

1) (Generalisation of Schur’s Lemma) Write the reducible representation R

of G as R = n1 R1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ nr Rr where Ri , i = 1, · · · , r are irreducible
representations of dimensions di and the integers ni indicate how often Ri
appears in R. Convince yourself that the representation matrices R(g) can
then be written as R(g) = 1n1 ⊗ R1 (g) ⊕ · · · ⊕ 1nr ⊗ Rr (g). (Here, the tensor
product A ⊗ B of two matrices A and B denotes the matrix obtained when
every entry of A is replaced by this entry times the matrix B). Then, show
that a matrix P with [P, R(g)] = 0 for all g ∈ G has the general form
P = P1 ⊗ 1d1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Pr ⊗ 1dr where Pi are ni × ni matrices.

2) (Permutation groups) Denote by Sn the group of permutations of n objects,

that is Sn = {σ : {1, . . . , n} → {1, . . . , n} | σ bijective}. It is often useful to
denote a particular permutation σ by the symbol
!
1 2 ... n
σ= .
σ(1) σ(2) . . . σ(n)

a) Verify that Sn forms a group for all n which is non-Abelian for n > 2.
b) Focus on S3 . Determine its conjugacy classes and show that the com-
plete set of its complex irreducible representations consists of one two-
dimensional and two one-dimensional representations.
c) Find the character table of S3 .
d) Consider the regular representation of S3 and write down the projec-
tors which correspond to the various irreducible representations.

3) (Left-invariant one-forms and Maurer Cartan equation) For a matrix Lie

group, consider the left-invariant vectors fields Li = ξi j ∂t∂j and the dual
one-forms φi = φj i dtj where φi j ξj k = δik .

a) Using the results on left-invariant vector fields from the lecture, show
that g −1 dg = φi Ti , where Ti are the generators.
b) Use the result from a) to show that dφi + 12 fjk i φj ∧ φk = 0, where fjk i
are the structure constants.

4) (Lie-groups and their Lie-algebras)

a) Derive the Lie-algebras of SO(4) and SU (2) × SU (2) and show that
they are isomorphic.

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 b) Do the same for SO(6) and SU (4) (Hint: It is helpful to contruct a
basis for the SU (4) Lie algebra starting with gamma matrices in six
Euklidean dimensions (these are 8 × 8 matrices) and their antisym-
metrized products.)
c) Show that the 2n × 2n real matrices M satisfying M T ηM = η where
!
0 1n
η=
−1n 0

form a group. This group is called the symplectic group Sp(2n). Find
the Lie-algebra sp(2n) of Sp(2n) and its Cartan subalgebra. Further,
determine dim(sp(2n)) and rank(sp(2n)).

5) (The Lorentz group)

A Dirac spinor ψ transforms in the representation RD = (1/2, 0) ⊕ (0, 1/2)
of the Lorentz group and can be written as
!
χL
ψ=
χR

where χL and χR are left- and right-handed Weyl spinors. The representa-
tion matrices RD (M ) acting on ψ are given by
!
RL (M ) 0
RD (M ) = .
0 RR (M )

Define the gamma matrices γµ by

! !
0 12 0 σi
γ0 = , γi = .
12 0 −σi 0

a) Using the explicit expressions for RL (M ) and RR (M ), show that an

infinitesimal transformation of ψ takes the form δψ = iµν σµν ψ where
σµν = 2i [γµ , γν ] and µν are small parameters.
b) Show explicitly that the matrices σµν form a representation of the
Lorentz group Lie algebra.
c) Use the relation between the Lorentz group and SL(2, C) to show that
RD (M )−1 γµ RD (M ) = RV (M )µ ν γν .
d) Proof that the Dirac equation for the spinor ψ with mass m is Lorentz-
covariant by applying the result c).

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 Group Theory
Problem Sheet 2
Date: 2/12/2013, Deadline: 13/1/2013

1) (SU (5), tensor methods and Grand Unification)

a) Find the Young-tableaux and associated tensors for the representations

1, 5, 5̄, 10, 15 and 24 of SU (5).
b) Show that

5 × 5̄ = 1 + 24
5×5 = 10 + 15
5̄ × 10 = 5 + 45
10 × 10 = 5 + 45 + 50

using Young-tableaux.
c) Using the obvious embedding of SU (3)×SU (2) into SU (5) (such that,
U3 ∈ SU (3) and U2 ∈ SU (2) are embedded as
!
U3 0
U= ∈ SU (5))
0 U2

show that one family of standard model particles exactly fits into the
representations 5̄ and 10. Identify the generator in the Cartan subal-
gebra of SU (5) (in the 5 representation) which corresponds to weak
hypercharge UY (1).
d) Assume there is a Higgs boson transforming in the 5̄ representation.
Write down the allowed (SU (5)-invariant) Yukawa couplings. Work
out the pattern of fermion masses that arises when the SUW (2) doublet
within the 5̄ Higgs acquires a VEV.

2) (Grand Unification Lie-groups and their subgroups)

Using (extended) Dynkin diagrams, convince yourself that

E8 ⊃ SO(16); SU (5) × SU (5); SU (3) × E6 ; SU (2) × E7 ; SU (9); SU (4) × SO(10)

E6 ⊃ SO(10) × U (1); SU (2) × SU (6); SU (3) × SU (3) × SU (3)
SO(10) ⊃ SU (5) × U (1); SU (2) × SU (2) × SU (4); SO(8) × U (1)

3) (Dynkin formalism and Grand Unification)

Consider the chain SO(10) ⊃ SU (5) × U (1) ⊃ SUc (3) × SUW (2) × UY (1) ×
U (1).

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 a) Construct the weight system of the SO(10) representation with highest
weight (00001). Show that this is the 16 representation and, hence,
the spinor of SO(10).
b) Construct the weight systems of the representations 5̄ ∼ (0001) and
10 ∼ (0100) of SU (5).
c) Verify the result from 1c) that 5̄ and 10 of SU (5) contain one standard
model family by using the weight systems of the various representa-
tions involved and the projection matrix
 
0 1 1 0
P (SU (5) ⊃ SUW (2) × SUc (3)) =  1 1 0 0  .
 

0 0 1 1

Also, show that weak hypercharge can be represented by Y = [−2, 1, −1, 2]/3
in the dual basis.
d) Find the decomposition of 16 of SO(10) into SU (5) representations
and identify the standard model states within 16. To do this, use the
projection matrix

1 1 0 0 0
 
 0 0 1 0 1 
P (SO(10) ⊃ SU (5)) = 
 
0 0 0 1 0

 
0 1 1 0 0

together with the above results. Which additional state do you find
and what is its representation under the standard model group and its
physical interpretation?

4) (Value of Casimir operator in Dynkin formalism)

Consider the representations n ∼ (1, 0, · · · , 0), n̄ ∼ (0, · · · , 0, 1) and n2 − 1 ∼
(1, 0, · · · , 0, 1) of SU (n).

a) Compute the value of the quadratic Casimir C for those representa-

tions.
b) Compute the index c of those representations and determine the one-
loop β–function for an SU (n) Yang-Mills theory with Nf Dirac fermions
in n. Discuss the qualitative behaviour of the gauge coupling as a func-
tion of the energy scale for Nf = 6.

(Hint: The explicit form of the Cartan martices, metric tensors and much
more can be found in R. Slansky, Phys. Rep. 79 (1981) 1.)