8.

The Mughal Empire in India

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• The Mughal Empire (also known as Mogul, Timurid empire) is considered one
of the classic periods of India's long and amazing history.
• In 1526, Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur, a man with Mongol heritage from
central Asia, established a foothold in the Indian subcontinent which was to
last for more than three centuries.
• The young prince Babur, who was descended from Timur on his father's side
and Genghis Khan on his mother's, finished his conquest of northern India in
1526, defeating the Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Shah Lodi at the First Battle of
Panipat.
Babur’s Military Conquests
• In 1504, Babur occupied Kabul.
• In 1524, Babur occupied Lahore but had to retreat to Kabul after Daulat Khan
turned against him.
• In November 1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
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• On 21st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and
quickly occupied Delhi and Despite vast and superior troop Ibrahim Lodi lost in the
battle due to Babur’s superior strategy and use of artillery.
• The First Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.
• Babur conquered Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur announced himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
The major Mughal emperors were:
• Babur (1526-30)
• Humayun (1530-56)
• Akbar ( 1556-1605)
• Jahangir (1605-27)
• Shah Jahan (1627-58)
• Aurangzeb ( 1658-1707)
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Humayun(1530-1540and1555-1556):
• the eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor
of the Mughal Empire.
• He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, the
Afghan ruler.
• Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat.
• Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and Humayun was able to defeat his
successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan.
• However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years
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SherShahSuri(1540-1555):
• was an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun
in 1540.
• Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign
proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent.
• As a king, he has several achievements in his credit. He established an efficient
public administration.
• He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land. Justice
was provided to the common man.
• Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees,
wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travellers was done.
• Roads were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to
Kabul was built.
• The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called ,Dam
• However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne and
died in 1545 after a short reign of five years.
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Akbar(1556-1605):
• Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died.
• Akbar's reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the
foundations of the Mughal Empire.
• After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of India.
• Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries.
• He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them.
• Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well.
• He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that
operated even in British India.
• Akbar's rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious
innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system.
• Akbar's Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil
administration.
• Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of
Agra at Sikandra.
• His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.
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Jehangir:
• Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning
"Conqueror of the World".
• He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the world).
• He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete control of administration
to her.
• He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated
the Mughal rule in Bengal.
• Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar.
• But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform society and was
tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews.
• However, relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun
Dev, was executed at Jehangir's orders for giving aid and comfort to Khusrau, Jehangir's
rebellious son.
• Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir's rule, and the Mughal
gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste. He died in 1627.
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Shah Jahan:
• Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628.
• Khurram took the name of Shah Jahan, i.e. the Emperor of the World.
• He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most of
Southern India.
• The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jahan's rule. This was due to
almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace.
• As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts
and culture of the Mughal Empire.
• Shah Jahan has been called the "architect king". The Red Fort and the Jama
Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of both civil engineering
and art.
• Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive
white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks
of the Yamuna River in Agra.
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Aurangzeb:
• Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707.
• Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar's reign in longevity.
• But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal court with the result
that none of them was trained in the art of government.
• This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on.
• During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the
entire Sub-continent under one rule.
• It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of area. He
worked hard for years but his health broke down in the end.
• He left behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years.
• With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and the mighty Mughal empire
started collapsing.
 LEGACY OF MUGHALS
Cultural Development under the Mughals
•The Mughal period witnessed a significant and widespread development in cultural activity.
•It was evident in the sphere of art and architecture, painting, music and literature.
•The Mughal architecture is a distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style which combines the
characteristics of the Persian, Turkish, and the Indian style. The marvelous cities like Fatehpur Sikri
and Shahjahanabad were established during their reign along with several majestic forts, mosques,
and mausoleums throughout their kingdom.
Art and Architecture
• The Mughal period (1526-1857) witnessed the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture at a
massive scale, dominating the landscape in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent viz Delhi,
Agra and Lahore region. By the 15th century, India had already seen the monumental
constructions depicting the beautiful blend of the Indian and the Turkish architectural styles under
the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Mughal emperors were great builders and they constructed many noble edifices and
monuments. The Indo-Muslim style of architecture gained remarkable progress.
• Babar himself was a patron of art, even though he had a poor opinion of Indian artists and
craftsmen. Agra was rebuilt and beautified and gardens were laid out. Humayun had little time to
engage himself in artistic activities; but a mosque of his is still seen in Punjab decorated in Persian
style. In the reign of Akbar, Mughal architecture reached a high level of perfection.
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Important Features of Mughal Architecture:
• Blend of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural style.
• Different types of buildings, such as majestic gates (entrances), forts, mausoleums,
palaces, mosques, sarais, etc.
• Building material: Mostly, red sandstone and white marble were used.
• Specific features such as the Charbagh style (garden layout) of the mausoleums,
pronounced bulbous domes, slender turrets at the corners, broad gateways,
beautiful calligraphy, arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and
palace halls supported on pillars.
Architectural Development under various Mughal Rulers:
• Babur: Due to his short reign (1526-1530), most of which was spent in wars, Babur
could not leave any significant construction except the mosque of Kabuli Bagh at
Panipat and Jama Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi.
• He also built Ram Bagh, the first Mughal Garden in India (1528) in Charbagh Style
located in Agra.
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• Humayun: He succeeded Babur, but throughout his reign, he was constantly
embroiled in a struggle with Sher Shah Suri.
• He laid the foundation of the city named Dinpanah but could not finish it.
• Humayun's Tomb, also known as the precursor of the Taj Mahal was the first
imposing structure of the Mughals which was built by his widow Hamida
Begum and designed by Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas.
• The mausoleum built upon a raised platform is a mix of Indian and Persian
artistry using red sandstone and white marble.
• It has a Persian Charbagh style. The tomb was declared as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1993. The Taj Mahal is the climax and therefore perhaps the
most famous monument built under the Charbagh layout.
• Charbagh Style- It is a Persian style garden layout in which the main building is
placed at the center of a quadrilateral garden with shallow water channels
neatly dividing the area into smaller parks.
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• Sher Shah Suri (Sur Dynasty): He built the Quila-e-Quanah mosque of Old Fort in Delhi,
Rohtas Fort in Pakistan, Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna in Afghan-style and the famous
Grand Trunk Road.
• His period saw the transition from Lodhi style to the Mughal style of architecture.
• Akbar: The reign of Akbar (1556-1605) witnessed immense developments in Mughal art
and architecture.
• He built the city of Fatehpur Sikri which was the first planned city of the Mughals and
served as his capital from 1571 to 1585.
• Buland Darwaza (1576, built to commemorate Akbar's victory over Gujarat kings), Jama
Masjid, Diwan-i-aam, Diwan-i-khaas, Birbal's house, Tomb of Saint Salim Chisti are some of
the important monuments in Fatehpur Sikri.
• He also built the Temple of Govind Dev in Vrindavan.
• The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian, and
various Indian (Bengal and Gujarat) styles.
• Extensive use of red sandstone.
• Indian elements such as deep eaves, balconies, and kiosks of the Bengal and Gujrat styles
blended with Central Asian component of glazed tiles.
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Jahangir (1605-1627):
• The prince had a special appreciation for the paintings over architecture. He built the
tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula (father of his wife Nur Jahan) displaying the world's finest
Pietra-dura works and completed Akbar's tomb at Sikandra.
• He also built the famous Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, Moti Masjid at Lahore.
• Pietra Dura- also called as Parchin Kari is an inlay technique of pictorial mosaic work
using cut and fitted, highly polished semi-precious stones as decorative art.
• Shah Jahan (1628-1658):
• He immortalized himself as he built the Taj Mahal in the memory of his late wife,
Mumtaz Mahal.
• He is rightly called ' the prince of builders' as the Mughal architecture reached its zenith
under his reign.
• He built Shahjahanabad, the 7th city of Delhi, today is known as Old Delhi.
• He made extensive use of white marble as opposed to red sandstone which was
preferred by his predecessors.
• He also built the Jama Masjid in Delhi, Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, and the Sheesh
Mahal in the Lahore Fort brilliantly using pietra dura and complex mirror work.
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Aurangzeb (1658-1707):
• He preferred simplicity over the grandeur.
• He repaired more mosques than he built. Aurangzeb is also said to have
destroyed numerous Hindu temples as well.
• A beautiful pearl mosque in the Red Fort, Delhi, and the Bibi ka Maqbara in
Aurangabad for his wife Rabbia-ud-dauraare only a few notable mentions in
his long reign.
• Thus, overall the Mughal architecture saw a decline in the Aurangzeb's reign.
• The arches, chhatri, and various styles of domes became hugely popular in
the Indo-Islamic architecture and were further developed under the
Mughals.
• It became so widespread especially in north India that these can be seen
further in the colonial architecture of Indo-Saracenic style.
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Other major styles during the Mughal period were:
• Sikh Style: Influenced by the Mughal architecture, the style developed in the
Punjab region.
• The arches and chhatris were prominent.
• The domes became an important feature in the Sikh architecture.
• Golden Temple completed by Arjan Dev in 1604 is an epitome of Sikh
architecture.
• Rajput Style: It blends local and Islamic styles. They built majestic forts and
palaces.
• The hanging balcony, cornices, and arches were used extensively in the
Rajput style of architecture.
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Mughal Paintings:
• Like the architecture, the Mughal paintings reflect a combination of Indian,
Persian and Islamic style as well.
• The distinguished Mughal paintings originated during the rule of Humayun
through the Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abu us Samad.
• Their art got influenced by the local styles and gradually gave rise to Mughal
paintings of India.
• The earliest example of Mughal paintings is Tutinama painting (tales of a parrot).
• The Mughal paintings revolved around themes of battles, court scenes, hunting
scenes, wildlife, portraits, etc. Akbar is known as the pioneer of the Mughal
miniature paintings.
• Akbar's reign saw huge development in the Mughal style of paintings under the
direction of the Persian artists.
• Paintings based on Mahabharata, Ramayana and Persian epics were encouraged.
• He commissioned the Hamza-Nama (adventures of Amir Hamza).
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Jahangir:
• the period saw more and more refinement in brushwork along with the use of lighter and
subdued colors.
• The main themes revolved around the king's own life pictured in Jahangirnama, durbar scenes,
portraits, and portrayal of nature.
• He encouraged his artists to emulate the European style as well in their pieces of work.
• Aqa Riza, Abul Hasan, Mansur, Bishan Das, Manohar, Goverdhan, Balchand, Daulat, Mukhlis, Bhim,
and Inayat were the famous painters in the court of Jahangir.
Shah Jahan
• focussed more on the architecture, though the paintings flourished as well. The paintings of this
period lost their sensuousness and became cold and opulent.
Aurangzeb
• He did not encourage the paintings’ culture, and only a few survive from his court to give an
account of the development of the art in his reign.
• The Mughal paintings greatly influenced the Rajput miniature painting style.
• Moreover, as the Mughal empire was on the decline, the court artists spread throughout the
kingdom and gave rise to new court cultures in the provinces of Awadh, Rajputana, Sikh, and
Deccan.
 Land reforms and religious policy of Akbar
Land Revenue System of Akbar
• There was no Mughal land revenue system before Akbar.
• His father Humayun and grandfather Babur did not introduce any changes because they were
the first conquerors of their dynasty and remained pre-occupied with subduing rebellions,
consolidating empires and maintaining order.
• A proper land revenue system was founded by Akbar.
• However, the system of Akbar was itself based on what Sher shah Suri implemented during his
short tenure.
• Thus, the land revenue system of Akbar was neither an innovation nor an invention.
• His indebtedness to the earlier rulers is immense but this has not diminished his fame as far
as land revenue system is concerned.
• He followed the policy of Sher shah with greater precision and correctness and then extended
it to various subah or provinces of his empire.
• But this correction or precision did not came overnight.
• Initially was tortuous enough to turn peasants into beggars, and forcing them to sell their
wives and children.
• But it was revised several times.
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• The corrections done by Akbar in land revenue system can be mainly divided into four heads
as follows:
1.Standardization of measurement of land
2.Ascertaining the produce per Bigha of Land
3.Fixation of state’s share in that produce
4.Fixing Rate of Assessment
1.Standardization of measurement of the land
• In Akbar’s administration, we find so many territorial divisions and sub-divisions for the first
time in medieval history.
• For political as well as fiscal purposes Akbar had divided his empire into 15 Subahs
(originally there were 12 Subahs, but by the time Akbar died, the number stood at 15), 187
Sarkars and 3367 Mahals.
• He ordered a standardization of measurement unit and the so called Ilahi Gaj was made the
definite unit of land measurement.
• This Ilahi Gaj was equivalent to some 41 fingers (29-32 inches), and was shorter than the
Sikandari Gaj (approx 39 inches) used by Sher shah.
• The Gaj as measurement of land finds its origin during Sikandar Lodi’s times.
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• Standardization of land measurement was adopted to brush aside all kinds of
vagueness in defining extent of land and to reduce extortion / corruption by
officials.
• For land measurement (Paimaish), a rope called Tenab was used in those days.
Since, this rope was subject to variation in its length due to seasonal dryness or
humidity, Akbar made reforms in Tenab also.
• Instead of an ordinary rope, Akbar ordered the Tenab to be made of pieces of
Bamboo joined together with iron rings.
• This made sure that the length of Tenab varies little during different seasons of a
year.
• A further change done by Akbar was to fix definite measurement to Bigha of land.
• A Bigha was made of 3600 Ilahi Gaj, which is roughly half of modern acre. Several
Bighas made a Mahal.
• Several Mahals were grouped into Dasturs.
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2.Ascertainment of produce per Bigha
• After the standardization of land measurement, Akbar turned towards ascertainment of
the amount of produce per Bigha and the state’s share in it. Shershah Suri had already
divided land into four different categories. Akbar followed the system and to make a
comparative estimate of the produce of lands and fixed different revenues for each of
them. These four types were as follows:
Polaj
• Polaj was the ideal and best type of land throughout the empire. This land was cultivated
always and was never allowed to lie fallow.
Parati or Parauti
• This was the land kept out of cultivation temporarily in order to recoup its lost fertility.
Chachar
• Chachar was a kind of land allowed to lie fallow for three or four years and then resumed
under cultivation.
Banjar
• Banjar was the worst kind of land that was left out of cultivation for five years or upwards.
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3.Fixation of state’s share in produce
• The best lands viz. Polaj and Parauti were subdivided into three categories viz. good, middle
and bad.
• Average produce of these three categories, called Mahsul was taken as a normal produce
per Bigha.
• One third of this Mahsul (average produce) was fixed as state’s share.
• The Parauti land also was liable to pay the Polaj rate (one third of Mahsul) when cultivated.
• Chachar land was allowed to pay a concessional rate until it was cultivated again to be liable
to pay the Polaj rate.
• Banjar lands were also not totally neglected.
• Further, the peasants were given option to pay either in cash or kind, whichever was
convenient to them.
• It’s worth note here that during British Era, the land was divided on the basis of natural or
artificial qualities of soil in clay, loam, irrigated, unirrigated and so on.
• However, the basis of land classification by Akbar was on the continuity or discontinuity of
the cultivation.
• Akbar’s vazirs had not taken account the soil qualities for ascertaining the produce.
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4.Fixing Rate of Assessment
• Once the land was measured and state’s share in produce was fixed per Bigha of
land, Akbar next proceeded to fix the rate of assessment.
• This was the most contentious part and in fact several changes were done in the
system till 1585.
• Firstly, Akbar adopted Shershah’s system in which cultivated area was measured,
and a central schedule was created fixing the dues of peasants crop wise on the
basis of the productivity of the land.
• The state’s share was fixed one-third of the produce under the schedule (Dastur-i-
amal) to be paid in cash.
• The peasant’s tax was based on annual system of collecting prices and settlements
of revenues for the previous years.
• But there were several problems with this arrangement.
• Firstly, the prices of crops could not reasonably be applied to the whole empire.
• Prices were lower in rural areas which were far away from the urban centres.
• Secondly, the cultivators found it difficult to pay in cash at the official rate.
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• Thirdly, this system was affected by corruption of the revenue collectors,
particularly the Karoris appointed in 1573-74.
• Fourthly, fixing prices every year and doing settlements of revenues of previous
years was a cumbersome practice.
• Akbar ordered that the settlement should be concluded for past 10 years.
• An aggregate of the rate of revenues from 1570 to 1579 was made and a decennial
average was fixed as demand of the revenue.
• This brought certainty to collections and alleviated the problem of peasants to
great extent.
• This was the so called Dahsala system or Zabti System, that was implemented by
Raja Todarmal.
• This remained a standard system of revenue assessment during the greater part of
the Mughal empire.
• During Shahjahan’s era, it was introduced in the Deccan by Murshid Quli khan.
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Mansabdari system
• It was the administrative system of the Mughal Empire introduced by Akbar.
• The word mansab is of Arabic origin meaning rank or position.
• The system, hence, determined the rank of a government official.
• Every civil and military officer was given a ‘mansab’ and different which could be increased by ten
were used for ranking officers.
• It was also meant for fixing the salaries and allowances of officers.
• The term manasabadar means a person (in old times) who has a positioning or ranking of a
government.
• It was a system whereby nobles were granted the rights to hold a jagir, which meant revenue
assignments (not land itself) for services rendered by them but the authority bestowed upon them
was not unbridled but with the direct control of these nobles in the hands of the king.
• Abul Fazl has mentioned 66 grades of mansabdars but in practice there were not more than 33
mansabs.
• During the early reign of Akbar, the lowest grade was ten and the highest was 12,000.
• Higher mansabs were given to princes and Rajput rulers who accepted the suzerainty of the
emperor.
• The main feature of this was mansab or office a person held and it was approved by the emperor.
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• The system was common to both the military and the civil department and is
believed to have originated in Mongolia.
• It was prevalent during the reign of Babur and Humayun as well. Akbar made
important changes to the system and made it more efficient.
Main Features of the Mansabdari System:
• 1. The king himself appointed the mansabdars. He could enhance the mansab, lower
down it or remove it.
• 2. A mansabdar could be asked to perform any civil or military service.
• 3. There were 33 categories of the Mansabdars. The lowest mansabdar commanded
10 soldiers and the highest 10,000 soldiers. Only the princes of the royal family and
most important Rajput rulers were given a mansab of 10,000.
• 4. A mansabdar was paid his salary in cash.
• 5. The salary due to the soldiers was added to the personal salary of the mansabdar.
Sometimes for paying the salaries to the soldier, a jagir was given to the mansabdar.
But the revenue was realised by officers and necessary adjustments made.
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• 6. Mansabdari system was not hereditary.
• 7. In addition to meeting his personal expenses, the mansabdar had to maintain out
of his” salary a stipulated quota of horses, elephants, camels and mules and carts.
• 8. A mansabdar holing a rank of 5000 had to maintain 340 horses, 100 elephants,
400 camels, 100 mules and 160 carts.
• 9. Handsome salaries were paid to a Mansabdar. A mansabdar with a rank of 5,000
got a salary of Rs. 30,000 per month; a mansabdar of 3,000 could get Rs. 17,000 and
a mansabdar of 10,000 got rupees 8,200.
• 10. The horses were classified into six categories and the elephants into five.
• 11. For every ten cavalry men, the Mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses for
horses had to be provided rest while on march and replacements were necessarily in
times of war.
• 12. A record of the description (‘huliy’) of each horseman under a mansabdar and of
branding (‘dag’) horses to prevent corruption was kept.
 Religious policy of Akbar/Cultural Synthesis underAkbar
• The Mughal rulers except Aurangazeb adopted a tolerant religious policy.
• Practically all-religious communities existed in India during the Mughal period.
• The Hindus, the Muslim, the Christians, the Buddhist, Sikhs, the Parsis and the
Jains were the prominent religious communities among them.
• The Hindu constituted majority among the population while the ruling class
belonged to the Muslims.
• Shershah, the forerunner of Akbar adopted a policy to religious toleration.
• Akbar was, however, the finest among the monarchs of medieval India who raised
the policy of religious toleration to the Pinnacle of secularism.
• The socio political condition of the country was such that Akbar thought it
advisable to adopt independent voices in religious matters.
• The non-Muslim constituted the majority of his Indian subjects.
• Without winning their confidence and active support Akbar could not hope to
establish and consolidate the Mughal Empire in India.
• Akbar did not discriminate between his subjects on the basis of religion.
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• He abolished pilgrim tax (jaziya) throughout his dominions close upon its
heels Akbar took the most revolutionary step in 1564, in granting religious
freedom to the Hindus.
• It was the abolition of Jaziya, a poll tax charged from the Hindus in their
capacity as Dhimmis (Non-Muslim subjects of an Islamic state).
• Being a youth of courage and conviction he wiped out the traditional
religious disability from which the Hindu subjects of the Muslim rulers been
suffering since long.
• Sheik Mubarak a liberal minded Islamic scholar and his sons Abul Faizi and
Abul Fazl had influenced Akber’s religious policy greatly.
• Under their influence Akbar became all the more liberal and to grant
towards people of diverse religious faith.
• He removed all restrictions on the construction and maintenance of Hindu
temples, Churches and other places of worship.
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• In order to please the Hindu subjects Akbar adopted their social customs and
practices,mixed freely with them and appreciated their cultural values.
• Akbar wanted to create a spirit of love and harmony among his people by eliminating all
racial,religious and cultural barriers.
• In order to achieve this objective he ordered in 1575, the construction of Ibadat Khana –
the house of worship at Fatehpur sikri to adorn the spiritual kingdom.
• He initiated the practice of holding religious discourses there with the learned men and the
saints of the age.
• To begin with Akbar used to invite only the Muslim theologians and saints, including the
ulmea, sheikhs, sayyids etc to take part in these deliberations.
• But they failed to arrive at agreed opinion on many Islamic beliefs and practices and in the
midst of deliberations on very sober and tough provocating aspects of divinity, displayed
spirit of intolerance towards each other.
• The rival group of theologians drew their swords to settle the religious issues at stake.
• Akbar was shocked to witness the irresponsible behaviour of those self conceited greedy
and intolerant Mullahs.
• In disgust he threw open the gates of the Ibadat Khana to the priest and scholars of other
religious faiths including Hinduism, Jainism, Zorastrianism and Christianity.
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• As a result of the religious discourses held at the Ibadat Khana, Akbar’s belief in the
orthodox Sunni Islam was shaken.
• In 1579 a proclamation called the Mahzar, was issued.
• It recognized Akbar in his capacity as the just monarch and amir ul mominin to be
the Imam-i-Adil viz., the supreme interpreter or arbitrator of the Islamic law in all
controversial issues pertaining to ecclesiastical or civil matters.
• After the issue of Mahzar, religious discourse continued to be held at the Ibadat
Khana.
• Akbar mixed freely with Muslim divines, Sufi saints, Hindu mystics and Jain scholars.
• As a result of this Akbar came to the conclusion that if some true knowledge was
thus everywhere to be found, why truth should be confined to one religion or creed
like Islam.
• Akbar gradually turned away from Islam and set up a new religion which was
compounded by many existing religions – Hinduism, Christianity, Zorastrianism etc.
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• However modern historians are not inclined to accept this view.
• The word used by Abul Fazl for the so called new path was Tauhid-i-Ilhai which
literally means Divine Monotheism.
• The word din or Faith was not applied to it till 8 years later.
• The Tauhid-i-Ilahi was really an order of the sufistic type.
• Those who were willing to join and those whom the emperor approved were allowed
to become members.
• Sunday was fixed as the day for initialism.
• Din Ilahi was not a new religion Akbar’s real objects was to unite the people of his
empire into an integrated national community by providing a common religious cum
spiritual platform.
• Din Ilahi was a socio-religious association of like-minded intellectuals and saints.
• Akbar becomes the spiritual guide of the nation.
• The members of the Din Ilahi abstained form eating meat as far as possible and do
not dine with or use the utensils of the butchers,fishermen, did not marry old
women or minor girls.
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• The members were to greet each other with the words Allah-u- Akbar or God
is great.
• The number of persons who actually joined the order was small, many of
them consisting of personal favourites of Akbar.
• Thus the order was not expected to play an important political role.
• The Din Ilahi virtually died with him.
• Principles of Tawahid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-Ilahi aimed at achieving a synthesis of all
religions.
• Akbar's Din-i-llahi's major principles include:
(i). God is great (Allah-o-Akbar)
(ii) Initiations would be performed on Sunday.
(iii) The novice would place his head at the emperor's feat. The emperor would
raise him up and give him the formula (Shast).
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• (iv) The initiates would abstain from meat as far as possible and give a
sumptuous feast and alms on their birthday.
• (v) There would be no sacred scriptures, place of worship or ritual (except
initiation).
• (vi) Every adherent should take oath of doing well to everybody.
• (vii) Followers should show respect to all religions.
• Akbar's efforts at social reform are also note worthy.
• He raised the age of marriage. He even tried to make education broad-based
and secular.
• Jahangir and Shah Jahan pursued the same tolerant policy though at times
there were aberrations.
• Aurangzeb was a staunch Sunni and he reversed the policy of Akbar.
• This partly led to the decline of Mughal power after his death.
 Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire
•Beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire can be traced to the strong rule of
Aurangzeb.
•Aurangzeb inherited a large empire, yet he adopted a policy of extending it further to the
farthest geographical limits in the south at the great expense of men and materials.
Political Cause
•In reality, the existing means of communication and the economic and political structure of
the country made it difficult to establish a stable centralized administration over all parts of
the country.
•Aurangzeb’s objective of unifying the entire country under one central political authority
was, though justifiable in theory, not easy in practice.
•Aurangzeb’s futile but arduous campaign against the Marathas extended over many years;
it drained the resources of his Empire and ruined the trade and industry of the Deccan.
•Aurangzeb’s absence from the north for over 25 years and his failure to subdue the
Marathas led to deterioration in administration; this undermined the prestige of the Empire
and its army.
•In the 18th century, Maratha’s expansion in the north weakened central authority still
further.
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•Alliance with the Rajput rajas with the consequent military support was one
of the main pillars of Mughal strength in the past, but Aurangzeb's conflict with
some of the Rajput states also had serious consequences.
•Aurangzeb himself had in the beginning adhered to the Rajput alliance by
raising Jaswant Singh of Kamer and Jai Singh of Amber to the highest of ranks.
• But his short-sighted attempt later to reduce the strength of the Rajput rajas
and extend the imperial sway over their lands led to the withdrawal of their
loyalty from the Mughal throne.
•The strength of Aurangzeb’s administration was challenged at its very nerve
center around Delhi by Satnam, the Jat, and the Sikh uprisings.
• All of them were to a considerable extent the result of the oppression of the
Mughal revenue officials over the peasantry.
•They showed that the peasantry was deeply dissatisfied with feudal
oppression by Zamindars, nobles, and the state.
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Religious Cause
•Aurangzeb's religious orthodoxy and his policy towards the Hindu rulers seriously
damaged the stability of the Mughal Empire.
•The Mughal state in the days of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan was basically a
secular state. Its stability was essentially founded on the policy of noninterference
with the religious beliefs and customs of the people, fostering of friendly relations
between Hindus and Muslims.
•Aurangzeb made an attempt to reverse the secular policy by imposing the jizyah (tax
imposed on non-Muslim people), destroying many of the Hindu temples in the north,
and putting certain restrictions on the Hindus.
•The jizyah was abolished within a few years of Aurangzeb’s death. Amicable relations
with the Rajput and other Hindu nobles and chiefs were soon restored.
•Both the Hindu and the Muslim nobles, zamindars, and chiefs ruthlessly oppressed
and exploited the common people irrespective of their religion.
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Wars of Succession and Civil Wars
•Aurangzeb left the Empire with many problems unsolved, the situation was further
worsened by the ruinous wars of succession, which followed his death.
•In the absence of any fixed rule of succession, the Mughal dynasty was always
plagued after the death of a king by a civil war between the princes.
•The wars of succession became extremely fierce and destructive during the 18th
century and resulted in great loss of life and property.
• Thousands of trained soldiers and hundreds of capable military commanders and
efficient and tried officials were killed. Moreover, these civil wars loosened the
administrative fabric of the Empire.
•During the 18th century, the Mughal army lacked discipline and fighting morale.
• Lack of finance made it difficult to maintain a large number of army.
• Its soldiers and officers were not paid for many months, and, since they were
mere mercenaries, they were constantly disaffected and often verged on a mutiny.
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• The civil wars resulted in the death of many brilliant commanders and brave
and experienced solders.
• Thus, the army, the ultimate sanction of an empire, and the pride of the
Great Mughals, was so weakened that it could no longer curb the ambitious
chiefs and nobles or defend the Empire from foreign aggression.
Foreign Invasion
•A series of foreign invasions affected Mughal Empire very badly.
• Attacks by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali, which were themselves the
consequences of the weakness of the Empire, drained the Empire of its
wealth, ruined its trade and industry in the North, and almost destroyed its
military power.
•The emergence of the British challenge took away the last hope of the revival
of the crisis-ridden Empire.