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CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF THE NIGERIAN ARMY FROM 1863 TO

DATE
INTRODUCTION

1. The evolution of the Nigerian Army (NA)’s culture from its origin in
1863 to date has been shaped by a variety of political, social and
military influences. Over the years, the NA has transformed from its
colonial origin into a modern, professional military force representing
Nigeria’s sovereignty and playing a significant role in both national and
international affairs. This evolution of the force does not only highlight
the shift in military strategy, tactics and operational structures but it
also underscores the impact of culture, tradition and identity on the
institution itself.

2. The culture of the NA from its creation has continued to evolve

through the various stages of metamorphosis of the force. The
evolution at the various stages has largely been shaped by several
factor prevalent at the time. It is apparent that this culture has
evolved from its colonial roots, through post-independence military
interventions in politics, and more recently, its Counter Terrorism and
Counter Insurgency efforts across the country and sub-region. The
current culture of the NA can therefore be understood through a mix of
historical legacy, contemporary reforms and ongoing challenges.

3. The understanding of the various stages of cultural evolution of

the NA particularly the factors shaping the present culture would
provide the appropriate background for making projections on the
ideal soldier and requisite skills for the future NA soldier to meet the
contemporary security challenges. The purpose of this presentation is
to explore the cultural evolution of the NA from its formation in 1863 to
date.

AIM

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3. The aim of this presentation is to highlight the cultural evolution
of
the NA from its formation in 1863 to date with a view to making
projections on the ideal soldier for the future NA.

SCOPE

4. The presentation will cover the following:

a. Brief history of the NA.

b. Cultural Characteristics of the various Stages of the
Evolution of the NA.
c. The Ideal Soldier for the Future NA.
d. Requisite Skills and Competences of the Ideal Soldier for the
Future NA

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE NIGERIAN ARMY

5. The journey of the NA began in 1863 when it was established as

the Glover Hausa. It started as a paramilitary force created by the
British Colonial Administrator John Glover to protect British interests
along the Lagos coastline. The force, which was comprised mainly of
Hausa recruits, laid the ground work for what later became the West
African Frontier Force (WAFF) in 1900. The WAFF brought together
military forces from the British-controlled West Africa and was mainly
to secure British West Africa and ensure stability of its colonial
territories. During this period, the NA’s identity was deeply rooted in
colonial objectives and its operations were largely characterised by the
enforcement of British imperial authority.

6. As the country moved towards independence, the NA began to

undergo significant changes particularly in composition and command.
Nigerianization, a policy of gradually replacing British officers began in
in the 1950s and gained momentum after independence in 1960. The

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post-independence era was a pivotal moment for the cultural evolution
of the NA as it had to redefine its role from serving colonial interest to
safeguarding the new sovereign state. The major challenge then was
to shift from an institution largely disconnected with the populace to
one that could foster national unity, especially given the country’s
diverse ethno-religious composition.

7. In the years following Nigeria’s independence, the NA became a

central actor in the country’s political landscape. Consequently, from
1966 – 1999, the NA was involved in series of coups and counter-coups
with NA officers assuming control of the government. The period also
saw the outbreak of civil war from 1967 – 1970 which was a defining
moment in the NA’s history. The civil war required the NA to adapt
new combat tactics, develop a stronger organisational structure and
grapple with internal divisions. During this period, the NA began to
build a more distinct national identity.

8. The NA’s involvement in governance had a profound impact on its

internal dynamics. The politicization of the army during the years of
military rule blurred the lines between professional soldiering and
political ambition. The period also led to an increased militarisation of
the Nigerian society, with the NA playing a role in various aspects of
civil administration. The culture of the NA during this period was
marked by a combination of discipline and political patronage as NA
officers navigated the dual roles of military leaders and political actors.

9. With the return to civilian rule in 1999, the NA entered a new

phase of cultural evolution. The focus shifted towards depoliticising the
military, professionalising its troops and aligning its operational
standards with international best practices. The period saw the NA
engage more in peacekeeping missions across Africa and contribute to
global peace and security. The NA’s culture has embraced the values

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of professionalism, national service and international cooperation while
also contending with myriads of security challenges including
terrorism, banditry, insurgency and secessionist activities.

10. The current NA is a complex institution shaped by over a century

of change. The evolution of the NA from a colonial force to a key
player in African and global security highlights the importance of
understanding the cultural dimension of military institutions.
Accordingly, the characteristics of the various stages of evolution of
the NA would be discussed in the next paragraphs.

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS STAGES OF THE

EVOLUTION OF THE NIGERIAN ARMY

11. The various stages of cultural evolution of the NA can broadly be

categorised into 6 eras. These include the early formation (1863 –
1900), West African Frontier Force (1900 – 1945) and Post World War
II/Nigerian Independence era (1945 – 1960). Other are the post-
independence era (1960 – 1970), military rule era (1966 – 1999) and
the return to democracy (1999 – date). These are highlighted in the
following paragraphs.

CULTURAL CHARACTERSTICS OF THE EARLY FORCE (1863 –

1900)

12. The early force composed mainly of the soldiers from the Hausa
ethnic group hence cultural diversity was very low. The major role of
the force then known as the Hausa Constabulary was to provide
military support for the enforcement of colonial laws as well as to
suppress of local revolts. The force was used for expanding British
interest into the hinterlands of Nigeria. The structure of the early force
entailed British officers being in charge of the force which was strictly
under colonial control. Therefore, there was little room for cultural
influence from the indigenous populations.
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13. The distinct roles and functions of the early force included the
following:
a. Enforcement of Law and Order. The force was primarily
tasked to maintain law and order in the coastal colonies and
trading posts. However, the enforcement was to serve the
interest of the colonial masters.

b. Expansion of British Control. The early force played a

critical role in expanding British control. As British colonial
ambition grew, the force was involved in military campaigns to
subdue local kingdoms and resisting communities.

c. Protecting Trade Routes. The early force was crucial for

safeguarding British trade routes particularly around the River
Niger. The area was a major commercial artery into Nigeria.

d. Colonial Administration Enforcement. The early force

helped to enforce British colonial policies. These include tax
collection and controls.

e. Defence against European Rivals. The force was used

to act as deterrence to British rivals who had the ambition of
expanding into the British colony in Nigeria. However, this was a
lesser concern in Nigeria compared to other parts of Africa.

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WEST AFRICAN FRONTIER

FORCE (1900 – 1945)
14. The WAFF was a British colonial military unit and existed in West
Africa up to the end of the World War II in 1945. Its main purpose was
to maintain internal order in the British colonies and to support British
military campaign both in Africa and globally during the world wars.
The WAFF was composed primarily of soldiers recruited from the
various ethnic groups. The recruitment was often voluntary but
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included conscription during war times. The WAFF was instrumental in
the pacification of local populations during the consolidation of British
colonial rule.

15. The officers’ corps was initially composed of British drawn from
the British Army while soldiers served as non-commissioned officers
and other ranks. The structure of the WAFF was structured similarly
to a typical colonial army with units stationed across the different
British West African colonies. The structure and size of WAFF evolved
to meet the demands of both colonial policing and international
conflicts especially during the world wars. The exposure of Nigerian
soldiers to western military traditions led to their training in British
military tactics, discipline and organisation which laid the foundation
for the NA culture rooted in colonial influence.

16. The distinct roles of the WAFF include the following:

a. Colonial Policing. The primary role of the WAFF was to act

as police force for British colonial interests in West Africa. The
WAFF was used to suppress revolts, maintain law and order and
enforce colonial policies such as tax collection and territorial
expansion.

b. Military Campaigns. The WAFF also participated in

several military campaigns during the period. These include the
following;
(1) Aro Expedition to suppress the resistance from the Aro
Confederacy from 1901 – 1902.
(2) World War I against German colonies in Africa
particularly in East Africa from 1914 – 1918.
(3) World War II which contributed significantly to the
British war efforts in various theatres including Burma, India
and Middle East from 1939 – 1945.
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CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NA IN THE POST WORLD

WARS AND INDEPENDENCE ERA (1945 – 1960)

17. After the world wars, the NA began to experience increased

Africanisation as British colonial policy slowly shifted towards granting
Nigeria political autonomy. The period witnessed the transformation of
the WAFF into Nigerian Regiment. The major characteristics of this
period was the growing aspiration for national identity and
independence which also influenced the NA. During this period,
Africanisation, saw the gradual increase in the number of Nigerian
officers being commissioned and trained to fill the middle and senior
leadership roles. Additionally, military training institutions were
established to train local officers.

18. The command structure of the NA was still predominantly

occupied by British, with most senior officers and key positions held by
British officers. However, in the 1950s, some Nigerian officers were
commissioned into the officers’ corps. The army gradually expanded
during the period to meet both internal security needs and the
eventual challenges of defending the newly independent Nigeria.
Although the size of the NA was still relatively small compared to
modern armies, it was significantly larger than the pre-world wars era.

19. The distinct roles of the NA during the period include the
following:

a. Internal Security and Policing. One of the primary roles

of the NA during the post-world war era was maintaining internal
order within the colony. The army was also used to quell
disturbances, labour strikes and communal conflicts which
required military intervention. Also, the colonial government
used the army to supress any nationalist activities that
threatened the British rule.
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b. Support for British Colonial Interests. The army was

also used during the period to protect the interest within Nigeria
and other parts of Africa. Nigerian troops were still sometimes
deployed in other British colonies for peacekeeping or to supress
uprising, which was a continuation of the legacy of the WAFF.

c. De-colonisation and Political Transition. The army

began to play a role in the political transition process. In this
regard, the army served as a neutral body during periods of
regional political tensions.
d. Defence of National Territory. The NA was tasked with
defending the territorial integrity of Nigeria especially from the
neighbouring French West African colonies. The period witnessed
the planning for the eventual withdrawal of British officers to pave
way for the defence of the new sovereign state.

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NA IN THE POST

INDEPENDENCE ERA (1960 -1970)

20. Upon gaining independence in 1960, the NA became the primary

guarantor of the territorial integrity of the country. During this period,
the civil war from 1966 – 1970 was the defining moment in the NA’s
history. The period witnessed ethnic tensions within the army which
culminated in the civil war. However, the NA rapidly expanded its
structure during the war which resulted in the diversification of the
ethnic composition of the force. The period also coincided wit the
military venturing into politics during which the first and second coup
d’etat were executed on 15 Jan 66 and 6 Jul 66 respectively.

21. The distinct role of the NA during this period included the
following:
a. National Defence and Security. In the early 1960s, the
NA was primarily tasked with protecting the territorial integrity of

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the country and provide internal security. This was because the
country did not face significant external threats during the period.
The NA also played a role in peacekeeping operations to the UN
peacekeeping mission in Congo in the early 1960s.

b. Internal Security and Political Stability. As ethnic

tensions and regional rivalries escalated in the post-
independence years, the NA was deployed to maintain order. The
NA also plotted the first and second coup d’etat during the period
both aimed at achieving political stability in the country.

c. Prosecution of the Civil War. The period witnessed the

outbreak of the civil which was prosecuted from 1966 – 1970.
The NA successfully prosecuted the war and retained the unity of
the country.

d. Post-War reconstruction. The NA played a critical role in

the post-war reconstruction and reintegration process after the
civil war. NA troops were involved in rebuilding infrastructure and
providing security to all parts of the country to facilitate the
reconstruction process.

CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NA DURING THE

MILITARY RULE (1966 – 1999)

22. After the civil war, the NA played a central role in Nigeria’s
politics, intervening in the political process through numerous coups
and taking control of the government at various points. Although
military rule is broadly averred to have lasted from 1966 – 1999, it is
expedient to note that there were some civilian rule interludes during
the period. The era of military rule witnessed a highly politicised army
with NA officers often taking roles as military heads of state and
influencing national policies. Consequently, this fostered a culture of

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military dominance in politics. Also, officers of the NA competed for
power and influence which in turn affected professionalism.

23. The distinct role of the NA during the military rule from 1966 –
1999 include the following:

a. Military Governance. During the period the NA played a

central role in governance with numerous military officers
becoming heads of state as follows:
(1) Maj Gen JTU Aguiyi-Ironsi in January 1966.
(2) Gen Yakubu Gowon in July 1966.
(3) Gen Murtala Mohammed in July 1975.
(4) Gen Olusegun Obasanjo in February 1976.
(5) Gen Muhammadu Buhari in December 1983.
(6) Gen Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985.
(7) Gen Sani Abacha in November 1993.
(8) Gen Abdulsalam Abubakar in June 1998.

b. National Security and Internal Stability. The NA was

involved in national security and maintaining internal stability.
This included quelling of coups and counter coups, civil
disturbances and insurgencies and protection of government
interest.
c. International Peacekeeping. The NA was also involved
in international peacekeeping operations across the globe. These
operations were carried out under ECOWAS, AU and UN in
different countries.

d. Transition to Civilian Rule. The NA facilitated the

transition from military to civilian rule in 1998. Consequently, on
29 May 99, the NA handed over power to civilian rule thereby
setting the stage for the current democratic dispensation in the
country.
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CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF THE NA DURING THE PERIOD AFTER

RETURN TO CIVILIAN RULE (1999 – DATE)

24. After the return to democracy in 1999, the NA has undergone

further cultural evolution focusing on depoliticization and
professionalism of the force. Consequently, emphasis have been
placed on improving the training standard, professional military
education and human rights compliance. Also, the NA has withdrawn
from political involvements with complete subordination to control of
the military.

25. The roles of the NA during this period include but not limited to
the following:

a. Internal Security. The period witnessed the involvement of

the NA in internal security operations due to internal security
challenges across the country. These include terrorism in the
North East, banditry, terrorism and insurgencies in the North West
and banditry, farmers/herders clashes and kidnapping in the
North Central. Other are secessionist activities in the South East,
Armed robbery and kidnapping in the South West as well as
militancy, arms proliferation and oil theft in the South-South
geopolitical zone.

b. International Peacekeeping Operations. Although the

NA has a long history of involvement in international
peacekeeping, the period from 1999 witnessed an increase in the
NA’s participation in Africa and beyond. Some of the operations
the NA has participated include:
(1) UN Missions such as UNMIL, UNAMID, MONUSCO, etc
(2) AU Missions such as AMIS, AFISMA, etc.
(3) ECOWAS Missions such as ECOMOG in Liberia and
Sierra Leone.

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c. Territorial Defence. The NA is responsible for the
defence of the territorial integrity of the country against external
threats. The NA stands ready to deter any aggression from
neighbouring countries or incursions.

d. Assistance in Disaster Response and Management.

The NA has also participated in several disaster relief operations.
This include providing assistance during floods and pandemics as
well as other national emergencies.
e. Assistance in Infrastructure Development. The NA
through the Nigerian Army Engineers has been involved in several
civil projects. These include road construction and public
infrastructure developments as part of civil-military cooperation
activities.

EVOLUTION OF ACADEMIC REQUIREMENTS FOR MILITARY

TRAINING

Perhaps the most profound impact on the NA development trajectory is

the evolution of the professional military education. The NA which was
once considered a profession for the dregs has metamorphosed to a
highly educated upwardly mobile band of professionals across all
facets of learning. At inception, little emphasis was placed on the
educational qualifications of enlisted men. According to Major Eze in
the Nigerian Army Magazine ‘ The army was a place for the illiterates
and criminals whose duties were to kill and be generally brutal’. This
was the general perception of the NA in the pre colonial/
independence era. On the hand, the officer cadre did not fair better as
little emphasis was placed on the education qualification as
requirement for commissioning. All that was to change with the
creation of the Nigerian Defence Academy in 1964 for the training of

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officers from the NA. This was also preceded by the establishment of
Depot NA for the formal training for soldiers. The two institutions
played pivotal roles in training officers and soldiers for the NA for the
prosecution of the civil war. The reorganisation of the NA after the civil
war ended ushered in the establishment of many training institutions
for the corps in the NA. Prominent among these are the Nigerian
School of Infantry, Nigerian Army Armour School and other corps
schools where professional military education is provided for both
officers and men. Hitherto such training were done abroad with few
officers and soldiers benefiting because of cost. The establishment of
the Nigerian Army Command and Staff College was arguably the most
important of these institutions as it provided the needed staff skills and
competency required for efficient administration of the NA. The Army
Staff College was later changed to a tri- Service institution. This was
followed by the establishment of the War College for the strategic level
training of officers. The reorganisation and modernisation of the NA
also entails a shift in recruitment policy for officers. The introduction of
the Direct Short Service Commission, Short Service Commission and
Direct Regular Commission Combatant Commission were introduced to
address the manpower needs of the NA. The policy ostensibly targeted
the recruitment of university graduates to man critical sectors of the
NA. This well intentioned policy later gave rise to the upgrading on the
Nigerian Defence Academy into a degree awarding institution in 1984.
The trend of establishing key training institutions for the manpower
development of the NA continued in the intervening years and today
Nigerian Army has about 38 formal training institutions apart from
training establishments such as TRADOC and NATRAC. Two of the most
important institution and establishment that defines the importance of
professional military education in the NA are the Army War College and
the Nigerian Army Resource Centre. These institution and
establishment have continued to grow in leaps and bounds providing
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the skill sets for operational and strategic level training and direction.
The changing nature of warfare also necessitates the evolution of new
new training methodology in the NA. The Nigerian Special Forces
School, Land Forces Simulation Centre and Cybersecurity School are
some of specialised institutions and establishments mandated to build
capabilities of NA personnel in these fields. In the coming years, the
NA should continue to leverage the emplaced institutional and
leadership building capacity to provide guidance and direction for the
development of professional military education

The rank of doctorate degree holders is growing in the NA, with its
attendant impact on professionalism being felt across the board. Also,
the NA, as a matter of policy, has made professional qualifications
mandatory for officers in certain fields and corps to attain the highest
professional qualifications in their field of study for career progression.
Similarly, AFCSC, NDC, and NDA also offers post graduate courses for
officers who attend these institutions. Recently, NDA, as part of its
developmental drive, introduced doctorate programs in different fields
of endeavor. Many officers are taking advantage of this opportunity to
improve their academic profile. Suffice it to say that the least
academic qualification of an average officer in the NA less the
Executive Commission Officers is a first degree. This is a massive
difference compared to the first generation officers of the NA. For the
other rank, the NA raised the entry requirements from no entry
requirements to the primary school leaving certificate and presently to
3-5 credit in WAEC. Considering the status of soldiers in the past and
present, there is a quantum leap in quality. Therefore, the progressive
introduction of higher education requirements for enlisted men and
commissioned officers has transformed the NA into a highly educated
and sophisticated professional army..

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OVERVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN ARMY ORDER OF BATTLE

1. The military is a distinct organisation with certain features that

aid its efficient functioning. One of such features is the hierarchical
arrangement of its forces and systemic command structure known as
Order of Battle (ORBAT). The ORBAT aids the forces in achieving
administrative efficiency and operational effectiveness. The approach
to ORBAT has evolved over the years. In modern terms, the ORBAT of
an armed force shows the hierarchical organization, command
structure, strength, disposition of personnel and equipment of units
and formations of the armed forces especially in relation to adversary
or threats. Another peculiarity of modern military organisations is the
need for constant restructuring in line with contemporary threats.
Accordingly, armies conduct periodic review of their ORBAT as an
inevitable requirement to achieve national security. Such security
threats to nations are also becoming increasingly complex, asymmetric
and domestic in nature.

2. Since independence, there have been various initiatives to

restructure the NA in line with its constitutional roles. At inception, the
NA was structured and organised in line with the order of organization
of the British Army. This was a consequence of the British colonial
history in Nigeria. At independence in 1960, the NA was organized into
4 Infantry battalions with the required combat support units.
Restructuring of the NA has been a routine periodic exercise since
independence. For instance, by the end of the Nigerian Civil War in
1970, there was a need to demobilize and downsize the NA from a
post-war force to a small-sized army suitable for peacetime roles.
However, the end of the Nigerian Civil War did not however usher the
envisaged period of peace and stability. The Nation started witnessing
series of sectarian violence, increased criminal activities, political and
tribal disputes as well as ethno-religious crisis. During the same period,
Nigeria became increasingly involved in peace support operations
following its records in the Congo. Thus, the NA needed a new
structure that would be more suited to confronting the peculiar
challenges of the time. Consequently, the idea of an ORBAT for the NA
was muted for the first time in 1990. The ORBAT was to restructure the
NA to meet the growing and peculiar challenges of the time.

3. The NA ORBAT 1990 reorganized the NA into a 4-division

structure and fixed its manpower strength at 80,000 personnel. Two
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divisions were established in the North with headquarters in Kaduna
and Jos and another 2 in the South with headquarters in Ibadan and
Enugu. This arrangement lasted until when NA ORBAT 1990 was
replaced with NA ORBAT 1996. The formulation of NA ORBAT 1996
became necessary to address the inadequacies observed in the 4-
division structure of the NA ORBAT 1990, and to meet the operational
exigencies at that time. The NA ORBAT 1996 reorganized the NA from
4 to 5-division structure, creating 81 Div in Lagos with increased
strength from 80,000 to 96,000. The NA ORBAT 1990 and NA
ORBAT1996 thus formed the basis for the then NA ORBAT 2005, which
was approved by the Army Council in 2007.

4. The NA ORBAT 2005 was envisioned to make the NA more

compact, highly mobile, specialized and more economical in terms of
equipment. Other features of the NA ORBAT 2005 were the scaling
down of the strength and spread of the NA by reverting to a 4-division
structure, with the proposed disbandment of 81 Div in Lagos. NA
ORBAT 2005 was however not fully implemented as the Nation
experienced increasing security challenges which required the NA to
deploy extensively across the Country. This placed heavier burden on
the NA and the situation led to the formulation of the NA ORBAT 2010
in June. The NA ORBAT 2010 proposed a 6-division structure, with a
sixth division created to effectively combat the rising trend of security
challenges in the Niger Delta region. The ORBAT 2010 was envisioned
to reposition the NA to be able to simultaneously and effectively carry
out its normal roles of protecting the Nation’s territorial integrity
against external aggression and conduct internal security operations.
By mid-2010, however, there was an emergence of terrorist activities
in the Northern parts of the Country that were projected by religious
fundamentalist groups, who employed various violent means in
propagating their ideologies. Most of the emerging challenges were not
envisaged in the NA ORBAT 2010.

5. In addition, there were increasing demands for operations against

terrorists and insurgent groups, inter-tribal and communal conflicts in
several parts of the Country. These operations strained the resources
of the NA and overstretched the reach of most of its formations and
units which necessitated the need to review the NA ORBAT 2010 by
December 2013. This formalized the establishment of a number of
Forward Operating Bases (FOBs) in several parts of the Country. The
security situation occasioned increased deployment of troops in the
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North Eastern and North Western parts of the Country. This
overstretched the resources of the formations overseeing security
operations in these areas, particularly with emerging flashpoints in
North Central cities such as Suleja, Okene and Lokoja at the time. The
situation equally overstretched 3 Div that was overseeing security in
the North East and thus informed, in part, the formation of a Joint Task
Force to deal with the core terror activities in the far North Eastern
part of the country.

6. Furthermore, it was observed that apart from the fact that the
adjustments made in 2013 were done within a short period of time,
there were important issues captured in NA ORBAT 2010 which were
not given due consideration in the adjustments made in 2013. In
addition, ad hoc measures were often adopted in executing NA
operations, instead of long-term planning which is an essential
ingredient for attainment of combat efficiency. For instance, the 7-
division structure crafted in 2013 expectedly responded to the security
situation in the North East, without implementing the approvals of the
NA ORBAT 2010 for the establishment of 6 Div NA in the Niger Delta.
Threat indicators across Nigeria at the time also confirmed that the
potent, but seemingly passive security threat in the Niger Delta could
not be overlooked, given the critical national assets and infrastructure
in the region.
7. Based on the fact that adjustments made to the NA ORBAT 2010
in 2013 and 2015 respectively were not codified, it became
necessary to harmonise them. Consequently, a committee was set up
to produce a document that is not only comprehensive, responsive and
flexible but adaptable and consistent with contemporary security
realities. Thus, a review of the NA ORBAT 2010 and harmonization of
the 2013 and 2015 ORBATs produced the NA ORBAT 2016 with an 8-
division structure. Consequently, the NA ORBAT 2016 and its
supporting Table of Equipment (TOE) thereafter came into effect in
2017. In operationalizing the NA ORBAT 2016, establishment orders
were promulgated for only the newly created corps, formations and
units while new equipment were also introduced into the NA.
Additionally, some establishments, formations and units not captured
in the NA ORBAT 2016 were also created. Some of these ad hoc
creations resulted in duplication of tasks, roles and functions.
Moreover, the injection of a myriad of weapons and equipment in
support of current counter terrorism and insurgency efforts and other
operations across the Country also necessitated harmonization of the
supporting TOE. In a bid to streamline these areas of conflict and
reposition the NA, the Standing Committee on NA ORBAT was
reconvened to review the NA ORBAT 2016. The current NA ORBAT
2023 retained most of the features of NA ORBAT 2016 and
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accommodated the amendments as well as NA establishments and
formations created after the promulgation. It also adjusted locations of
some formations and units to meet the current security threats and
realities. It is important to note that all ORBATS are supported with a
Table of Equipment (TOE) which prescribes the appropriate weapons
and armament that compliments the structure for efficient operation of
the ORBAT.

EVOLUTION OF WEAPONS AND ARMAMENTS IN THE NIGERIAN

ARMY

8. The evolution of weapons in the NA reflects a transition from

colonial-era firearms to modern, sophisticated systems that meet
contemporary security challenges. The development of the NA’s
weaponry can be viewed through different phases. Initially, the NA was
outfitted with firearms and equipment inherited from its British colonial
legacy such as the Lee-Enfield rifles and Bren light machine guns,
which were key in conventional warfare settings, particularly during
the World Wars. In the post-independence era, the NA expanded and
diversified its arsenal in response to global geopolitical dynamics and
Nigeria's shifting role in both regional and national security. One of
the most critical shifts occurred during and after the Nigerian Civil War
(NCW) (1967–1970), when the NA utilized a combination of Western
and Soviet weaponries. These included G-3, FN FAL as well as AK-47
rifles. These weapons were widely recognized for their durability and
effectiveness in various combat conditions.

9. As Nigeria began to face more complex internal security threats

like terrorism, insurgency and banditry from groups such as Boko
Haram, Islamic State West African Province (ISWAP), the NA's focus
shifted from conventional warfare to counterinsurgency operations.
This shift required the introduction of specialized equipment tailored
for asymmetric warfare. For Instance, the NA started acquiring Mine-
Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) vehicles, which are vital for
operating in regions prone to ambushes and Improvised Explosive
Devives (IEDs). The RPG-7 and PKM machine guns, along with more
advanced assault rifles such as the Norinco 7.62×39mm Type - 56,
enhanced the NA’s capabilities in dense combat environments. These
continuous shifts ensure that the NA remains a formidable force,
capable of safeguarding Nigeria’s territorial integrity and national
security in the face of diverse threats. Accordingly, the origin of Self-

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Loading Rifles (SLRs), support weapons and anti-aircraft guns would be
highlighted. Thereafter, armour and artillery armaments used in the
NA would be considered.

EVOLUTION OF SELF-LOADED RIFLES

10. The evolution of SLRs in the NA can be traced back to the period
of modernization and reorganization following Nigeria's independence
in 1960. Prior to independence, the NA used British-standard firearms.
Weapons such as the Lee-Enfield bolt-action rifle, which was widely
employed during World Wars I & II formed the backbone of the NA’s
arsenal. Also, at that time, the NA used the British forces Bren light
Machine Guns (MGs) as well as the Vickers MGs. However, after Nigeria
gained independence, there was a strong push to evolve the arsenal in
the NA.

11. To this end, the FGN introduced the FN FAL (Fusil Automatique
Léger), a Belgian-made self-loading rifle, which marked a major
upgrade in the NA firepower. This rifle became the standard service
rifle for many years and was notably used during the NCW.
Subsequently, the NA incorporated more advanced MGs, anti-tank
weapons and mortars into its arsenal, further enhancing its operational
capabilities. During the NCW, the military faced logistical challenges in
acquiring weapons, leading to a mix of Soviet, British and locally
improvised weapons. Consequently, Nigeria sourced arms from various
countries including the USSR which provided AK-47 rifles. This shift
marked the beginning of the NA’s increasing use of Kalashnikov-type
automatic rifles. Furthermore, support weapons such as the Browning
M2 heavy MGs and RPG-7 rocket-propelled grenades were also
integrated to improve both infantry and mechanized units. The
evolution of SLRs in NA inventories are discussed.

12. G3 – Rifles. The evolution of the G3 SLR in the NA inventory

began after Nigeria's independence in 1960. The NA adopted the
Heckler & Koch (HK) G3, a German-designed battle rifle to modernize
its arsenal, replacing outdated British-era weapons. The G3 was
chosen for its reliability, ruggedness and simplicity, which made it
suitable for Nigeria's diverse and challenging operational
environments. It became the standard-issue service rifle for the NA
throughout the 1960s, playing a significant role in various military
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engagements, including the NCW. Over time, the G3 began to be
replaced by more modern assault rifles like the FN FAL and later AK-47.

13. Fabrique Nationale – Rifles. The Fabrique Nationale (FN)

rifle series, particularly the FN FAL (Fusil Automatique Léger) was
introduced in the 1960s. The FN FAL became the standard service rifle
of the NA and central to Nigeria’s military, especially during the NCW.
It replaced the older Lee-Enfield bolt-action rifles and became the NA’s
primary weapon for decades. Over time, the FN rifle was replaced with
newer assault rifles like the AK-47 and AKM, especially as the nature of
conflict in Nigeria shifted from conventional warfare to
counterinsurgency operations. The weapon remains a symbol of the
Nigerian Army’s transition to a more modern and professional force
during the post-colonial era.

14. AK - 47 Rifles. The AK-47 rifles was introduced into the NA in

the late-sixties, during the NCW. However, the need for reliable
and easily maintainable rifles during the war led to the introduction of
Soviet-designed AK-47 rifles. The rifle proved valuable due to its
ruggedness, simplicity and ease of use in harsh conditions. Over time,
it became widely adopted in the NA and other security forces due to its
cost-effectiveness and durability, making it well-suited for Nigeria's
operational needs. Today, the AK-47 and its variants remain a common
weapon in the NA inventory, alongside newer models, as the Army
continues to diversify its infantry equipment to meet contemporary
challenges.

EVOLUTION OF MACHINE GUNS IN THE NIGERIAN ARMY

15. The evolution of MGs in the NA reflects the shift from legacy
systems acquired during the colonial era to modern, versatile weapons
suitable for both conventional and counterinsurgency warfare. During
and after the NCW, the NA began acquiring Soviet and Eastern Bloc
machine guns, including the PKM general-purpose machine gun and
the RPD light machine gun. These weapons were favored for their
reliability and ruggedness in the challenging operational environments
of the war.

16. However, going forward, the NA introduced modern MGs like the
FN MAG (a Belgian-made general-purpose machine gun) and various
variants of the Russian-made PKM. These are widely used in both
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infantry and mounted roles on armoured vehicles. Additionally, the NA
incorporated Nigerian-made machine guns produced in Defence
Industries Corporation of Nigeria (DICON), highlighting a growing
emphasis on self-reliance in arms production. The MGs
historically/currently in the NA’s inventory are discussed subsequently.

17. FN MAG (GPMG). The Fabrique Nationale Mitrailleuse d'Appui

Général (FN MAG) popularly known as FN general-purpose machine
gun (GPMG) is a Belgian-made weapon widely used for infantry
support. It was introduced into the NA in the early 1970s, in line with
NA’s modernization efforts post-independence. This period marked a
transition from British and colonial-era weapons to more modern and
reliable systems. Due to its versatility and durability, the weapon
became a key support weapon in the NA's inventory, used both in
infantry support and mounted roles on vehicles. Its introduction
paralleled the global trend of many countries adopting the FN MAG for
its reliability in sustained fire roles.

18. PKM. The Pulemyot Kalashnikova Modernizirovany (PKM) is a

Soviet-designed general-purpose machine gun widely used in the NA.
The weapon was introduced into the NA in the early 1980s. This
introduction occurred as part of the broader Soviet military assistance
to Nigeria during that period, which included the supply of various
arms and military equipment. Owing to its reliability and lightweight
design, PKM became a staple machine gun in the NA’s inventory,
particularly useful in both infantry and mounted roles due to its
versatility and ease of operation. The NA has continued to employ the
weapon in various operations, including counterinsurgency efforts.

19. DShK. The DShk is a Soviet-designed heavy machine gun often

used for anti-aircraft roles or mounted on vehicles for fire support in
operations. The weapon was introduced into the NA in the early 1970s.
It was incorporated as part of Nigeria's efforts to modernize its military
equipment during and after the NCW when the FG sought to
strengthen its military capability through arms procurement from both
Eastern Bloc and Western nations. The DShK became a vital asset in
the NA due to its versatility in anti-aircraft, anti-vehicle and infantry
support roles.

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20. M2 Browning. The M2 Browning machine gun, is a 12.7 mm
heavy machine gun introduced into the NA in the Seventies during a
period of military expansion and modernization, particularly in the
wake of the NCW. Though designed in the 1920s by John Browning, the
M2 has been widely recognized for its durability and effectiveness in
various combat situations. It has served multiple roles, including anti-
aircraft support, vehicle-mounted applications and as a ground support
weapon in infantry operations. Its high rate of fire and effectiveness
against both personnel and light armoured targets make it a critical
asset for the NA.

EVOLUTION OF NIGERIAN ARMY ARMOUR ARMAMENTS

21. The evolution of NA armour armaments dates back between 1960
and 1962, when the Reconnaissance Company (1st NA Recce Sqn)
under the command of Major Scott was equipped with Ferret scout
cars mounted with 30mm Browning Machine Guns. Armour
ammunitions can be classified as either Kinetic Energy (KE) or
Chemical Energy (CE) ammunitions. The KE ammunition include;
Armour Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS), Armour Piercing Fins
Stabilised Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) and Armour Piercing Super
Velocity Discarding Sabot (APSVDS). Examples of CE ammunitions are
the High Explosive (HE), High Explosive Squash Head (HESH) and the
High Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT). The NAAC equipment and their
armaments are discussed in subsequent paragraphs.

22. Ferret Armoured Car. The Ferret Armoured Car, commonly

referred to as the Ferret Tank, was a British-built reconnaissance
vehicle developed in the 1950s and extensively used by the NA. The
NA acquired the vehicle between 1960 - 1962 when Nigeria was
building its defence capability. The Ferret played a role in several
historical events, including the NCW, where it was utilized for both
reconnaissance and light combat support. Its main armaments
included equipped with the .30 or .50 caliber Browning and a 7.62mm
machine gun. Some variants had heavier armament like the
20mm cannon. Though now decommissioned, the Ferret Armored Car
remains one of the most notable and recognized vehicles in the NAAC
inventory. Despite being retired, it continues to be remembered as one
of the NAAC's renowned and respected pieces of equipment.

23. Saladin Tank. The Saladin Tank is a British-made six-wheeled

AFV developed by company Alvis in the 1950s. It became a key
component of NAAC, particularly during the NCW and deployed in
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other peacekeeping and internal security operations. The vehicle is
designed for both reconnaissance and fire support. The primary
armament for the tank is the 76mm L5A1 gun mounted in a fully
rotating turret. The secondary weapon is the Browning M1919 for anti-
infantry use. The Saladin tank fires a variety of ammunition types,
including HE, HESH, and APDS rounds, giving it versatility in engaging
both soft and armored targets. The vehicle has 3 crew; a commander,
a gunner and a driver. The Saladin Armored Car has also been
decommissioned and retired to the Armour Museum, which is located
beside the Hassan Usman Katsina Officers’ Mess, Bauchi.

24. Saracen APC. The Saracen Armored Personnel Carrier (APC) is a

British-made, six-wheeled AFV primarily designed by Alvis. The vehicle
was widely used by most Commonwealth nations, including Nigeria. It
was introduced to the NAAC in 1965 and played a significant role in
several military operations, particularly during the NCW. The Saracen
APC is equipped with a turret-mounted MG, typically the .30 caliber
Browning M1919 as its primary armament and the 7.62mm MG as its
secondary weapon. Some versions of the vehicles also had grenade
launchers for added firepower. Though the Saracen has since been
decommissioned from active service in the NA, it remains a part of
Nigeria's military history, reflecting the country’s post-colonial efforts
to build a more modern and mechanized military force.

25. Fox Armored Vehicle. The Fox Armored Vehicle, officially

known as the FV721 Fox CVR Wheeled, is a British-made light
armoured reconnaissance vehicle that was introduced into the NA’s
inventory in 1965. FV721 was primarily used for reconnaissance
missions, supporting the Infantry by gathering intelligence and also
patrolling areas for enemy movements. Its primary armament is the
30mm L21 Rarden Cannon, which is capable of engaging both
armoured and soft targets. Likewise, its secondary armament is the
7.62 mm MG mounted coaxially with the cannon for additional
firepower. Also, some variants of the vehicle have smoke grenade
dischargers for obscuring movement. The FV721 has also been
decommissioned and retired to the Armour Museum in Bauchi.

26. Panhard AML 60. The Panhard AML 60 is a French-made light

armoured vehicle introduced into the NA’s inventory in 1981. It is
lightly armoured designed primarily for reconnaissance and support
roles rather than direct combat. The AML 60 is equipped with a 60 mm
breech-loading mortar as its primary weapon and 2 x 7.62 mm MGs as
secondary armaments mounted for close-range defense against
infantry or soft-skinned vehicles. Operationally, the vehicle's ability to
provide both direct and indirect fire support has been a key asset,
particularly in missions where heavy artillery is not feasible. Though
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older compared to modern armoured vehicles, AML 60’s role in
historical and peacekeeping operations remains significant.

27. Scorpion CVR (T). The Scorpion CVR (T) also known as FV101 is
a British-built light reconnaissance tank that has been in the NA’s
inventory since 1976. It is known for its mobility, lightweight design
and ability to deliver firepower in fast-moving combat scenarios. The
primary armament of the Scorpion is a 76 mm low-pressure gun
capable of firing a range of ammunition types, including HE, smoke,
and APDS rounds. It also carries a 7.62 mm machine gun as a
secondary armament, mounted coaxially with the main gun for anti-
infantry and light vehicle defence.

28. Sagaie ERC 90. The Sagaie ERC 90 is a wheeled reconnaissance

vehicle designed for long-range warfare in a conventional
environment. It is made in France by Panhard. It is equipped with a
90mm high muzzle velocity gun as its main armament which fires
Hollow Charged Shell (OCC), High Explosive (OE), Hard Core Shell (OFL)
and Fumugene Smoke. A 7.62mm machine gun is also coaxially
mounted on the vehicle with a 4 smoke discharging ports.

29. T-55 Tank. The T-55 Tank is a Russian made tank noted for its
reliability and ruggedness. The equipment was introduced into the NA
in the early 1980s. It was part of Nigeria's efforts to modernize its
armored capabilities following the end of the Nigerian Civil War. The
main armament of T-55 MBT is the 100mm gun, which fires HEAT and
HE rounds. The HEAT round has an effective anti-tank range of 2,000m
while HE round has a range of up to 5,000m in semi-indirect or indirect
role. The secondary armaments are 2 x 7.62mm machine guns; one
mounted coaxially and the other at the hull with the driver. The tank
also has the 12.7mm MG mounted for the commander, which he uses
against soft targets or low flying aircraft.

30. Vickers Main Battle Tank. The Vickers Main Battle Tank (MBT)
was introduced into the NA in 1979. The acquisition followed Nigeria's
military buildup in the post-civil war period, aimed at modernizing its
armored capabilities. The main armament is the 105mm L7 rifled
gun, which was one of the most advanced tank guns at the time, while
its secondary armaments are the 7.62mm MG, the 7.62mm AA gun as
well as the .50mm Browning MG all mounted on the turret. The

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tank carries 50 rounds of main armament ammunition, which include
APDS, HESH, APFSDS, smoke and illumination.

31. T-72 Main Battle Tank. The T-72 MBT was introduced into the
NA in 2014 as part of the FG’s efforts to fight the Boko Haram
insurgency. The tanks were acquired from Ukraine to enhance
Nigeria’s firepower, mobility, and protection in its armored corps. Its
main armament is the 125mm Smoothbore gun, capable of firing
APFSDS, HEAT and HE FRAG. It can also launch ATGMs. Its secondary
armaments are 7.62mm PKT coaxial MG and 12.7mm NSVT AA MG.

32. VT- 4 Main Battle Tank. The VT- 4 MBTs was introduced into
the NA in April 2020 as part of the FG's effort to modernize its
armoured capabilities and enhance its ability to counter insurgency
and terrorism. The VT-4 is a Chinese-made third-generation MBT,
developed by Norinco (China North Industries Corporation). Its main
armaments 125mm smoothbore gun capable of firing HE projectiles
and ATGMs, with a range of up to 5 km. Relatedly, its secondary
armaments include a 12.7mm AA gun and the 7.62mm coaxial MG for
engaging infantry, light vehicles and low-flying aerial targets.

33. ST- 1 Main Battle Tank. The ST-1 MBT was introduced into the
NA in 2018. This tank is a variant of the Chinese Type 59 tank,
retrofitted to enhance its firepower and combat capabilities. The
primary armament of the ST-1 is the 105mm cannon, capable of firing
APDS, HE and ATGMs, while the secondary armaments include coaxial
7.62mm MG and the 12.7mm AA gun.

EVOLUTION OF NIGERIAN ARMY ARTILLERY ARMAMENTS

34. The evolution of artillery armaments in the NA illustrates a
significant shift from colonial-era equipment to a modern, capable
force equipped to handle current security challenges. Initially, the NA
inherited artillery capabilities from the British colonial forces. The early
artillery systems were mostly conventional field guns, reflecting the
military doctrines of the time. Following independence in 1960, the NA
began to develop its artillery capabilities by acquiring both Soviet and
Western equipment such as the 105mm Howitzers. These were the
first modern artillery pieces introduced to improve fire support
capabilities. The FGN later acquired the 130mm and 152mm Howitzers

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from Soviet sources, which were utilized during the NCW contributing
significantly to the NA’s firepower.

35. Between 1990s - 2000s, the NA continued to diversify its artillery

inventory. It introduced the Self-Propelled Howitzers into its inventory.
The introduction of self-propelled artillery systems improved mobility
and rapid response capabilities. Subsequently, it acquired the Multiple
Launch Rocket Systems (MLRS) to enhance its ability to deliver
concentrated firepower over a wide area, basically for counter-
insurgency operations. In the recent decade, the NA has seen further
modernization efforts through the introduction of Field Artillery Tactical
Data System (FATDS) as well as Howitzer Upgrades. For instance, the
NA invested in upgrading its M-46 130mm Howitzers and D-30 122mm
Howitzers to incorporate modern fire control systems and munitions in
its inventory. More so, efforts have also been made to develop
indigenous artillery capabilities through collaborations with local
defence industries to manufacture artillery shells and related
components.

36. Field Guns and Howitzers. Ammunition for these guns

included HE shells, shrapnel shells and smoke rounds, most of which
were manually operated and required spotters for targeting.

37. 105mm Field Guns. These became the most common

artillery pieces, with their respective HE and smoke ammunition
serving basic field support roles.

38. 122mm Howitzer Ammunition. The 122mm howitzer was

introduced into the NA as part of Soviet and Eastern Bloc military
assistance during the Cold War period. Notably, the D-30 variant of
122mm howitzers became a core part of the NA artillery. The NA uses
a variety of ammunition types for 122mm howitzers such as HE,
smoke, illumination and fragmentation ammunition.

39. 155mm Howitzer Ammunition. The 155mm artillery was

introduced into the NA in the late 1990s and early 2000s to keep up
with global military standards. It is widely used in modern artillery
systems due to its powerful capabilities and range. The 155mm
howitzer fires HE, smoke, illumination, guided as well as APAM
ammunition.
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THE IDEAL SOLDIER FOR THE FUTURE NIGERIAN ARMY

26. The Nigerian Army (NA) is making commendable strides toward

modernizing its force to meet the demands of a changing security
landscape. As part of this effort, the concept of an ideal soldier for the
future NA is central to the army’s vision for operational success. This
soldier must possess and develop a wide array of skills and
competencies that not only enhance his ability to win land battles but
also align with Nigeria's National Interests. At the core of these
competencies are the NA's values and the Soldiers’ Creed, which
emphasize integrity, discipline, selflessness and teamwork. These
foundational values are essential for fostering unity and purpose
among soldiers, ensuring that they can function as a cohesive and
highly effective force in the pursuit of national security objectives.

27. Beyond these core values, the ideal soldier must also
demonstrate unwavering dedication to duty, resilience in the face of
adversity and a deep sense of patriotism. This commitment to the
nation forms the moral backbone of the NA and enables soldiers to
push beyond personal limitations in service to the country. In the
modernized NA, soldiers are expected to exhibit a profound love for
their homeland, which translates into a readiness to defend its
sovereignty at all costs. This sense of national pride and dedication to
service ensures that soldiers remain focused and motivated even in
the most challenging operational environments. A soldier with a strong
sense of patriotism is more likely to uphold the values of the NA and
contribute positively to the success of military missions.

28. To achieve this ideal soldier, the NA must focus on enhancing its
recruitment and training processes. The recruitment system needs to
be upscaled, with a heightened emphasis on physical fitness, mental

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toughness, strategic thinking and adaptability to diverse operational
environments. The future battlefield will not only require physical
strength but also intellectual capacity and emotional resilience,
making it imperative for the NA to select recruits who demonstrate
these qualities from the outset. The ability to think critically, make
swift decisions and adapt to rapidly changing scenarios will be crucial
for future military engagements. Additionally, raising the standard of
initial recruits ensures that soldiers entering the NA possess the raw
potential to be molded into elite fighters capable of addressing modern
security threats.

29. The training process must also emphasize on discipline, loyalty,

and a code of honour. These qualities foster a cohesive unit, enhancing
the effectiveness of military operations. Soldiers who trust and rely on
one another are more likely to succeed in high-stress situations, where
teamwork and unity are key to survival and mission accomplishment.
By building strong bonds between soldiers, the NA ensures that its
units operate as well-oiled machines, with each member playing a
crucial role in achieving operational end state. Continuous exposure to
realistic and challenging training scenarios will keep soldiers fit, agile
and prepared for the complexities of modern warfare. This training
helps soldiers develop the quick decision-making skills needed in
combat and prepares them to respond effectively to the unpredictable
nature of military operations.

30. Ultimately, the ideal soldier’s commitment to the war ethos

serves as the foundation of a formidable and resilient future NA. The
soldier must internalize the principles of honour, duty and sacrifice
always striving to uphold the highest standards of military
professionalism. This dedication ensures that the NA will continue to
be a respected and effective force, capable of defending Nigeria’s
interests both at home and abroad. As the NA modernizes, the
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development of soldiers who embody these qualities will be critical to
its success in an increasingly complex and unpredictable security
environment. The future Nigerian soldier will not only be a warrior but
also a guardian of the nation’s integrity and sovereignty, equipped
with the skills and values necessary to meet the complex
contemporary security challenges of Nigeria.

REQUISITE SKILLS AND COMPETENCES OF THE IDEAL SOLDIER

FOR THE FUTURE NA

31. The NA soldier of the future that can cope with the emerging
threats will possess the following characteristic skills and
competences:

a. Physical Fitness and Mental Resilience. Developing

excellent physical condition, with strength, endurance and agility
to perform duties effectively in various terrains and challenging
conditions. The soldier must also have the mental resilience to
survive and continue fighting despite the odds.
b. Good Weapon Handling. Proper weapon grip, safe muzzle
awareness and demonstrating proficiency in aiming and firing
techniques. The soldier must use his weapon effectively against
the adversary and safely amongst his comrades.

c. Situational and Cultural Awareness. The soldier will

possess strong situation awareness by remaining vigilant and
observant of his surroundings at all times. This includes being
mindful of potential threats, understanding the terrain and
effectively processing information to make quick and informed
decisions. Additionally, given the diverse ethnic and cultural
landscape of Nigeria, future soldiers need to be equipped to
understand and respect the various cultures within the country.
This will enable him to effectively engage with different

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communities during internal security operations or other security
engagements.

d. Mediation and Negotiation Skills. This is the ability to

defuse tense situations and resolve conflicts peacefully by
soldiers. The future NA soldier needs to build trust, fostering
positive relationships with local communities and achieving
peaceful resolutions in challenging environments.

e. Navigational Skills. The ability to be proficient in map

reading, GPS usage and terrain recognition which is crucial for
successful mission planning, precise and efficient troops
movements for the overall safety and success of military
operations.

f. Strong Motivation and Self-Discipline. The soldier

should be able to maintain a high level of personal drive and
commitment to his duties to enable him stay focused, adhere to
protocols and perform effectively in challenging or high-pressure
situations.

g. Information Technology Skills. The soldier should

possess the ability to use and maintain modern communication as
well as computer systems for effective communication, data
management and leveraging technology for mission success in an
increasingly digital battlefield.

h. Strategic Communication Skills. This skill is essential to

enable a soldier to convey information and build positive
relationships with local communities. Effective communication is
essential for fostering trust, de-escalating conflicts and achieving
mission objectives in complex and dynamic environments.

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i. Leadership Skills. Future soldiers should be trained to lead
as well as follow. He should be capable of taking charge when
necessary, motivating his fellow soldiers and working effectively
as part of a team.

WAY FORWAED

THE ROLE OF SOCIETY

No army is bigger than the society that it's created, equipped, and paid
to protect. Similarly, the army is a product of society since citizens are
from the society that is recruited into the army. Therefore, society
would also need to evolve for the army to achieve her developmental
aspirations. There is no doubt that the moral fiber of the Nigerian
society has undergone massive erosion, leading to absurd and
unacceptable decadence among our youth, who are the main source of
recruitment into NA. The virtues of hard work, loyalty, and patriotism,
which are the cornerstone of the Nigerian society, had been
completely eroded. Materialism, get rich, quick syndrome, cultism,
and gangsterism and other obnoxious practices are now the bane of
society. Unfortunately, the nation is not doing enough to check this
state of infamy and erosion of societal values. The army can not afford
to recruit the dregs of the society, as was the narrative in her
inglorious past. Consequently, society has to reinvent itself and
deliberately emplace the communal development strategies that are
anchored on hard work, good name, and diligence. The omoluabi
syndrome among the Yoruba symbolizes the cultural values across the
entire Nigerian societies. For the nation to save the army, we must
protect and promote the time-tested cornerstone of our societal
development.

PERCEPTION MANAGEMENT

Perception management has been a major hindrance in the evolution

of the NA. The NA at inception was an instrument of subjugation, force
coercion, and the tool of oppression to colonial authorities. The
inglorious perceptions are still subsisting today despite strident action
by the NA to change the narrative. The NA prides itself as the Pride of
the Nation and the only institution that binds the nation together.
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While these are incontrovertible facts, however, beyond this rhetoric,
there is an endemic misgiving in the society against the NA. Good
public perception can not be legislated. It has to be earned. As a good
commander is validated by his troops, it is the people who validate an
army. Examples are the various skirmishes between the populace and
soldiers. Some of these resulted in serious fatalities with attendant
national and international condemnations. Why is the NA held in such
a high level of disdain that the same people it is created to protect
should be a major concern for the authorities and the NA leadership.
There must be a deliberate policy put in place to eradicate the people's
animosity towards the NA. This is a cultural and doctrinal issue that
must be developed, taught, and imbibed by all personnel. Our training
must completely de- emphasize the notion and feeling of superiority of
the troops over the people. Rather, our teaching must portray the NA
as the protector of the citizens. Noting that 'The best validation the NA
can get is from the people'. Perception Management is even Germaine
under the prevailing democratic culture in which the NA played a
significant role to entrench in the country. The NA activities actions
and inaction will continue to be subjected to intense public scrutiny.
Therefore, the NA must rise to the occasion by evolving measures to
promote accountability and transparency in the system.

CONCLUSION
32. The NA has undergone significant cultural evolution since its
establishment in 1863 as the Glover Hausa, a paramilitary force
created by British colonial administrators. Initially tasked with
protecting British interests along the Lagos coastline, the force was
mainly composed of Hausa recruits and later evolved into the West
African Frontier Force (WAFF) in 1900. Throughout the colonial period,
the NA was primarily focused on enforcing British imperial authority,
expanding colonial territories and maintaining internal order in Nigeria.
However, as Nigeria moved toward independence, the NA underwent a
process of "Nigerianization," which sought to replace British officers
with Nigerian ones, aligning the army’s mission with the protection of
the country’s sovereignty. This period marked a pivotal shift in the

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NA’s identity, as it transitioned from serving colonial interests to
defending a newly independent and diverse nation.

33. The post-independence era brought new challenges to the

Nigerian Army, particularly during the turbulent political landscape of
the 1960s and 1970s. The NA played a crucial role in Nigeria's civil
war (1967-1970), during which it adapted its strategies and tactics to
preserve the country's unity. The war led to significant changes in the
army’s structure and operations, as it expanded to meet the demands
of modern warfare. However, the post-war period also saw the NA
become heavily involved in the nation’s political affairs, with military
officers orchestrating multiple coups and ruling the country for much
of the time between 1966 and 1999. This era saw the politicization of
the military, as NA officers took on both military and political roles,
blending military discipline with political ambition.

34. Following the return to civilian rule in 1999, the NA entered a new
phase of cultural evolution focused on depoliticization and
professionalization. The army began aligning itself with international
standards and best practices, particularly in peacekeeping and
counter-insurgency operations. The NA took on more peacekeeping
missions across Africa, reinforcing its role in both national defense and
international security. Despite these reforms, the army continued to
face internal security challenges, including terrorism, insurgency,
activities of separatist and banditry, requiring it to adapt and
modernize continuously. These ongoing reforms have emphasized
professionalism, national service and the protection of human rights,
as the army strives to maintain stability and peace within Nigeria's
borders.

35. Looking to the future, the ideal Nigerian soldier is envisioned as

one who embodies the core values of integrity, discipline and
selflessness, while also being equipped with modern skills and
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competences necessary for the evolving security landscape. The future
NA soldier must be physically fitness, mentally resilient and proficient
in weapon handling as well as possesses technological capabilities in
information technology and strategic communication. Additionally,
cultural awareness, leadership skills and the ability to mediate conflicts
will be essential as the army navigates Nigeria’s complex ethnic
landscape and engages in both domestic and international operations.
As the NA continues to modernize, these qualities will ensure that it
remains an effective and professional force capable of addressing
contemporary security challenges.

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