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Working Principle of Control Valve with Diagram

The working principle of control valve is opening or closing

internal passages in order to regulate the flow of a liquid or gas.
Control valves are part of a control loop that controls a process.
Control valves adjust internal openings in response to instructions
from the controller.
The control valve is the last control component that is used the
most frequently in process control sectors. To counteract the load
disturbance and maintain the regulated process variable as close
to the intended set point as feasible, the control valve modifies a
flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds.
There are multiple Control Valves for Sale on Linquip, and control
valves are offered by a range of Suppliers & Businesses,
manufacturers, and Distributors.
There is a complete list of valve services on the Linquip platform
that covers all OEM fleets. Please call Control Valve Experts in
Linquip to learn more about how to connect with a diverse group
of Service Providers who consistently deliver high-quality
products.
Basics of Control Valves
The control valve is used for controlling fluid flow by changing the
size of the flow passage according to the controller and enabling
direct control over the flow rate. This results in controlling process
quantities such as liquid level, temperature, and pressure. In
automatic control terminology, it is called the final control
element. Based on controller input, control valves are able to
control fluid flow rates.
Find out More about Valves Device & Equipment in Linquip
Control valves can be used to regulate pressure and/or flow rate
automatically, no matter which pressure is used. In some cases
(as determined by design), different plant systems may operate
at pressure and temperature combinations that require Class 300
valves, so all control valves are usually Class 300 for
interchangeability. As long as the system does not exceed the
rating for the Class 150 valves, this is not necessary.
Control valves are normally globe valves whose ends are flanged
to facilitate maintenance. Depending on the type of supply, the
disk can be moved by hydraulic, pneumatic, mechanical, or
electrical actuators. A valve modulates flow by moving a valve
plug in relation to the valve body’s port(s). Valve plugs are
attached to valve stems, which, in turn, are attached to actuators.
What Is the Application of Control Valve?
A control valve is one that, as the name suggests, is used to
control something. Controlling flow, temperature, pressure, or
liquid level is a typical application for control valves. A control
signal, which might be hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic, opens
and closes the control valve.
Operation of Control Valves
The process control industry includes control valves as the final
control element. Control valves manipulate fluids, such as water,
gas, steam, or chemical compounds, to compensate for load
disturbances, keeping the regulated process variable as close to
the desired set point as possible.
Typically, automatic control valves are opened or closed by
electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic actuators. When a modulating
valve can be set anywhere between fully closed and fully open,
valve positioners are normally used to ensure that the valve
achieves the desired degree of opening.
The simplicity of air-actuated valves makes them popular, as they
are only powered by compressed air, as opposed to electrically-
operated valves, which require additional cabling and switch gear,
and hydraulically-actuated valves, which require high-pressure
fluid supply and return lines.
Control signals for pneumatic systems are typically based on a
pressure range of 3 to 15 psi (0.2 to 1.0 bar) or, typically, on a 4-
20mA electrical signal for industry or a 0-10V signal for HVAC
systems. Today, electrical control often includes a smart
communication signal that can be superimposed over the 4-20mA
control signal, allowing the controller to monitor and signal valve
health and position back to the controller.

Schematic overview
of the structure of pneumatic control valve (Reference:
researchgate.net)
One of the most important but also most neglected parts of a
control loop is the control valve. Most of the problem comes from
instrument engineers’ limited knowledge of facets, terminologies,
and areas of engineering disciplines such as metallurgy, fluid
mechanics, noise control, and plumbing, as well as vessel design,
which may be involved depending on the severity of the service
requirements.
Control loops usually consist of a process condition sensor, a
transmitter, and a controller that compares the received “process
variable” to the “set point,” i.e. desired process condition. The
controller, in turn, transmits a corrective signal to the “final
control element,” the last component of the loop and also the
“muscle” of the process control system.
A control loop is considered to be made of three parts, the eyes,
which are sensors of the process variables; the brain, which is the
controller; and the hands, which are the final control element.
Consequently, it is the most vital, but sometimes least
understood, component of an automatic control system. In part,
this occurs since we are so enamored with electronic components
that we neglect to fully understand and utilize all-important
hardware elements.
What Are the Characteristics of Control Valve?
Although certain other intrinsic valve features, including
parabolic, modified linear, or hyperbolic, are occasionally
employed, quick opening, linear, and equal proportion valves are
the most often manufactured. Each application’s installation will
have a special feature that links fluid flow to heat demand.
Arrangement of Control Valves
The following image illustrates how the flow rate in a line can be
controlled using a control valve. A “controller” receives pressure
signals and compares them with the desired flow. If the actual
flow varies from the desired flow, the control valve adjusts to
overcome the difference. It is possible to control any one of a
number of process variables in a similar manner. The most
commonly controlled variables are temperature, pressure, level,
and flow rate.
Control valves arrangement (Reference: steamline.com)
Control Valve Problems
It is possible that control valves fail to regulate the parameter
they are controlling properly. Quality issues arise when the
process is not controlled.
There is a possibility of oversizing control valves. When fine
adjustments are needed, an overly large control valve is
insensitive and wastes money. The control valve is usually one or
two lines smaller than the pipe.
Control valves can experience excessive lag (react too late) if the
sensor is installed too far away.
There may be a low air supply at the actuator or air leaks away,
which results in less force being available to move the stem.
It is possible for the stem of a control valve to become sticky if
the packing is too tight or if there is a leak in the product.
Control Action
Using an air-operated valve as an example, there are two control
actions available:
“Air or current to open”: As the control signal value increases, the
flow restriction lowers.
“Air or current to close”: The flow restriction rises as the control
signal value increases.
Failure to safety modes can also occur:
Failure of an air or control signal to close “- If the compressed air
supply to the actuator fails, the valve closes under spring
pressure or with backup power.
Failure of an air or control signal to open “- If the compressed air
to the actuator fails, the valve opens by spring pressure or by
backup power.
The types of failure operation are required by the plant’s failure to
safety process control specification. In the case of the cooling
water, it may fail open, whereas it may fail closed in the event of
chemical delivery.
Control Valve Tuning
Tuning the controller determines how the valve reacts to a
changing process parameter. Tuning determines the valve
response speed and intensity when it detects a need for a
correction. The controller contains internal logic which produces a
predetermined amount of movement in response to an input.
Tuning the controller determines how the valve reacts to a
changing process parameter. Tuning determines the valve
response speed and intensity when it detects a need for a
correction. The controller contains internal logic which produces a
predetermined amount of movement in response to an input. The
logic considers some items:
The magnitude of the discrepancy between the controlled
parameter’s value and its setpoint (Proportional);
Duration of the discrepancy (Integral);
The speed of changes in the discrepancy (Derivative).
After that, it determines how fast and how far the stem should
move.
Once the trim position has been altered, the controller waits for
the next measurement from the sensing element to determine
the remaining difference to the set point. Valve stems are moved,
and the flow is altered until there is no difference between the
setpoint and the actual value of the controlled parameter.
Tuning a control valve can be compared to adjusting the taps
under a shower to get the water temperature right. If hot water is
turned on first, the control valve will become the cold water tap.
Temperature is sensed by your body. The cold water tap is
opened if the water gets too hot. The effects of increasing the
cold water flow take a while to feel (the time lag). Temperature is
adjusted up or down until the desired temperature is achieved
from the combined flows. After the valves are at the right
temperature, the temperature remains steady.
If something changes, such as someone doing their laundry with
cold water, the cold water flow to the shower drops, and the
water temperature rises. A change in temperature is again
sensed, and adjustments are made. In response, taps are opened
further for cold water or closed for hot water. Temperature
measurement and a valve position adjustment are carried out
until the parameter under control (temperature) stabilizes. The
same applies to control valves.
Parts of Control Valves
In general, a control valve consists of three parts, each of which
exists in several types and designs:
Parts of a control valve (Reference: cncontrolvalve.com)
Valve Actuator
Valves have actuators that move the modulating elements, such
as balls or butterflies.
Valve Positioner
This device ensures that the valve has been opened to the
desired degree. Friction and wear problems are thus eliminated.
Positioners have the function of delivering pressurized air to the
valve actuator to set the valve’s stem or shaft corresponding to a
set point in the control system. A positioner is typically used when
throttling is required.
Positioners are designed to take position feedback from the stem
or shaft of a valve and deliver the pneumatic pressure to an
actuator to open and close the valve. This positioner must be
attached to or close to the control valve assembly.
Positioners are categorized according to types of control signals,
diagnostic capabilities, and communication protocols, including
pneumatic, electric, electro-pneumatic, and digital.
Pneumatic Valve Positioner
A pneumatic device sends and receives pneumatic signals. It is
intrinsically safe and can close valves with a lot of force.

Pneumatic Valve Positioner

Using a single-acting valve actuator with range springs, a single-

action (or a three-way) pneumatic positioner sends air to and
exhausts air from only one side of the valve. However, double-
acting or four-way pneumatic positioners can move air on both
sides of the actuator.
Electric Valve Positioner
Electrical signals are sent and received by electric valve
positioners. Electric motors can be either single-phase or three-
phase run on alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC).
Electro-pneumatic Valve Positioner
Current control signals are converted into pneumatic equivalents
by electro-pneumatic valve positioners.
Digital Valve Positioner
Digital or smart devices control and record data and position the
valve actuator with the help of a microprocessor. This type of
positioner is highly accurate, uses less air than analog positioners,
and allows for online digital diagnostics.

Digital Valve Positioner

(Reference coulton.com)
A digital valve controller performs two additional functions in
addition to controlling the valve’s position: diagnostics and two-
way digital communication. As a result, smart positioners provide
the following advantages when used on control valves:
Calibration and configuration of the positioner automatically.
A real-time diagnostics system.
Reduced installation and calibration costs for loop commissioning.
Maintaining loop performance with diagnostics.
Reduced process variability through improved process control
accuracy.
Valve Body
A valve body contains the modulating element, such as a plug,
globe, ball, or butterfly. There are two basic types of valves; plug
and seat valves, where the plug is closed against the seat, or
quarter-turn valves that have a disc, ball, or cone turning against
the seat.
It is the valve trim that is responsible for regulating the flow of
water. There is a fixed-in-place seat along with a moveable plug,
disc, ball, or cone. Various passage shapes can be created using
the trim, which manages the flow in a deliberate manner.
There are three main types of control valve trim:
Snap Trim (also known as Quick-Opening Trim)
Snap Valve Trims open quickly and are used for on/off operation.
Among the common applications are liquid dumps, pressure
reliefs, and metering. Zirconia seats are also available for erosive
applications.
Nominal Trim (also known as Linear Trim)
Typically, nominal valve trim is used to throttle liquids, control
liquid level, and prevent water hammering.
Equal Percentage Trim
The equal percentage valve trim is used in throttling applications
to control the flow or the pressure of gas and vapor.

Metering Pumps Information

Metering pumps are positive displacement pumps

designed to dispense precise amounts of fluids and measured
flow control. They feature a high level of repetitive accuracy and
are capable of pumping a wide range of chemicals including
acids, bases, corrosives, or viscous liquids and slurries.
Operation
Metering pumps are positive displacement pumps, meaning they
use expanding and contracting cavities to move fluids. This
method of operation provides the steady flow and consistent
volume characteristics of metering pumps, and also makes it
more apt to handling viscous liquids and slurries which generate
more resistance. For more information on positive displacement
pumps, visit the Positive Displacement Pump Specification Guide
on Engineering360.
Animation of metering pump operation.
Metering pumps transfer media in two stages: the intake stroke
and the output stroke. During the intake stroke, liquid is pulled
into the pump cavity past the inlet check valve. During the output
stroke, the inlet valve closes, the outlet valve opens, and the fluid
is forced out. The flow may be varied by changing the stroke
length or by adjusting the cycle frequency.

Metering pumps are usually driven by a

constant speed AC motor, although different drive mechanisms
may be used depending upon the application at hand. Some of
these include fixed speed, variable speed, electric drive, solenoid
drive, and magnetic drive. The drive mechanism translates the
rotary motion of the driver into reciprocating movement.
Industrial duty metering pumps will submerge this portion of the
pump in an oil bath to assure sufficient lubrication and reliability
during continuous operation.
Pump Types
There are a number of different pump types that can be
configured for metering applications. The different types are listed
below. To learn more about selecting these types of pumps, click
on the corresponding links.
Bellows pumps use a compressible container with an outlet nozzle
(called a bellows device) to move fluid through a piping system.
They have the ability to pump both liquids and gases and do not
require seals.
Diaphragm pumps use the reciprocating action of a flexible
membrane (diaphragm) to move fluid in and out of the pumping
chamber. These pumps require no seals.
Peristaltic pumps (also called hose pumps) use a roller device to
move fluid through a tube or hose. Because the fluid is contained
in the tube, it does not come in contact with the pump or outside
environment.
Piston pumps move fluid using one or more reciprocating pistons
inside a cylinder (chamber), normally driven through the use of a
crankshaft and connecting rod. These pumps require a seal to
prevent leaks and should not handle abrasive media.
Syringe pumps deliver small amounts of fluid through a syringe
using a pusher block connected to a plunger. Flow is managed
through a screw attached to the pusher block, typically operated
by a corresponding controller.
This chart provides a summary of the properties of these different
types of metering pumps:
R
Mini Maxi Self
Puls Visc Partic u
Pum mu mu Max -
eles ous ulate n Advanta
p m m pres Pri
s flui matt d ges
type flow flow sure min
flow ds er r
rate rate g
y
mL/ L/
- psi - - - - - -
min min
 Pumps
Bello 2.47 Goo N
6 50 Poor Fair Yes liquids or
ws 5 d o
gases
Goo
Poo
Diap d to Y
19.5 r to High
hrag 10 250 Poor Exc No e
58 Goo accuracy
m elle s
d
nt
Noncont
aminatin
Goo g; wide
Exc Y
Peris d at Goo variety
170 9.4 125 elle Yes e
taltic high d of pump
nt s
rpm material
s
available
Highest
Pisto 0.01 404. 500 Goo N pressure
Poor Fair No
n 6 6 0 d o and
accuracy
Y Very low
Syrin 1x1 0.14 Exce Poo
40 N/A No e flow
ge 0-6 7 llent r
s rates

Specifications
The primary specifications to consider when selecting metering
pumps are flowrate, pump head, pressure, horsepower, power
rating, outlet diameter, and operating temperature. These
specifications are described in detail in the Pump Flow page on
Engineering360.
Flow Adjustment
Pump flow rate is adjustable by varying stroke length, effective
stroke length or stroking speed. Some metering pumps are
supplied with a micrometer screw adjustment. An electronic or
pneumatic actuator may be used to replace the micrometer if the
pump flow rate needs to be altered in response to a process
signal. Changing the number of pump heads in use by the device
is another way to increase pump flow rate. Metering pumps with
two heads can double the flow capacity of a single pump device.
Pumps are also available with three or more heads to maximize
flow rate.
Applications
Metering pumps are generally used in applications with one or
more of the following conditions: low flow rates required; high
accuracy feed required; high system pressure; corrosive,
hazardous, or high temperature media; slurry or high viscosity
media; and controlled dosing (by computer, microprocessor, PLC,
or DCS).

Technical Principles of Valves

Solenoid valves are used wherever fluid flow has to be controlled
automatically. They are being used to an increasing degree in the
most varied types of plants and equipment. The variety of
different designs which are available enables a valve to be
selected to specifically suit the application in question.
GENERAL
Solenoid valves are used wherever fluid flow has to be controlled
automatically. They are being used to an increasing degree in the
most varied types of plants and equipment. The variety of
different designs which are available enables a valve to be
selected to specifically suit the application in question.
CONSTRUCTION
Solenoid valves are control units which, when electrically
energized or de-energized, either shut off or allow fluid flow. The
actuator takes the form of an electromagnet. When energized, a
magnetic field builds up which pulls a plunger or pivoted
armature against the action of a spring. When de-energized, the
plunger or pivoted armature is returned to its original position by
the spring action.

VALVE OPERATION
According to the mode of actuation, a distinction is made between
direct-acting valves, internally piloted valves, and externally
piloted valves. A further distinguishing feature is the number of
port connections or the number of flow paths ("ways").

DIRECT-ACTING VALVES
With a direct-acting solenoid valve, the seat seal is attached to
the solenoid core. In the de-energized condition, a seat orifice is
closed, which opens when the valve is energized

DIRECT-ACTING 2- WAY VALVES

Two-way valves are shut-off valves with one inlet port and one
outlet port (Fig. 1). In the de-energized condition, the core spring,
assisted by the fluid pressure, holds the valve seal on the valve
seat to shut off the flow. When energized, the core and seal are
pulled into the solenoid coil and the valve opens. The electro-
magnetic force is greater than the combined spring force and the
static and dynamic pressure forces of the medium.

figure 1
DIRECT-ACTING 3-WAY VALVES
Three-way valves have three port connections and two valve
seats. One valve seal always remains open and the other closed
in the de-energized mode. When the coil is energized, the mode
reverses. The 3-way valve shown in Fig. 2 is designed with a
plunger type core. Various valve operations can be obtained
according to how the fluid medium is connected to the working
ports in Fig. 2. The fluid pressure builds up under the valve seat.
With the coil de-energized, a conical spring holds the lower core
seal tightly against the valve seat and shuts off the fluid flow. Port
A is exhausted through R. When the coil is energized the core is
pulled in, the valve seat at Port R is sealed off by the spring-
loaded upper core seal. The fluid medium now flows from P to A.

figure 2
Unlike the versions with plunger-type cores, pivoted-armature
valves have all port connections in the valve body. An isolating
diaphragm ensures that the fluid medium does not come into
contact with the coil chamber. Pivoted-armature valves can be
used to obtain any 3-way valve operation. The basic design
principle is shown in Fig. 3. Pivoted-armature valves are provided
with manual override as a standard feature.

figure 3
INTERNALLY PILOTED SOLENOID VALVES
With direct-acting valves, the static pressure forces increase with
increasing orifice diameter which means that the magnetic forces,
required to overcome the pressure forces, become
correspondingly larger. Internally piloted solenoid valves are
therefore employed for switching higher pressures in conjunction
with larger orifice sizes; in this case, the differential fluid pressure
performs the main work in opening and closing the valve.

INTERNALLY PILOTED 2-WAY VALVES

Internally piloted solenoid valves are fitted with either a 2- or 3-
way pilot solenoid valve. A diaphragm or a piston provides the
seal for the main valve seat. The operation of such a valve is
indicated in Fig. 4. When the pilot valve is closed, the fluid
pressure builds up on both sides of the diaphragm via a bleed
orifice. As long as there is a pressure differential between the
inlet and outlet ports, a shut-off force is available by virtue of the
larger effective area on the top of the diaphragm. When the pilot
valve is opened, the pressure is relieved from the upper side of
the diaphragm. The greater effective net pressure force from
below now raises the diaphragm and opens the valve. In general,
internally piloted valves require a minimum pressure differential
to ensure satisfactory opening and closing. Omega also offers
internally piloted valves, designed with a coupled core and
diaphragm that operate at zero pressure differential (Fig. 5).

figure 4
INTERNALLY PILOTED MULTI-WAY SOLENOID VALVES
Internally piloted 4-way solenoid valves are used mainly in
hydraulic and pneumatic applications to actuate double-acting
cylinders. These valves have four port connections: a pressure
inlet P, two cylinder port connections A and B, and one exhaust
port connection R. An internally piloted 4/2-way poppet valve is
shown in Fig. 6. When de-energized, the pilot valve opens at the
connection from the pressure inlet to the pilot channel. Both
poppets in the main valve are now pressurized and switch over.
Now port connection P is connected to A, and B can exhaust via a
second restrictor through R.

figure 5
EXTERNALLY PILOTED VALVES
With these types an independent pilot medium is used to actuate
the valve. Fig. 7 shows a piston-operated angle-seat valve with
closure spring. In the unpressurized condition, the valve seat is
closed. A 3-way solenoid valve, which can be mounted on the
actuator, controls the independent pilot medium. When the
solenoid valve is energized, the piston is raised against the action
of the spring and the valve opens. A normally-open valve version
can be obtained if the spring is placed on the opposite side of the
actuator piston. In these cases, the independent pilot medium is
connected to the top of the actuator. Double-acting versions
controlled by 4/2-way valves do not contain any spring.
figure 6
MATERIALS
All materials used in the construction of the valves are carefully
selected according to the varying types of applications. Body
material, seal material, and solenoid material are chosen to
optimize functional reliability, fluid compatibility, service life and
cost.

BODY MATERIALS
Neutral fluid valve bodies are made of brass and bronze. For fluids
with high temperatures, e.g., steam, corrosion-resistant steel is
available. In addition, polyamide material s used for economic
reasons in various plastic valves.

SOLENOID MATERIALS
All parts of the solenoid actuator which come into contact with the
fluid are made of austenitic corrosion-resistant steel. In this way,
resistance is guaranteed against corrosive attack by neutral or
mildly aggressive media.

SEAL MATERIALS
The particular mechanical, thermal and chemical conditions in an
application factors in the selection of the seal material. the
standard material for neutral fluids at temperatures up to 194°F is
normally FKM. For higher temperatures EPDM and PTFE are
employed. The PTFE material is universally resistant to practically
all fluids of technical interest.

PRESSURE RATINGS - PRESSURE RANGE

All pressure figures quoted in this section represent gauge
pressures. Pressure ratings are quoted in PSI. The valves function
reliably within the given pressure ranges. Our figures apply for
the range 15% undervoltage to 10% overvoltage. If 3/2-way
valves are used in a different operation, the permitted pressure
range changes. Further details are contained in our data sheets.

In the case of vacuum operation, care has to be taken to ensure

that the vacuum is on the outlet side (A or B) while the higher
pressure, i.e. atmospheric pressure, is connected to the inlet port
P.

FLOW RATE VALUES

The flow rate through a valve is determined by the nature of the
design and by the type of flow. The size of valve required for a
particular application is generally established by the Cv rating.
This figure is evolved for standardized units and conditions, i.e.
flowrate in GPM and using water at a temperature of between
40°F and 86°F at a pressure drop of 1 PSI. Cv ratings for each
valve are quoted. A standardized system of flowrate values is also
used for pneumatics. In this case the air flow in SCFM upstream
and a pressure drop of 15 PSI at a temperature of 68°F.

SOLENOID ACTUATOR
A common feature of all Omega solenoid valves is the epoxy-
encapsulated solenoid system. With this system, the whole
magnetic circuit-coil, connections, yoke and core guide tube - are
incorporated in one compact unit. This results in a high magnetic
force being contained within the minimum of space, insuring first
class electrical insulation and protection against vibration, as well
as external corrosive effects.

COILS
The Omega coils are available in all the commonly used AC and
DC voltages. The low power consumption, in particular with the
smaller solenoid systems, means that control via solid state
circuitry is possible.

figure 7
The magnetic force available increases as the air gap between
the core and plug nut decreases, regardless of whether AC or DC
is involved. An AC solenoid system has a larger magnetic force
available at a greater stroke than a comparable DC solenoid
system. The characteristic stroke vs. force graphs, indicated in
Fig. 8, illustrate this relationship.

The current consumption of an AC solenoid is determined by the

inductance. With increasing stroke the inductive resistance
decreases and causes an increase in current consumption. This
means that at the instant of de-energization, the current reaches
its maximum value. The opposite situation applies to a DC
solenoid where the current consumption is a function only of the
resistance of the windings. A time-based comparison of the
energization characteristics for AC and DC solenoids is shown in
Fig. 9. At the moment of being energized, i.e. when the air gap is
at its maximum, solenoid valves draw much higher currents than
when the core is completely retracted, i.e., the air gap is closed.
This results in a high output and increased pressure range. In DC
systems, after switching on the current, flow increases relatively
slowly until a constant holding current is reached. These valves
are therefore, only able to control lower pressures than AC valves
at the same orifice sizes. Higher pressures can only be obtained
by reducing the orifice size and, thus, the flow capability.
THERMAL EFFECTS
A certain amount of heat is always generated when a solenoid coil
is energized. The standard version of the solenoid valves has
relatively low temperature rises. They are designed to reach a
maximum temperature rise of 144°F under conditions of
continuous operation (100%) and at 10% overvoltage. In addition,
a maximum ambient temperature of 130°F is generally
permissible. The maximum permissible fluid temperatures are
dependent on the particular seal and body materials specified.
These figures can be obtained from the technical data.

TIME DEFINITIONS (VDE0580) RESPONSE TIMES

The small volumes and relatively high magnetic forces involved
with solenoid valves enable rapid response times to be obtained.
Valves with various response times are available for special
applications. The response time is defined as the time between
application of the switching signal and completion of mechanical
opening or closing.

ON PERIOD
The on period is defined as the time between switching the
solenoid current on and off.

CYCLE PERIOD
The total time of the energized and de-energized periods is the
cycle period. Preferred cycle period: 2, 5, 10 or 30 minutes.

RELATIVE DUTY CYCLE

The relative duty cycle (%) is the percentage ratio of the
energized period to the total cycle period. Continuous operation
(100% duty cycle) is defined as continuous operation until steady-
state temperature is reached.

VALVE OPERATION
The coding for the valve operation always consists of a capital
letter. The summary at left details the codes of the various valve
operations and indicates the appropriate standard circuit symbols

VISCOSITY
The technical data is valid for viscosities up to the figure quoted.
Higher viscosities are permissible, but in these cases the voltage
tolerance range is reduced and the response times are extended.

TEMPERATURE RANGE
Temperature limits for the fluid medium are always detailed.
Various factors, e.g. ambient conditions, cycling, speed, voltage
tolerance, installation details, etc., can, however, influence the
temperature performance. The values quoted herein should,
therefore, be used only as a general guide. In cases where
operation at extremes of the temperature range are involved, you
should seek advice from Omega's Engineering Department.

Servo Motor
What is a Servo Motor?
A servo motor is a type of motor that can rotate with great
precision. Normally this type of motor consists of a control circuit
that provides feedback on the current position of the motor shaft,
this feedback allows the servo motors to rotate with great
precision. If you want to rotate an object at some specific angles
or distance, then you use a servo motor. It is just made up of a
simple motor which runs through a servo mechanism. If motor is
powered by a DC power supply then it is called DC servo motor,
and if it is AC-powered motor then it is called AC servo motor. For
this tutorial, we will be discussing only about the DC servo motor
working. Apart from these major classifications, there are many
other types of servo motors based on the type of gear
arrangement and operating characteristics. A servo motor usually
comes with a gear arrangement that allows us to get a very high
torque servo motor in small and lightweight packages. Due to
these features, they are being used in many applications like toy
car, RC helicopters and planes, Robotics, etc.
Servo motors are rated in kg/cm (kilogram per centimeter) most
hobby servo motors are rated at 3kg/cm or 6kg/cm or 12kg/cm.
This kg/cm tells you how much weight your servo motor can lift at
a particular distance. For example: A 6kg/cm Servo motor should
be able to lift 6kg if the load is suspended 1cm away from the
motors shaft, the greater the distance the lesser the weight
carrying capacity. The position of a servo motor is decided by
electrical pulse and its circuitry is placed beside the motor.
Servo Motor Working Mechanism
It consists of three parts:
Controlled device
Output sensor
Feedback system
It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback
system to control motion and the final position of the shaft. Here
the device is controlled by a feedback signal generated by
comparing output signal and reference input signal.
Here reference input signal is compared to the reference output
signal and the third signal is produced by the feedback system.
And this third signal acts as an input signal to the control the
device. This signal is present as long as the feedback signal is
generated or there is a difference between the reference input
signal and reference output signal. So the main task of
servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system at the
desired value at presence of noises.
Servo Motor Working Principle
A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear
assembly, and a controlling circuit. First of all, we use gear
assembly to reduce RPM and to increase torque of the motor. Say
at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the
potentiometer knob is such that there is no electrical signal
generated at the output port of the potentiometer. Now an
electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error
detector amplifier. Now the difference between these two signals,
one comes from the potentiometer and another comes from other
sources, will be processed in a feedback mechanism and output
will be provided in terms of error signal. This error signal acts as
the input for motor and motor starts rotating. Now motor shaft is
connected with the potentiometer and as the motor rotates so the
potentiometer and it will generate a signal. So as the
potentiometer’s angular position changes, its output feedback
signal changes. After sometime the position of potentiometer
reaches at a position that the output of potentiometer is same as
external signal provided. At this condition, there will be no output
signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no
difference between external applied signal and the signal
generated at potentiometer, and in this situation motor stops
rotating.
Interfacing Servo Motors with Microcontrollers:
Interfacing hobby Servo motors like s90 servo motor with MCU is
very easy. Servos have three wires coming out of them. Out of
which two will be used for Supply (positive and negative) and one
will be used for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU. An
MG995 Metal Gear Servo Motor which is most commonly used for
RC cars humanoid bots etc. The picture of MG995 is shown below:
The color coding of your servo motor might differ hence check for
your respective datasheet.
All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we
have to be careful on the amount of current the motor would
consume if you are planning to use more than two servo motors a
proper servo shield should be designed.
Controlling Servo Motor:
All motors have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two
will be used for Supply (positive and negative) and one will be
used for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU.
Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with Modulation) which is
provided by the control wires. There is a minimum pulse, a
maximum pulse and a repetition rate. Servo motor can turn 90
degree from either direction form its neutral position. The servo
motor expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the
length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. For
example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90°
position, such as if pulse is shorter than 1.5ms shaft moves to 0°
and if it is longer than 1.5ms than it will turn the servo to 180°.
Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle,
means its angle of rotation is controlled by the duration of applied
pulse to its Control PIN. Basically servo motor is made up of DC
motor which is controlled by a variable resistor (potentiometer)
and some gears. High speed force of DC motor is converted into
torque by Gears. We know that WORK= FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC
motor Force is less and distance (speed) is high and in Servo,
force is High and distance is less. The potentiometer is connected
to the output shaft of the Servo, to calculate the angle and stop
the DC motor on the required angle.

Servo motor can be rotated from 0 to 180 degrees, but it can go

up to 210 degrees, depending on the manufacturing. This degree
of rotation can be controlled by applying the Electrical Pulse of
proper width, to its Control pin. Servo checks the pulse in every
20 milliseconds. The pulse of 1 ms (1 millisecond) width can
rotate the servo to 0 degrees, 1.5ms can rotate to 90 degrees
(neutral position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to 180 degree.
All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we
have to be careful about the amount of current the motor would
consume if you are planning to use more than two servo motors a
proper servo shield should be designed.
To learn more about servo motor working principle and practical
uses, please check below applications where controlling of servo
motor is explained with the examples:
Stepper Motors Basics: Types, Uses, and Working
In this article, we will cover the basics of stepper motors. You will
learn about the working principles, construction, control methods,
uses, and types of stepper motors, as well as its advantages and
disadvantages. Stepper Motor Basics A stepper motor is an
electric motor whose main feature is that its shaft rotates by
performing steps, that is, by moving by a fixed amount of
degrees. This feature is obtained thanks to the internal structure
of the motor, and allows to know the exact angular position of the
shaft by simply counting how may steps have been performed,
with no need for a sensor. This feature also makes it fit for a wide
range of applications. Stepper Motor Working Principles As all with
electric motors, stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator)
and a moving part (the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on
which coils are wired, while the rotor is either a permanent
magnet or a variable reluctance iron core. We will dive deeper
into the different rotor structures later. Figure 1 shows a drawing
representing the section of the motor is shown, where the rotor is
a variable-reluctance iron core.

Figure 1: Cross-Section of a Stepper Motor

The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following:
By energizing one or more of the stator phases, a magnetic field
is generated by the current flowing in the coil and the rotor aligns
with this field. By supplying different phases in sequence, the
rotor can be rotated by a specific amount to reach the desired
final position. Figure 2 shows a representation of the working
principle. At the beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is
aligned with the magnetic field it produces. When coil B is
energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align with the
new magnetic field. The same happens when coil C is energized.
In the pictures, the colors of the stator teeth indicate the direction
of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.

Figure 2: Stepper Motor Steps

Stepper Motor Types and Construction The performance of a

stepper motor — both in terms of resolution (or step size), speed,
and torque — is influenced by construction details, which at the
same time may also affect how the motor can be controlled. As a
matter of fact, not all stepper motors have the same internal
structure (or construction), as there are different rotor and stator
configurations.
Rotor
For a stepper motor, there are basically three types of rotors:
Permanent magnet rotor: The rotor is a permanent magnet that
aligns with the magnetic field generated by the stator circuit. This
solution guarantees a good torque and also a detent torque. This
means the motor will resist, even if not very strongly, to a change
of position regardless of whether a coil is energized. The
drawbacks of this solution is that it has a lower speed and a lower
resolution compared to the other types. Figure 3 shows a
representation of a section of a permanent magnet stepper
motor.

Figure 3: Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

Variable reluctance rotor: The rotor is made of an iron core, and
has a specific shape that allows it to align with the magnetic field
(see Figure 1 and Figure 2). With this solution it is easier to reach
a higher speed and resolution, but the torque it develops is often
lower and it has no detent torque.
Hybrid rotor: This kind of rotor has a specific construction, and is
a hybrid between permanent magnet and variable reluctance
versions. The rotor has two caps with alternating teeth, and is
magnetized axially. This configuration allows the motor to have
the advantages of both the permanent magnet and variable
reluctance versions, specifically high resolution, speed, and
torque. This higher performance requires a more complex
construction, and therefore a higher cost. Figure 3 shows a
simplified example of the structure of this motor. When coil A is
energized, a tooth of the N-magnetized cap aligns with the S-
magnetized tooth of the stator. At the same time, due to the rotor
structure, the S-magnetized tooth aligns with the N-magnetized
tooth of the stator. Real motors have a more complex structure,
with a higher number of teeth than the one shown in the picture,
though the working principle of the stepper motor is the same.
The high number of teeth allows the motor to achieve a small
step size, down to 0.9°.

Figure 4: Hybrid Stepper Motor

Stator
The stator is the part of the motor responsible for creating the
magnetic field with which the rotor is going to align. The main
characteristics of the stator circuit include its number of phases
and pole pairs, as well as the wire configuration. The number of
phases is the number of independent coils, while the number of
pole pairs indicates how main pairs of teeth are occupied by each
phase. Two-phase stepper motors are the most commonly used,
while three-phase and five-phase motors are less common (see
Figure 5 and Figure 6).

Figure 5: Two-Phase Stator Winding (Left), Three-Phase Stator

Winding (Right)

Figure 6: Two-Phase, Single-Pole Pair Stator (Left) and Two-Phase,

Dipole Pair Stator (Right). The Letters Show the Magnetic Field
Generated when Positive Voltage is Applied between A+ and A-.
Stepper Motor Control We have seen previously that the motor
coils need to be energized, in a specific sequence, to generate the
magnetic field with which the rotor is going to align. Several
devices are used to supply the necessary voltage to the coils, and
thus allow the motor to function properly. Starting from the
devices that are closer to the motor we have:
A transistor bridge is the device physically controlling the
electrical connection of the motor coils. Transistors can be seen
as electrically controlled interrupters, which, when closed allow
the connection of a coil to the electrical supply and thus the flow
of current in the coil. One transistor bridge is needed for each
motor phase.
A pre-driver is a device that controls the activation of the
transistors, providing the required voltage and current, it is in turn
controlled by an MCU.
An MCU is a microcontroller unit, which is usually programmed by
the motor user and generates specific signals for the pre-driver to
obtain the desired motor behavior.
Figure 7 shows a simple representation of a stepper motor
control scheme. The pre-driver and the transistor bridge may be
contained in a single device, called a driver.

Figure 7: Motor Control Basic Scheme

Stepper Motor Driver Types
There are different stepper motor drivers available on the market,
which showcase different features for specific applications. The
most important charactreristics include the input interface. The
most common options are:
Step/Direction – By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver
changes its output such that the motor will perform a step, the
direction of which is determined by the level on the Direction pin.
Phase/Enable – For each stator winding phase, Phase determines
the current direction and triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
PWM – Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-
side FETs.
Another important feature of a stepper motor driver is if it is only
able to control the voltage across the winding, or also the current
flowing through it:
With voltage control, the driver only regulates the voltage across
the winding. The torque developed and the speed with which the
steps are executed only depend on motor and load
characteristics.
Current control drivers are more advanced, as they regulate the
current flowing through the active coil in order to have better
control over the torque produced, and thus the dynamic behavior
of the whole system.
Unipolar/Bipolar Motors
Another feature of the motor that also affects control is the
arrangement of the stator coils that determine how the current
direction is changed. To achieve the motion of the rotor, it is
necessary not only to energize the coils, but also to control the
direction of the current, which determines the direction of the
magnetic field generated by the coil itself (see Figure 8). In
stepper motors, the issue of controlling the current direction is
solved with two different approaches.

Figure 8: Direction of the Magnetic Field based on the Direction of

the Coil Current
In unipolar stepper motors, one of the leads is connected to the
central point of the coil (see Figure 9). This allows to control the
direction of the current using relatively simple circuit and
components. The central lead (AM) is connected to the input
voltage VIN (see Figure 8). If MOSFET 1 is active, the current flows
from AM to A+. If MOSFET 2 is active, current flows from AM to A-,
generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. As pointed
out above, this approach allows a simpler driving circuit (only two
semiconductors needed), but the drawback is that only half of the
copper used in the motor is used at a time, this means that for
the same current flowing in the coil, the magnetic field has half
the intensity compared if all the copper were used. In addition,
these motors are more difficult to construct since more leads
have to be available as motor inputs.

Figure 9: Unipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

In bipolar stepper motors, each coil has only two leads available,
and to control the direction it is necessary to use an H-bridge (see
Figure 10). As shown in Figure 8, if MOSFETs 1 and 4 are active,
the current flows from A+ to A-, while if MOSFETs 2 and 3 are
active, current flows from A- to A+, generating a magnetic field in
the opposite direction. This solution requires a more complex
driving circuit, but allows the motor to achieve the maximum
torque for the amount of copper that is used.

Figure 10: Bipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

With technology progress, the advantages of unipolar are
becoming less relevant, and bipolar steppers are currently the
most popular. Stepper Motor Driving Techniques There are four
different driving techniques for a stepper motor:
In wave mode, only one phase at a time is energized (see Figure
11). For simplicity, we will say that the current is flowing in a
positive direction if it is going from the + lead to the - lead of a
phase (e.g. from A+ to A-); otherwise, the direction is negative.
Starting from the left, the current is flowing only in phase A in the
positive direction and the rotor, represented by a magnet, is
aligned with the magnetic field generated by it. In the next step,
it flows only in phase B in the positive direction, and the rotor
spins 90° clockwise to align with the magnetic field generated by
phase B. Later, phase A is energized again, but the current flows
in the negative direction, and the rotor spins again by 90°. In the
last step, the current flows negatively in phase B and the rotor
spins again by 90°.

Figure 11: Wave Mode Steps

In full-step mode, two phases are always energized at the same
time. Figure 12 shows the different steps of this driving mode.
The steps are similar to the wave mode ones, the most significant
difference being that with this mode, the motor is able to produce
a higher torque since more current is flowing in the motor and a
stronger magnetic field is generated.

Figure 12: Full-Step Mode Steps

Half-step mode is a combination of wave and full-step modes (see
Figure 12). Using this combination allows for the step size to be
reduced by half (in this case, 45° instead of 90°). The only
drawback is that the torque produced by the motor is not
constant, since it is higher when both phases are energized, and
weaker when only one phase is energized.
Figure 13: Half-Step Mode Steps
Microstepping can be seen as a further enhancement of half-step
mode, because it allows to reduce even further the step size and
to have a constant torque output. This is achieved by controlling
the intensity of the current flowing in each phase. Using this
mode requires a more complex motor driver compared to the
previous solutions. Figure 14 shows how microstepping works. If
IMAX is the maximum current that can flow in a phase, starting
from the left, in the first figure IA = IMAX and IB = 0. In the next
step, the currents are controlled to achieve IA = 0.92 x IMAX and
IB = 0.38 x IMAX, which generates a magnetic field that is rotated
by 22.5° clockwise compared to the previous one. This step is
repeated with different current values to reach the 45°, 67.5°,
and 90° positions. This provides the ability to reduce by half the
size of the step, compared to the half-step mode; but it is possible
to go even further. Using microstepping helps reaching very high
position resolution, but this advantage comes at the cost of a
more complex device to control the motor, and a smaller torque
generated with each step. Indeed, the torque is proportional to
the sine of the angle between the stator magnetic field and the
rotor magnetic field; therefore, when the steps are smaller, the
torque is smaller. This may lead to missing some steps, meaning
the rotor position does not change even if the current in the stator
winding has.

Figure 14: Microstepping

Stepper Motors Advantages and Disadvantages Now that we
understand the working principles of the stepper motors, it is
useful to summarize their pros and cons compared to other motor
types.
Advantages
Due to their internal structure, stepper motors do not require a
sensor to detect the motor position. Since the motor moves by
performing “steps,” by simply counting these steps, you can
obtain the motor position at a given time.
In addition, stepper motor control is pretty simple. The motor
does need a driver, but does not need complex calculations or
tuning to work properly. In general, the control effort is lower
compared to other motors. With microstepping, you can reach
high position accuracy, up to approximately 0.007°.
Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for
holding position, and also tend to have a long lifespan.
Disadvantages
They can miss a step if the load torque is too high. This negatively
impacts the control, since there is no way to know the real
position of the motor. Using microstepping makes stepper motors
even more likely to experience this issue.
These motors always drain maximum current even when still,
which makes efficiency worse and can cause overheating.
Stepper motors have low torque and become pretty noisy at high
speeds.
Finally, stepper motors have low power density and a low torque-
to-inertia ratio.
To summarize, stepper motors are good when you need an
inexpensive, easy-to-control solution and when efficiency and
high torque at high speeds are not necessary. To learn more
about how to pick the right type of motor for your project, and the
differences between stepper, brushed, and brushless motors click
here. Stepper Motor Uses and Applications Due to their
properties, stepper motors are used in many applications where a
simple position control and the ability to hold a position are
needed, including: