Genesis Bedio

Dr. Glen Martin Green

Emerson Aller
Alvin Abrea

1
ART APPRECIATION:
AESTHETICS AND
ART SENSE IN
THE SOCIETY
 Art Appreciation:
Aesthetics and Art Sense
in the Society

Authors
Genesis Bedio
Dr. Glen Martin Green
Emerson Aller
Alvin Abrea

Copyright © 2023 by the University of San Carlos

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a database or retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the written permission of the Publisher.

EPUB: ISBN 978-971-539-191-7

Published by the USC Publishing House

University of San Carlos – Talamban Campus

Nasipit, Talamban 6000 Cebu City, Philippines Tel. No.

6332 230-0100 loc. 290 Email:
uscpublishinghouse@usc.edu.ph Website:
www.usc.edu.ph
 Preface

The unifying element of the ”

book is the idea of a universal
appreciation of art.

T his book is intended as both an introduction and intermediate

reference book on art and art appreciation. It appeals to students who
intend to pursue art as career, and to those who ply the non-art programs
and interested in what art can offer. It
is written with the guiding purpose of reconnecting students to the
creative fringes of their thinking, and devote them to the study of forms,
observation of details, understanding composition, describing paintings,
and creating and planning an art project. The emphasis of the chapters
is on building the aesthetic and artistic sense of the readers and keeping
their interest to make art a part of their lives. The students will begin
reading on a fundamental discussion of the nature of art; proceed
through the intermediate topics on areas such as semiotics, art history,
and art and environmental crisis where art connects with the social
issues paving the climate crisis.

The unifying element of the book is the idea of a universal

appreciation of art. The first chapter situates art as part of the
development of societies and presented the long-held assumption
that art exists in cultures as part of rituals and image-making.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

The chapters on elements of art, form, subject and content, and

principles of design are concerned with how these images that are
part of the culture of creating art are put together and mean
something; or how components work to create what we see as art.
Related to this chapter is a chapter on principles of design which
tackles visual organization, to see order and to appreciate its impact
on space and its deep mental mechanism that works efficiently and
guides artists in making their artwork work.

The chapter treating artist‘s identity is designed to appreciate

traits and values, which herein focused on the makings of a Cebuano
artist, to bespeak the region where the authors reside. The
discussion leads to the revisit of the definition of artist. This is further
expounded in a Chapter 5 – The Artisans and Art Management by a
discussion on artisans who have relevant experiences and
associations with artists. These two topics opened another
discussion on art management where more personas of the artworld
are featured and explained in terms of involvement such as the art
curator, collector, dealer and the audience.

A chapter is dedicated to appreciating the varieties of media,

techniques and approaches that were important in establishing art
styles associated with art periods. For instance, oil painting was the
common medium in 15th and 16th centuries in Europe because it
was preferred by artists during the time for its versatility.

Art production involving specific techniques used in theater and

films are keyed in a chapter on artistic production where students
can examine the work that producers or the production team do in a
performance art form, and a performance on screen. This chapter
also offers discussion that focuses on the advent of technological
reproductions of artworks which open up critical discussions on
originality of form.

ii
 PREFACE

In relation to performance art form, this book presents a chapter

on theater fundamentals and its influence on the idea of democracy.
It is where students can dig deeper into both historical and
ideological references of the participation of citizens in a dialogue
about the state and further politically contextualize attendance to
theater as the first qualification for voting.

Another chapter on reading the image leads students to a deeper

analysis of images in levels or zones of cognitive processing. This
way of understanding visual art allows meaning to be the central
aspect of appreciating imagery, symbols, allusions, and visual
metaphors.

For a diachronic perspective in art, two chapters discussing

history of Western art and an overview of Asian art are included in
this book, so that students will have a broader appreciation and
context treating art as an ethnology and a cultural object.

Finally, for those interested in pursuing high impact topics such

as environmental crisis, this book provides a discussion of the
interface between art and environmental crisis, as seen through the
works of Charles Dickens, William Blake, and J.M.W. Turner. They
can motivate students to learn more about the Anthropocene through
the thrilling lens of artists, and even inspire them to create socially
relevant and mitigating artworks.

As regards exercises, each chapter culminates with exercises

that are labeled as formative and summative. These activities aim to
improve understanding of the lessons and evaluate the skills and
conceptual and theoretical knowledge of students, respectively. On
the other hand, a lead-in part called bridging learning opportunities in
the form of guide questions, short-answers, reflective thinking,
analysis, and observation leverages the existing knowledge of

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

students to aid in the learning process or to build initial structure to

develop deeper insights of the topics. Before the chapters close,
supplementary learning resources are featured to encourage a
venture further afield.

The finale part of the book contains a unique feature which

deserves attention: the appendix that features a capstone project – Video
Proposal for students. It has detailed instructions on how to pitch a
Social Art Project whereby students can video-record and present
their passion art project that serves to mitigate a problem in a society.
They will describe what it is, and how it is done, and how it will help
the society. Overall, the students will be able to put into highly
relevant context their appreciation of art by planning and committing
to social responsibility.

In the preparation of this book, we have been aided by the wise

counsel of Dr. Hope Yu, Dr. Jobers Bersales, Dr. Elizabeth Remedio
and Professor Araceli Jayne Culibra. Their good recommendations
improved many sections of this book. Finally we must thank our
students – both current and past – at the University of San Carlos
and University of San Jose Recoletos for their enthusiasm in art and
contributions through their in-class participation that informed the
authors of the better – if not the best way to present the topics in this
book.

- The Authors

iv
 Contents
Chapter 3
Preface i
Understanding Form,
Contents v Subject and Content 37
Form in Art 39
Chapter 1 Subject in Art 40
The Nature of Art 1 Kinds of Subject Matter 41
Landscape, seascape, and cityscape 41
Art History and Art Appreciation 3 Cityscape 43
Assumptions of Art 3 Portrait 44
Universal 4 Nude Painting 44
Cultural 4 Animal Portrait 45
Unique expression 4 Still life 46
Rituals and Beliefs 5 History Painting 47
Art is not Nature 5 Everyday life 48
Art Involves Experience 5 Ways of Representation 49
Art is a form of Creation 6 Realism 49
Exercises 9-10 Abstract 49
Supplementary Learning Resources 11 Distortion 50
Surrealism 52
Content 53
The Difficulty in Reading an Artwork 53
Chapter 2 Exercises 55-59
Supplementary Learning Resources 61
Basic Elements of Art 13

Elements of Art 15 Chapter 4

Lines 16
Albrecht Dürer’s Lines 16
The Artist’s Identity:
Color 18 The Makings of a
Henri Matisse’s Color 22 Cebuano Artist 63
Shape and Volume 24
Constantin Brancusi’s Shape and
Volume 26 Influence 65
Texture and Space 27 Academic Artist 66
Vincent Van Gogh’s Texture and Space 28 Intention 67
Exercises 31-33 Filipino Artist 67
Supplementary Learning 35 A Functional Definition of an Artist 68
Reprise: How do we define an artist?
70 Exercises 71
Supplementary Learning Resources 73

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Chapter 5
The Artisans and Art
Management 75

Artisans 77
Art Collectors 78
Art Dealers 78
Curators 78
Managing the Audience 79
Chapter 7
Exercises 81-83
Supplementary Learning Resources 85 Artistic Production:
Preproduction,
Chapter 6 Postproduction, and
Medium, Technique, and Reproduction 101
Approaches 87
Artistic Production 103
Medium and Technique 89 Preproduction 103
Visual 89 Film or Live Performance 104
Auditory 89 Production 104
Combined arts 89 Production and Research 105
Artist’s Medium 90 Postproduction 105
Artist’s Technique 90 Reproduction 107
The Traditional Media of the Visual Art 91 Film and Theater Reproduction 109
The Medium of Auditory Art 92 Exercises Exercises 111-115
95-98 Supplementary Learning Resources 117
Supplementary Learning Resources 99

Chapter 8
The Psychology of Principles
of Design 119

Design Influence 121

The marble not yet carved can Gestalt Principles 121
hold the form of every thought Visceral Reactions 125
the greatest artist has. Exercises 127-128
Supplementary Learning Resources 129

—michelangelo

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 CONTENTS

Chapter 11
History of Western Art 169
The modern world thinks of
art as very important: Prehistoric Art 173
something close to the Egyptian Art 174
Greek Art 175
meaning of life. Roman Art 176
Medieval Art 177
—alain de botton Romanesque Art 177
Gothic Art 177
Renaissance 179
Baroque Art 180
Neoclassical Art 182
Rococo Art 183
Chapter 9 Romantic Art 184
Principles of Design: Doing Realism Art 185
Impressionism Art 186
Visual Organization 131 Post-Impressionism Art 186
Abstract Expressionism 188
Unity and Variety 133 Exercises 189-194
Balance 134 Supplementary Learning Resources 195
Emphasis and Subordination 136
Scale and Proportion 136
Rhythm and Repetition 138 Chapter 12
Contrast 139 An Overview
Value Contrast 140 of Asian Art 197
Size Contrast 140
Texture Contrast 140
Idea Contrast 141 “Spiritualness” and Unity 201
Movement 141 Abundance of Imagery 201
Exercises 143-148 Calligraphy 202
Supplementary Learning Resources 149 Landscape Painting 203
Perspective 203
Miniature Painting 203
Chapter 10 Sculptures and Ceramics 204
Reading the Image 151 Enigmatic Region 205
Exercises 207-209
Supplementary Learning Resources 211
Pictorial Cue 155
Semiotic 155
Iconic Plane 158
The Contextual Plane 159
Exercises 163-166
Supplementary Learning Resources 167

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Chapter 13
Theater: The Essential Art
Form of Democracy 213

A Brief History of Theater

215 Greek Theater 215
Medieval Theater (C. 950–1500) 215
Elizabethan Theater (16th Century) 216
Japanese Theater 216 Chapter 14
Philippine Theater 218 Art and Environmental
Theater Perspectives 219
Community Factor 219 Crisis 229
Democratic Society 219
Exercises 221-225
Supplementary Learning Resources 227 Environmental Crisis 231
Charles Dickens 232
J.M.W. Turner 233
William Blake 237
Exercises 241-244
Supplementary Learning Resources 245

The theatre is a place where Appendix 246

one has time for the problems Video Proposal: Social Art Project 246
of people to
whom one would show the
door if they came to one’s
office for a job.

—tennessee williams

viii
ART APPRECIATION:
AESTHETICS AND
ART SENSE IN
THE SOCIETY
Genesis Bedio
Dr. Glen Martin Green
Emerson Aller
Alvin Abrea
 CHAPTER1
The Nature of Art

Art is the signature of civilizations. ”

—beverly sills

Overview

This chapter revisits the nature of art – the common

assumptions and preconceived notions about it, and how art
intertwines with human development, socio- cultural changes,
experience, expression, and the unseen or subconscious
processes of imagination.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Form a small group of four to five members. Select one

question to answer from the list of questions. Discuss your
answers in your group and thereafter share them in class.

1. Why do people create works of art?

2. What is creativity?
3. What has art to do with imagination?
4. What is appreciation and how is it related to art?

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Differentiate art history from art appreciation.

2. Discuss the different assumptions in the context of
society.
3. Clarify misconceptions about art as a concept.

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 CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF ART

Art History and Art Appreciation

Art history involves the discussion of the development and changes

of art through different periods of human history and civilization. These
periods are named according to the greater world event that happened
and how these events were characterized in historical documents. In
the art world the study of art history is done to tracing the style,
technique, genres, and art movements to the specific year or period in
history. This is called a diachronic study of art. For example, a specific
period in art such as Baroque or Rococo situates art in the context of
the characteristics of the paintings and architecture in the

17th or 18th century. Art history offers a broader context of the study of art and
addresses the question of what, why and how certain art forms emerged.

On the other hand, art appreciation is the broader concept of the pursuits of
enjoying, analyzing, and doing art. Primarily, appreciation is about aesthetic enjoyment
– a mere perceptual stimulation, which is a basic low-level pleasure (Christensen, 2017 in
Nadal and Skov, 2018). But with increasing exposure and knowledge about art, we
develop a high-level pleasure or the state where we are able to process vast amount of
data to infer meaning from works of art. Christensen, treats the notion of art as a special
kind of pleasure, yet this view is opposed by empirical evidence which shows that there
is no special brain region or neural circuit for art activity, which means it is more or less
similar with fundamental pleasures (Nadal et. al., 2018).

Assumptions of Art

The assumptions of art are the common intellectual notions about art‘s nature. They
are brought about by cultural knowledge, common observations, experience, and
curiosity. Further, they are accepted as part of cultural knowledge and are the subject of
arguments in the context of evolving concept of art. However, cultural knowledge is more
often reinforced rather than replaced.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Universal

Art is universal. Anywhere in the world art is created, practiced, and performed.

There is a universal appreciation for art as much as there have been people who
constantly make and enjoy it. Even if two continents had drifted apart before civilization,
and there had been no contact between inhabitants in both lands, the culture of art would
still be present in both. Some experts called it parallel development or an enabling element
of culture. In fact, art is ubiquitous which means it is present and operating even in non-
creative disciplines.

Cultural

Every culture has a unique expression brought by beliefs and ways of life that exist
within communities. Ethno-cultural component in art allows us to understand the laws that
govern the established cultural expression and changes that are brought by efforts of
developing and searching for unique artistic ideas.

Unique expression

Unique expression exists like an identity. It can be understood in three ways -- first in
the general cultural ecology of a nation, then in the expression of a social group, and
finally in the distinctive expression of an individual. As part of heritage, traditional motifs
which are ethnically unique are important to the concerned community for the preservation
of cultural attribute. It is an area of study today for ethnic design borrowing where the
traditional motifs are being transformed into new designs as design solutions.

A social group where micro identities are being expressed, asserted, and promoted
show unique expression through affiliation, signal, or brotherhood icons. The ancient
hunter-gather tribes had identified themselves with the objects they gathered, weapons
they used to hunt, and accessories they made from the resources they foraged. Their
fanfare and activities that involved rituals and performances give insight to their norms
and aspects of social relations.

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 CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF ART

Rituals and Beliefs

Art objects are the artifacts created by humans in a cultural group, showing their
remarkable skills in modeling materials in stone-tool making, pottery, metal work, clothing,
weapon-making, and so on. Furthermore, artifacts can provide a wealth of information
about past cultures and offer insights on what it was like in the time when these artifacts
were made and used. A cultural artifact in the ancient cultures, and even until today, were
used for rituals such as offerings, animal sacrifice, weddings, funeral rites, mystery cults
and war victory ceremonies as an animistic element to appease the gods.

Art is not Nature

Human agency is another factor that is considered for the conception of art.

Anthropologists agreed that the intricate design of tools, shelter units, and body
accessories had progressively improved and are uniquely a human invention. It means
that humans learned how to create art from the resources in their environment; and as a
consequence, they were able to develop skills, interest, imagination, and creativity
pertaining to art making. Using this anthropological perspective, art is a manufactured
element, secondary to nature. It had become an artificial element which was not part of
any natural process.

Art Involves Experience

Practical familiarity is the consequence of the experience of the world from the
perspective of reality where we use our senses to see, hear, feel, smell, taste, and gather
information therefrom. We are exposed to different kinds of environmental stimulus,
especially when we reach the age when we are capable of exploring and understanding
how the world works. Part of this understanding goes to art.

Our life stages allow us to develop different levels of maturity – within each level a
sense of naivety exists. Then, gradually the naivety fades so that we understand more
and better the subject we are exposed to, including the difficult concepts. The same

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

stages of development happen in the art world for both the observer and the maker of art.

Everyone‘s art literacy starts form the most basic and prosaic until such time when
with enough experience, we are better equipped to understand and interpret
compositions. On the other hand, the artists eventually develop sophisticated skills as
they study and do more art. Their network of influence can also add to the content of their
artistic experience.

Art is a form of Creation

According to Gillian Moriss-Kay (2010), “Creating visual art is one of the defining
characteristics of the human species,” (p. 158). This artistic behavior has existed vis-à-vis
the creation of images using imagination and the pre-existing materials in the world. The
creation of work of art is breathing life to a new organization based on combinations of
elements that had already existed or predated the artwork. The elements of music are
examples of an organization of pre-existing elements according to music theory. The
outcome is the whole combination of this art form, and the symptom of the created work
is felt through experiences of auditory pleasure.

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 CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF ART

References

Hospers, J. (2019). Philosophy of art - Art as expression. In

Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/
topic/philosophy-of-art/Art-as- expression

Morriss-Kay G. M. (2010). The evolution of human artistic

creativity. Journal of Anatomy 158–176. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01160.x

Stecker, R. (2010). Aesthetics and the philosophy of art: An

introduction.

Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Wartenberg, T. E. (2007). The nature of art: An anthology.

Australia: Thomson Wadsworth.

7
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Write the letter of the concept that matches the

description.

1. Human agency a. Stone-tool making, potter,

metal-work
2. Practical familiarity b. Springs from experience of
the world
3. Art is a manufactured c. Shows unique expression
element through affiliation
d. Preservation of cultural
4. Every culture has a attributes
unique expression e. Offerings, animal sacrifice,
weddings, funeral rites
5. Traditional motifs f. Factor in conceiving art
g. Development and changes
6. Social group of art through periods
h. Created by humans in a
7. Art Objects cultural group
i. Beliefs and way of life
8. Art History j. Anthropological perspective

9. Skills

10. Rituals

B. Summative. Write a 500-word insight paper focusing on the topic: Why is

art ageless and timeless? Use the lined page for writing.

Guidelines:
a. Present two to three thesis statements or major points as answer
to this question.
b. Present supporting statements, instances or observations that will help
elucidate your major points
c. Write a conclusion by reiterating your thesis.

9
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

Insight
Paper

10
 CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE OF ART

Supplementary Learning Resources

Watch the video on history of art to get more information on

its purpose and impact on our lives.
History of Ideas – Art by The School of Life,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7ECzduUWx0

View the abstract works of Piet Mondrian through the first

link below. Then, create your own Mondrian-inspired Art with
Google Sheets by filling in certain cells with colors and adjusting
their widths or heights. What you will do is to ‘fill color‘ using the
paint can button of Google Sheet. To begin your artwork, access
the second link below and download or make a copy of the
Google Sheet template in your device. Use the specific
instructions in the template to guide you in this activity. Finally
share your work with the class by exporting your excel file to
pdf and saving it in the Google drive assigned by your instructor.
Make it visible to everyone by inviting them as viewers through
their email addresses.

1. https://www.artsy.net/article/matthew-how-mondrian-went-
abstract

2. https://www.techlearning.com/tl-advisor-blog/make-
mondrian-art-with-google-sheets

11
 CHAPTER 2
Basic Elements
of Art

The works of “abstract”‟ art are subtle creations of ”

order out of simple contrasting elements.
—jan tschichold

Overview

This chapter discusses the basic elements of art used by

artists to create a composition. Further, a discussion of how
some artists applied the elements in their own approaches is
included to substantiate the description and explanation of
each element.

The elements of art are used in visual dialogues for

aesthetical intelligibility. It is important for the artists and
observers alike to make sense of the composition, such as in
painting analysis, where the structure of a composition is better
explained when these elements are discussed according to
their aesthetic, interpretive, and symbolic use. In this sense, the
viewers may be able to comprehend the overall impact,
complexity, accuracy and exquisiteness of the composition
through which it is planned and organized.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Identify the different elements of art in a painting.

2. Discuss how the elements work together in a
composition to achieve what they are intended to.
3. Analyze artworks using elements of design.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

1. 1. In groups of 4 to 5 members create a group abstract

drawing consisting of lines using colored pens on a
short bond paper. These lines may overlap one
another. They should not embody any familiar image or
any reference to reality. Each member should draw
their lines in their own style or expression – varying
their direction, size, thickness, color and type. Present
your output in class.

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Elements of Art

The elements of art are the basic building blocks of a

composition – the sum total of the basic components when put
together. The number of elements in a work depends on the
artists’ decision to combine and organize these components
according to a representational image or their own response
to a personal experience (Knobler, 1980:109).

Knobler (1980), in The Visual Dialogue claimed that it is hard

to separate expressionistic and representational components from
the content of the work. It may be possible to focus on some aspects of
the work but it is not always possible to derive a meaning from the mere assembly or
unity of forms. For instance, a line is placed in the near-middle of a painting, but it is not
just a line – it has length, width, color, direction, psychology, emotion, symbolism and
narrative. These help the viewers appreciate the significance of a line. On the other
hand, pure expression and presentation of elements may restrict meaning but employ
an aesthetically satisfying unity that viewers successfully determine.

The artist continually makes a choice in terms of how the elements would look in a
composition, hence the principles of design were fostered during the Bauhaus Movement
to emphasize the value of compositional order. Student artists are taught about Fine arts’
stylistic epochs as they are essential to emulating and skill building. Yet, they would not
necessarily follow these stylistics choices. Oftentimes, they deviate from the standard
aesthetic organization and manipulate the visual elements according to their desired
output.

The discussion of the elements of art in this chapter focuses on their nature and
organization, and how they show visual relationships. An example when elements interact
is when lines run perpendicular with respect to each other such as

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

vertical and horizontal lines; at the same time these lines can be used to create
boundaries. Another example is when the aspects of coolness and warmth or intensity
and dullness of colors combine with shapes and lines to convey an atmospheric
perspective. Shapes can create regular sides if the outlines are geometric, and at the
same time combine with texture and color to create massive forms. Forms can be dense
or hallowed, figural or non-figural, and they may be combined with texture to have more
definition. Finally, texture which can be complex, patterned, or simple; and space which
can be in-depth, shallow, narrow or surreal may be combined to achieve the appropriate
illusion of distance and perspective.

The elements of art discussed in this section are lines, color, shape, mass, texture,
and space. In order to appreciate how they dwell in a composition, the succeeding
discussions use some of the famous works of art in history as examples.

Lines

A line begins with a point and creates a straight or a curve path. The common types of lines are
horizontal, vertical, diagonal, curve and zigzag lines. Further, lines can also be described as broad,
thin, fine or jagged. These qualities may be present, alone or in combination within a particular
composition. In preparatory drawings, lines are used to start an outline of a complex subject; and in
actual paintings, they create depth, perspective, directional paths, and emotions. When sylized, they
also create different patterns such as broken, spiral, and curly. The use of lines in art had been
recorded from prehistoric times as evident in tablet and stone paintings. Line drawing appears crude
and mechanical but artists exploit these qualities to accomplish a more dynamic and expressive
composition.

Albrecht Dürer’s Lines

Albrecht Dürer, a master of drawing and printmaking, was very dexterous and keen
at converting the world he observed or imagined into all kinds of lines. He handled lines
as meaningful and decorative. Dürer made pretty lines even in engravings with a sense
of accuracy and meticulousness.

Dürer made use of hatching, cross-hatching, and contour hatching in his illustrations to
suggest a three-dimensional effect. Hatching is a technique in producing a shading effect
using parallel lines. Cross-hatching is a drawing technique with two layers of

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Albrecht Dürer. The

Four Horsemen of the
Apocalypse, 1498,
woodcut, 15 1/4 x 11
7/16 in. (38.8 x 29.1
cm). National Gallery
of Art.

parallel lines at right angles to each other. On the other hand, contour hatching is a
hatching variant that traces the contour of the subject. This type of hatching adds an
enhanced sense of volume, making rounded objects appear more rounded. In the
woodblock print titled - The Four Horsemen of Apocalypse - Dürer presented a network
of lines — horizontal lines to compose the background and contour lines to get the unique
shapes of the distinct details of the horses and symbols of pestilence, war,

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

famine, and death. Some of the horizontal lines define the dark areas of the heaven; and
some define the land. Furthermore, the clouds, horsemen, and angel are drawn using
contour lines. Other details such as the limb of the horsemen, the muscles of the horses
are drawn using hatching.

Dürer thought that line is integrated in nature instead of separated. This perspective
had guided his approach to his illustrations.

Color

Color refers to the properties of hue, value, and intensity. These properties are
responsible for identifying colors, seeing the qualities of lightness, darkness, brightness
and dullness. Artists manipulate color to infuse mood and emotional content into their
composition and treat it as either decorative, or symbolic. Culturally, color is instrumental
in celebrations, commemorations, bereavement, warfare, glamour, and even the bizarre.

Hue is the distinct color in the color wheel equivalent to the wavelength of light (blue,
red, yellow, etc.). The color wheel is usually used as a reference tool for planning what
colors to combine that matches the perceived design. This process is further cached in
the memory so that when artists work, the combination comes out intuitively.

In terms of achieving illumination, different values are applied for specific practical or
aesthetic requirement. Adding white substance to other hues will lighten their value. On
the contrary, adding black will darken their value. Further, this property is responsible for
representing depth in images through toning techniques or creating differing contrast while
depicting the passing of natural light on an object.

When it comes to intensity of color, variation happens when a color substance is either
diluted or saturated. A red hue will become a pale blue if the intensity decreases. The
relationship between intense and less intense colors can be appreciated in a realistic
landscape painting where painters gradually adjust the intensity of colors as they fall back
into the horizon. Adjusting intensity in the context of a landscape painting may not involve
a single hue. Mountains and foliage may appear in warm blue-gray as

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Pablo Picasso.
The Old Guitarist,
1903/1904 oil on
panel, 122.9 cm x
82.6 cm, Chicago, Art
Institute of Chicago.

an effect of reducing intensity. Then, a puddle of bright orange for foreground trees may
be used to bring the image closer the viewer‘s vantage point.

On the other hand, color has an emotional aspect, and have conventional symbols.
Colors that are dark tend towards the negative emotions. They are symbolic of evil, grief,
death, and mystery; although dark colors can also represent power and stature. A swarm
of exciting colors tend towards the pleasurable sensations; and a mix of red, orange, and

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

yellow would look very pleasant and uplifting in a motif, thus, associated with prosperity,
hope, and productiveness.

As mentioned earlier, colors can combine to create a scheme. Here, we allude to the
importance of design context in achieving the intended style and aesthetic appeal for
practical or decorative purposes. The term used to describe a single-color theme in a
composition is monochromatic color scheme. In this type of color scheme the painter uses
one color and its variations, with occasional out-of-place color to serve as a small contrast.
It is best applied in capturing a late afternoon scene or an early morning scene where the
light is sparse and not sufficient enough to reveal the complex color of the environment. It
is also often applied in works that evoke sadness and seriousness. Pablo Picasso had
once painted beggars, street urchins and old and blind individuals in shades of blue and
blue-green. This represented his blue period which was suspected to coincide with his
experience of instability and relative poverty.

Another color scheme is complementary color scheme. It is characterized by the use of

two optimally contrasting color combinations where each color sits opposite each

Evard Munch. The Yellow Log, 1912, oil on

canvas, 129.5 cm x 159.5 cm. Norway,
Munch Museum.

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Claude Monet.
Poplars at Giverny,
Sunrise, 1888, oil on
canvas, 74 cm x 92.7
cm. New York City,
Museum of Modern
Art

other in the color wheel. Traditionally, these are yellow and violet, red and green and blue
and orange. These color pairs enrich each other as complements. In addition it is effective
in showing the contrasting colors of nature. Since it is a high impact color scheme, it is
often used in advertisement to attract more attention.

Edvard Munch demonstrated the out-of-this world effect of using complementary color
scheme – violet and yellow – in The Yellow Log. With the upshot of emphasis, Munch had
edited the logic of reality through a surreal yellow log against the violet snowscape. A
good contrast also provides an appropriate emphasis and fades the compulsion to use
the real-world lens to represent the log. The log itself obtained a new impression and
achieved a new innovated look to deserve a new focus.

A third color scheme called triadic color scheme uses three colors, two accompanying
accent colors and one dominant color. They are equidistant from each other. For example,
purple, green and orange create a soft atmosphere that is not commonly observed in
other versions of landscapes with all colors equal in intensity. It seems that in Claude
Monet‘s work Poplars at Giverny, Sunrise the purple and green adapt to a tranquil scene
and the low-key orange breaks the tranquility just a little without putting off the harmony.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Vincent van Gogh. Meadow with Yellow

Flowers, 1889, oil on canvas, 34.5 cm x 53 cm.
Switzerland, The Winterthur Museum of Art.

Analogous color scheme is another combination that uses a lesser contrast and more
related hues. This scheme can involve three or more colors that are next to each other in
the color wheel. Depending on the intended mood, analogous scheme can either produce
warm or cool color temperature. Vincent van Gogh demonstrated warm tones in the
Meadow of Yellow Flowers (1889). Yellows and greens come together in a soothing
combination, with enough lines that define the flowers.

Henri Matisse’s Color

Henri Matisse, a French Fauve painter, gave way to a different color approach. Fauve was
a twentieth century painting style that used aggressive and exploding color combinations.
Matisse grappled a color harmony that is fulsome and highly saturated and wild colors without
letting up, earning him the title of Bad Boy of French paintings. He made his painting scream
in fits of colorful energy, and worked on color complements or colors that are opposite each
other in the color wheel, to inflate contrast.

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Henri Matisse. The Dance, 1910, oil on canvas, 260 x

391 cm. St. Petersburg, State Hermitage Museum.

In Matisse‘s work “The Dance,” he used complementary colors—orange and blue,

and green and red; and simplified everything to a primitive and exotic quality – an
influence of the tribal arts that he collected and studied. It changed a bit the brightness of
Matisse‘s painting to follow the darker qualities of primitivism which is a movement that
equated art with undeveloped art-making of primitive people. It is said that this movement
used a stylistic approach that idealized the primitive
– not necessarily derogative but not commonly perceived as an acceptable form or
representation. In doing this approach, Matisse painted exaggerated movements and
symbolically-charged icons, especially in the painting “Conversation”. This painting
showcases another of Matisse‘s influence – Symbolist Art which promoted the dictum of
art for art’s sake and abandoned the social rhetoric of civil problems. It is also associated
with ancient occult tradition and an escape from reality. Matisse brought
in “Conversation” the Symbolist Art‘s unmodulated colors, which were flat and without

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Henri
Matisse. The
Conversation,
1912, oil on
canvas, 177
cm x 217 cm.
St. Petersburg,
The Hermitage
Museum.

shading. In addition, he also sustained the use of psychological representation. For

instance, in “Conversation”, he used a lot of blue to introduce a “cold” temperature, which
illustrated the way the exchange unfolded.

Shape and Volume

Shape is the element formed by bordering a space. The area within the border and outside
the border is perceived as shape. It is with a two-dimensional feature when drawn or painted
and takes the form of either geometric or organic shapes. Geometric shapes or regular shapes
are with symmetrical sides. On the other hand, organic shapes are irregular and have
asymmetrical sides. Further, they assume the shape of the natural world. Shapes are
fundamental to creating images. They can define the surface of a plane or the surface of an
imagined multisided shape in abstract composition. Shapes can easily develop into patterns,
such as in multiple squares next to each other, or triangles that share the same sides.
Furthermore, shapes can be classified as either open or closed based on the type of pattern
created. The open type uses unclosed outline and contour like a labyrinth and a swirling
pattern, respectively. This is in contrast to the

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Labyrinth pattern (left)

and Swirling pattern
(right)

closed type with lines that

loop from end to end.

Volume is an element of
art with a more superior
dimension compared to
shapes.

It is interchangeable with

the terms mass, and contains

depth in addition to the two-

dimensional plane. Simple

shapes can transform into

implied volumes with proper

way of drawing the structure of

a subject, such as in Self-

portrait at Thirteen by Albrecht

Dürer. An implied volume has

a visual force which increases

proportionately with visual

impact. An artist can
Albrecht Dürer. Self-portrait at
Thirteen, 1484, silverpoint, paper, achieve visual force by
27.3 cm x 19.5 cm.
Graphische Sammlung, Vienna.
manipulating visual

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

weights of subjects. With more defined light and dark areas in

a drawing, volume becomes more pronounced.

Conversely, a drawing without sufficient distinction of light and

dark areas creates a more diffused volume and a shallow area.

Constantin Brancusi’s Shape and Volume

An actual volume displaces a space with its total form. It

turns the space around into its ambient background which
Constantin
Brancusi. The Kiss, directly impacts the way sculptures are seen. Constantin
1908, plaster sculpture, Brancusi, a Romanian sculptor of the twentieth century had
27.9 x 26 x 21.6 cm (11
x 10.25 x 8.5 in). used space and volume to highlight the inelaborateness of his
Washington D.C.,
Library of Congress. figure and the feeling of a space where both the stasis and
swiftness of his subjects interact.

Both shape and volume work together to recreate the

experience of the subject in space. Brancusi paid special
interest in shapes within a space – how they are perceived –
and then he played with the representation of volume using his
skill of staving off details while producing precisely is intended
meaning. He combined abstraction and practicality, so his work
is a fusion of reduction and retention in the right combination to
make his abstraction a not so difficult encounter. He had
sculpted an almost perfect volume and conjured shapes from
nature (i.e. stone shape, and tree shape). Such is demonstrated
in his work “The Kiss.” The subject of this sculptural work is the
intense moment of kissing and interlacing of the arms. It is said
that Brancusi started with a block of stone and gradually
discovered the subject almost spontaneously out of the stone‘s
resemblance.

The Kiss was achieved by smoothing the protrusions and

eliminating superfluous elements. Brancusi purified

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

the subject down to its bare essentials. The work had achieved the unity between the
abstraction of the kiss and organic inspiration.

Texture and Space

Texture is the element that shows what the surfaces of objects are like. Descriptions
of textures are tricky since we need to identify first how we approach texture. Technically,
all materials have textures. In painting, the texture depends on the media and the
technique used by the painter to either simulate the real texture of an object or let the
material texture of the medium reveal itself. The same is true with sculptures where
surfaces can either be imitated from how things look like or left with the real texture of the
material such as stone and wood. Texture is also essential in interior design for it reveals
essential qualities of space, evoking comfort and sometimes rigidity.

Ricardalovesmonuments. Interior of the Church of Saint Nicholas, 2020.

Wikimedia Commons

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

In architecture, texture normally harmonizes with the three-dimensional space to show

a spatial atmosphere. Modern buildings tend to have glass and metal textures while
classical buildings have stone and sculptural textures that are molded around the building
to achieve a more elaborate and more commanding appearance. Baroque architecture in
the seventeenth century had demonstrated how space could be engineered to ooze with
heavy textural moldings in both the exterior and interior of the building, including the ceiling
and walls which were filled with meandering shapes and volumes evoking an illustrious
out-of-this-world climate, as shown in the picture of the Interior of the Church of Saint
Nicholas in Malá Strana.

On the other hand, the element of space in art refers to the area within or around the
composition (Mittler, 2006). More technically, space can be positive or negative. Positive
spaces are where more important visual information are found; while negative spaces are
where subordinate visual information emerge. Space most often defines the working area
of the artist, where he or she can freely adapt his subject. While space could be utilitarian
in architecture it most often works with texture to achieve a design and an exciting sensory
experience. Thus, texture can give an illusion of spaciousness, restriction, comfort or
seriousness to a building.

Vincent van Gogh’s Texture and Space

In the world of modern painting, Vincent van Gogh was famous for the use of intense
eruption (outburst) of impasto or the thick application of paint (Naiphe and Smith, 2016).
His brush style had revealed the spontaneous lines, colors, and shadows that he
imagined, as influenced by Paul Gauguin who also painted from imagination and memory
and the first one to experiment on this process. This approach had helped van Gogh
discover his command of paint to represent his emotional turbulence. His swirls on the
sky vibrate on the surface of the canvas with blazing stars which became the main
attraction for their out-of-this-world proportions. His representation of texture led to a
deeper connection with something in the depths of his soul. The large expanse in his
landscape demonstrated rather a silent fanfare that gradually becomes louder and violent.

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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Vincent van Gogh. The Starry Night, 1889, oil on canvas, 73.7
cm x 92.1 cm. New York, The Museum of Modern Art.

Van Gogh‘s space is a combination of pattern and movement. His motivation is

internal but his evocation is a precise pictorial adaptation. He illustrated a powerful and
enviable night sky seen by a wonderstruck viewer. His modern interpretation of space in
landscape has a trace of romantic notions. It is evident in his exaltation of emotion, his
self-reflexivity and poignant interpretation of the night sky.

In van Gogh‘s The Starry Night (1889), the use of negative space is ungrudgingly
sweeping. Every space has a detail of the village; and the cypress trees fit together with
the artist‘s focal images of the sky, stars and the moon. The pattern and radiance of the
sky adds an emotional space with flicks of yellow and blue that constituted the heavy
texture. Van Gogh‘s distant viewing of a village could mean a spiritual journey of a soul
taking flight. This journey pertains to a liberation of emotions as viewers pore through the
vast landscape. The perspective lines in his painting seem to stop at the horizon, while
his mountain textures remain distinct eschewing spatial cue. This characteristic effect

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

has succeeded in redefining space into a binocular vision. Van Gogh did not work with
commonsense space. Instead, he changed his eye-level and his line of sight, representing
the landscapes according to how he wished they were not how they seemed.

30
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Circle the letter of the right answer.

1. The most basic elements of art dealt by artists are _____.
a. Balance, scale, proportion, unity, variety and rhythm
b. Line, color, texture, shape, volume, and rhythm
c. Line, color, texture, shape, volume, and space
2. What element of art is used to draw outlines?
a. Line
b. Color
c. Texture
3. What is the technique of producing a shading effect using parallel
lines?
a. Shading
b. Sketching
c. Hatching
4. What is the hatching variant that traces the contour of the
subject?
a. Cross-hatching
b. Hatching
c. Contour hatching
5. _________ is the master of drawing and printmaking, keen at converting
what he observed into lines?
a. Henri Matisse
b. Albrecht Dürer
c. Vincent van Gogh
6. _________ used aggressive and exploding colors.
a. Henri Matisse
b. Albrecht Dürer
c. Vincent van Gogh
7. What element of art refers to hue, value, and intensity?
a. Color
b. Brightness
c. Chromacity
8. Which work of art featured cold temperature with green as symbol
of the tree of life?
a. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 1498
b. The Dance, 1910
c. The Conversation, 1912

31
 9. The subject of this artwork shows interlacing of arms.
a. The Embrace, 1908
b. The Lovers, 1908
c. The Kiss, 1908
10. For Constantin Brancusi, _____ is more than the extension of mass.
a. Volume
b. Shape
c. Space

B. Summative. Draw a pictorial narrative of folklore or any popular story using

pencil and coloring materials on the next page. Focus on the part of the plot
with the heightened tension. Finally answer the guide questions on the blank
provided.

What lines, colors, and shapes did you use in

Guide Question:
drawing your narrative?

Does your choice of lines, colors, and shapes

Guide Question:
help in comprehending your picture?

Does your choice of lines, colors, and shapes

Guide Question:
help in comprehending your picture?

32
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

Pictorial Narrative

33
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 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ELEMENTS OF ART

Supplementary Learning

Observe the picture of Alexander

Calder‘s (a mobile sculptor) kinetic sculpture
(entails movement), titled Crinkly Avec disc
Rouge, and answer the questions that follow.

Information about the work:

Alexander Calder. Crinkly Avec disc

Rouge, 1973, 8 meters, steel and color
Stuttgart, Germany, Baden-Württemberg,

1. What are his major compositional

elements?

2. What is your overall impression (2006, August 26) Alexander Calder:

about his work? Crinkly avec disc rouge, [Photograph].
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Alexander_Calder_Crinkly_avec_disc_
3. What does the aspect of ‘kinetic‘ do Rouge_ 1973-1.jpg
to his work?

4. If the sculpture is static or immobile, would it still look as if it is moving? Why is

this so?

Watch the Youtube video, titled, An enlightened experiment | Joseph Wright ‘of Derby’ |
National Gallery and learn more about the concept of manipulating light and shade
(candlelight technique) in the painting of Joseph Wright through the link below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZfjOnQOqjE

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

References

Berleant, A. (2017). Re-thinking aesthetics: Rogue essays on

aesthetics and the arts.

Bouleau, C. (1963). The Painter’s Secret Geometry; A Study of

Composition in Art. With a Pref. by Jacques Villon.
<Translated From the French by Jonathan Griffin>. New
York: Harcourt, Brace.

Heelan, P. A. (January 01, 1972). Toward a new analysis of the

pictorial space of Vincent Van Gogh. Art Bulletin / Ed. John
Shapley [u.a.], 478-492.

Knobler, N. (1980). The visual dialogue: An introduction to the

appreciation of art. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Mittler G. A. (2006). Art in focus : aesthetics criticism history

studio (5th ed.). Glencoe/McGraw-Hill.

Naifeh S. & Smith G. W. (2011). Vincent van Gogh : the life

(First). Random House.

Willette, Jeanne. The ‘Primitivism‘ of the Fauves | Art History

Unstuffed. The “Primitivism” of the Fauves | Art History
Unstuffed, arthistoryunstuffed.com, 21 Jan. 2011, https://
arthistoryunstuffed.com/the- primitivism-of-the-fauves/.

36
 CHAPTER 3
Understanding Form,
Subject and Content

I am my own muse. I am the subject I know best.

subject I want to better.
” The

—frida kahlo

Overview

Artworks contain three aspects—form, subject, and

content. We go through these aspects to determine what a work
is all about, and pore into its underlying meaning. Each can be
an independent frame of analysis. Form alone allows the viewer
to examine the physical and tangible component of the
composition. On the other hand, the subject allows the viewer
to examine the focal point of the artwork basing on the pictorial
context, and finally content allows one to study the primary idea
attempted by the artist to conjure. Altogether, these three
aspects will enhance our appreciation of works of art, and
improve how we communicate the meaning of a work of art.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Define subject in art

2. Describe form in art in terms of the elements of design.

37
 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

3. Identify the kinds of subject in art.

4. Appreciate how form, subject and content contribute to
viewing of painting.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

View Edgar Degas‘s 1874 painting, The Dance Class in the

following page, then answer the guide questions that follow. Finally
prepare to share and discuss your answers in class.

Edgar Degas. The

Dance Class, 1874, oil
on canvas, 83.2 cm x
76.8 cm. New York,
Metropolitan Museum
of Art.

Guide Questions

1. Who is depicted in this image?

2. How many figures are depicted?
3. What are the genders of the figures?
4. How are they dressed?
5. What are the figures doing?
6. What is the setting of the image?

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

Form in Art

Form is the term used to describe what the art work is made
and composed of – media and elements of art, respectively. Form
also refers to the established classifications of painting, sculpture,
architecture, and performing arts. In painting, the forms are
specifically expressed as elements of—line, color, shape, mass,
texture, space, and movement— that are rendered in the canvas
through a medium, style, and technique. These basic elements
build perceptible images and establish visual illusions necessary to
construct the structure of a form.

In terms of representationalism in visual art, two types of forms are confronted by

visual artists which require painterly techniques and delicate styles to achieve—
illusionistic and abstract forms. Illusionistic form refers to the implied roundedness of
objects brought by the effect of illustrating light and shadow areas of an object. Its
outcome is a realistic volume and density of an object.

Another type is abstract form which is seen in the mathematical shapes of abstract
painters such as the Cubist Painter, Pablo Picasso who made angular subjects as his
preoccupation, brushing off the detailed and delicate work of the Renaissance masters,
where clear and clean contours were pursued to achieve the elusive curvatures. Another
variety of abstract form is seen in Wassily Kandinsky’s works of roiling shapes , triangles,
squares, checkerboards, biomorphic and undulating forms. He discussed colors and
shapes as the expressions of emotions and music. Moreover, he transmitted emotional
sensitivity, and spiritual experience into his work. For example, he treated triangle as
hostile, square as consoling, and circle as uplifting. Abstract forms are a departure from
figure painting, which was more focused on refining the representation of the body as an
aesthetic imperative.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

A third type of form is three-dimensional form which comes from the imitation of things
that are found in nature. A sculpture in-the-round has its different parts positioned, and it
assumes its space in its final form in a place selected by the artist. The sculptor usually
chooses the disposition of the subject, including the orientation of the clothes the subject
wears. The free-standing statuette of St. George sculpted by Donatello is a good example
of a three-dimensional form with aesthetic and realistic portrayal of its cloak. The image
strides in a space and its cloak is representational – with casually-arranged folds.

The last type of form is relief form – a type of form that projects out from a flat slab or
surface. The way that the form juts out of space show partial three-dimensionality. This kind
form is seen as integrated into the flat surface rather than separate from it.; one good example
is the Frieze of Parnassus in at Albert Memorial in London. The human figures engage towards
the space, while their bodies are undercut.

Subject in Art

Subject is the central idea or image of an art work. In visual art, we draw conclusions
about the subject based on the dominant element that we see; the important parts of the
visual narrative present; the critical information from visual details; and the most attractive
piece among other things visible. The subject can be compelling or not. For example,
Jacques-Louis David‘s Napoleon Crossing the Alps shows Napoleon Bonaporte in a
climactic pose – the drama of which is he was in a battlefield leading an implied army. The
image begs for attention, and telltales courage and heroism in a grand act. On the other
hand, there are works where the subject is almost a formless blur such as Claude Monet‘s
Impression, Sunrise which incites hesitation and doubt about the indistinct images.

Not all subjects are easily discernable and prognostic, just like impressionistic paintings
which extend our pondering of what images are there. Abstraction, on the other hand, denies
a subject by straining any references to objects, revealing dissociated forms that act
independently from any symbolic image other than the pure shape, line, shape, and mass.
These types of subjects are called non-representational subjects. In terms of

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

the more common way of dealing with

paintings, viewers look for the familiar
and assume that paintings have always
been about something important like
images of life, beauty, culture, object,
war, governance, and religion. What
stimulates them is recognizability which
has to take a backseat sometimes to
enjoy works similar to Kandinsky‘s.

Subjects are treated either as

representational or as non-
representational. The latter is also
known as objective and figurative. It
refers to artworks which present
subjects that a can be recognized such
as a human being, a tree, or a house.
Non- representational is also known as

Sesshu Toyo. Winter non-objective and non-figurative. This

Landscape, 1470, Tokyo, Tokyo
contains non- recognizable subjects
National Museum Art.
which are more inclined towards
abstraction.

Kinds of Subject Matter

Landscape, seascape, and cityscape

These groups of scenery subjects are formed by creating elements such as landforms,
water bodies, and urban areas either as imagined or real places based on recollections of the
artist. Landscapes contain landforms like mountains, hills, valleys, plateaus, and plains.
Traditional Chinese landscapes focus on pure landscapes with a sage sitting and

41
 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Pieter Brueghel the Elder. Landscape with the Fall of

Icarus, 1558, oil on canvas on wood, 73.5 cm (28.9 in);
width: 112 cm (44 in), Belgium, Royal Museums of Fine
Arts.

gazing at a distance. Traditional Japanese landscapes are almost similar to Chinese, but the

former had developed its own tradition of painting that emphasizes Japanese folk narratives.

Seascapes are paintings of water bodies which are at least 2,400 years old. An example of
which is “Odysseus and the Sirens” painted on vases in Ancient Greece. As with landscapes, the

details of the ancient seascapes were part of a narrative. It was during the Renaissance
period, at the height of the landscape genre, when seascapes gained popularity in
paintings.

There are three common types of seascapes: (1) paintings with pure water bodies
like the sea and the ocean, (2) history paintings with religious and mythological narratives
such as the Landscape with the Fall of Icarus (1568), and (3) paintings of fishing and sea
trade.

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

Camille Pisarro. Old Chelsea Bridge, London, 1890,

oil in canvas, 59.6 cm x 71.1 cm. United Kingdom,
Smith College Museum of Art.

Seascapes create emotional atmosphere through weather effects and sea conditions.
In addition, the elements of rainbow and rustic details of the shoreline are soothing and
occasionally bring nostalgia.

Cityscape

Also known as urban landscape, the cityscape is a painting, drawing, or photograph of

the physical location, built elements, and other physical assets of a city. The tradition of
painting cityscapes started in the ancient period as evidenced by an excavated Roman
fresco which featured a ship procession in a channel between two fortified cities. In the
modern times, Camille Pissaro depicted the Old Chelsea Bridge in London using
impressionist technique and made a cityscape series of Boulevard Montmartre,
expressing it in different times and atmospheric effects.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Cityscape reveals the lively city life, made more climactic by fumes, pollution, and the
vertical articulation of skyscrapers. In this type of painting, the feeling of the organic rustic
life was replaced by the big city glamor.

Portrait

Portrait is called a genre painting, as some of its forms developed into depictions of
everyday life scenes where ordinary people are doing their routines. Traditionally, portraits
depict known persons, especially from the rich and the powerful class. Over time, the
interest shifted into the middle class who is more akin to genre painting. In a portrait
painting, a human subject is observed to be in a flattering representation. Furthermore,
the inner essence and the mental and moral attitudes are evoked as additional demands
or standards in portraiture. Giovanni Paolo Lomazzo had written a treatise on this, issuing
a principle that the artist must “emphasize the dignity and grandeur of the human being,
suppressing Nature‘s irregularities.” (Lomazzo G. P. & Chai J. J. 2013)

Nude Painting

The unclothed human body is the subject of nude painting, which is part of the bigger
umbrella of figure painting. The depictions of the nude body are attributed to the ancient
Greece representations of warriors and athletes on vases and in sculptures, expressing
human energy through dynamic muscular work. The idea of the nude for the Greeks was
that of triumph, glory, and moral excellence. However, in the medieval period, the
Christian concept of the human body had prohibited naked depiction, as the church
considered it unchaste and seemed to link it with inordinate sexual indulgence. Soon, in
the Renaissance era, the rediscovery of nudity reignited the tradition of nude painting, and
one of the most famous artworks that marked the period was an enormous nude painting
of “The Birth of Venus” by Sandro Botticelli who was inspired by an earlier fresco of the
naked Venus in Pompeii. The content in Botticelli‘s painting rose from his neo-Platonic
contemplation of God‘s love being sent to the world and being draped in human flesh. As
soon as the figure of Venus touches the earth, she is being attended to by other elements
which reinforced some Christian dogmas.

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

(2013, January 4) Birth of Venus.

[Photograph]. Pixabay. https://cdn.pixabay.
com/photo/2012/11/28/10/49/oil-
painting-67664_960_720.jpg

Animal Portrait

Animal portraits have been depicted in art since pre-history. The subjects range from
animals in the wild to domesticated animals. Among the favorite animals to be depicted
in the Renaissance period were dogs which bore a status symbol. Dogs most often
complemented aristocratic portraits where they sit in attention or being caressed by their
owner (QueensLace, 2019: para 2). In Western culture, dogs represent loyalty, protection,
and guidance.

Another famous animal painting is the equus painting which features horses in rural
and working contexts (i.e. carriage business). In rural setting, horse depiction is coherent
with wildlife environment in contrast with working contexts. In the seventeenth century,
animal painters would collaborate with other painters such as landscapes and history
painters to situate their animal subject in a kind of setting. On the other hand,

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Harmen Steenwijck.
Vanitas, 1640, oil on
panel, 37.7 cm x 38.2
cm. Netherlands,
Museum de Lakenhal.

landscape and history painters would collaborate with animal portrait painters to fill in the
details of their scenery.

Still life

Still life painting uses natural and man-made objects as subject matter (McArdle). This
emerged as a genre in Western painting in the late sixteenth century, but its origin can be
traced back to the Middle Ages and the Ancient Graeco-Roman art.

Traditional still life painting in the sixteenth century depicted food and flowers as
symbolisms of seasons and senses. In the Roman times, the skull had come to represent
mortality. This type of symbolism is called vanitas, a Latin term that alludes to futile and
worthless things.

Modern still life painting goes beyond the two-dimensional canvas. In mixed- media
fashion, some still life uses found objects or everyday objects that were made to show
aesthetic effect on everyday-life object rather than sublimity.

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

Titian. Diana and

Actaeon, 1556-1559,
oil on canvas, 184.5
x 202.2 cm (72.6 x
79.6 in). Edinburgh,
England

History Painting

History painting may refer to mythical narratives such as folklores or past events.
Titian‘s Diana and Actaeon shows a typical mythological theme where a hero transgresses
a goddess. Under war narratives are paintings either about fictional characters in their
epic battle against an enemy or a war involving the gods such as in paintings that depicted
the Trojan War in Homer‘s Iliad.

Historical events were featured in historical paintings, especially in the twentieth

century, capturing the most important details that define important affairs of the state,
either using specific episodes or a more general scene. Sometimes, religious accounts
were treated as historical events perused by believers and non-believers. More
importantly, religious accounts illustrated in paintings helped propagate religious dogmas.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Limbour Brothers.
The Funeral of Raymond
Diocrès, 1416

Everyday life

Subjects under everyday life category draw the viewers‘ attention to scenes and events
from ordinary, casual encounters in marketplaces, domestic settings, interiors, parties, hotels,
and streets. This category of subject is also called genre art. It is identified with a light
atmosphere and a turning back on regal representations. One of the goals of genre art is to
underscore the little details that are easily ignored as people confront the humdrum of work
and responsibilities. The genre scenes were already present in

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

the medieval illuminated manuscript, until it had found its new popularity in the Flemish
Baroque paintings. Scenes from the scripture and important events in human society as
well as unpleasant circumstances like death were depicted.

Ways of Representation

Artists choose a particular way of representation for their subjects. Normally, they
develop their skills by studying under a particular representation. Two artists will not
render a subject in the same way. Even if they would paint using the same style and
technique, their paintings would be distinct from each other as there are idiosyncratic
manners that go with style and technique. In addition are the influences of the community,
people, and events the artists are surrounded with. There are four traditional ways of
representing subjects: realism, abstraction, distortion, and surrealism.

Realism

Realism represents the subject the way it appears in reality as perceived and
experienced by the artist himself and the viewers. In other words, this way of
representation creates a collective image and a universal understanding of the subject. A
realist artist is bound to reveal details expected in a form. Part of his commitment to artistry
is a depiction that is as accurate as possible. A bird, for example, entails wings, beak,
legs, claws, and feathers. The artist, in turn, takes these details into his picture plane and
develops each detail into its preexisting form.

Abstract

Abstract representation takes away the familiar in a subject and reflects on selected
features (LeMieux et al: para 27). A tree may not look like a tree but a scarce picture of it.
The process of abstraction involves simplification, reorganization, and fragmentation. These
specific processes refer to the cognitive process of abstract thinking where form is not
necessary. In each process the subject becomes more distant from its preexisting form.
An organic shape, for instance, is transformed into geometric shapes, offering a plain and
flat way of looking at the subject. In the next stage of abstraction, the subject is detached
from its expedient organization. Multi-angular and hotchpotch

49
 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

(2018, September 18) Detail from Michelangelo’s David

[Photograph]. Pixabay. https://pixabay.com/photos/
florence-david-italy-statue-3684231/

compilation of forms in a picture plane is the outcome of this process. At the last stage of
abstraction, the mind of the artist totally gives up the idea of forms, leaving behind pure
compositional elements without logical association with the original image. Not all the time
an artist would prefer complete abstraction. It is remarkable how abstract compositions
can also be expressive. Such can be observed in the works of Jackson Pollock.

Distortion

Images done in distortion appear out of proportion, jumbled, and inconsistent. The
reference for judging an image whether distorted or not is the human body. Viewers have
a good idea of correct scale and proportion as they deal normally with mass every day,
from fitting a new shirt to fitting goods into the trunk of a car. Furthermore, instances where
people need to move their bodies through different kinds of space

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

will get them acquainted with scale and proportion. Artists use distortion for various
reasons, perhaps to evoke parody, playfulness, experimentation with form, and social
hierarchy. At times, the use of distortion is done primarily to introduce ideal proportions
such as the case of the marble sculpture David by Michelangelo. Its body must be over-
lengthened, and its muscles must be over-articulated to satisfy a god-like image and a
contrapposto pose. In addition, the proportions are also distorted to satisfy a conceptual
demand. For example, in “La Pieta” by Michelangelo, Mary is oversized as to the breadth
of her body. If Mary would stand in full height, her stature is also over-articulated. Overall,
she is larger than the dead Christ on her lap.

Salvador Dali. The Persistence of

Memory, 1931, oil on canvas, 24 cm
x 33 cm (9.5 in x 13 in), New York
City, Museum of Modern Art.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Constantin Brancusi. The Kiss, 1908, plaster sculpture, 27.9 x 26 x

21.6 cm (11 x 10.25 x 8.5 in). Washington D.C., Library of Congress.

Surrealism

Surrealism is the product of psychological thought processes (Britannica, T. Editors

of Encyclopaedia: para 2). Artists purposefully destroy the spatial, temporal, and matter-
of-fact point of reference in the picture plane to achieve a dreamlike quality such as in The
Persistence of Memory by Salvador Dali. Historically, surrealism is associated with an art
movement that despised institutions such as the church, government, and the academe.
It was spurred by the atrocities of war and violence for which these institutions were
blamed.

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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

Surrealism was also inspired by the theory on psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud.

What artists explored under this principle were the subconscious of individuals, including
that of themselves. Salvador Dali had made a self-portrait based on the contents of his
subconscious, thinking what he would likely retrieve from a subliminal self.

Content

The content of an artwork includes the underlying meaning or theme tucked in the
symbolism and imagery of form. It may also be referred to as the emotional or intellectual
message of an artwork as it moves the viewers to feel a certain way or to recall feelings
of hope, joy, excitement, sadness, insult, anger, and so on. Artworks also tapped on
cognitive ability by provoking the minds of viewers to decode what the artists ciphered in
the artwork. Once the audience successfully decode the underlying meaning, the viewers
are involved even more deeply into the dialogue spurred by issues that the underlying
meaning reveal.

An abstract work such as Constantin Brancusi‘s sculpture “The Kiss” captured the
electric moment in which a couple, seen more like etched stone blocks, locked lips while
their arms are interlaced. This type of abstraction leans towards non-representational
since it obscures the actual character of a kiss. It is insipid but demands a closer look to
a stimulating moment. The sculpture is stripped of its human element while it focuses
sealing of lips, the highly charged emotion associated with it, and the inseparability of two
lovers. All these constitute the content of an artwork accessible through drawing
connections and recognizing unspoken meanings.

The Difficulty in Reading an Artwork

The noises that affect the reading of an artwork are the preconceived notions about
the work, biases towards the images or theme, and unfamiliarity with the artists, his works
and the context with which he or she does his or her work. Multiple possibilities of reading
the image made it a complex work, but not an impossible one. Visual language is
ubiquitous and most visual art programs conduct lessons on decoding visual codes to
help students with interpreting and creating their own images as a form of communication.
Students tend to associate images with real-world objects and

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

dismiss visual codes that are difficult and causing problems of interpretations such as
abstractions. The key to decoding visual language is the understanding of the nature of
images and the discipline that uses the images. A system persists in our mind to see
things such as the way we draw from life experiences. The key is clarity of seeing
– the ability to simplify and resist the urge to be always thorough and complete in the
understanding of the world at one instance. There are complex stimuli that our mind can
better handle with a certain focus. It could start with a simple identification of the subject,
and understanding of the classifications that have historical lessons by themselves.

54
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Fill in the blank with the right term to complete the thought.
Choose from the given words in the box.

Natural Non-representational Content Representational

City life Subject Genre Art Portraits
Nude painting Mythical Narratives Cityscape Form

1. ________ refers to artworks which present subjects that a viewer can

recognize such as a human being, a tree, or a house.
2. ________ is also known as non-objective and non-figurative.
3. Also known as urban landscape, the _______ is a painting, drawing, or
photograph of the physical location, built elements and other physical assets
of a city.
4. Traditionally, __________ depict known persons, especially from the rich
and powerful class.
5. The unclothed human body is the subject of ____________.
6. Still life painting uses __________ and man-made objects as subject
matter.
7. History painting may refer to ____________ such as folklores or past
events.
8. One of the goals of ___________ is to underscore the little details that are
easily ignored as people confront the humdrum of work and responsibilities.

9. __________ is the collective name for the visual component or

compositional elements of art.
10. Art has always been about something important like beauty, life and
mortality. This is called the _________ of the composition.

B. Summative. Analyze and discuss Room in Brooklyn by Edward

Hopper in terms of form, subject, and content.

55
 Edward Hopper.
Room in Brooklyn,
1932, oil on canvas,
New York, Erich
Lessing / Art
Resource.

Analysis of Room in Brooklyn by Edward Hopper

56
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

Analysis of Room in Brooklyn by Edward Hopper

57
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Refer to the painting of Annibale Carracci, titled Two

Children Teasing a Cat below and answer the questions.

Annibale
Carraci. Two
Children Teasing
a Cat, 1590, oil
on canvas, 26 x
35 in. New York,
The Metropolitan
Museum of Art.

1. How does the cornered cat affect your feelings about the children and
their actions?

58
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

2. How do you feel about the title of the painting?

59
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 CHAPTER 3: UNDERSTANDING FORM, SUBJECT AND CONTENT

Supplementary Learning

Form a group of 5 members, and together read the article,

titled, The Most Famous Art Movements and Styles and learn about
the relationship between the notion of genres of subject and art
movements, through the link below. Write down the important
points and prepare to share your learning in class.

https://magazine.artland.com/art-movements-and-styles/

References

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2022, April 18).

Surrealism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.
britannica.com/art/Surrealism

Guo, X., & Sakanishi, S. (1959). An Essay on landscape

painting. London: J. Murray.

Hall, J. (2018). Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art.

Lomazzo G. P. & Chai J. J. (2013). Idea of the temple of

painting. Penn State University Press.

Scharf, A., Bayley, S., & Open University. (1978). Introduction

to art. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

61
 CHAPTER 4
The Artist’s Identity:
The Makings of a
Cebuano Artist

The position of the artist is humble. He is

essentially a channel.
”
—piet mondrian

Overview

Every artist has certain traits that he or she discovers after an

artistic birth. This is when it is finally clear to the artists what they
want to do and how they want to continue. This chapter deals with
these two aspects using the musings of Martino Abellana, a native
of Carcar, Cebu, in his interview with Winand Klassen which had
been written down in an article by the latter in the Philippine
Quarterly of Culture and Society published in 1984. Furthermore, this
chapter uses Christopher Madden‘s report under International
Federation of Arts Councils and Culture Agencies regarding a
consolidation of the definition of an artist.

Initially, the discussion focuses on Abellana as a painter. As

we trod along his noetic (intelligent) thoughts, we can see the
reflection of his Filipino spirit, elaborated in his modern
instantiations and his striding between influences while succeeding
to find his niche in the art world. The discussion caps off with a
revisit on the different approaches of defining an artist which, in
turn, ultimately wraps off by asking the readers to decide on which
approach serves them well in defining an artist.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Understand Martino Abellana‘s definition of an artist.
2. Identify the different approaches of defining an artist.
3. Examine what makes a Filipino artist.
4. Know more about artist‘s professional experience.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

What do you consider as important traits of an artist? List them

down under two columns defined in the table.

Inherent to the artist Developed by the artist

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 CHAPTER 4: THE ARTIST’S IDENTITY: THE MAKINGS OF A CEBUANO ARTIST

Martino Abellana,
Job Was Also Man,
1953, 24 x 31.75 in.

Cai art gallery

Influence

Influence is a dominant term in the artistic profession,

which goes back to the artist’s formative years. Schools of
fine arts provide a wide array of influence through different
studies and engagements. Strictly speaking, art influences
comprise of the classic masters and the reverential pillars of
the art world under which apprentices hone and discover
their skills. Influence is the unavoidable theme in profiling an
artist.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Martino Abellana was at his heyday in the 1950s. He won in the art competition of the
Art Association of the Philippines (AAP) under the conservative category with his painting
titled “Job was also Man.” Abellana named Monet, Seurat, Renoir, Velasquez, Soralla,
Sisley, and Pissarro, among others, as his influence. The degree in which he was
influenced by these artists were distributed across technical expertise. He attributed his
intense colors to Seurat while his soft tones to Renoir and Velasquez. Then he expounded
on the dichotomy between classic and romantic, a very important decision or label to lay
out after observing works of art. Classic is more restrained and formal while Romantic is
more idealist. Abellana identified with the two, though strictly speaking, he would classify
himself more as a Classicist.

Not all artists are aware of their heroes and the movement or style they are identified with. But
they believe their works were imputed with the teachings in art school. Some of them were in the
line of philosophy or artistic theories. One renowned teacher whom Abellana had named as his
mentor was Fernando Amorsolo. Amorsolo was the opposite of the theoretical and philosophical
professors who spend time on the inception of an idea. Instead, he was more mechanical—teaching
the craft forthwith. This had probably come out of his more commercial undertakings in art in the
50s. This counted as one of the issues in the Philosophy of Art, whether commerce would stretch
art to redefine itself under the category of commercial art or put an existential stress on art and the
art world. Abellana personally criticized Amorsolo, his teacher, for commercializing his art.

Academic Artist

A schooled artist has a tendency to be defensive against encroachment to the artistic territory,
including the attempt to attenuate its quality with commercialization. Commercialization of art did
not please Abellana. He had the temperament of an academic artist, adherent to the lessons of the
European academies of art at the University of the Philippines–Manila. It is not unusual for academic
artists to defend academic theories, but their interactions with non-European traditions and more
prosaic styles of art have also been proven beneficial as they enrich and broaden artistic discourses.
Generally, artists have conflicting ideologies and in-depth studies on how they coalesce or vary.
Academic artists have been baffled by their so-called modern counterparts. Their highlight has been
to channel the classics and perfectly modelled body and movements of their subjects; while the
modern artists challenge these approaches for individuality and idiosyncrasy.
 CHAPTER 4: THE ARTIST’S IDENTITY: THE MAKINGS OF A CEBUANO ARTIST

On the other hand, commercial artists respond to propaganda and advertising needs
primarily to sway people’s convictions and decisions in the service of establishments or
persuasions. This phenomenon is known as the promotionalization and commercial
institutionalization of art. Even as early as the Renaissance, the great Renaissance
masters had exhibited the movement towards submitting artistry to the demands of the
church as an institution, and critics had no scruples about calling it religious
advertisement. Hence, religious paintings became the cultural production of Rome urging
painters to mix their personal expression with the exaltation of the teachings of the church.

Intention

A commonly held notion is that creation is always a matter of intention and it is necessary
to the creation of an artwork. However, deliberate production, an alternative phrase that
captures the popular notion, is not to be taken as a requirement for creative work and the
creative process, or that the creative work is completely in accordance with deliberate
intention. There are artistic epiphanies that may suddenly occur in an artist, as pointed out by
Paisley Livingston in his book Art and Intention. These artistic epiphanies may come at the
middle of the day and extract an idea that an artist has been waiting to reveal itself in the
deliberate process. The “unintentional” work, no matter how spontaneous it is, could have been
a product of a series of deliberate intention. The constant practice of an artist in his studio for
many months or years translates itself into that epiphany.

Abellana had moved beyond the domain of modern masters. His skill and dexterity
with forms are products of both his intention and influence; and far more than that, he was
able to synthesize a theory of Filipinoness in his paintings by elaborating intentionality.

Filipino Artist

To profit from Abellana‘s insight regarding the Filipinoness of art, it is best to

contemplate on his caustic remark that asking an artist to paint like a Filipino is like
teaching a crab to walk like a crab. He had this theory in mind that an approach that is
“tried” self- consciously would end up inauthentic. So if any painter would

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

attempt to achieve a Filipino painting would be affectedly doing it. For Abellana, the “cool”
rather than the “warm” approach should be preferred, elaborating that doing it cool is not
overly conscious of the Filipino identity, while doing it “warm” will make it overly invested
to a certain degree that it betrays the objective. This was how Abellana navigated the
conundrum of intentionality. He was more convinced that Filipinoness is something
inherent. However, his thesis can present more conundrum if we entertain another query
about how deliberate the idea of not thinking of art in terms of Filipinoness is when one is
not a full-blooded Filipino.

A Functional Definition of an Artist

Stated below is the definition of an artist provided by United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO. It is clear that the institution dealt with
coalescing the exclusivity and inclusivity of a definition. For one, the institution used a two-
tier alternative:

“Artist” is taken to mean any person who creates or gives creative expression to, or
re-creates works of art, who considers his [sic] artistic creation to be an essential part of
his life, who contributes in this way to the development of art and culture and who is or
asks to be recognized as an artist, whether or not he is bound by any relations of
employment of association. (1980)

The definition reveals the “two-tieredness” of the entire statement – a given in the
following phrases:

1. Creates or gives

2. Creates or recreates

3. Who is or who asks

4. Whether or not

Typically, a definition is lengthy to exclude unnecessary objects of scrutiny and, at the

same time, to include all necessary elements to more or less to complete and address
clarity. Most definitions focus on “who an artist is” which is semantically different

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 CHAPTER 4: THE ARTIST’S IDENTITY: THE MAKINGS OF A CEBUANO ARTIST

from “what an artist is.” The former is responsive to the appeal of ideal and par excellence
while the latter considers the doctrine of practical and functional use of the term such as
in taxation and benefits. In order to properly appropriate taxes on professional artists, the
law must recognize a standard definition of an artist. However, formal definitions that were
crafted oftentimes differ between or within countries.

Christopher Madden in UNESCO 1980 Recommendation concerning the Status of the Artist
reported on five approaches that are essentially cited in most formal definitions, which are
the following:

1. Definition through membership

2. Definition by committee

3. Definition by authority

4. Definition by association with artistic output

5. Definition by nature of art activity

Membership is taken as the particular artist association that a prospect is registered

or active in, with an additional requirement of “recognized” status. The committee being
referred to are the experts and artist peers that will cosign the legitimacy of the artist status
which relates with the third approach authority. Authority is another legitimizing body but
is concerned directly with deciding taxation on or for the prospect. At face value, the
preceding two approaches dispense some bias towards the decision, or the concern for
objectivity is no way being toned down by including a panel of persons who are not
immune to compromising motives. The fourth approach requires that the evaluation be
done through several levels of validation. A definition by association with the artistic output
demands an evaluation of the prospect‘s production of the artworks, whether they have
cultural or artistic merits and whether they are copyrighted or not. The cultural and artistic
qualities of the product of the artist can bring confusion as to which is considered cultural
and artistic. The evaluation could involve a review at the historical, anthropological,
sociopolitical, and even at the religious or spiritual level. Finally, a definition by nature of
art activity evaluates the conduct whether the artwork

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

is “undertaken in a business-like manner,” which means that in any manner the art is
done, it should be done either as a hobby or for gainful employment.

Reprise: How do we define an artist?

It is hard to define an artist flatly. It is always wise to frame the definition around factors
such as influence, intention, academic experience, nationality, theory or movement, and
functionality. The whole gamut of shaping the definition is not finite and may require the
definer to pass judgment on other factors such as whether the prospect has a cause for
doing art and whether his art is mass produced, which brings the issue of commodification.
Because of this, the process of defining rolls up into a different concern: litigating art itself
rather than the artist.

70
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Write the words or group of words being referred to by the

phrases below.

1. Seemed not suitable for Abellana for he had the

academic artist temperament.
2. Martinio Abellana‘s painting which won in Art
Association of the Philippines (AAP) art
competition.
3. More restrained style and formal compared to
romantic.
4. The opposite of the theoretical and philosophical
professors who spend time on the inception of an idea.

5. Were born out of a need to include the agenda of

advertising.
6. Dominant term in the profession of the artist which
goes back to his or her formative years.
7. This phenomenon may come at the middle of the day
and extract an idea that an artist has been waiting to
reveal itself in the deliberate process.
8. Inherent in a Filipino painter if he is to achieve a
Filipino painting, according to Abellana.
9. Taken to mean any person who creates or gives
creative expression to art.
10. A definition of art that evaluates whether the artwork is
undertaken in a business-like manner.

B. Summative. Interview a local artist. Prepare questions that relate to their

professional experience (doing art as a means of living); his or her journey
towards the discovery of his/her talent; and his or her challenges in the field
with the advent of other art forms, especially digital art. Then write a report
on this interview following these requirements:

• The first page of the report will be a brief profile of the artist (i.e. name,
residence, affiliation, awards, current job and so on).

71
 • The second page of the report will be a summary of the
responses of the interviewed artist in 100–200 words.

• In the third and final page, write an inference based on the interviewed
artist regarding his or her status as well as the status of the arts in the local
community.

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 CHAPTER 4: THE ARTIST’S IDENTITY: THE MAKINGS OF A CEBUANO ARTIST

Supplementary Learning Resources

Read The Vocation of the Artist as referenced below and

reflect on whether there is a universal trait for artists. Discover
how distinct and delicate the profession of an artist is.

Haynes, D. J. (1997). The vocation of the artist. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. View the short documentary on
the artist, Carlo de Laza, a diorama artist, under the series The
Story of the Filipino: Visual Artists through the link below. Then,
share with the class your impressions on his ideas and process.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QRQM-RCuCYk

References

Klassen, W. W. (June 01, 1984). Martino Abellana and

Philippine Painting: Conversations with the Artist.
Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 12, 2, 87-105.

UNESCO. Director-General. (2014). UNESCO 1980

Recommendation concerning the Status of the Artist:
survey for consolidated report. Unesdoc.unesco.org.

Retrieved October 16, 2022, from https://unesdoc.unesco.

org/ark:/48223/pf0000230191

73
 CHAPTER 5
The Artisans and
Art Management

For the artisan, craft is an end in itself. For you, the

craft is the vehicle for expressing your vision.
” artist,

Craft is the visible edge of art.

—david bayles

Overview

Artists can be both art creators and craftsmen, leading to the

dual nature of their work. This is due to the overlapping qualities of
art and craft. The classic distinction between the two occupations
lies on the outlook of creativity and functionality. The artist carries
the burden of ascertaining beauty while the artisan carries the
burden of making his work usable.

On the other hand, there are individuals closely linked with

artists that take care of other non-creative domain such as
curating and selling artworks. They are comprised of gallery
owner, curators, and art dealers. This chapter classifies these
individuals under art management team.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Compare and contrast artisans and artists.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

2. Understand the social milieu that impacted the

artisan‘s way of life.
3. Determine the roles of art dealers, collectors, and
curators in art management.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

In groups of 4 to 5 members discuss what artisan craft you

are familiar with. Be guided by these discussion questions:

1. What is the material used in making the craft?

2. What is the practical use of the craft?
3. Does it have an artistic appeal? What factors are
responsible for this?

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 CHAPTER 5: THE ARTISANS AND ART MANAGEMENT

Artisans

The common approach to defining artisans is to consider

the type of craft they create, and the materials and processes
involved. The product created by artisans must be crafted from
skillful labor, and the materials derived from indigenous or
traditional materials, and processed through traditional
techniques that exist in a community. On the other hand, skills
are highlighted as intrinsic to the artisans. They are cultural
skills passed down from master craftsmen to their apprentices.

Artisans are skilled in making crafts by hand. At present, local artisans

in the Philippines continue making crafts (i.e. textile weaving, pottery, and shell craft).
With new technology brought by factories, parts of the production have been segmented
into component works.

Artisans who were rationalized into factory work have worked on components of their
craft, instead of the entire craft. The rest of the work can be done by machines. Some
crafts served as raw materials to be exported to international companies to be used in
creating a fashion line. This is important in understanding how economy and market had
shaped the status of artisans. Their sacred and reverent works have seen the impact of
mass-production.

Resil Mojares wrote in Craftsman, Factory Worker: Concerns in the Study of Traditional
Art (1986) that artisans benefited from exchanges under prestation and gift exchange,
prior to an organized market. Artisans remained autonomous with self-sufficient
production at home amid trade but when the marketized trade was formalized, the
economic middlemen assumed control over production and distribution of craft goods.
Eventually, the country had been made into a supplier of raw materials for foreign
manufacturers. They controlled important aspects of production which served as hurdle
for Filipino craftsmen to participate and benefit fully from foreign trade.

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As suppliers of raw materials, our nation‘s artisans may not have benefitted fully from
international trade but the quality and skillfulness that they mustered remained an
essential component of keeping the cultural spirit in their works alive.

Art Collectors

Art collectors are prospectively interested in valuable artworks as their investment.

Aggressive art collectors do this first to protect interests such as security of their business
and other measures against economic odds. On the other hand, there are collectors who
do not sell but invest in the intrinsic value of the artifact. On the personal level, their
collection is a source of fulfillment. This kind of investor looks for either status of ownership
or cultural gain, at times realizing the society‘s lack of effort to preserve works of art from
destruction.

Art collectors do not go for cheap artworks; they look at over-a-million worth of
investment, and most artefact appraised at a stellar (though established) price are quite
rare. They are the works of well-known artists, dead or alive. These artists have had a
track record and have the best accolades from museum and gallery directors, auction
houses, and history books.

Art Dealers

Art dealers usually come from the business side of the world with the intention to
associate and sell. Their job may be considered as illustrious if they succeed in their
careers, as they make a lot of money. Their academic background usually has something
to do with history, art, and culture. Basically, an art dealer looks for a good buy to resell in
the art world. They begin the business by knowing artists then representing them in the
market. Artists even agree with dealers to share a percentage of the sale of their artworks.
Art dealers mingle with museum, gallery, and auction directors to know the selling status
of artworks. Just like big investors, art dealers are the mini investors who use the market
trend as a prelude to selling.

Curators

Curators are personnel-in-charge of the acquisitions in a gallery or museum. Apart

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from managing the physical collection, they research on current and future acquisitions
including heritage identification and establish a protocol on care and documentation. In
larger museums, they are assigned as managers of certain types of collections such as
local heritage or a section on Egyptian art. Curators also do writing tasks for
documentation, museum websites, and press releases.

An example of an institution that has an extensive collection of curated material of

local culture is the Cebuano Study Center of the University of San Carlos. The center
curates tangible and digital collections. With the recent need to preserve digitized formats
of books for researchers outside Cebu City, the center had begun storing some books
and publications by prominent Cebuano writers in history.

Managing the Audience

The audience is a crucial element in the art exhibition. It has a collective interest and
responses at different levels to which artists cater. Art brings people together in cultural
events, allowing them to experience individual pleasure and be with other community
members. Town fiestas are sociocultural events that usually support different art
exhibitions and play a major role in continuing art production. More importantly, this type
of activity maintains a number of audiences every year, securing warranted participation
and spectatorship. The challenge is to sustain this number amid the changing audience
design and modes of art production. Many local art forms had suffered audience decline
in history. For instance, zarzuela, a musical comedy, has lost its audience with the advent
of new entertainment sources like film, radio, and television.

The audience‘s interests may change, given the time and turnover of technology, and
many other factors such as what were specified by Sarah Wold in her article titled
“Embracing a More Diverse Audience in Arts and Culture.” Wold attributed the problem of
audience decline to a mixture of shifting demographic and lack of support from institutions,
which is becoming evident in Philippine local art scene. The decline can further be traced
to language diversity, cost, transportation, and art and cultural literacy problems.

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The issue of language diversity may easily be resolved through translation of script to
other languages like the adaptation of Miss Saigon. Because of different language
attitudes in which ideology plays a big part, it is not easy to bring a production to other
places without translation. The complexity abounds when productions arouse anti-culture
sentiments from an audience. In addition, if a production glorifies one culture and
discriminates another, this can also rouse ethno-linguistic disparity and limit audience
diversity and reach.

In terms of art production economy, the high cost of concert or any performance
tickets is due largely to the lack of subsidies from the government allotted to performing
groups to fund their production. Performers may not have other sources of income if they
are doing shows most of the time. They get their allowances and operational costs from
ticket revenues.

Transportation becomes a problem when the productions are centralized and patrons
need to travel to reach performance venues. The specific problems are distance, inefficient
mode of transportation, and transportation costs. The Philippines as an archipelago has a
difficult topography since islands are cut off by sea waters, which imply that performance
goers spend so much on travel. Moreover, there is a problem regarding the heavy
sprawling of people to different cities which pushes them farther from the centers of
entertainment such as those in Manila.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Identify the concept being described in each item and write the
word which corresponds to your answer from the word box below in the
blank before the number.

Artisans Centralized production Zarzuela Audience Interest

Audience Prestation Curator Art Dealer
Buyers Skillful Labor Art Collectors Controlled
Production

1. This refers to the predicament of theater viewers when they

need to travel to city centers to watch a play.

2. It refers to the personnel in charge of the acquisition in a

museum.
3. What is the Filipino craftsmen‘s problem in
participating and benefitting fully from foreign trade?

4. It had lost its audience with the advent of new entertainment

sources like film, radio, and television.
5. It has a collective interest and responses at different levels
to which artists cater
6. They mingle with museum, gallery, and auction
directors in order to know the selling status of
artworks.
7. The pre-colonial Filipino artisans had this system of
exchanges along with gift exchange.
8. They are skilled in making crafts by hand.
9. Prospectively interested in valuable artworks as their
investment.
10. The product created by artisans must be crafted from
this.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

B. Formative. Compare and contrast the modern and traditional artisans.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Write a reflection about the importance of

collectors, curators, and art dealers in art management.

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 CHAPTER 5: THE ARTISANS AND ART MANAGEMENT

Supplementary Learning Resources

View the short film titled “The Art of Making, The Carpenter” at
https://vimeo.com/channels/268613 and reflect on the questions below.

1. Is a carpenter comparable to an artist? Why or why not?

2. Does the carpenter have an artistic vision? Why or why

not?

3. What can the carpenter do that an artist cannot?

References

Polsky, R. (2014). The art prophets: The artists, dealers, and

tastemakers who shook the art world. New York: Other Press.

Sieber, R. (January 01, 1980). Artisans. African Furniture and

Household Objects, 40-49.

T. E. (2017). Heritage and Archaeology in the DigitalAge: Acquisition,

Curation, and Dissemination of Spatial Cultural Heritage Data.

The artist as curator. (2015). Bristol: Intellect.

Ward, F., & Dartmouth Digital Library Program (2018). No Innocent

Bystanders: Performance Art and Audience.

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 CHAPTER 6
Medium, Technique,
and Approaches

The marble not yet carved can hold the form of

thought the greatest artist has.
” every

—michelangelo

Overview

To an artist, the medium defines his output and artistic

profile. Various artists have made a name for themselves in the
art industry through the materials they were known to use with
dexterity. Technique is also a big factor in the artist‘s portfolio.
Some will explain their techniques to their audience to help
them understand their work, and some will leave the audience
to figure their approach from a closer observation.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Identify the different media and techniques used by

artists.
2. Differentiate between the artist‘s and the artisan‘s
approach to a particular medium.
3. Feature local artists and their medium and technique
in a mini-documentary.

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Bridging Learning Opportunities

Think of how the materials listed in the following table can

create an artwork. Fill the table with the description alongside
each word specifying what form or ways the materials can
create an artwork.

Materials Description

Concrete

Leaves

LED Lights

Air

Water

Human Body

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Medium and Technique

The medium refers to the material or means the artist uses

to translate his feelings into a tangible form. These are
building materials in architecture, stone, or wood in sculpture;
wind instrument in music; and words in literature.

From the idea of material, art can be classified into

different media.

Visual

It is the medium that can be perceived through ocular observation. Further

classifications account for the space of interaction
which separates artworks into two-dimensional and three- dimensional. The former refers
to art subjects that exist in a picture plane such as in drawing, painting, printmaking, and
photography. The latter refers to art subjects that exist in the human world such as
sculpture, architecture, landscaping, community planning, industrial design, ceramics,
and furniture design.

Auditory

It is the medium that can be experienced through the auditory sense, attributed most
often with stage performances which involve singing, dancing, and live performances.
This type of art experience demands different levels of interaction with the material. Some
sounds that we listen require either little or more critical listening such as the opera,
oratorical, and poetic performances. Others would involve mostly ambient listening such
as house music.

Combined arts

It is the medium that engages two or multiple sensory experiences such as seeing
and hearing which are stimulated by actions brought by dance, mimes, improvisations,
and motion pictures. Combined arts also thrive as a form of performing art since it is
executed live to an audience.

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Other senses not included in the categories are also alluded to when describing an
extraordinary experience of a particular relevant art piece.

A chocolate fountain, an art installation, draws people in, especially dessert lovers
because of its moist appearance (visual) and aromatic (olfactory) smell. While the
chocolate fondue is being consumed, a feeling of satisfaction ensues (gastronomic),
especially when it melts in the mouth (textural) bringing in a different thrill to a cocktail.

Artist’s Medium

The artist is free to decide on his materials or media. If he is associated with a

particular art salon or movement, he may adopt its preferred material or medium. On the
other hand, an artist with a rich experience on several mediums may use different
mediums to depict his preferred subjects.

An artist is limited to the availability of material. In areas with a meager source of

pigment, for instance, he would make do with limited hues to express his subject. In
interior design, for example, he would also think of other practical things such as how the
material appeals to the overall design of an area. In drawing, the monochromatic effect of
hatching and stippling are used to evoke negative emotions such as sadness and positive
emotions such as calmness. Stone cannot evoke actual movement, but it is possibly
carried out in terms of suggesting tension and dynamics through orienting the axis of the
body into a potential motion.

The surface qualities of materials also pose some opportunities for design and some
challenges. A polished wood can be used for elegant temples and rough stone to mimic
a rustic quality.

Artist’s Technique

The artist works around the physical qualities of his medium. For every project he
makes, he ensures that the material achieves what he envisions. The artist‘s ways of
achieving his objective for an artwork through his medium is called technique.

A short-story narrator may use a narrative technique called stream of consciousness

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(a method of narration that attempts to depict the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which
pass through the mind) to show what is building up in the character.

A theatre director may decide to use physical theater as a technique to satisfy the
narrative demand of the script. It uses movement, mime, gesture, and dance to explore
the narrative.

Finally, a painter may decide to paint his subject using impressionism technique
based on broken brushstrokes to represent the flickering moving nature of light.

The Traditional Media of the Visual Art

1. Drawing. It is the most common medium in visual art. Writing materials such as
pen and pencil or lead are considered drawing media, even whiteboard markers.
Drawings can also be a form of study or preparation for the actual artworks.
Leonardo da Vinci did various studies of hands, arms, torsos, and faces before
painting his actual subjects.

2. Printmaking. It is an art-making process that works by transferring images from a

woodblock to a surface. Paper or fabric are usually used as support where the
print will settle. The process involves applying ink on a woodblock with etched
pattern and pressing the etched side against the paper or fabric.

3. Painting. It is the earliest medium with roots dating back to 10,000 B.C. when cave
art was produced. The original mixture that created the first watercolor pigment
used on cave walls was based on plant oils and animal blood for binding and
earth pigment to get different hues.

4. Tapestry. It is a textile art in which fabric is woven with colored designs that usually
contain patterns. Decorative tapestry became the centerpiece in churches and
castles. Tapestries were known for their portability. They were easily transported
or moved from one location to another. They were easily rolled up and mounted,
especially in churches where frequent celebrations required changing their
tapestry.

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5. Stained Glass. This was the system of illumination during the Gothic Period when
churches rose to extraordinary heights. Because of the multi-colored glass
installed on windows, the interior of churches became bright. The stained glass
also served as a tool for religious instruction since the stained-glass windows
depicted characters and scenes from the bible.

6. Sculpture. This process of creating three-dimensional figures dates to the

Prehistoric Age. It involves sculpting, molding, casting, or constructing out of
materials applicable to each process.

• Carving. The sculptor cuts or chips off the pieces of a block of material like
stone, wood, or any hard substances. An image or shape forms out of this
process.

• Casting. This process involves the use of a molten liquid-like substance such
as bronze or gold. The molten substance is poured by the sculptor on a mold
which is responsible for shaping. When the substance hardens, the mold is
broken to reveal the underlying shape.

• Modeling. In this process, the sculptor models or builds the shape of the
subject using soft material like clay and fresh plaster.

• Assembling. In this process, the sculptor hammers, welds, or bolts pieces

together to create the entire shape of the subject. Assembling uses found
objects or materials that can be found everywhere.

The Medium of Auditory Art

Sound is the medium used in auditory art such as what is present in music. Auditory
art lacks the physical object to act upon but is rich in musical elements (form, dynamics,
harmony, melody, rhythm, texture, timbre, and tonality) produced by different instruments
(Hospers, 2019). Without the tones, no music is produced. There must be a constant
oscillation or active source of sound for music to occur, unlike painting, which has a
permanent visual form. Music occurs in the sense that it is performed and is re-performed.
Performances are social-aesthetic act, connecting aesthetic knowledge

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with society. Prehistorically, aesthetic knowledge created music and ritual as shown
through rock arts. Performances of dance whose rhythms were provided by idiophones
or ancient percussions made of bones had been practiced and become part of the cultural
sounds of a group of people.

In terms of radio and film, auditory art provided the sound requirements for conveying
a narrative. Radio plays focused less on site sounds but more on the narrative, using
sound tropes (footsteps, door-creaking, animal hooves, metal-clanking, etc.) to signal
most of the situations, which consequently create a mediated environment, where
representations of reality are conditioned thereby limiting the perception of places in the
narrative.

Narrative works in film use what is called misensonore, patterned from the word
misenscene which refers to the visual-scape in a represented environment, most often for
staging or filming. In the same light, misensonore refers to the ambient sound with the
help of sound artists, architects and cultural critics to cross-reference the quality of place
– urban, rural, industrial, coastal, hinterlands, and so no. Chattopadhyay (2021) calls this
as auditory setting, which can be achieved through sound artist‘s recording of the sites
from where the sonic environment is taken. The production of auditory setting must
consider the presence of a place, sound and space cognition of the audience to reinforce
the impression of reality (Percheron, 1980 in Chattophadhyay, 2019).

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Write T if the statement is true and F if it is false.

1. Casting involves chipping off the pieces of a block material like

stone.
2. The original mixture that created the first watercolor pigment
was based on plant oils and animal blood.
3. Theater is an example of combined arts
4. Combined arts is the combination of different kinds of visual
experience.
5. Medium refers to the idea and emotions through which the art is
expressed.
6. Auditory medium is experienced through auditory sense.
7. The selection of the medium is sometimes influenced by art salon or
movement.
8. Three-dimensional artworks exist in a picture plane.
9. The artist may be limited by the availability of materials, especially
in areas with meager sources of raw materials to create paint.

10. Modeling is the process of building the shape of the subject using
physical materials such as clay.

B. Formative. Choose ten artists belonging to different art movements and

determine their medium and technique. Write a comment or critique on how
their medium or technique contributed to the good compositional quality of
their work. Use the table provided in the next page.

ARTISTS COMMENT / CRITIQUE

1.

2.

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 ARTISTS COMMENT / CRITIQUE
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. In groups of 4 to 5 members, produce a mini-documentary in a

short video clip on an artisan‘s craftsmanship featuring an artisan‘s process
of creating his craft, and how he or she hones his or her skills. Use this page
to write about 3 most important things your group has learned from this
project, and 3 things your group is interested to investigate further about
artisan’s craftsmanship

3 Most Important Things We Learned

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 3 Things We Are Interested to Investigate Further

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 CHAPTER 6: MEDIUM, TECHNIQUE, AND APPROACHES

Supplementary Learning Resources

Listen to the BBC audio recording of Radio 4‘s “Pursuit of Beauty

in Stitches” at https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/ m00014k4 and learn
about embroidery as a medium of art and expression.

Select two places to have an ambient sound recording of. One

should be part of an urban place and the other is part of a natural
environment. Record the ambient sound for 1 minute. Then, play the
recordings back, and make a list of sounds you have heard from the
recording for each environment. Finally, reflect on whether the sounds
you have recorded are sufficient for audio setting for a film.

References

Appreciation. Davao City: Blue Patriarch Pub. House. 15–20.

Chattopadhyay B. (2021). The auditory setting environmental

sounds in film and media arts. Edinburgh University Press.
Retrieved October 17 2022 from http://public.eblib.com/
choice/PublicFullRecord.aspx?p=6519227.

Hospers, J., Duignan, B., Lotha, G., Tikkanen, A., Zelazko, A., & The Editors of

Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2022, October 4). philosophy of art - The

mediums of art | Britannica. Www.britannica.com. https://www.

britannica.com/topic/philosophy-of-art/The-mediums-of-art

Perez, T., Cayas, R., and Narciso, N. (2013). Alampat: An

Introduction to Art

Speirs, A. (2015). Artists and Artisans – What‘s the difference

between an artisan and an artist? Retrieved on May 25, 2018 at
http://nowbali.co.id/artists-and-artisans- what-s-the-difference-
between-an-artisan-and-an-artist/

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Wider, S & Wider C. (2009). Art Collectors – What do they really

want? Retrieved on May 25, 2018 at https://drawpj.
com/art-collectors-what-do-they-really-want/

Ward, K., Miller, I., & McLean, K. (1999). Art media. Rowley,
MA: World Teachers Press.

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 CHAPTER 7
Artistic Production:
Preproduction,
Postproduction, and
Reproduction
A story should have a beginning, a middle, and an
end…but not necessarily in that order.
”
—jean-luc godard

Overview

Artistic production is varied in form, style, and technique.

Today‘s technological infrastructure paved the way for digital
enhancement in all manners of production. Sounds are now
richer, motion pictures are hyper-realistic, and stage
performances are a conjunct of live- action and digital
projections for scenic design. Sometimes a digital projection in
a stage play is a performance of its own.

Today‘s art utilizes ready-mades and “stock” projects.

Modern artists conveniently pick up, edit, and transform them
into art products. The traditional way of doing art is being
changed to suit the current knowledge and technology.
Gradually the artworld gave way to reproduction, as opposed to
original production which changed the norm of creation.
Technology is making art creation automated, mass produced,
and cheaper.

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Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Determine the elements that govern the production, preproduction, reproduction,

and postproduction of works of art in different forms.
2. Discuss new perspectives into art production and reproduction using new
technology.
3. Realize the importance of artistic production in any art form.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Imagine that you are producing an album for a singer in line with a beverage
company‘s fiftieth anniversary celebration. What are the things needed to create the
album? Fill out the table below with information in line with this question.

Categories Specific Things to Do

(Write descriptively.)

Conceptualizing phase
(What are the elements to
conceptualize?)

Studio recording phase

(What resources [human
and material] do you need
in the recording?)

Marketing phase
(What are the marketing
strategies for the album?)

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Artistic Production

Artistic production involves all activities and works leading to the

performance of a material. It can sometimes be construed as the activities that
are necessary to achieve the quality appropriate for the type of production.
Artistic production in a theater is managed by a theater company that involves
people working at different levels of work under the impression of creative
production. On the other hand, music or record production involves the
management of sound recording for a performer or an album, crafting the
soundscapes around inner element such as emotional affect. The workload in
the entire record production may be less rigorous and complex

as the theatrical production. The end goal of every production is a successful event or
project determined by the number of audiences and good reception. Artistic production is
designed around patterns in the performing industry, dealing with monetizing the
production and dealing with current issues to create a meaningful production. The rigors
of production transcend the borders of artistry to include a technical job that requires the
expertise of engineers, marketers, carpenters, and other logistics jobs.

Preproduction

Preproduction is the activity done in preparation for the final output, which may involve
drafting, sketching, or testing the appearances of subject. In painting, preproduction is
when painters do their study or exploration of their subject, knowing what works and what
does not. An architect does a rough sketch on a paper to plan a building‘s space, design
and functional aspects. In the same manner, a sculptor may prepare a mold for casting
or armature to establish the framework of a sculpture.

In theater, most of the preproduction activities are spent off-the-stage. Regardless of

the types of theater production, it will always start with searching for an offer because the
prospect of funding determines the largeness of the production or how capable it is. In
some opportunities, productions are requested and sponsored. These are

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celebratory productions in time with significant events and holidays. After approval of
production or even prior to approval, the director is assigned and will be involved in the
audition and casting which are important parts of the preproduction. It usually takes a long
time to complete the cast; finding the right actors may not be forthwith.

In music, preproduction is spent on the finetuning of the music by artists and

producers. At first, a demo will be created exploring the creative aspects of a song;
although not all artists and producers would prefer this method. Some would rent the
studio immediately to spend their creative searches in.

Film or Live Performance

The preproduction for film and live performances have its asperity. The performance
idea starts off the creation of a film or a live performance. Sometimes, a screenplay is
examined in preliminary creative production meetings before filming. The screenplay will
be set into a shooting script. Storyboard artists will be hired after a screenplay and a
shooting script will be prepared to visually interpret the screenplay. It sets how the project
will be perceived by the audience. The other crew will be selected based on their valuable
input and ability to collaborate. The location will be selected based on the impressions
made by the storyboards.

For a live performance, the preproduction is done in the main by scouting for artists
and locations followed by site visits and a study of technical specifications. Demos and
band rehearsals are arranged including the main singer. There are music stars who
rehearse less and opt to come down for a sound check. Every concert is planned from the
stage to the audience. George Evans, Frank Sinatra‘s publicist, shared how the former
negotiated for a group of audience screamers and arranged them around an auditorium
to help turn up the excitement level.

Production

Production proper is the process where footage is initiated, or performance is run live
to an audience. In filming, the set is filled with actors and rolling cameras and the director
on a chair, but the primary element is still the acting of the actors in the set. In

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theater, the stage is on business when the play runs, until the curtain closes. During the
run, the production is shaped by the quality of performance of live actors. Thus every
performance is unique from the other performances of the same material. Oftentimes, the
actors are not framed by a camera to augment their facial expression and actions. In the
same manner, the live performances of singers are made in one swoop and follow some
elements of theater but not necessarily its conventions. Some elements of production may
be added like a front act, an impromptu, and an anticipated encore. Most of the time, the
singers break the fourth wall by communicating with the audience and bringing a member
of the audience on the stage.

On the other hand, filmed production can benefit from camera script and studio
enhancement. The filming set is equivalent to the stage. But unlike theater and live
performances, the filming is not the actual show. It is done with periodic cuts to assemble
the scenes later in a studio. Cinematography work continues, modifying for enhancement
and eliminating scenes that do not work well with the screenplay.

Production and Research

According to Jenny Sjoholm, a researcher on cultural and economic geographies of

the contemporary art world, contemporary artistic production is characterized by being
investigative, imaginative, and intellectual. A production artist may be immersed in
thorough research about an art subject. This research occurs inside and outside the
studio, the internet, and in society. It does not mean that imagination is jeopardized by
the systematicity of research. It only means that the artistic production is also a method of
thinking that begins with a thesis where ideas are formed. Artistic labor benefits from
imaginativeness and practicality.

Postproduction

The world of art is now a venue for postproduction. Machines finish the job and
replace almost all manual processes. These include eliminating and correcting errors of
the production. In this light, machines pose an important question today about the
relevance of a creative persona. When modern computers are surpassing humans on the
creative field, does it mean the end to human creativity? Film producers recognize

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Channel R: High end

linear editing suite,
1999

the usefulness of post-production using computers as it shortens the takes and lessens
the difficulty experienced by actors. Producers take to the studios to stage difficult scenes
such as jumping off the plane via computer simulations. Thus, a digital editing board is far
cheaper and less risky than putting actual human actors on the scene.

Adobe Photoshop, is another post-production software. It has the necessary tools to

edit sloppy photos that need quick fixes. With editing software like this, it makes
photography more democratic but at the same time it loosens the keenness and
meticulousness traditionally associated with production. Sometimes the bulk of the
creative work is no longer in the production phase but more in the post-production. Recent
developers of language-based programs have worked on algorithms that copy the
stylistics of literary language. The role of the human being may be reduced to feeding the
computer with basic input for the latter to develop into a creative work. The post-produced
world is already pervasive, and the creative market is now full of computer-aided
composition.

Film postproduction depends on different processes such as video editing, (re)

recording, and soundtrack editing as well as incorporation of visual effects and other
computer-generated images. Nowadays, digital editing is the norm, making the business
of postproduction swift.

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In a related art form, digital photography benefits a lot from postproduction. Raw
images of the marketed product in a poster are taken separately and then assembled
image by image. A photographer does not need to photograph a complete scene right
away. He can take a photo of the elements of the scene separately and then use a
computer software to merge the images.

Postproduction is more salient and applicable in film and photography. It can hardly
be adapted to theater. The challenge of live performance is it cannot be edited. We cannot
post- produce any part of it, but we can evaluate an entire performance once it has ended.
It can be done by the company director or stagecraft directors to ensure a quality
performance in the subsequent run. In addition, a company call (in theater) can be held
for the same purpose.

Reproduction

Art reproduction is far from new. Since the time printing was invented, it had advanced
sporadically until mechanical reproduction of art has become possible. However,
reproduction is sometimes almost impossible for works of art that are remarkably unique.
Woodcut graphic art existed before the reproduction of scripts. Significantly, the latter has
created a giant leap in bringing literature across wider areas. Other earlier methods of
reproduction are engraving, the process of incising onto a hard substance, and
woodcutting or relief printing using carving techniques. In 1796, Alois Senefelder invented
the method of publishing script called lithography.

It required a tedious process to make lithographic plates owing to the many technical
challenges, until photography entered the picture and introduced new, versatile,
economical, and more convenient ways of printing.

Joseph Niepce produced what was dubbed as the first photograph in 1826 using a
camera obscura. He is also considered as the first to produce a permanent photographic
image through a film negative. This was a great leap from the age of technical difficulty in
printmaking. Developments in the use of photography in printmaking had produced the
halftone process which was done by breaking up the images into a series of dots with
varying sizes and spaces.

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Henri de Toulouse-
Lautrec. Moulin Rouge, 1891,
Lithograph printed in four
colors, 74 13/16 x 45 7/8 in.
New York, Metropolitan
Museum of Art.

The development in printmaking have come a long way to say that even printing
created a lot of modalities in reproducing artworks in the digital age – reason that these
artworks have been considered trite.

Digital painting reproduction involves copying of an original work through photography

and scanning techniques. The output is a digital format or another print form of the original
work. This type of reproduction is sold with a certificate of authorship from the original
artist. This means that the original artist supervised the

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process of reproduction. The reproductions are usually referred to as the “artist‘s copy” to
validate that the reproduction is consented by the original artist.

Various artworks are reproduced today and being hung or placed around personal
and public areas. The reproduced portrait paintings, for instance, as commonly hung in
living a room, still convey their original extravagance to people and still enable them to
feel affected by the

painting‘s nostalgia. In the absence of technological reproduction, artists would copy

their original paintings by hand for a patron, making it impossible for them to get a faster
reproduction rate.

Art canvas reproduction requires a higher price, but the return is an incomparable
satisfaction as compared to having an ordinary paper reproduction. Patrons have become
drawn to esteemed property dictated by the material and artists are in cahoots with the
art industry to engage in the selling of their artworks.

Film and Theater Reproduction

Commercial reproductions of film and theater materials are ubiquitous. Redistributing

movies obtained through licensing or even bootleg productions have become easier, and
patrons are given more options around different digital formats. Just as music is much
easier to reproduce today through different formats, movies can be downloaded into
powerful devices with almost the same richness of quality. On the other hand, theatrical
reproductions are understood better under the context of reruns. Recent reruns are
foreseen to be higher on special effects and cinematic integration contending with movies
in 3D and IMAX.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Fill in the blank with the right term to complete each sentence.
Choose from the given words below.

Photography Camera Obscura Artistic Production Live Performance

Post-production Screenplay Video editing Preproduction
Lithography Film Company Call Commercial
Digital Painting Reproduction

1. ______________ involves all activities and works leading to the

performance of a material.
2. The activity done in preparation for the final output is called
________________.
3. ________________ reproduction involves copying of an original work
through photography and scanning techniques.
4. Joseph Niepce produced what was dubbed as the first
photograph in 1826 using a _________________ .
5. For a __________________, the preproduction is done in the main by
scouting for artists and locations followed by site visits and a study of
technical specifications.
6. Film producers recognize the usefulness of ___________ using computers
as it shortens the takes and lessens the difficulty experienced by actors.

7. Film postproduction depends on different processes such as but not

limited to ___________________.
8. Postproduction is more salient in ________________ and
__________________.
9. Alois Senefelder invented the method of publishing script called
_______________________.
10. In Filming, a _________________ is examined in preliminary creative
production meetings before filming.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

B. Summative. In a group of 4 to 5 members, record a podcast on the topic, “Is

art reproduction good or bad?” Each of the members should be part of the
recording - discussing their opinions on the topic. The time limit for this
podcast is 25 minutes, which may include an intro and outro music. After
recording, edit and save your work in mp3 format. Upload the file to the
designated online folder or learning management system assigned to you by
your instructor/ school. Finally, use this page to write about 3 most important
things your group has learned from this project, and 3 things your group is
interested to discuss further about art reproduction.

3 Most Important Things We Learned

3 Things We are Interested to Discuss Further

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Write a reflection on the following statement of Walter

Benjamin featured in the book Theater Translation in Performance.

Even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one element: its
presence in time and pace, it unique existence at the place where it happens to be. This
unique existence of the work of art determines the history to which it happens to be.
This unique existence of the work of art determines the history to which it was subject-
throughout the time of its existence . . .
[T]he technique of reproduction detaches the reproduced object from the domain of
tradition. By making many reproductions, it substitutes a plurality of copies for a
unique existence. (220–221)

Reflection

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

D. Optional (Summative). Interview five persons, belonging to any age

group, about their thoughts on viewing a film and watching a theater play,
based on the questions that follow. Finally, write a summary report on the
answers gathered.
A. Which movie format do you like - 2D or 3D? Why?
B. Are you particular with the quality of sound while you watch?
C. Why do you think the movie industry invests in higher-
resolution movies?
D. If you will have an opportunity to select and watch your own movie in
a 3D cinema, which type, or genre will you prefer? Why?

E. Have you watched a play in a theater?

F. Is a theater play comparable to the experience in a 3D cinema?
G. Can theater compete with cinema in terms of quality of audience
experience? Why or why not?

Summary Report

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

Summary Report

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Supplementary Learning Resources

Read the web article titled “Has the Incredible Accuracy of Art
Reproduction Ruined the Way We Experience Masterpieces?” using
the link below and explore what the American historian Noah
Charney thought about reproductions.

h t t p s : // w w w . s m i t h s o n i a n m a g . c o m /a r t s - c u l t u r
e/are-replicas-changing-way-we-experience-
a r t - 180960224/#dSZ97EAw7Q7i266H.99

References

Aesthetica Magazine. (2017 July 2): Post-production in the Arts

Retrieved from www.aestheticamagazine.com/post-production-
in-arts

Bigliazzi, S., Kofler, P., & Ambrosi, P. (2013). Theatre translation in

performance. New York, N.Y: Routledge.

Betz Art Gallery.(2019, June 9). Art Canvas Reproduction [Web

page]. Retrieved from https://betzgallery.com/art-canvas-
reproduction-a-162.html

Picone, J. (2017, August 2). 9 Stages of Pre-Production [Web page].

Retrieved from https://www.nyfa.edu/student-resources/9-
stages-of-pre-production/

Verhoogt, R. M. (2007). Art in reproduction: Nineteenth-century

prints after Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Jozef Israë ls and Ary
Scheffer. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

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 CHAPTER 8
The Psychology of
Principles of Design

I strive for two things in design: simplicity and

design is born of those two things.
” clarity. Great

—lindo leader

Overview

Perception helps us make sense of art and process its visual

information. They help the artist in understanding complex visual
stimuli and what constitutes adapting them to human mind. The
patterns that we see everyday are interpreted based on our human
instinct to see a bigger picture. Survival has since been successful
because pattern-recognition, indirectly signaling danger or risk.
This perceptual ability is a robust system where we consequently
conceive designs that we can potentially create. In instances
where we see an image in the clouds or perceive human faces on
the bark of a tree, our gestalt perception is activated, thus, the same
perceptual experience that we have when we automatically
perceive a design feature as good.

The central concern of this chapter is the study of the

specific applications of principles of design.

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Therefore, the central concern of this final part is the study

of specific uses of ambient sound through corresponding and
intercepting recording and sound production phases that have
composed the auditory setting in film and media arts.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Discuss what design influence is and how it affects

consumption choices.
2. Know the Gestalt Laws and how perception works in
general and in artistic observations.
3. Survey a web page in terms of the application of
gestalt laws.
4. Demonstrate the impact of gestalt laws in designing
logo.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Read the scenario below and answer the questions that

follow.

SPEED SPEED

Imagine you are part of a team that conceptualizes a logo

for a forwarder company called “Speed”, and you are presented
with two logos to choose. Which one will you choose – the one
on the left or right?

Guide Questions

1. What influenced your choice?

2. Why did you not choose the other logo?
3. What do you think is the most important element that
a logo should have?

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Design Influence

The influence of design on decision-making cannot be

underestimated. The theme or pattern it creates can help us
comprehend artworks and derive visual pleasure. Design, when
applied to other industries is a form of visual communication. It
can increase appetency and trigger emotions. It can also create
a narrative that can be used to market ideas. Through the
different components of design, the viewers‘ minds are led to
different spaces of interest, not just the primary subject.

Text and graphics in websites are an aggregate of information

motivating clients to avail of the website owner‘s products and services. In the same
manner, a magazine generates readership through text and graphics and must attract
readers by visually stimulating them.

The design of a car may involve evoking its unique selling quality such as speed.
Speed can be designed through streamlining the shape of the car which visually suggests
lesser resistance and faster speed. Many streamlined products are viewed to be “sporty”.
This extends to products that are not for transportation such as a computer mouse.
Manufacturers molded a streamlined body of a mouse to fit the palm of our hands.

Designs can make any product favorable to the clients because they tend to assist
them in the exact way of looking at images. A design that works is when all the inherent
conditions desirable to observers are met. Ethical and moral visual signals sent by a
product are also critical in a design‘s success.

Gestalt Principles

Gestalt principles are a system or set of laws that aid in explaining and exploring the
ways in which elements are perceived by the mind. They focus on the method of grouping
visual elements, since the core of Gestalt is that “the whole is greater than the

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sum of its parts.” The way that the visual

elements combine results in a different
visual quality is always the most preferred
quality of image.

Proximity is one of the laws identified

under Gestalt psychology that refers to
the perception of objects as “grouped”
due to their closeness or nearness to
each other. The small gaps in the group
of black bars below do not affect the
perceived oneness or the composition

Law of Proximity of one whole square.

Another law of Gestalt perception

explains that perception is governed
by the similarity in which the brain
organizes similar objects into one group.
The quadrilaterals in the example below
(A) are perceived to be in a “formation”
working interdependently to form the
aircraft‘s wings. In turn, these shapes
communicate with the rest of the shapes
such as the square in the near-tail of the
airplane and the rounded nose in front.
(A) (B) Another illustration (B) demonstrates how
an upset organization can loosen the
Law of Similarity
appeal of the picture‘s “wholeness.” Two
shapes were altered in B, cutting off the
similarity between neighboring details.

Closure is another law of gestalt

perception that governs shapes or

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images that are not fully closed. The

panda image from World Wide Fund for
Nature or WWF, an international NGO
working for wilderness preservation and
reduction of human impact on the
environment, is an example. The black
space is used to perceive the black parts
or fur of a Chi-Chi on its eyepatches,
muzzles, legs, arms, and shoulders. On
the other hand, the white space is used to
perceive the white fur of the panda.
Although only some of the shapes are
enclosed, the mind still interprets the Law of Closure

panda image as a complete figure.

Continuity speaks of the movement or

path created by the perceiver‘s eyes from
one object to the other such as shown in
the image of two rings that interlock. The
eyes create the grouped visual and
maintain good continuity as the perceptual
process completes in the brain.

Figure-ground law of perception

refers to the perception of a figure
comprised of the positive image (the
image being focused on) and the ground
in which the image where we contrast the
Law of Continuity
figure against—in other words, the
background. The contrast created
between figure and ground is

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essential in textual presentation where texts

are emphasized by contrasting their color
and size against the color or size of the
ground.

The mind is sometimes led to believe

that two possible images are possible,
bringing a “grouping anomaly” to
a composition. This is called the
“reversal,” since two images can be
reversed in which both are meaningful.
However, the mind instantly decides to

Law of Figure-ground focus on an image one at a time. Perhaps

the most popular image associated with
figure-ground reversal of perception is the

image of two humans facing each other, being the white figures outlined in the black
background. The image also presents the form of a goblet that sits in the white space as
the black image.

Visceral Reactions

An instinctive response is usually called visceral from the Latin word visceralis which
means “internal.” Hence, visceral in art refers to the internal experience from a visual
stimulus. This reaction is both psychological and physiological since the brain and
neurotransmitters process our response to a stimulus and translate it later into a strong
physical reaction, that of being disgusted or delighted. The very classic visceral reactions
are that of pity or fear, as discussed by Aristotle in Poetics that could turn into physiological
feeling of knees getting weak, stomach getting upset, or maybe appetite getting better.

Designing a product based on visceral understanding can be complicated. In

advertising, it involves getting rid of portions that cause design errors and compromise the
image of the product. For instance, a house on sale in the middle of the hustle and

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bustle of the city can be advertised by photographing and editing out the city block to
show the house being surrounded with trees instead of tall buildings. This could trigger
visceral happiness and tranquility.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Match the Gestalt Laws in Column A with their meaning in

Column B. Write the letter of your answer on the line before the number.

A B
1. Figure-ground a. Movement or path created by
the perceiver‘s eyes
2. Proximity b. Contrast between the focused
image and the background
3. Similarity c. An image that is not fully
closed is perceived as a
4. Continuity complete form.
d. Perception of connection
5. Closure between objects when close to
each other
e. Recognizing elements that have
resemblance as part of the same
object

B. Summative. Survey a website of your choice in terms of its design. Analyze

the application of Gestalt Laws in the design and describe how they were
applied by writing the description on the next column under remarks.

GESTALT LAWS REMARKS

1. Figure-ground

2. Proximity

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 3. Similarity

4. Continuity

5. Closure

B. Summative. With a partner or a group, decide on a fictional product to sell.

Then, illustrate a logo associated with this product and provide colors that are
meaningful and can speak of the quality of the product using coloring
materials. Use the Gestalt Laws to guide you in constructing your logo.

Product Logo

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Supplementary Learning Resources

View the Youtube video, titled, “Abstract: The Art of Design,

Paula Scher: Graphic Design” and learn how innovative design can
impact the daily lives of people through the link below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LCfBYE97rFk

Read more on design theory, the use of space, positional

decisions, and the elements of design in Jeremy Webb‘s book
Design Principles.

Webb, J. (2019). Basic Creative Photography: Design Principles.

S.l.: AVA Academia.

References

Gestalt Principles of Perception: Definition & Examples. (n.d.).

StudySmarter UK. Retrieved October 17, 2022, from https://
www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/psychology/sensation-
and- perception/gestalt-principles-of-perception/

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt psychology. Oxford, England:

Harcourt, Brace. Metzger, W. (2006). Laws of seeing.
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.

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Principles of Design:
Doing Visual
Organization

All painting – the painting of the past as well as

shows us that its essential plastic
” of the present –

means were only line and color.

—piet mondrian

Overview

The preceding chapter has laid out the creed of designing. Design
is always based on perception and knowing which impact is achieved
or will be achieved. The formal principles that are taught in art school
today are based on theoretical models of modernism in late 19th
century Western Europe. Modernism was about modern and functional
style following the dictum “form follows function.” Bauhaus School
founder Walter Gropius hired art teachers that propagated these
principles which were based on simplicity and pure forms. More
importantly Gropius consolidated modern artists who had a significant
influence on architecture, graphic design, interior design, industrial
design, and typography.

Students at the Bauhaus school were taught the principles

of design and color theory, the two capital knowledge that the
school imparted to them as a blueprint to their artistic endeavor.
After these students graduated, they could design almost
anything. In the words of O‘Connor (2013), “They can design
anything from a dress to a kitchen stove.”

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Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Know the different principles of design and how they

visually organize compositions
2. Analyze paintings in terms of principles of design.
3. Discuss the application of principles of design in
everyday life.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Examine the webpage in terms of visual organization and

answer the guide questions that follow. Then, share your
insights with the class.

The homepage of the federal government website of U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services

Guide Questions

1. How does the webpage engage the eyes?

2. Is the social cause of this webpage clearly stated
visually? Explain how.
3. How is visual hierarchy of the text exhibited?

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Unity and Variety

Unity is the overall visual coherence in which art elements

such as repeated colors, series of shapes, and textures are
important in achieving a sense of schemata or dominance.
It avoids the feeling of disjointedness and confusion, as the
brain instinctively selects a unified composition to signal
pleasantness. Unity is closely associated with harmony. The
latter is the function of unity, allowing things to repeat
systematically or be present repeatedly in a space.

Unity has an immediate effect of visual comfort, seeing that

the images can be broken down or dissected easily. However, too
much unity can also cause visual monotony or boredom and create very little
visual interest. Advertising posters and billboards may not score well with the buying
public in this condition.

However, artists who intend to express a minimalist vision and a bare-essential design
complex opt bending the common prospect of unity. The same is true with artists who use
chaos as a basic expression. In their case, they overdo the mitigation of unity to the extent
that they would upset rather than titillate the senses. Even with chaos as a theme, such
artists still receive a commanding artistic merit.

Romare Bearden repeated the primary colors in his lithograph The Piano Lesson (1983)
to provide a stable picture with an intensity that looms from all over the composition.
Bearden‘s influence in African American culture led him to adapt a 1987 play of the same
title by the American playwright August Wilson. Bearden retained the title in his
composition which shows two African women inside a living room—one plays the piano
while the other looks over in support. His work usually focuses on everyday life themes
as he explored the African American culture. His color juxtaposition of the primary color
triad—blue, yellow, and red—creates a dose of excitement while the entire composition
is unified by the patterns of dominant geometric shapes in contrast to the organic forms
of the women‘s bodies.

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Balance

A genetic predisposition for finding our physical balance is the key in having this
sophisticated space cognition. On the other hand, the ability to judge a visual composition
based on visual balance is a different perceptual ability. Visual balance is achieving the feeling
of a balanced space in the world of pictures. The picture plane may have many things
happening at several levels, and most often the two sides of a painting, divided by an implied
central axis are organized to show balance through visual mass.

The formal type of balance is called symmetrical balance; and the informal type is called
asymmetrical balance. The two are a toolkit to capture the compositional unity. Symmetry
relates well with everyone‘s visual culture since, universally, our design outlook is often
predicated on conventional uniformity and order. On the other hand, anomaly and
irregularity are often narrowly perceived as the opposite of order. This has been translated
into our day-to-day visual thinking which influenced our design decisions.

Asymmetry is a different articulation of balance focusing on the phenomenon of

counterbalancing. One side is usually heavier in visual weight than the other, following the
principle of informal and a more casual design space. Various strategies such as varying
shapes, sizes, values, colors, and textures as well as strategic placement of subjects are
employed to makes sure that the two sides (from left to right) of the composition are
asymmetrical.

Taj Mahal, is designed according to the formal type of balance. Its style is inspired
from the mausoleum of the Asian conqueror Timur called Gur-e Amir. Taj Mahal‘s façade
has towers or minarets on both sides, evoking a strong sense of symmetrical balance.
The minarets are flanking the onion-shaped focal domes, framing the architectural display,
while the front garden or the large charbagh renders a magnificent foreground, echoing
the powerful symmetry of the structure.

In contrast, paintings with asymmetrical details introduce an alternative orderly

structure. The Holy Family on the Steps (1648) by Nicolas Poussin demonstrates

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Taj Mahal (Photograph

by Supreet Vaid. In
FreeImages, 2019

asymmetry by a diffused lighting on the right. The dark tonality surrounding, and engulfing
Joseph subordinated the right side of the painting against the left. The latter is filled with
radiance and warm-and-cool color interface through the robes of Mary and Elizabeth. The
side with Joseph uses little of the vividness of the opposite, except for Joseph‘s foot which
has caught the sunlight that passes from the upper left direction. To create more counter-
balance, Poussin added the weight of the leaning staff and the two altar offerings placed
further right to enhance the counterweight.

Nicolas Poussin.
Holy Family on the
Steps, 1648, oil on
canvas, 27.1 x 38.5 in.
Washington DC, Kress
Collection.

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Emphasis and Subordination

Emphasis is necessary in all artworks, as this provides a focus or a lead through which
our eyes follow. Our eyes naturally stray across a complex environment, but with point of
emphasis, there is a sufficient visual guidepost where we can turn our attention. The
principle of emphasis also controls distractions by cuing us where to focus. Naturally, the
subject becomes the point of emphasis in a composition. For instance, in a portrait, the
sitter is emphasized; in a crowd scene with many subject elements, the focal points are
more than one. There are works with no focal points, such as the free-flowing and
spontaneous works of Jackson Pollock. His ‘action painting’ where he splashed,
splattered, and flung paints on the canvas did not show a traditional cuing where there is
a simplified contrast between a visual interest and its environment. Pollock introduced so
many meandering lines, throbbing patterns, and throes of energetic colors where it is
impossible to identify the visual interest from its environment.

A relevant principle called subordination helps in reinforcing emphasis through

perceivable contrast. Subordination is shown in areas within the composition that are
neutralized in terms of impact, and the key element responsible for this is contrast.
Subordinated details achieve contrast in size, color, shape, texture, orientation, and visual
appeal against the main subject. Furthermore, they become the background that is often
necessary to provide a visual context to a painting.

In landscape and nature painting, subordination is important in achieving tonality or

value. This is the effect of the advancing and fading of a scene just as how the
environment changes with weather conditions and daylight transitions.

In a room with an interior design scheme, it is visually appealing to gaze from areas
of emphasis to areas of subordination and vice-versa. It helps in building the unique
attribute of space.

Scale and Proportion

Size relationship is understood as scale of one object in relation to its environment,

while proportion refers to the relative size of one part of an object in relation to the

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whole object. In terms of composition, a scale is the relative size of the elements in the
painting in relation to the entire composition; while proportion is how the size of the
elements within the composition relate to each other.

The scale of a subject is said to be anomalous if it is too small or large based on a

conventional scale, such as in the work of the hyper-realist sculptor, Ron Mueck who took
human subjects and represented them in their everyday life existence. His projects were
either larger than life models or miniatures, but each brings an identical intenseness. His
monumental scale emphasizes the magnified dread in the themes of aging, destitute,
illness and other life cycles.

The manipulation of the scale and proportion may sometimes depend on style and
technique in art history. The Pieta by Michelangelo, for instance, which was created in the
Renaissance, has a purposeful “out of proportion” style. Michelangelo intentionally
oversized Mary in the representation, to achieve his goal of sculpting

Michelangelo. Pieta,
1499, marble, 17.0 ft.
Vatican, St. Peter’s
Basilica

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the dead body of Jesus Christ on her lap, thereby achieving a plausible situation from
relatable scales of their body, rather than faithfully depicting Mary‘s petite frame. This
shows Michelangelo‘s commitment to the narrative he prefigured in a block of marble.

Rhythm and Repetition

Rhythm suggests movement or visual flow and can be seen in patterns (Rhythm in Art:
The Ultimate List of Rhythm in Art Examples, 2019). It is similar with a wave or vibration
which has a frequency that oscillates in our senses. An example of rhythm is the strong
and weak beats of a ballad poetry, having four stressed beats followed by three stressed
beats (4-3-4-3). Such is illustrated by the following lines in “The Unquiet Grave” (The
Unquiet Grave, n.d.).

the WIND / doth BLOW / toDAY / my LOVE a

FEW/ small DROPS / of RAIN
i‘ve NEV /er HAD / but ONE / true LOVE,
in COLD / grave SHE / was LAIN

The dynamic rhythm in iamb in the preceding poem is illustrated by the succession of
weak (lowercase letters) and strong (uppercase letters) syllables similar to a heartbeat.
Notice how the pattern creates a sense of anticipation—the first line has four stressed
syllables, followed by the second line with three stressed syllables, returns to the four
stressed syllables in the third line, then ends with a four-syllable line again. The alternation
makes it easy to follow a ballad poem.

In painting, rhythm is understood as variations of line, color, and texture, such as what
is shown in Piet Mondrian‘s Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow. The title itself reveals
the rhythm of color expressed in repeating the squares and evoking a progression from
small to large and a vertical and horizontal succession of the similar shapes. The sizes of
the square are varied, as with the width of horizontal lines. Furthermore, the colors are
not alternating but are placed in random; and somehow placed in the frame to exhibit their
contrast. Interestingly, the squares go beyond the frame of the painting, which implies that
the pattern is just a part of a bigger pattern.

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Piet Mondrian.
Composition with Red,
Blue, and Yellow, 1930,
Oil and paper on
canvas, 23.4 in × 23.4
in. Zurich, Kunsthaus
Zürich.

Other types of rhythms are observable in nature and manmade world such as flowing
rhythm, a variation of circles, curves, and waves. The patterns they create imitate the
winding path of canals and rivers or the spirals of snails and ferns. Some architectural
motifs such as in India‘s Lotus Temple are also inspired by the regular rhythms of the
nature which Otto Schmitts has termed biomimetics (Schreiner, 2018).

Contrast

Contrast refers to the juxtaposition of two qualities to show their differences. On the
practical side, contrast gives clarity and readability to images, graphics and texts; while it offers
an aesthetically fulfilling appeal to works with sufficient contrast. A poorly contrasted work
creates ambiguity and a reduction of impact. A good example of appropriate contrast is the
use of complementary and triadic colors. The vibrant effect when complementary pairs appear
attracts and sustains attention. Advertisers exploit this effect to lure more potential consumers.
Contrast can also be in the form of line, shape, texture, movement and space juxtapositions.
There are instances where artists combine

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more than one type of contrast in painting to express more visual overtones. Sometimes,
artists playfully and cunningly use idea contrast, such as love and hatred; oppressor and
oppressed; war and peace; enmity and love – to further make their works meaningful.

Value Contrast

Value contrasts are explicitly used in Italian chiaroscuro or light and dark technique to
explore depth and a dark mysterious plane, employed in religious depictions. Color
complements are also used for optimal contrast between subject and background. The
popular pair, red and green are said to be in high-key contrast since their hues are very
distinct from each other. If they are used together in a composition, they look vibrant. On
the other hand, blue and blue-green show a low-key contrast since they are almost similar
in value, and their hues and intensities are closely related. Blue and blue-green are
commonly observed in landscape painting of an overcast sky over the mountains,
swathing a more monotonous scene.

Size Contrast

Size or scale is important in achieving important areas in the composition and to add
visual contexts and scale relationships. It may also be used to illustrate a realistic space
by relating distant objects with near objects with respect to the vantage point of the
viewers. Size contrast refers to the size opposites such as large and small or thin and
thick. Size contrast adds hierarchical meaning to the composition, which can be used for
advancing narratives – for instance – when it comes to fantasy motion pictures where
mythical creatures like giants are part of the characters. Largeness or smallness can also
be associated with the notion of power and social significance. With increasing size, the
characters become more important and powerful.

Texture Contrast

A texture contrast refers to opposing tactile quality. Contrasting textures make a visual
space more natural, as environments often have innumerable of textures. Textures add
embellishment or layers to a picture; improve the sense of depth and add focal areas.

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In interior design, texture introduces comfort in areas with soft materials, and rigidity
in areas with hard materials – typically seen in minimalist houses. The tensions between
different surfaces within the building are a result of motifs, for instance, a chaotic or non-
harmonic surrounding entails more textural groupings.

In terms of architectural and interior design, contrast can be directly associated with
the material of the building or the furnishing. Stone, for instance, was the staple material
in the Philippine colonial era and was the dominant texture of walls and pillars of churches
and secular buildings. Stone can be contrasted with wooden text for stylistic and structural
purpose. Such combination is building design of Bahay na Bato (Stone House) in the
Spanish-colonial period in the Philippines. The contact between stone and wooden
textures displays impeccable elegance and exquisiteness.

Idea Contrast

At times, a contrast in idea is intentionally done to create meaning such as in Pablo

Picasso‘s Massacre in Korea (1951). Two sides in this painting are dichotomous. On the
left side, six unclothed individuals (children and women) are shown with terrified faces
and expressions of helplessness, surrender, and vulnerability. On the opposite side are
men wearing knight helmets, armed with sword and lance but strangely naked from the
torso down. The latter shows strength and overwhelming defense as they point their
weapons towards the civilians. Picasso let this contrast in ideas penetrate the viewers‘
consciousness and intentionally leaves an ugly picture of atrocity.

Victor Orsel also explored this approach in Good and Evil (1832) through his medieval-
art inspired painting where he contrasted virtue and immorality. The former shows
righteous actions leading to the Kingdom of God and the latter -- decadent actions leading
to hell. There is a didactic end to works that dwell on virtue, and Orsel used the simplistic
division of his painting in halves to recall compelling didactic style and iconography of
medieval paintings.

Movement

Movement in art refers to the perceived physical changes in the orientation and

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Edvard Munch. The

Scream, 1893, oil, tempera,
pastel, and crayon on
cardboard, 36 in × 28.9 in.
Oslo, National Gallery and
Munch Museum.

position of elements. Implied motion is part of the manifestation of movement introduced

through repetition, such as in Giacomo Dalla‘s painting Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash
(1912) where she used photographic multiplication of the dachshund‘s legs, an effective
technique to show rapidness. Rhythm creates movements based on alternating details
and other visual paths that our eyes tend to follow. The flows of shapes, lines, colors and
texture reveal directions and underlying structures which are also responsible for the
perception of balance in a painting. Edvard Munch in his painting The Scream (1893)
transformed the notion of sound waves into visual oscillations and waves of colors. His
work dwelt on the metaphorical aspect of noise, being the nearest representation of
anguish. Movement is also explored in kinetic mimicking of actual mobile subjects such as
a jellyfish whose body motion is depicted in installation and mobile sculptures.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Circle the letter corresponding to the best answer.

1. Refers to the perceived physical changes in orientation of objects.

a. Contrast
b. Balance
c. Unity
d. Movement
2. A type of contrast that refers to the opposites in tactile quality.
a. Texture contrast
b. Size contrast
c. Value contrast
d. Idea contrast
3. Unclothed individuals and men wearing knight helmets.
a. Texture contrast
b. Size contrast
c. Value contrast
d. Idea contrast
4. A good analogy for Rhythm and repetition
a. Contrast
b. Wave
c. Emotions
d. Still water
5. One of the possible use of scale and proportion
a. Oscillation
b. Interpretation
c. Idealization
d. Regulation
6. Which one does not effectively achieve emphasis and
subordination?
a. A small black dot against a white canvas
b. Two rounded shapes and two smaller rounded shapes
c. A series of continuous horizontal line
d. A lighted spot on downstage center
7. Counterbalancing against the opposite side of the composition
a. Formal balance
b. Visual balance

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 c. Symmetry
d. Asymmetry
8. Which one refers to unity?
a. Varied hues and shapes
b. Irregular visual rhythm
c. Patterns of dominant geometric shapes
d. Disjointedness of space
9. Poussin added weight of the leaning staff and the two altar
offerings in Holy Family on the Steps as _________.
a. Counter-balance
b. Enhancement
c. Subordination
d. Decoration
10. _____________ helps in controlling visual loudness.
a. Emphasis
b. Subordination
c. Nature painting
d. Landscape painting

B. Summative. Analyze Peter Paul Rubens‘ “The Fall of Phaeton” in the

following page in terms of his application of principles of design.

Peter Paul Rubens, The Fall of Phaeton, 1605, oil on canvas, 38.7 in x 51.7 in.
Washington D.C., National Gallery of Art.

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Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

Principles of Design Analysis

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

Principles of Design Analysis

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. In groups of 4 to 5 members, create a 25-minute podcast about

the practical applications of Principles of Design through podcast hosting
platforms or audio conferencing applications. Convert your recording to
Mp3 and upload or submit through your designated learning management or
submission platform. Finally, write an outline of main points discussed in
the podcast on the textbox below.

Main Points in the Podcast

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 Main Points in the Podcast

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Supplementary Learning Resources

Read the web article “8 Design Shortcuts for Visually Impressive

Documents” through the link below and learn how to apply design
principles on creating a professional document.

https://qwilr.com/blog/8-design-shortcuts-for-visually-impressive-
documents/

Go to a place or establishment where you think the Principles of

Design are present. Take a picture of the areas that exemplify these
principles. Print these pictures on a short bond paper and write a
caption on them identifying the place or the type of establishment.
Then annotate them with short explanation on what principles of
design are applied and how these principles are used; their impact
on the place; and how it made the place pleasing.

References

Gibbs, J. (2005). Interior design. New York: H.N. Abrams.

Lidwell, W., Holden, K., Butler, J., & Elam, K. (2010). Universal
principles of design: 125 ways to enhance usability, influence
perception, increase appeal, make better design decisions, and
teach through design.

Schreiner, W. (2018). Biomimicry: A History | eHISTORY. Osu.edu.

https://ehistory.osu.edu/exhibitions/biomimicry-a-history

The Unquiet Grave. (n.d.). Smithsonian Folkways Recordings.

Retrieved October 17, 2022, from https://folkways.si.edu/the-
unquiet-grave/poetry/track/smithsonian

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Wiener, B., Gross, L., & Learning Zone Express (Firm). (2006).
The principles of design. Owatonna, Minn: Learning Zone
Express.

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 CHAPTER 10
Reading the Image

Recognizing the identity of patterns is, after all, one

basic functions of our perceptual system.
” of the

—david melcher & patrick cavanagh

Overview

Understanding the image can be challenging when the

viewer lacks insight to the underlying perception of its value that
is learned through analyzing all aspects of the image-making
process, including the tangible and intangible. Reading of the
image should be approached through different levels of
signification called planes. Another way to understand this is to
consider meaning as hidden through multiple doors.

Normally, if we walk through the city, we can follow street

routes and understand street signs for they are attuned to our
body‘s visual recognition system. A traffic sign sends a
message by tapping on our understanding of symbols.
Companies communicate messages through familiar icons.
Our minds break down information through congruence and
memory, and our experiences enrich this memory paving a
clearer understanding of our environment.

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Objectives

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

1. Understand various planes in art as levels of meaning.

2. Apply semiotic, iconic and contextual planes in
photography.
3. Appreciate the impact of pictorial cue in film.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Examine the following pictograms. Write in the blank the

closest meaning you can derive from them. Then answer the
guide question that follows.

1.

2.

3.

4.

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5.

6.

7.

Guide Question:

What is the most difficult icon to understand? Why do you

think it is difficult to understand?

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Pictorial Cue

In the context of art, the artwork itself is the iconic or

pictorial sign. One of the useful tools in communicating
artworks to the viewers is the cultural sign. Generally, we hand
over cultural signs as a representation, and maximization of
recognition, and communication on how we perceive the real
world. One way to understand how this works is to learn the
three planes of visual analysis: semiotic, iconic, and contextual.

Semiotic

Semiotic-based approach shows how the material aspects of work

produce meaning within the whole. This approach studies signs
which can be understood as any physical quality that has a potential to draw meaning. As
opposed to signs, the signified is also part of the study of signs. The signified is what the
sign conveys.

The basic semiotic plane in art includes the elements and what the observer perceives
in the composition, along with their meaning-conveying potentials. Basic semiotic plane
can be broken down to the following categories:

1. Visual elements. It includes the line, color, texture, shape, mass, space, and movement.
These elements have the potential to convey meaning, and they work in a
relational way or in interactions among and between these elements. At times,
contrast becomes more apparent than complementary relationship. This is part of
the meaning of a work.

2. Choice of medium and technique. Salons decreed the choice of medium in the
nineteenth century. Today, artists are free to choose their medium. Technique is
dictated by the quality of the medium. There are media that allow the artist to be
flexible and spontaneous and there are media that compels them to exercise
control. For example, quick-drying media demands restriction and compel the
artist to work in a controlled manner. Others should even have to follow

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mathematical order. On the other hand, the artist may free to do adjustment and
explore the medium and technique using longer-drying media such as oil on
canvas.

3. Format of the work. Both the square and the round canvas have a meaning,
contrary to the traditional understanding that the shape of the canvas does not
matter. The format of the work is sometimes unified with the shape of the images
in the composition. For instance, the Madonna of the Chair (1514) by the
Renaissance artist Raphael is a round-frame format. It shows continuous flow of
curves around the frame and into the rounded body forms of the Virgin Mary,
Jesus, and John the Baptist.

4. Other physical properties and marks of the work. This refers to any marks, imprint,
smudge, or textural effects that add up to the work‘s meaning.

The human mind processes meaning through psychophysical experience and

sociocultural conventions of society. The changes in time, season, and temperature may
be associated with emotional conditions. Once shared, these seasonal changes draw
experiences leading to emotional shifts that can help draw an agreement into what these
elements can convey in a work of art.

The perception of a line does not only trigger our mechanical associations with it that
it can be drawn as vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curve or zigzag. It also includes
associations with body orientations like the sleeping position, attentive position, running
position, or the bending and other physical actions that show gracefulness.

The quality of light also has equivalent psychological effects on the human mind. The
rising of the sun gives a sense of optimism, while its setting gives a sense of mystery,
loneliness, and calmness. Another element related to light that has significant
psychological effect is color. Color‘s warmness and coolness are perceived as the warmth
of friendship and family or general affection, detachment, and aloofness, respectively.

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Shapes can be a strong image whose dimensions create psychological associations

such that geometric shapes are formal, stringent, and accurate, while organic shapes are
free-flowing, expanding, and growing from nature.

Texture can be associated with human experiences such as pain and comfort after
physically touching surfaces that are rough, hard, and sharp, or surfaces that are smooth,
soft, and blunt.

Space and movement in art invites the feelings of claustrophobia, vulnerability,

restriction, isolation or freedom, security, hospitality, communal, and casualness.
Furthermore, movement in art associates with human movements that facilitate the
functions of day-to-day life demands.

Overall, the sense of composition in artwork reflects how people deal with objects on
the ground above and around them. People react to weight, crowd, separation, and
proximity similar to elements within a painting where the sense of relationship between
and among them creates a pleasant composition. These feelings and associations are
found to be universal, just as people understand reactions to certain order and
arrangement despite the difference in culture.

Society has its own meaning-making paradigm through its codes. Black, for instance,
is considered the color of mourning in Western societies. Color codes are usually
determined by the usage of culture. Moreover, traditions are also manifested in the choice
of format, whether to have a vertical or horizontal painting. For example, Chinese format
of choice in printmaking is vertical scroll while other Asian nations prefer the horizontal
frames.

All the observations mentioned are taken from the linguist Ferdinand Saussure. To
sum up what Saussure had posited, the following restate the content of the earlier
discussion:

1. Artists do not only pay attention to the elements, but it must consider other
conveyors of meaning such as dimension, format, medium, frame, and
techniques.

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2. They must also be more acquainted with all physical features of an object.

3. The elements are taken collectively and not in isolation, each confirming or
verifying the other.

4. The signifiers are tied together with their signifieds (the idea expressed by the
signs).

In media advertisement, the use of elements can have a significant internal effect that
influences human behavior which is called the hidden persuaders. For instance, red hue
may present a subject as appetizing and would lead to unplanned consumption.

Iconic Plane

The iconic plane is still related to the semiotic plane, dealing with the signifier-signified.
However, the iconic plane‘s concern shifts from the material and its accepted association
to the symbolic. It is also a second-level signifier. It has a unique sign and has a unique
meaning beyond what conventional signs provide.

This iconic plane starts with considering a subject as beyond its material form such as
shape and texture, among others. It is considered as an iconic sign by its implications, not
conventions. Joey Velasco, a Filipino painter who created his own version of the Last Supper
titled Hapag ng Pag-asa (Table of Hope) (2005), used street children in the poor areas of Metro
Manila as his subjects instead of the apostles. The street children convey a meaning beyond
their appearance as the youth. They become the iconic representation of dissoluteness. One
can see Velasco‘s effort in this painting to reflect the underprivileged of the time. Another way
of examining the iconic plane is to focus on reflected ideologies and values which are effective
as commentary to human follies.

Furthermore, the relationships between the viewer and the image are considered,
revealing the manner the artwork conveys itself into the viewers. Is it harsh or self-
absorbed? Filipinos are known for being communal. Does a painting of a family seem to
include the viewer in their bond? What about a picture of a dictator? How does it relate to
the viewer?

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Other iconic planes are expressed through the following:

1. Figuration. It allows us to perceive the image in the context of the body‘s

proportional significations. The Classical figuration reflects ideal proportions
believed to be achieved by Greek measurement. In contrast, organic or human
proportions reflect naturality and real-life figuration.

2. Positioning. It plays a part in the iconic plane. A subject may be posed according to
frontal, profile, and three-fourth views. For every pose or position, there is a
corresponding signification. Centered and decentered images work in opposition.
Centered images are marked with strength and dominance, while decentered images
are marked with weakness and inferiority. A subject may also appear formal or casual
as positions owing to the use of symmetrical and asymmetrical spaces. Lastly, certain
positions reveal the conditions of tenseness or relaxedness.

3. Gaze. It refers to the way in which the direction of looking affects the space and
establishes the relationship between the viewer and the subject. In Edouard
Manet‘s A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, the woman bartender looks into the space
where the viewer is, as suggested by her gaze that goes outside of the painting.
At some point, she appears staring blankly way past the customers.

4. Cropping. It is the way in which parts of the whole are isolated or focused. Feet,
hands, lips, nose, and eyes are the usual body parts focused on painting and
photography because they tell so much about the human subject. Focusing a
wrinkled forehead and droopy eyes may suggest weariness. It may also evoke a
crumbling testament of the complexities of life.

5. Serial Images. This is an image that uses repeated subject in collage or in a series,
demonstrating the subject‘s progression through time and space, or in the case of
Andy Warhol‘s “Marilyn Monroe,” daubing the subject with commodification.

The Contextual Plane

Situating the meaning of the image in terms of historical events and social
experiences after going through its semiotic and iconic planes will allow the viewers

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to fully grasp the meaning of the image. It is important that the image is observed
according to context since it situates the image which is the largest plane that the image
dwells into.

The viewer should engage in the artworks of other countries and know the conditions
or events in the local and international art scene. Exposure to such information allows the
viewer to read the image at contextual plane level. A work of art may allude to historical
events, philosophies, mythologies, ideals, and values of other cultures as part of the
systematic creation of its meaning. To illustrate this underlying

HISTORY POLITICS

ECONOMY
CULTURE

General Knowledge outward flow

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system, the observers‘ understanding is illustrated in a concentric circle map, where the
outward flow indicated by the arrow represents expansion of knowledge from a narrow
(localized) to a broader (global) scope.

To get most from the artwork, one must respond to the different levels of observation
and perception. One must see, feel, hear, and sense the work according to form and
experience. All works of art have a threshold of understanding at the level of senses,
emotions, and cognition. In the process, insights are gained particular to the specific
artistic encounter.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Fill in the blanks with the correct terms.

1. ______________ can be associated with human experiences such

as pain and comfort after physically touching surfaces.
2. The rising of the sun can evoke a sense of ______________.
3. The changes in time, season, and temperature may be
associated with ____________________.
4. The ____________________________ by Raphael shows
continuous flow of curves around the frame.
5. _______________________ media demands restriction and compel
the artist to work in a controlled manner.
6. _______________________ shows how the material aspects
of the work produce meaning within the whole.
7. People hand over _________________ as representation and
maximization of recognition.
8. The _______________________ is what the sign conveys.
9. It is important that the image is observed according to
_____________________ since it situates the image which is the
largest plane that the image dwells into.
10. The human mind processes meaning through
_________________ experience.

B. Formative. Do an expressive photography using human hand as a

subject and iconic plane as a guiding theory. With the use of a
smartphone camera capture a human hand subject in a way that it
expresses emotions. Convert your file to JPEG and submit or upload
through your designated Learning Management System or uploading
site specified by the instructor. Finally, write an explanation of your
hand photograph in the textbox below.

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 Explanation

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Watch the movie clip of “Upside”, titled Breakfast Scene

through the URL below. At 3:21 of the clip a mobile sculpture is shown.
Discuss the significance of this mobile sculpture, using semiotic, iconic, and
contextual planes analysis.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZ2OvkZlTZE

Discussion

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Supplementary Learning Resources

View the YouTube video of art historian, Kerr Houston titled,

“Semiotic Theory and Art History”, and learn about the semiotic
principles used in the study of visual culture and art history through
the link below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrm_LokIlcg

Read more about the embodiment of meaning through cognition

of human experience in Semiotics and Visual Representation by
Brian Curtin, accessible at:

h t t p : // w w w. a r c h . c h u l a . a c . t h / j o u r n a l / f i l e s /a r t
i c l e / lJjpgMx2iiSun103202.pdf

References

Barry, J. (1999). Art, culture, and the semiotics of meaning: Culture’s

changing signs of life in poetry, drama, painting, and sculpture.
New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Guillermo, A. (2019, September 9). Reading the Image (web blog).

Retrieved from http://asymptotik.net/artweb/reading_the_
image_3.html

Iconic Plane Features Analysis. (2019, Dec 06). Retrieved from

https://paperap.com/iconic-plane-features-analysis/

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 CHAPTER 11
History of
Western Art

The modern world thinks of art as very important:

something close to the meaning of life.
”
—alain de botton

Overview

This chapter focuses on the history of western art—the way that

each period changed over time. The narratives of the European
tradition are necessary for understanding the development of ideas
from a continuous tradition. The perspective from the Western art
world explains how artists and audiences think about art in the past
and elaborates on the systemic change that art experienced through
sociocultural changes. Western art has been influential to people
around the world, and has highly extensive periods such as
Prehistoric, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Medieval, Romanesqe, Gothic,
Renaissance, Baroque, Neoclassical, Rococo, Romantic, Realism,
Impressionism, Post-impressionism, and Abstract Expressionism. Its
reputation in art courses is wide-ranging because western culture
carried a lot of clout.

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

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1. Identify the major periods in Western Art history.

2. Discuss the contributions of each period to art and
culture.
3. Trace and summarize the development of the arts, art
appreciation and aesthetics in contemporary art
practice.
4. Realize the importance of art periods in the
advancement of society.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Examine the five representative sculptures across 5

different ages or period of art history namely: Egyptian
(300B.C.E.), Greek (1000 B.C.E.), Roman (500 B.C.E.),
Byzantine (1200 C.E.), and Gothic (1300 C.E.), and list down
the things they have in common on the blanks provided. Finally,
answer the guide questions in the textbox.

Colossal bust of Ramses II, the Zeus (or Poseidon), 470-

‘Younger Memnon’, 1270 B.C. 440 B.C. (Photograph by
(Photograph by Jon Bodsworth. In Erik Drost. In Wikimedia
Wikimedia Commons, 2017) Commons, 2010)

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Bust of a Roman Statesman Virgin with child, Byzantine of the

from the Roman Empire, twelfth century, 1200 (Photograph by
470-440 B.C. (Photograph by Diedier Descouens. In Wikimedia
THOR, In Wikimedia Commons, 2016)
Commons, 2008)

Guide Questions:

1. What qualities do the sculptures have in

common:

Gothic Period Chartres

Cathedral South Portal Martyrs,
1300 (Photograph by TTaylor.
In Wikimedia Commons, 2005

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2. What make these sculptures

significant in history?

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Prehistoric Art

The oldest art forms are preserved in cave paintings of Lascaux

Cave which was just discovered seventy-nine years ago. The
discovery of this cave led to the understanding of how humans lived
in the Paleolithic Age and their predisposition to create art. The
paintings (as they are commonly preferred to be called) show
human figures, animals, and abstract forms that have not been
deciphered fully until today. The Paleolithic culture practiced two
types of art forms: engravings and drawings. The latter is used as
the proper category in publications to refer to the rudimentary
illustrations of
the cave walls and ceilings. Furthermore, such category predominated the
Lascaux possibly because it was the extolled form, and the medium was easy to handle. Other
factors may include their spiritual exercise that found better expression in drawing. The cave
paintings would have visualized the type of diet the prehistoric people had through images of
deer, oxen, horses, and bison. Experts have figured that the images of animals represent a
specific period in their ancient calendar corresponding to the mating season of these animals.
Anyone can be transfixed at how these figures are systematic with the use of straight, parallel,
branching, nested convergent, quadrangular, claviform, and v-shaped lines as well as dots.
(Encyclopedia of Stone Age Art, n.d.)

Reproductions at the
Museo del Mamut,
Barcelona (Photograph
by Thomas Quine. In
Wikimedia Commons,
2011)

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The artistic sense of the prehistoric people was comparable to the renaissance in its
own standard. As for the relationship between man and nature, the apposition that the
cave artists had toward nature was sealed in these abstract symbols, veritably showing
codependency and veneration.

Egyptian Art

When Egyptian culture is discussed, the subject of a pharaoh‘s wealth is always

pitched in: How rich was a pharaoh? The pharaoh was a god linked with other gods who
resembled the head of different animals as seen in popular film representations. The fact
that the pharaoh was a god betokens certain rightful and ordained wealth. That was how
Ancient Egypt understood their master. He owned all resources in Egypt and had to be
esteemed with an oblation of gold to show the power in the form of material resource.
After the pharaoh‘s death, it was proper to bury him under the magnificent pyramids,
secured by an architectural labyrinth. It was important to prepare the pharaoh for death,
for it behooved him as a god. So, he will be interred with his fortunes like gold, precious
stones, and art. A slave may be buried with him to continue to serve him in the afterlife.

Among art historians, Egyptian art is considered direct and disciplined as reflected in
their sense of order in life. Symbols like the pyramid show social hierarchy with the

Pyramids of the Giza Necropolis, 500 B.C.

(Photograph by KennyOMG. In Wikimedia
Commons, 2009)

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pharaoh being on the tip of the “triangle.” Hieroglyphics, a mix of large beetles and
vultures, were also plenteous around the pyramids. Their sense of order is also reflected
in the geometric regularity of their paintings, sculpture, and pottery.

Greek Art

The pinnacle of Greek civilization was reached in the creation of cities and a unique
culture that believed that the human being was “the measure of all things.” Intrinsic to this
belief was the Greeks‘ constitution of gods with human characteristics such as frailty,
jealousy, anger, and other personalities and emotions which broke away from the qualities
customary to the previous belief of an infallible and perfect god.

The chosen sculptural representation was the athletic body, for the Greeks believed
that a sound body and mind dictated their way of life. They honed their sense of logic and
extended it to their buildings and temple designs. Thus, the spatial logic was exemplified
in the relationship of the parts to the whole, and the whole to the particular. In other words,
the temples exuded organic unity.

Most important of all was the love of knowledge following the discovery and the
utilization of sciences. Such love of knowledge enabled citizens to participate in the
improvement of their city-states.

The Temple of
Zeus, Cyrene,
600 B.C.
(Photograph by
DecArch. In
Wikimedia
Commons, 1999)

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Roman Art

The Romans were excellent in architecture and engineering, though they are
regarded by historians as inferior artists. They were more practical than the Greeks,
therefore, they practiced a different philosophy far from the idealized vision. Despite that,
the Romans, at the behest of the emperor, had followed the Hellenistic world because of
its more naturalistic tendency compared to the Classical Period. The Roman army was
ordered to seize Greek intellectuals to serve as teachers to their young.

The images of the authorities in Rome were the subjects of sculptures such as the
busts of Julius and Augustus Caesar. Some sculptures were made to celebrate and
memorialize the exploits of Roman generals done in relief or carved around a column.

Ultimately, the Roman invention that put Roman architecture in every architectural
discourse is the arch, a massive semicircular support that allows large openings in

The Roman Colosseum, 70–80 A.D.

(Photograph by Alessandro Ferri. In
Wikimedia Commons, 2008)

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Roman buildings. One building that demonstrated the structural potential the Roman arch
was the Roman Colosseum. The arch became a symbol of Roman conquest; for every
city that Rome conquered, they built “triumph” arches.

Artists during this period were able to consciously their true feelings about the subject
of their art with subtlety, light, and symbology.

Medieval Art

By this time, the balance of power shifted, resulting in the Medieval Period, also
known as the “Dark Ages.” The essence of the term medieval drew from the era being
infixed between two “progressive” ages: The Age of Classicism and the Renaissance. It
was during this time that the Christians shifted interest from the worldly luxuries to spiritual
and eternal life. Thus, art during this period was done in the service of the church through
paintings that serve as aid for worship.

Romanesque Art

Romanesque was the period of the junction between Eastern architectural

components and Roman-like style. The major influence of Romanesque art was the
renunciation of worldly desires practiced in monasticism. Large groups of pilgrims flocked
to churches to worship and see the relics of saints. With the growing number of pilgrims,
the church had to widen and accommodate more chapels and arcaded walks resulting in
largely built structure spread over large areas.

Besides architectural development, the relief sculptures were refocused, depicting

the biblical history and Christian values. The common feature of the sculptural works is
the other- worldly quality, and some are identified with Germanic designs that geared
towards abstraction and geometry.

Gothic Art

This period of art is considered a pinnacle where the greatest accomplishment of the
Medieval Period came about. The economic activity of this time was pleasant. People
were traveling, going to universities amid the growth of cities and trade. Just

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Cathedral in Cologne,
Germany, 1840
(Photograph by Thomas
Wolf. In Wikimedia
Commons, 2013)

like Romanesque, Gothic art or style was more associated with churches. But this time,
the elevation of the churches was significantly high, signifying spiritual upliftment and an
active reification that the kingdom of God is in heaven, so it seeks to gain attention by
literally reaching for the sky. The architects of the Gothic era upraised the squatting
Romanesque churches, allowing for a new atmosphere created by the increasing
elevation of the ceiling. Light dramatically flowed in and soused with exhilarating feeling.

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Structurally, the load was transmitted along a huge flying buttress towards a pier or
thick pillar. As an effect of structural change, the decorative elements such as frescoes
featuring biblical narratives and sculptures needed to cover a larger area, including the
stained-glass windows. Overall, the painted and sculpted forms bore the quality of
increasing realism.

Renaissance

Greek Classicism found its way towards the Renaissance Period which began in Italy.
By this time, medieval values were replaced with a premium on knowledge. At first, the
Renaissance developed as a literary movement. Then it was captured by the visual arts.
The churches during the Renaissance were adorned by church iconography, but this time,
it replaced the Byzantine murals. With a remainder of influence from Greek pagan
imagery, the Renaissance had blended it with Christian motif such as in the work of
Sandro Botticelli.

Sandro Botticelli. The Birth of Venus,

1485, tempera, 67.9 in × 109.6 in.
Tuscany, Galleria degli Uffizi.

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One of the felt changes in this era is the rise to power of wealthy families like the
Medici. They held positions in the government and had become prosperous through wool
trade until they were able to establish the Medici Bank. Apart from their political influence,
the Medici was instrumental in the development of art by commissioning large collections
of artworks.

Michelangelo had been commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the Sistine frescoes,
albeit reluctant. In high Renaissance style, clear outlines with great dynamism—
obsessing on the human body rather than nature as observed in da Vinci‘s theme— are
used. Hence, nudity was the expression of Michelangelo‘s luscious compliment of the
human body which had found aptness in the expressivity of the naked form. The meeting
of Adam and God‘s hand in one of the details of the frescoes is reminiscent of Greek
mythology intermingling with Christian elements.

Baroque Art

It was hard to maintain an art style after the Renaissance Period, for they were always
shifting after gaining full traction. New artists had always had a way to discover,
rediscover, or reinterpret the mode of representation. During the Baroque Period, the

Michelangelo. The Creation of Adam,

1512, fresco, 9 ft 2 in x 18 ft 8 in.
Vatican, Sistine Chapel

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Michelangelo Merisi da
Caravaggio. The Crucifixion of
Saint Peter, 1601, oil on canvas, 91
in x 69 in. Rome, Santa Maria del
Popolo

Catholic Church was an embattled institution, fighting against the rise of Protestantism.
To reassert power, the Church commissioned painters like Michelangelo Merisi da
Caravaggio whose style had helped translate the doctrine of faith vividly. He did not share
the body aesthetics of the Renaissance era, contesting its beautiful female representation
such as Venus or the Virgin. He devolved painting to naturalism and painted in his
mannerist style. He was considered a realist, but his was an inexorably honest
representation, depicting even the grime in fingernails.

Baroque art aimed to exaggerate and impress by emotional trigger just like the visual
impact of Giovanni Bernini‘s sculpture of David which was an intense drama of time that
captures the biblical character gaining inertia to lunge a stone towards Goliath. As a
sculptor, Bernini had followed a precise illustration of the veins and muscles, making the
sculpture seem to ooze with vitality.

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Gian Lorenzo Bernini. David, 1623,

marble, 170 cm . Rome, Galleria
Borghese

Neoclassical Art

After the art of Baroque, the

ecstasy and passion had worn
upon the audience, prompting the
return of the poise and order that
the Greek Classicism was known
for. The Classic Period ensued as
an interlude after over fifty years of
explosive imagery. The observers
would desire order and balance
and naturally seek them out from
objects they observe. At the same
time, observers would also desire
to be unfettered by the lack of
margin for imagination as well as
the dispensing of freedom to
deviate.

The word classic is oftentimes loosely used. The more precise term is neoclassic. The
prefix neo means fresh and recent. In art history, the latter marked the blossoming of the
movement of Neoclassicism. The “Greek Spirit” that existed in Classical antiquity has
always been venerable to audiences, so it was not inconceivable to be reconsidered in
Neoclassicism. The specific qualities exuded by the Greek artists were measurement and
discipline, simplicity, and clearness, formal beauty, calmness, and complete control.

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Furthermore, Classicists implemented regular patterns in representing nature as

opposed to the Romantics who were guided by their convulsive emotions, shaping their
ragged nature, and keeping an individual subjectivity.

Rococo Art

Rococo succeeded the Baroque style—the result of a shift in power and other
sociopolitical events in the lives of the monarch. The death of King Louis XIV had left an
eight- year-old heir to the throne with the responsibility of being king, but until such time
that he was old enough to rule, the Duke of Orleans, a noble, ruled in his stead. The focus
of art in this era was the noble houses, which was a scheme of power display. Here we
would see interiors predominated by playful patterns and intricacy and lightheartedness
of paintings. The interior decoration streamed across private residences in a lovely golden
and undulating motif against a pale background.

J. H. Fragonard. The Swing,

1767, oil on canvas, 81 cm x
64.2 cm. United Kingdom,
Wallace Collection

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A frivolous painting during this time was a reaction to the preceding period‘s rigidity
and staid imagery. Sometimes, the visual themes were whimsical, which also showed on
furniture pieces and sculptural works. A Rococo artist would combine the extravagance of
Baroque with such elements of playful interaction such as between lovers.

Romantic Art

Subjective individualism was the kind of mantra that defined the Romanticism
Movement in 1800 which lasted for about fifty years, beginning in England. Romantics
were full of love and passionate approbation of the restorative power of nature. A real
romantic poet would bear witness to the incomparable beauty of nature in its untamed
condition expressed through romantic verses. A recluse romantic poet would retreat both
from the bustling industry and the scientific rationalism of the era.

A romantic painter J.M.W. Turner had interpreted his subject with visual lyricism,
evident in his use of mist, fog, snowstorm, atmosphere, and the dramatic movement he
made to affect the viewers as if struck by a cosmic force. Romantic artists were oftentimes
melancholic and melodramatic, placing figures in solitary landscape or depicting the
horrors of war under the pretext and sentimentalism of love of country.

J.M.W. Turner.
Rain, Steam and
Speed, 1884, oil
on canvas, 36 in x
48.0 in London,
National Gallery.

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Realism Art

This period and style emanated from the rejection of the powerful support for history
painting. At the same time, realism grew out of the milieu of industrialization, gleaning the
rousing social injustices that were shoved under Classicism and Romanticism. Truth and
accuracy of portrayal were the priorities of the time, and the exposure of the unpleasant
details of life and unidealized subjects were of greater prominence instead of a
representation of idealistic ones. For instance, the depiction of the working and common
classes with the seriousness of their emotions were bigger and more imposed as part of
realism‘s equalization of the social statuses.

The familiarity of the scenes in realism paintings had a high impact on viewers
because of a biting picture based on the direct, compelling observations of the artist. Art
salons had a break from classical myths common in Classicism, and the rubric of social
criticism became the basis for expression. Gustave Courbet, for example, used agrarian
people from native regions to stir the public. It was Courbet‘s “The

Gustave Courbet. The Stonebreakers, 1849, oil on

canvas, 65 in × 94 in. Web Gallery of Art

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Stonebreakers” that fought against the conventions of an authoritarian world and, at the
same time, portrayed the state of peasant worker during Industrial Revolution at the hands
of capitalists who were anti-authoritarian.

Impressionism Art

The impressionism period started at the time of Napoleon III, the president of France
from 1848 to 1852 who gave a chance for artists whose works were rejected by the
Academy of Fine Arts to exhibit and let the public judge the artistic worth of their works. It
was a huge blow for Edouard Manet, a modern painter who was pivotal in the transition
from realism to impressionism, to receive a missive which rejected his work titled “The
Luncheon on the Grass” because of its realistic representation of nude women picnicking
with decently clothed men. It was more of an obvious case of stifling propriety and one
that the public was not prepared to lunge into.

Claude Monet, the leader of the Impressionist movement, introduced plein-air painting
or painting outdoors which advanced light and color effects into a tool of capturing a
fleeting moment scene where light and its ephemeral display are exploited for more
reliable color context, avoiding naturalism which used an immutable color scheme that
was conceived inside the studio.

Impressionism developed a scene where a viewer seems to cut a glimpse rather than
a vivid picture of the subject. This was done through a combination of technique— short
and unrefined brushstroke and the use of vibrant or bright colors among others. In
addition, impressionism had quenched the historical theme, buying more into
contemporary scenes.

Post-Impressionism Art

Post-impressionism was an exaggerated form of impressionism, capitalizing on

emotional experience and symbolism. Instead of the plush of metropolitan scene, post-
impressionism captured rural images. Paul Cezanne constructed a space which was
unexplored, veering away from the receding orthogonal style that artists had mastered
since the Early Renaissance. Cezanne jumbled the perspective in his work “Basket of

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Paul Cezanne. Basket

of Apples, 1983, oil on
canvas, 65 cm x 80 cm.
Chicago, Art Institute of
Chicago

Apples”, by adding an inclined basket. The experience of viewing is richer and closer to
reality where people view an object by moving around it, thereby changing the perspective
of viewing as they move.

As a gateway to further modern ideas in painting, post-impressionism saw a period of

more experimentation with colors as seen through the works of Paul Gauguin, Vincent van
Gogh, and Georges Seurat. The latter had figured a way to mix colors optically by

Georges Seurat. A
Sunday Afternoon on
the Island of La
Grande Jatte, 1886, oil
on canvas, 2.08 m x
3.08 m. Chicago, Art
Institute of Chicago.

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placing individual hues adjacent to each other. As an effect, each hue retained their
vibrancy, as they are not in any way toned down by physical mixture. Ironic and at the
same time neoteric, Seurat used the classical elements of the Greek frieze monuments to
create a modern scene such as in “Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte”
in which he depicted animals, people, trees, and boats like they were in a processional.
The Greek influence was strongly present, but his work did not pursue didacticism—it was
the joy of being able to experiment and not to be rigorously influenced by the standard set
by impressionism.

Abstract Expressionism

After World War II in America, painting found a new light in New York, making it
second to Paris as the center of the Western art world. Wassily Kandinsky is one of the
most prominent artists of abstract expressionism. Kandinsky took form and color as idea
associations. He theorized that inner observation and subjective experiences are
important in creating sensory- rich paintings.

A surrealist predecessor, Jackson Pollock explored the tradition of abstract

expressionism and executed a unique painting approach by dripping paint onto canvas
laid flat on the floor. The results are strong, emotional content either with or without
imagery. Pollock redefined easel painting, freeing the act of painting from the limitations
of conventional approach. He would place a raw canvas on the floor and drip and throw a
jungle of paint with occasional drawing, staining, and brushing. However, he did not plan
his strokes and liberally shifted between one stroke and the other.

Generally, abstract expressionism has been under the influence of Romanticism, but
it is highly notable for its sense of immediacy.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Choose the answer from the box that best relates with the phrases or
descriptions in each item.

Human Being Pyramid Realism Art Renaissance

Georges Seurat Gustave Courbet Prehistoric Art Romantic Artists
Arch Impressionism Rococo Art Abstract
Medieval Art Gothic Art Jackson Pollock Expressionists
Post-impressionists

1. The one who explored abstract expressionism and used

dripping paint onto the canvas.

2. He used optical mixture of colors as a technique.

3. Short and unrefined brushstroke and vibrant or bright

colors.

4. Used agrarian people as a subject to stir the

public.

5. Rejecting history painting and gleaning the

rousing social injustices.

6. Characterized by playful patterns and lighthearted mood.

7. Developed first as a literary movement.

8. This era upraised the Church by increasing

elevation of the ceiling and setting dramatic
lighting in the interior

9. This was the structural unit that allowed large

openings in Roman buildings.

10. They believe in the sound body and mind as a way of

life.

189
 11. The measure of all things.

12. A building with an interior labyrinth, and served as the

burial place of the Pharaoh.

13. Images of dear, oxen, horses and bison on cave walls.

14. This period of art was infixed between two

progressive ages.

15. They placed their subjects in solitary landscape and

depicted the horrors of war.

B. Formative. Discuss your answer to the following questions

substantially. Write your answers on the textbox.

1. Why is Greek Art important?

190
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

2. How did Gustave Courbet paint realism?

191
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

3. What is the significance of painting realism in the age of

photography and photo-editing applications?

192
 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Construct a collage about art history and art movements.

Incorporate notable paintings, sculptures or architectural works associated with
each period. Be guided with the specific details below. Finally, write an
explanation of your collage in the textbox below.

• Create the collage on a separate 11”x14” paper.

• Use pictures from magazines, newspapers, and advertisements.
• Apply the principles of design when arranging elements in your collage.

Explanation

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 Explanation

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Supplementary Learning Resources

Read the introductory chapter of The Shaping of Art History by

Patricia Emison from the citation indicated below and learn about the
author‘s important views and defense of art history from credibility
criticisms.

Emison, P. A. (2008). The shaping of art history: Meditations on a

discipline. University Park (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State
University Press.

References

Gardner, H., Tansey, R. G., & Kleiner, F. S. (1996). Gardner’s art

through the ages, 10th ed. / Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (2019). Art history.

Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.
Retrieved: July 11, 2019 at https://www.britannica.com/art/art-
history

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 CHAPTER 12
An Overview of
Asian Art

Western artists stand as humans looking at nature;

artists try to be in nature. You become one
”
Asian

with nature rather than painting a portrait of it.

That’‟s a big shift.
—brice marden

Overview

Asian art is also called oriental art, and has as many unique
qualities as there are countries across the Asian content. The
ideology and style of Asian art are deeply rooted in language and
culture. Discussing Asian art is important to balance historical,
artistic and theoretical perspectives. In the past few decades, the
economic shifts and globalization changed the perception and
definition of Asian art from ancient and spiritual to the modern and
contemporary. Because of the long years of othering and
underrepresentation of culture, the project of any introduction to
Asian art cannot avoid the reification of Orientalism through which
scholars introduce new approaches of exploring Asian art.

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Discuss the ideology and style of Asian art as

opposed to European art.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

2. Write a comparative analysis between Asian and

Western paintings using online resources.
3. Create a digital picture trail of Asian paintings and
sculptures.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Observe the still life paintings of William Kalf and Mu Qui

and answer the guide questions that follows.

William Kalf, Still-Life, 1660, oil on canvas, 43.7 Mu Qi, Six Persimmons, 1300. Kyoto,
x 33 in. Madrid, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum Daitoku-ji

Guide Questions:

1. What artistic approach (i.e. technique, representation,

etc.) is observable in William Kalf‘s still life work?

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2. How did Mu Qi deal with space and form in Six

Persimmons?

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 CHAPTER 12: AN OVERVIEW OF ASIAN ART

“Spiritualness” and Unity

Asian art may vary per geographical subregion, but all these
regions sanction a common element of exaggeration and the
spiritualness in their art. Asian art is not bound by “art for art‘s
sake” of the nineteenth-century Europe. It did not demarcate
between secular and religious, painting and sculpture, and
realism and abstraction. Probably the most veritable
representation of Asia—or at least, a common view— is its strong
belief in unity of all or the resonance of such unity among and
within nature. What is uniquely Asian in art is this all-pervading
and all- encompassing artistic countenance.

Abundance of Imagery

Asian art is full of uplifting imagery based on season, Buddha images, landscape,
nature, mythical creatures, and the lives of common people. According to art scholars,
there is much significance for unrealistic portrayal otherwise known as stylization.
Technically, the more distant the image created from reality, the mores stylized it is.
Stronger impressions of face and patterned details of its form are striking conditions of
stylized artwork, resembling the sculptural forms of Ancient Greeks that focused on the
idealized physique.

Asian art is more identified with stylized representation rather than realism. Asian
painters produced flat background, simplified shapes, and unrealistic colors to match with
their view of the world. Some auspicious iconographies are well-celebrated until today.
For instance, in Chinese silk painting on scrolls, the anchorage on beautiful cloudy grass
and trees and the almost-instantaneously narrowing and expanding of space are notable.
Scrolls are handheld as a viewer reveals the images by rolling out the scroll, as he or she
is being transported from one place to another and as the landscape shifts its perspective
as if narrating a natural unfolding.

At one point, a Chinese landscape painting may start with scenery viewed from miles

away, then, after the contemplation of distance, it shifts to the contemplation of height.

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Yun Shouping.
Landscape in
Four Seasons,
scroll, 61 in x 16
in. Hongkong,
Fine Chinese
Classical
Paintings and
Calligraphy.

Most Asian paintings consider the impermanence of the universe as its underlying
iconography. This is done through the technique of washing or graded wash, depicting the
diffusion of color until it disappears dramatically at a certain distance, thereby illustrating
the vaporization of everything, from trees to cliffs.

Calligraphy

Text has shaped the arts of Asia. Calligraphy, which is the design and execution of
characters or letters, is also admired for its art of line and linear rhythms showcasing stylistic
epochs like clerical and cursive. Most Chinese calligraphers are versed in poetry, like the
calligrapher Gong Fu of Northern Song Dynasty, which explains their three common judgments
passed upon a work on calligraphy to secure its quality: trueness, excellence, and newness.
Trueness is for genuineness, excellence is for mastery, and newness is for looking new all the
time. Apart from these qualities, calligraphy is such a high art in Asia and, at the same time,
has a proclivity towards rawness, as the contemplative strokes of the master calligraphers
leave the motion of their minds on the surface.

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Landscape Painting

When it comes to two-dimensional art, landscape painting was pronounced in Asia

with Chinese landscape painting as a common reference. Chinese landscape painting
featured towering mountains, rolling hills, and rivers which were done using strong black
lines, ink wash, and sharp interrupted brushstrokes. The shan shui style of painting became
prominent in the Song Dynasty (960–1279). Painters in this period emphasized Chinese
philosophy, illustrating the smallness of man compared to the greater cosmos represented
by vast and infinite background. Noticeably mountains rose into a mist and rivers stream
into a far ground.

Chinese landscapes allowed their painters and audiences to escape the world of
reality into the peaceful world of mountains and scenery during sociopolitical unrest or
failure of social order. It had become the solace and reinstitution of the Chinese into their
virtues.

Perspective

Western paintings depicted perspective in relation to reality—how images reduce

their size and visibility as they fall back into the horizon—using one, two, and three-point
perspectives. In Chinese painting, the depiction of perspective is geared more towards
representing the “essence” of something. Chinese painters would imagine a perspective
coming from a hovering bird. They let the viewer “wander” around the painting.

Miniature Painting

Miniature paintings were small paintings based on literary and religious manuscripts.
India has a rich history on miniature paintings, commissioned during the reign of Emperor
Akbar (1556–1605). These paintings presented human images, but very few of them were
frontal. Most of them were done with side profile. Furthermore, the human forms had big
eyes, pointed nose, and narrow waist. Accessorizing the human characters was common
as seen on the hand, nose, neck, hair, and ankle.

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Anonymous. Parrot addressing Khojasta in

Tutinama (Tales of a parrot), 1570, commissioned
work by Akbar, Washington D.C., Freer Gallery of
Art.

Sculptures and Ceramics

Asian sculptures were made from
terracotta, bronze, and gold. The Indians built
the Shore Temple in Mamallapuram along with
many stone carvings dedicated to Hindu
deities. Sculptures in Indian subcontinent
included abstracted human forms which were
used didactically. Indian sculptors favored
abstraction because they conceived figures as
shapes conveying finality and perfection unlike the human models. The nude forms were
also used to represent spirits and Hindu gods as these were how they were imagined by
the artists.

The earliest production of ceramics can be traced back in 10,000 BC. They are known
today as Jomon vessels after
the name of the Jomon Period that
coincided with the Neolithic Period in
Europe. The name means “cord-
marked” or “patterned.” The creation of
this pottery had a significant impact on
the Japanese lifestyle. They were able
to boil, store, and preserve food, which
helped stabilize their diet.

Jomon Fire-flame Vessel (Photography by

Daderot. In Wikimedia Commons, 2013).

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Most ceramic vessels in the Jomon tradition were rounded or flat-bottomed. At the
end of the period, two types of ceramics were categorized: the plain rough wares (with
less decoration) and fine wares (with more varied decoration).

Enigmatic Region

Religious association of art in the Asia region made the art therein a profound expression
of beliefs that were different from the Western‘s. The Buddhist art sand mandala, a circular
emblem of the universe, and the Bhutanese thangka, a painting on silk or cloth, are two of the
powerful religious art objects that are used in meditation and trance.

The art of Mandala uses spiritual designs like the celestial circles of the sun, moon, and
earth and the conceptual circles of family, friends, and community. For an individual to practice
Buddhist rituals, he or she enters the circle aided by the visually complex forms.

The thangkas follow the same concept in which painters induce meditation through
pictorial representation in
the form of iconography.
The practice of painting
thangkas is in itself a
meditative exercise as the
artist interpret the
imagination elicited by the
different palettes and
shapes in the composition.

Another work of art

with a strong link to

Manjuvajramandala with 43
deities, from Tibet, 1500,
Tempera on cotton, 28 in ×
33 in. Italy, The Museo d’Arte
Orientale.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram (Photograph by

Thamizhpparithi Maari. In Wikimedia Commons, 2013).

divinity is the Shore Temple in Tamil Nadu, India. It is a majestic temple foregrounding the
Bay of Bengali. It was built in honor of Pallava king Nrasimhavarman II Rajasimha. This
temple has a tapered appearance, topped by a finial, a hip-knob decorative element at
the apex of structure. It is said that the temple was inspired by the rock formation and the
sea.

In sum, Asian art shows enduring culture grounded on indigenous religions and the
dogma of animism. It is diverse, rich, and concerned with both inner truth and worldliness.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Write T if the statement is true and F if it is false in the blank.

1. Mandala uses circles as spiritual design.

2. Jomon ceramic vessels are flat-sided.
3. Fine ware ceramics have less decoration.
4. Western paintings depicted perspective in relation to
spirituality.
5. Miniature paintings of India in the 16th (1556-1605) century
had frontal human forms.
6. Asian art is known for its realism.
7. Chinese calligrapher had used contemplative strokes.
8. Stylization refers to unrealistic portrayal.
9. Graded wash in Asian painting underscores the
impermanence of the universe.
10. Painters in Song Dynasty emphasized Chinese Philosophy.

B. Summative. Write a comparative essay about the characteristics and traditions

of Asian and Western paintings. Use the sample paintings from notable artists
discussed in this chapter. Write in the textbox below.

Comparative Essay on Asian and Western Paintings

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 Comparative Essay on Asian and Western Paintings

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

B. Summative. In a group of 4 or 5 members, create a digital picture trail of Asian

Art such as paintings, sculptures, and architectural structures using a slideshow
presentation. Upload your presentation on your designated learning management
system or online folder assigned by your instructor. Finally, write about the 3
most important things you learned, and 3 things that you would like to explore
further about Asian Art by writing in the textbox below.

3 Most Important Things We Learned

3 Things We Are Interested to Explore Further

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 CHAPTER 12: AN OVERVIEW OF ASIAN ART

Supplementary Learning Resources

Watch the Youtube video of artscpace titled “Orientalism and Art

History – Edward Said‘s Theory” through the link below and learn
about the socio-political of Oriental imaginary.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFH82nHKuas

Watch the Youtuve video of Art Documentaries, titled, “The

Cultural Show: The Art of Chinese Painting”, and learn more about
The ancient art of Chinese painting through the link below.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AMwo_qPoZH8

Read the opening chapter of Edges of Empire as cited below

and learn more of the legacy of Orientalist art and its visual culture.
Use the re

Hackforth-Jones, J., & Roberts, M. (2008). Edges of Empire:

Orientalism and Visual Culture. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.

References

Cartwright, M. (2017, May 17). Jomon Pottery. Ancient History

Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/Jomon_
Pottery/

Gardner, H., Tansey, R. G., & Kleiner, F. S. (1996). Gardner’s art

through the ages. 5th ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019, July 09). Indian Sculpture.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/Indian-sculpture

Wood, P. (2014). Western art and the wider world. Chichester:

Wiley-Blackwell.

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 CHAPTER 13
Theater:
The Essential Art
Form of Democracy
The theatre is a place where one has time for the
problems of people to whom one would show the
”
door if they came to one’s office for a job.
—tennessee williams

Overview

Theater is an essential art form in a democratic society. At some

point, it has been used to further the prospect of power of those who
governed and impressed upon the governed their possession and
control not only of the state affairs but of people‘s lives, including their
way of thinking. In the Greek Era, the festival of Dionysus gathered the
citizens of Greece to watch and listen to dancing and storytelling,
respectively. Storytelling was engaging as an oral tradition; however,
it was done unitarily. One figure in the history of Greek theater named
Thespis had revolutionized storytelling by being the first to speak in a
line of “dialogue.”

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students should:

1. Discuss the brief history of theater.

2. Explain the origin of theater and how it flourished in a
democratic society.

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3. Produce workshops in mirror, believability, and

improvisation.

Bridging Learning Opportunities

Analyze the personification of love, time, and death in the

movie Collateral Beauty using the trailer link below. Describe
how inanimate things can possibly be embodied as human
beings interacting in the real world.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=isQ5Ycie73U

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A Brief History of Theater

Theater is a cultural legacy that had arisen two millennia ago.

Its impact is universal, but the uniqueness and justification of its
exquisiteness depends on the region where it is performed.

The Western and Oriental theaters reflect the collective

attitude of people, including their ruthlessness and how they
vindicate themselves out through seeing new opportunity for
independence and economic power.

Greek Theater

The Cult of Dionysus, which probably originated in Asia Minor,

practiced ritual celebrations which may have included alcoholic intoxication,
orgies, human and animal sacrifices, and, perhaps, even hysterical rampages by
women called maenads. It is believed that the cult‘s most controversial practice involved
uninhibited dancing and emotional displays that created an altered mental state. This
altered state was known as ecstasis from which the word ecstasy is derived. The words
Dionysiac, hysteria, and catharsis also derive from Greek words for emotional release or
purification. Thus, a person who witnessed theatrical performances can be carried away
with their emotions based on the presentations seen.

At the early Greek festivals, the actors, directors, and dramatists were all the same
person; only three actors could perform in each play—most were men. The Greek drama
lasted from sunrise to sunset that even the prisoners would go out from their prison cell
just to witness any theatrical performance.

Medieval Theater (C. 950–1500)

The Medieval theater began in churches when Latin playwrights wrote under the
instruction of the priests who found plays feasible in teaching the Christian doctrine, and
encouraging moral behavior. Their presentations were first held inside the churches and
the priests served as the actors. As time evolved, performances became more concerned
with entertainment and spectacle, so they moved out of the churches into the

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marketplaces. At this time, lay performers replaced priests, and scripts grew longer and
more complex, mixing the serious with boisterous and farcical themes. Streets, churches,
guild halls, private manor houses, open fields, marketplaces, and innyards were the
potential sites during the medieval theater.

Elizabethan Theater (16th Century)

The Elizabethan theater started in the sixteenth century when permanent structures
were built in Europe, housing a new theatrical entertainment in which, in its religious and
ceremonial qualities, focused more on commercial appeal performed by actors— mostly
male—of different acting companies. The stage, scenery, and stage properties were just
very simple, and what they emphasize more was on the costumes that actors wore in
every performance. The actors are also considered as of primary importance. William
Shakespeare is one of the prominent playwrights in this period whose plays were
performed in Elizabethan theaters in England. This period marks the golden age of poetry
and literature during the reign of Queen Elizabeth of England dubbed as the “The Virgin
Queen of England”; the theater was also named after her. The plays, the playwrights, the
political scene, and the propaganda all play an important part in the history of the
Elizabethan theater. The idea of paying to watch theatrical presentations came from the
Elizabethan theater and was commercial in nature.

Japanese Theater

The famous traditional types of Japanese Drama include the Noh, Kyogen, Kabuki,
and Bunraku. Each type has its unique and distinct forms.

Noh. It is also known as Nogaku, which is derived from the Sino-Japanese word for
“skill” or “talent.” It is considered a major form of classical Japanese musical drama that
has been performed since the fourteenth century. Men are the only ones who participate
in the performance as they wear masks conveying different emotions with men playing
male and female roles. This kind of theater play lasted for a day and is meant for high
classes. Actors will do everything just to earn the respect of the samurai and other high
classes who watch the performance. Five plays are usually performed on a day. Also, the
actors in the Noh play are more somber.

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 CHAPTER 13: THEATER: THE ESSENTIAL ART FORM OF DEMOCRACY

A Noh mask that portrays somber Kabuki actor wearing heavy make up
emotion (Photograph by Semimaru. In (Photograph by Ermell. In Wikimedia
Theatre Nohgaku Blog, 2012). Commons, 2009).

Kabuki. It is a Japanese theater play for the masses. It is a theater performance that
combines dance, drama, and music, and is known all over the world. Also, it is known for
its stylization of its performance and actors who are taking part of this play often wear
heavy make ups. Actors in the Kabuki play shout a lot and is very lively compared to that
of the Noh‘s who are more formal and somber. One convention of watching a Kabuki play
is that audience shout at certain times especially when drama is at the highest. Thus, the
Kabuki theater was created in opposition to the Noh theater. The first Kabuki performance
was seen in 1603.

Bunraku. It is a form of Japanese theater that uses puppets and even chants and
music.

The puppets are controlled by the puppeteers during the performance who dressed
in black.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Puppeteers in a Bunraku
Theater play (Photograph
by Kenji Mizoguchi. In
Wikimedia Commons,
2009).

Nonetheless, Japanese theater is a traditional form of entertainment that can be

enjoyed not only by Japanese people but also for everyone who has the love and passion
for Japanese theater forms.

Philippine Theater

The origin of Philippine theater and performing arts were traced from indigenous
rituals and folk customs which have been purposive in nature. The rituals, dances, and
customs which are performed by different cultural communities on several occasions such
as person‘s birth, baptism, circumcisions, initial menstruation, death, and even tribal
activities like hunting, fishing, and harvesting are reflections of mysticism and self-
surrender of indigenous people in the country. One feature of rituals performed on account
of a deity is the trance of a native priest or priestess (babaylan) as he or she is calling
upon the spirit to be possessed.

Other major influences of the Philippine theater include Spanish and American
influences. Among the plays which are influenced by the Spaniards are: the komedya or
moro-moro, a theater play created by Spanish priests that dramatizes actual events about
the lives of the Christians and Moorish Royalties; zarswela, a Spanish-derived musical
theater with the incorporation of alternating combination of song and speech

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in dramatic action, pasyon that dramatizes the death and passion of Christ, and sinakulo
that dramatizes the history of salvation. The Americans introduced a musical variety show
known as the bodabil or vaudeville in 1920.

This influence is seen in Philippine bodabil wherein western plays are written in
English or Filipino adaptations and are written by contemporary playwrights.

Theater Perspectives

When a person talks to another person in a dialogue, he is sharing perspectives with

the other. Likened to the drama in a theater, the actor is sharing his perspective to another
actor in the act of throwing dialogues, making one not just the sole possessor of ideas.
Such act had a greater origin in the Greek democratic society. The idea of the “dialogue”
in theater of Greece is very much aligned with the democratic ideal of involving the citizens
in the matters of state. Thus, the actors on stage are promoting participation and tipping
emotions over to the audience.

Furthermore, the dialogues of actors make the audience participate in the points of
view of the actors who throw lines at each other. The audiences, in turn, are able to
empathize in between these points of view and align themselves with the reality of the
plot.

Community Factor

People go to the theater to be part of a community. That is the unspoken intention of

the theater-goers. The community spirit and social coherence of people are reflected in
the theater venue, where they share the delight of being part of an audience.

Democratic Society

The annual theater festival in Greece was the seed of democracy. Theater and
democracy flourished side by side. As people shared common culture and experiences,
they created communities. These communities were able to gather in 534 BCE when the
annual theater festival was invented. This had changed the Athenian consciousness.
Cleisthenes, an ancient lawmaker, reformed the constitution which led to the institution

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

of legislature in which members were chosen through “lottery” instead of membership to

a clan.

The Athenians‘ attendance to theater was the necessary measure by which the
eligibility to vote was determined. As it appeared to the Athenians, the theater made them
heartened and ready to confront different experiences from those who were different from
them in the way they sound and think. This was the effective way for Athenians to
understand the world around them.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Fill in the blanks with the best word or ideas being referred to by
the phrases in each item. Choose your answer from the box.

Bunraku Community Factor William Medieval Theater

Kabuki Vaudeville Shakespeare Greek Theater
Pasyon The Cult of Dionysus Noh

1. Dramatizes the death and passion of Christ.

2. A Japanese traditional theater play intended for the

masses.

3. A type of Japanese theater that uses puppets, chants

and music.

4. One of the prominent playwrights of the

Elizabethan Theater.

5. Had begun in churches created by Latin

playwrights and performed by priests.

6. May have included alcoholic intoxication, orgies,

human and animal sacrifices.

7. In this theater, only three actors could perform in each

play—most are men.

8. A Japanese play that lasts for a day and is usually meant

for the higher class.

9. People go to theater to be part of a community.

10. The Americans introduced this musical variety.

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B. Formative. Answer the questions concisely. Write your answers on the
textbox.

1. How did theater flourish in the community?

2. What makes theater democratic?

3. Describe some sociocultural and economic dynamics reflected in the

performance of theater.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Formative. Perform Mirror Exercise. Choose a partner and assign who will act
as a mirror and a person. Those who act as person will perform different
actions in front of the mirror. The mirror‘s task is to imitate the actions of the
person. Finally, write 3 most important things you learned from this exercise,
and 3 things you are interested to explore further about mirror exercise.

3 Most Important Things We Learned

3 Things We Are Interested to Explore Further

223
D. Formative. Perform Believability Round Exercise. Act out the following
statements and let the audience believe in your character. Then, write 3 most
important things you learned from this exercise, and 3 things you are interested
to explore further about believability round exercise.

1. Nabuta ko. Tabangi ko ninyo! (Help me. I can‘t see!)

2. Nawagtang akong cellphone. Pahulama ko ninyo og cellphone kay aduna
koy tawagan. (I have to call someone and I lost my phone. Can I borrow
yours?)

3 Most Important Things We Learned

3 Things We Are Interested to Explore Further

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

E. Summative. Perform Improvisations. In groups of 4 members, develop a 5-

minute mini one-act play on one of the situations below. Then, write
3 most important things you learned from this exercise, and 3 things you are
interested to explore further about believability round exercise.

1. Jeepney setting composed of people from different social status

2. Mother, son, daughter, and a drunkard father
3. The Cebuanos‘ strong faith to the Holy Child Jesus, Snr. Santo Nino
4. Scenes in the public market (Divisoria, Carbon, Tabo-an, etc.)
5. Tigbakay (Cockfighting) portrayal

3 Most Important Things We Learned

3 Things We Are Interested to Explore Further

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Supplementary Learning Resources

Go to a public place where people are interacting. Observe how

individuals in that place behave with respect to the place, the people
they mingle with, the time of the day, and other details. Analyze how
the conditions you have observed can be transformed into a scene.
Use the table below to help you in noting your ideas.

Details Description

Scene

Time of the day

Characters

Character‘s behavior

References

Avillanoza, Adela T., Bascara, Luinda R.(2006). Humanities and

Digital Arts. 1st. Edition.Rex Bookstore:Manila.

Barranger, S. Milly, (2005). Theatre: A Way of Seeing 6th Edition

Cabasaan Jr., William J. (2015). Humanities, Philosophy, and

History of Art.Jimczyville Publications: Malabon City.

Clores, Ricardo A., Lubang, Jeffrey A., Salvador, Mary Ann J., Sanfilip,
Virginia T., and Santos Jr., Jovito R. (2012). Humanities, Art
Appreciation. Mutya Publishing House:Malabon City.

227
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Gillette, J. M. (2007). Theatrical design and production: An

introduction to scenic design and construction, lighting,
sound, costume, and makeup. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.

228
 CHAPTER 14
Art and
Environmental Crisis

Those who contemplate the beauty of the earth find

reserves of strength that will endure as long as life
”
lasts. There is something infinitely healing in the
repeated refrains of nature — the assurance that dawn
comes after night, and spring after winter.
—rachel carson

Overview

In this chapter, the veritable representational power of art

is explored through the response of artists on environmental
crisis. Art is an important tool to tackle complex issues and
developing collective empathy. This crisis has been used in
images and performances as rubrics for making climate change
more comprehensible and graspable for people.

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Determine the extent of environmental crisis as

represented by artists.
2. Discuss the different messages evoked in artworks
that tackle environmental crisis.
3. Conceptualize art projects that present the impact of
climate change and how society can act on it.

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Bridging Learning Opportunities

Access the theatrical release poster of “An Inconvenient

Truth,” an Oscar-winning documentary about the environment
through this link below, and complete the table that follows by
identifying the images, the meanings they convey, and how
these images convey such meaning.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/19/An_
Inconvenient_Truth_Film_Poster.jpg

How the meaning

Images Meaning
is made

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 CHAPTER 14: ART AND ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

Environmental Crisis

The environmental crisis that people now face is multifaceted

and composed of: (1) accelerating global warming; (2) air and
water pollution; (3) the depletion of natural resources such as
fish, wood, and oil; (4) the loss of natural ecosystems and
biodiversity; and (5) the loss of the ecosystem services they
provide, coupled with (6) a decline in human wellbeing,
especially in urban areas. The roots of the environmental crisis
lie in the Industrial Revolution (1750) and the Scientific
Revolution that preceded it.

The more engines the English made, the more coal they could
mine. The more coal they mined, the more iron they could produce and the
more engines they could fuel. Thus, the Industrial Revolution, a revolution based less on
invention and technology than on the seemingly endless amounts of fossil fuel energy
trapped in England‘s vast underground coal deposits, was born.

By the 1800s, much of urban England was completely transformed. Hundreds of

factories appeared in its cities, each filled with iron machines, each moving with the power
of hundreds of humans or even as many horses, all using the energy provided by coal.
Thus, the English now had the means to beat India as the world center for textile
production and do it miraculously with a fraction of India’s workforce. Yet these gains were
not without their associated costs, and while the gains went mostly to the few wealthy, the
costs were felt mainly by the poor masses, for every new factory belched out toxic fumes
fouling the air, coal soot staining London‘s buildings black, and acid rain defacing its
limestone carvings. Worse still, its workers (often women and children) labored long hours
under dangerous conditions and lived in overcrowded and unsanitary tenements.
Untreated waste also spewed directly into London‘s now stinking streams, canals, and
rivers. In turn, the masses drank polluted water and suffered from epidemics of cholera
and other infectious diseases.

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

Frederick Barnard. Charles

Dickens at the Blacking Factory,
1904, London: The Leisure Hour.

Charles Dickens

These new and

horrendous urban conditions
endured by an exploited and
powerless poor are poignantly
recorded in the literature of
Charles Dickens (1812–
1870), such as that depicting
the orphan workhouse and
street children in Oliver Twist
(1837–39), and those suffering
in debtors’ prison in A
Christmas Carol (1843).

An English caricaturist
and painter, Frederick Barnard (1846–1896) illustrated both Dickens‘s novels and a
history of Dickens himself. He created over four hundred illustrations and was known as
“the Charles Dickens among black and white artists.” A good example is Barnard‘s sparse
but emotional etching of a scene from Dickens‘s own childhood (see Figure 1), which
depicts the author‘s own experience at the age of ten in a shoe-blacking factory after his
entire family was sent to the Marshalsea debtor‘s prison to pay off his father‘s mounting
debts. This scene depicts young Charles weary from a ten-hour workday pasting labels
on cans. Later, Dickens related these childhood experiences to his bibliographer John
Forster.

-The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way, at old Hungerford
Stairs. It was a crazy, tumble-down old house, abutting of course on the river, and literally overrun
with rats. Its wainscoted rooms, and its rotten floors and staircase,

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and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars, and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling
coming up the stairs at all times, and the dirt and decay of the place, rise up visibly before me, as if
I were there again. The counting- house was on the first floor, looking over the coal-barges and the
river. There was a recess in it, in which I was to sit and work.- (Forster, 2006:23-24)

These experiences faithfully recreated by Barnard produced a lasting impression on

Dickens, fostered his sympathy toward the urban poor under the bleak conditions brought
about by the Industrial Revolution, and made him push for reform.

Not only did the scientific and industrial revolutions (along with the fossil fuel energy
they unleashed) transform people‘s physical environment (often for the worse, especially
for those urban poor who are least able to cope with the changes), and its consequences
had a huge impact on people‘s mental state as well. These dual revolutions reinforced
the philosophical majority tradition of prior Greek, Roman, Jewish, and Christian thinkers
that humans had been put in a position of dominance over the rest of a subordinate nature
referred as anthropocentrism (Ponting, 1991). However, the true impact of these physical
changes (that is now called development) on more ordinary humans brings these
assumptions of dominance over nature (and the new technology, the justified) into
question.

J.M.W. Turner

One artist who first noticed these more abstract changes, explored their significance,
and documented his finding (this time through his paintings) was Joseph Mallord William
Turner (1775–1851). Turner is often referred to now as a genius in the use of light and
color and a forerunner of impressionism and modern art (Sooke, 2014). But the gift of
Turner was less in his technique than his ability to clearly express the impact of the
Industrial Revolution and the newly emerging urban industrial environment on the human
psyche. Turner was never married, had few personal friends, and was hard hit by the
death of his father (who also acted as his studio assistant) in 1829, and thereafter suffered
bouts of depression. Perhaps, like Dickens, these personal sufferings helped Turner to
see what others could not.

Turner noticed that, increasingly, most humans in these new industrial societies were
no longer central to their own existence, but now many were caught in the throes

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 ART APPRECIATION: AESTHETICS AND ART SENSE IN THE SOCIETY

J.M.W. Turner. The Wreck of a Transport Ship, 1810, oil

on canvas, 241 x 173 cm. England, National Gallery

of larger processes that they themselves, through their labor, had set in motion. So, in his
art, Turner withdrew or moved back the artist‘s vantage point, thereby reducing the size
of the depicted humans themselves and, at the same time, widening the scope of his
paintings to now include more of the surrounding environment. Thus, the broader scale of
the landscape within which humans now interacted became more significant.

Turner was extremely prolific, producing more than 550 oil painting and two thousand
watercolors. His painting covered many subjects, but he continually came back to the sea.
One of his earlier works is The Wreck of a Transport Ship (1810). This painting turns the
dominant intellectual view that nature is subordinate to humans on its head. Seen here
are ordinary sailors completely at the mercy of wind and wave, and their technology (the
ship) has lost its masts and is in danger of sinking. Humans are depicted as small and
helpless in the face of a raging ocean beyond their control.

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Turner‘s work came to typify the European Romanticist artists and poets of the late
eighteenth to early nineteenth century who reacted against the Enlightenment (Age of
Reason) of Bacon and Newton and the rationalization of nature, as expressed by Newton
that the world acts like a machine. The Romanticist artist believed that nature was
inherently good, unlike many aspects of human society that were subject to corruption.
Turner gave these new ideas a concrete expression by using the analogy of a sea disaster
to help depict the hard-to-visualize human struggle against ever-present corruption and
the unanticipated ill effects of technology and industrialism.

The Scientific and Industrial Revolutions also introduced a powerful new element to how most

humans see themselves in relation to the world around them: the idea of progress. This element is

still with us today; the idea “that history might be a chronicle of progress” and a “story of a series of

irreversible changes in only one direction - continual improvement (Ponting, 1991).”

In one of Tuner’s most famous paintings, The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last berth
to be broken up (1839), he clearly reveals some flaws to the new progress model. Here
humans are shown (in Figure 4) so small that they are invisible individually. The sun sets
on the ancient era of sail, yet the pure white light of the moon hovers near the older ship,
telling us which is the more authentic ship. Art historian Louise Gardner gives a vivid
description (1975):

“A dying glory fades” in the ruddy light of the setting sun. The proud and gallant aristocrat of the
seas has fallen prey to a busy, practical, indifferent age. The passing of what is good, beautiful, and
brave touches us and makes us reflect on the transitory condition of our lives. Turner’s painting
recalls Wordsworth: “The clouds that gather round the setting sun / Do take a sober coloring from
an eye / That hath kept watch o’er man’s mortality” (p. 174).

Turner and this painting still clearly resonate with the English since it won a recent (in
2005) BBC public poll as Britain’s “greatest painting.”

Why were artists the first to recognize the ill effects of the scientific and industrial
revolutions? In modern times, one may expect scientists to have the keenest eye for
observation. Yet, save for notable exceptions such as Jean Jacque Rousseau (1712–1778,
the father of democratic reform of government), and Thomas Malthus (1766–1834, the father
of quantitative economics and the first to see the limits to human numbers) who clearly
employed the Scientific Method in their thinking, most of those credited for

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J.M.W. Turner. The Fighting Temeraire, tugged to her last Berth to

be broken up, 1838, oil on canvas, 90.7 cm x 121.6 cm (35.7 in x 47.9
in), National Gallery, London.

starting the environmental movement were artists. Cultural historian Theodore Roszak
gives a vivid explanation (Roszak, 1972):
“But our culture, while dominated by science-based industrialism, has been in revolutionary ferment
since the industrial economy first began to devour the landscape. The origin of the ferment lies in
the tempestuous artistic outburst we call the Romantic movement. From it, we inherit a stubborn
counter cultural resistance to the pre-eminence of science, to its technological elaborations and its
manifold imitators in the humanities, arts, and so-called behavioral sciences. Significant that this
rebellious opposition consciousness should have emerged most vividly in the arts-”... “Perhaps
because the burden of alienation weighs most heavily on the creative powers; because the beauties
of science are not the beauties of art but their antithesis. Who recognizes a cage for what it is? Not
canaries of careful Reason who value well-fortified shelter, but skylarks whose song needs the space
and sunlight beyond the bars” (pp. 138-139).

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William Blake

A final artist who still explored deeper into the ills of these dual revolutions was William
Blake (1757–1827). Blake was an English printmaker and poet whose rich and diverse body
of work is still much admired. But the political significance of his “mental fight” against the
psychology of science and the culture of industrialism has been less appreciated—least of all
in his own lifetime” (Roszak, 1972), and is extremely relevant in our own.

Most of Blake‘s works show biblical characters and themes as well as those drawn from
myth and contemporary life. Examination of two from his series of twelve large prints done in
1795 help reveal some of his profound conclusions. Blake‘s Ancient of Days refers to God in
the prophetic visions of Daniel, Chapter 7. Blake was very comfortable painting prophetic
scenes, because he himself experienced multiple visions—his earliest at the age of four and
others at seventeen when he was sketching in Westminster
Abbey, “a fool sees not the
same tree that a wise man
sees” and “all men might see
them but for worldliness or
unbelief, which blinds the
spiritual eye” (Ackroyd, 1995).

In this work, God is seen

clothed in the light of the sun
and His hair white with
wisdom, as He lays out the

William Blake. Ancient of Days,

1794, Relief etching with hand
coloring, 30.8 x 24.8 cm. United
Kingdom, British Museum
collection

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William Blake. Newton, 1795, monotyping,

18.1 in x 23.6 in. United Kingdom, Tate
Britain Collection

foundations of the Earth in the black void of space. Thus, God brings light to darkness in
Blake’s work, perhaps referencing Proverbs 8:27: “I was there when he set the heavens
in place, when he marked out the horizon on the face of the deep.” God’s power is
authentic, shown by the large compass springing out of His very being, radiating from His
hand. God’s concern encompasses everything, which is called as the “Big Picture.”

Contrast this with Blake’s depiction of Newton (see photo next page) who is seen sitting
on a rock, his feet still in contact with the dust he sprang from. He sits in the dark, often
thought to be a cave, but perhaps under the sea since his rock seems festooned with all
manner of coverings reminiscent of a coral reef, which Newton‘s blinkered gaze
completely ignores. He studies his own simple drawing made on what appears to be

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his own clothing, thereby leaving him naked. He holds a simple compass (perhaps
representing the Scientific Method) and sees only the simplest of truths.

The Scientific Revolution brought with it a methodological reductionism, whereby the

explanation for all phenomenology was sought by examining ever smaller entities. In other
words, the whole is explained by understanding its parts. This thinking has indeed
captured much of the attention of science, as studies of DNA, subatomic particles, and a
“theory of everything” will attest. Yet artists realized long before the scientists that control
flows in both directions: the fine scale affects the broad, but the broad scale also affects
the fine. Science now admits, for example, that one‘s genes do not control human
behavior, just as chemistry does not control one‘s destiny. But that takes an artist‘s
imagination, something most scientists discount. Roszak again describes Blake‘s keen
insight and profound contribution.
~ He saw in the steady advance of science and its machines a terrifying aggression against precious
human potentialities-and especially against the visionary imagination. The “mind-forg’d manacles”
he assailed were not simply the fetters of social oppression. They were that. But they were far more.
Blake’s attack struck through the “dark Satanic mills”-at Newton, at Locke, at Bacon. The cause
was that of Jesus the Imagination Blake’s effort was to redesign the mindscape of an alienated
culture, to return his society to spiritual realities that had vanished from its consciousness (p. 205).

People would be wise to learn from the works and experiences of Blake and the
other artists, if the survival of the environment is on the agenda.

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

A. Formative. Circle the letter corresponding to the right answer.

1. The Scientific Revolution brought with it a methodological

________.
a. Reductionism
b. Phenomenology
c. Imagination
2. This artist fought industrialism through his printmaking.
a. J.M.W Turner
b. William Blake
c. Charles Dickens
3. J.M.W. Turner attached the idea of ________ through his paintings
of the fading ship, emphasizing the transitory.
a. Moral relations between man and nature
b. The idea of progress
c. The idea of shipbuilding
4. This artist used the exploitation of the poor and powerless children
as a theme for his literary work.
a. J.M.W. Turner
b. William Blake
c. Charles Dickens
5. It constitutes global warming, air and water pollution and
depletion of natural resources.
a. Existential crisis
b. Global economic meltdown
c. Environmental crisis
6. He illustrated Dickens‘ childhood in a shoe-blacking factory.
a. Frederick Barnard
b. William Blake
c. Thomas Malthus
7. What dominant view did Turner turn around in his painting?
a. Inferiority of nature to man
b. Superiority of nature to man
c. Predominance of Industry
8. ________ refers to God in the prophetic visions of Daniel.
a. The Wreck of a Transport Ship
b. The Shipwreck of the Minotaur
c. Ancient of Days

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 9. Romanticist artists believed that nature is ________.
a. Inherently good
b. Inherently evil
c. Like a machine
10. Subordination of nature to man is called _________.
a. Anthropocentrism
b. Impressionism
c. Rationalization

B. Formative. Answer the following questions concisely. Write your answers

on the textbox.

1. What elements of culture have led to environmental crisis?

2. How was the impact of the Industrial Revolution reflected

in Fredrick Barnard‘s work?

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 Exercises

Name Class Schedule Score

Course & Year Date of Submission

C. Summative. Analyze the painting titled Flood in Java. Cite and discuss the
scientific facts represented and the universal impact of the environmental
crisis that is dramatized. Write your answer on the textbox.

Saleh Raden, Flood in Java, 1876, 32 cm x 44 cm.

Leiden, Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian
and Caribbean Studies

Analysis of Raden‘s Flood in Java

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 Analysis of Raden‘s Flood in Java

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Supplementary Learning Resources

Listen to the BBC audio recording of Radio 4‘s “Costing the

Earth: Art and the Environment” at https://www.bbc.co.uk/
sounds/play/m00017b8 and find out the role that art plays in
environmental discourse.

References

Ackroyd, P. (1995). Blake. Great Britain: Sinclair-Stevenson.

Forster, J. (2006). The life of Charles Dickens. Whitefish, Mont.:

Kessinger Publishing.

Gardner, H., De, . C. H., & Tansey, R. G. (1975). Gardner’s art

through the ages. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

Ponting, C. (1993). A green history of the world: The environment and

the collapse of great civilizations. New York, NY: Penguin Books.

Roszak, Theodore, 1972, Where The Wasteland Ends Politics and

Transcendence in Postindustrial Society, Doubleday &
Company Inc., New York.

Sooke, A., Dunn, T., BBC Worldwide Ltd., Films for the Humanities
& Sciences (Firm), & Films Media Group. (2012). Pomp and
perversion. New York, N.Y: Films Media Group

Stavrianos, L. S. (1975). The World Since 1500 A Global History (3rd

Edition), Prentice- Hall, New Jersey.

Allingham, P. (2018, Jan). Bill Sikes and Bull’s-eye.

Victorianweb.org. Retrieved from
http://victorianweb.org/art/illustration/barnard/17. html

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APPENDIX

Video Proposal: Social Art

Project Ideas
Environmental Crisis

This project exposes learners to the involvement of the artistic discipline in mitigating
and solving social problems. The idea is to propose an artistic intervention or solution to
address an identified issue by describing a clear intention, description of the project,
direction of the project and the outcome of the project.

The project is a collaborative work, where learners can interact and build on each
other‘s ideas as a community of socially responsible individuals, and as future forerunners
of civic activities pertaining to social and economic sustainability. This project can be a
capstone of learning art appreciation from GE-Art course.

Sections of the Video

Introduction
A video proposal is a video version of a written proposal where an individual or
individuals are discussing details of their proposal to a prospective panel.

The group introduces the problem and states the situationer or the information about
the identified problem. They should demonstrate understanding of the issue and situate
the project on building possible solutions. Under this section are statements related to the
following:

1. The current issue

2. The current research on the issue
3. The current statistics (if there are) about the issue
4. The affected community
5. The importance of addressing the issue

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Existing Solutions
The group describes an overview of existing solutions to the problem based on
initiatives by the community or the common practices or cultural norms governing the
issue.

This part also details the inadequacies of the current solution and describes the
possible area where art can help.

Proposed Project
The group names and describes the artistic intervention (e.g. space-making program
to combat urban decline, mural work, theme park, creative corners, mobile museum, etc.)
in terms of the process and concrete output. It includes description of how the project
would look like when finished. The group explains the following:

1. The output (What is it? What is its physical description?)

2. The place (Where will it be placed or located?)
3. The process (How will it work? Is it for viewing? Is it interactive?)
4. The challenge and how they are addressed (What implementation challenges
are expected? What are the solutions?)

Concluding Statement
This section includes final pitch or statements that would convince the public of the
significance of this project, or anything that would give an impact to your video proposal.

Mechanics and Technicalities

This project is a video project which requires recording and editing. Delegation of
tasks is important.

The duration of the video should range from 5 to 10 minutes. The format of submission
file should be MP4.

A final credit should be provided where the names of the group members are featured,
including each ones specific tasks.

Criteria

1. Creativity (25%)
The project uses creative and unique ideas that do not merely follow precedents
but improve on what have already been done.

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2. Innovativeness (15%)
The project introduces tools, methods and concepts that use alternative
mechanisms to be efficient, eco-friendly and impactful, while maintaining good
quality of the project at the same time.

3. Responsiveness (40%)
The project clearly addresses specific issues concerning the selected problem by
producing a concrete output and a clear description of its impact on lives and the
community in general.

4. Technicality (clarity and writing mechanics) (10%)

The project is pitched in comprehensible, coherent and persuasive language.

5. Completeness (10%)
The video project is produced in full with no missing details.

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