ANJNA DAHIYA, AIR 134

Chapter 1 : paper 2

Item analysis Intro : Within psychometrics, Item analysis refers to statistical methods used for selecting
items for inclusion in a psychological test

Purpose of item analysis

Item Quality Assessment : Difficulty Level: Item Discrimination Power: Item
It also identifies items that analysis provides insights discrimination refers to an
might be problematic, into the proportion of item's ability to distinguish
confusing, or irrelevant, respondents who answered between individuals with
which allows for their each item correctly. This different levels of the

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modification or removal from helps gauge the difficulty construct being measured.
the test. level of each item discriminate between
high-scoring and low-scoring
individuals

the test
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Item-Total Correlation:
Item analysis calculates the
correlation between each
item and the total score of
Response Patterns: By
analyzing response
patterns, item analysis can
reveal if respondents are
consistently choosing
specific options (e.g., always
choosing "strongly agree").
This might indicate response
Distractor Analysis: For
multiple-choice or
multiple-response items,
item analysis examines the
frequency with which each
response option is chosen.
This helps identify options
that are commonly selected
bias or issues with the item's or rarely chosen
wording.
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Test Reliability and Item Revision and
Validity: A well-constructed Improvement: Based on the
test should have good findings from item analysis,
reliability and validity. Item test developers can revise
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analysis contributes to the and improve items that are

assessment of these problematic
properties by providing
information about the
internal consistency
(reliability)

Carry it out for test of aptitude

Administer the Test: Have a Calculate Item Statistics : Rank Items:
group of participants Rank items based on their
(representative of the target Difficulty Index (p-value) difficulty level, item-total
population) complete the correlation, and
aptitude test under Item-Total Correlation discrimination index.
standardized conditions
 Discrimination Index
(Point-Biserial Correlation)

Review Response Patterns: Review Distractors (for Identify Problematic Items:

Analyze the frequency Multiple-Choice Items): Items that have low difficulty,
distribution of responses for If your aptitude test includes low item-total correlation, or
each item. Identify if multiple-choice items, low discrimination indices
participants consistently analyze the frequency with
choose a specific response which each response option
option is chosen

Iterative Analysis: Then, repeat the item Assess Internal

After identifying problematic analysis to assess the Consistency:

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items, consider making impact of the changes. Compute the internal
revisions based on your consistency reliability of the
findings. This might involve test using methods like
rephrasing questions, Cronbach's alpha

options

Test Validation:
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reevaluating response

Consider correlating test

scores with external criteria
to establish the validity of
the test.
Eg :

Differential Aptitude Test

Spatial Reasoning Test:

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Item analysis challenges
Sampling Bias: If the sample Small Sample Size: Small Item Ambiguity: Items that
of individuals who took the sample sizes can lead to are poorly worded, vague, or
test is not representative of unstable estimates of item open to multiple
the intended population statistics interpretations
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Guessing: Some Homogeneity: If a test has a Guessing Correction:

respondents might guess narrow focus or lacks Correcting for guessing
answers to items they don't diversity in content, the using methods like the
understand or don't know, analysis might not formula for item
artificially inflating item accurately capture the full discrimination might not
difficulty range of abilities or traits always be accurate,
being assessed particularly if guessing is
unevenly distributed across
items.

Conclusion : Item analysis helps researchers and test developers understand how well each
item performs in terms of its difficulty level, discrimination power, and overall contribution to
the measurement of the underlying construct being assessed by the test
Item validation Item validation refers to the process of evaluating and assessing individual items (questions,
statements, tasks) within a measurement instrument to ensure their quality, relevance, and
What is the role of effectiveness in accurately measuring the intended construct
item validation in
psychometric Role
scaling? Briefly
Assessing Item Quality : It Ensuring Construct Eliminating Ambiguity :
describe the steps
ensures that items are clear, Coverage : items This enhances the clarity of
involved.
relevant, and accurately collectively cover the full the items and reduces the
capture the intended content range of the construct being potential for
or trait. measured misinterpretation by

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respondents

Measuring Validity: Item Improving Reliability: Enhancing Discrimination:

validation contributes to the Reliable measurement Items that effectively

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construct validity of the
measurement instrument

Minimizing Bias: Item

validation helps identify and
eliminate items that might
instruments consistently
produce consistent results
over time

Confirming
Dimensionality: For
multidimensional constructs,
discriminate between
individuals with different
levels of the trait or attribute
being measured contribute
to the overall sensitivity

Enhancing Interpretability:
Validated items contribute to
the meaningful interpretation
introduce bias based on such as personality traits of assessment results
factors such as gender, with different facets, item
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culture, or socio-economic validation helps confirm that
status items load onto the
expected factors or
Optimizing Item Difficulty dimensions.

Steps
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Item Generation: Develop a Expert Review: Seek input Pilot Testing: Administer
pool of potential items that from experts in the field to the initial set of items to a
are relevant to the construct evaluate the content, clarity, small sample of participants
being measured and relevance of the items who are similar to the
intended target group

Item Analysis Item Modification: Based Cognitive Interviews:

on the results of the item Conduct cognitive interviews
analysis, modify or eliminate with a subset of participants
items that are problematic to gain insights into how
they understand and
interpret the items
 Field Testing: Administer Scale Reliability Analysis:
the refined set of items to a Calculate measures of
larger and more diverse internal consistency, such as
sample that represents the Cronbach's alpha
target population

Norms Intro : Norms provide a reference point for understanding an individual's performance on a
psychological test by comparing their score to the scores of a representative group of
What different individuals
types of norms will
a psychologist Different types of norms
need to develop a
Age Norms: These norms Grade/Level Norms: Percentile Norms:
test of general

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provide information about Norms specific to Provide percentiles to show
mental ability for
how an individual's test educational grade levels to where an individual's score
use in India?
score compares to the compare students' falls relative to the norm
scores of others in the same performance. group
age group

National Norms:
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Eg : Malin's Intelligence
Scale for Indian Children

Collect data from individuals

across different states and
Eg : Naglieri Nonverbal
Ability Test (NNAT) - Indian
Adaptation

Urban and Rural Norms:

Develop norms separately
for individuals from urban
Eg : CUET (UG)

Gender Norms:
Compare the performance
of males and females
regions of India to establish and rural areas separately
national norms
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Ethnicity, caste
Eg : National Achievement
Survey (NAS) - Ministry of Eg : Socioeconomic and
Education Caste Census (SECC)

Language Norms: Cultural Norms: Special Population Norms:

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If the test is administered in Gather data from diverse For individuals with
different languages, cultural groups within India disabilities, establish norms
establish norms for each to ensure the test is specific to the disability
language group to account culturally sensitive and fair. group
for linguistic differences.
Eg : Autism spectrum
Eg : Indian Language disorder (ASD) norms
Learning Aptitude Test

Factors
determining the
R V N
efficacy of
psychological
tests
Eg : WISC-V is widely used Eg : MMPI-2 is designed to Eg : Graduate Record
to assess cognitive abilities assess personality and Examinations (GRE)
in children. Its high psychopathology. Its The GRE provides
test-retest reliability extensive research base percentiles that compare an
demonstrates its construct individual's scores to those
validity of the norm group

Standardization Cultural Fairness Test Length and

Administration Time
Eg : Stanford-Binet test is Eg : Culture Fair Intelligence
known for its rigorous Test (CFIT)
standardization process The CFIT is designed to
minimize cultural bias by
using abstract, non-verbal

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items

Practicality and Accessibility Ethical Considerations

Psychological
tests are useful
in assessing
individual
Cognitive Abilities

Indian Adaptation of
13 Eg : Informed Consent for
Psychological Research

Personality Traits :

Big Five Personality

Emotional Intelligence:

Example: Multi-Factor
differences
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Inventory Emotional Intelligence Scale
Scale (WAIS)
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The SRT-Trait Scale of
Personality

Career Interests and Learning Styles : VARK Stress and Coping

Aptitudes: Questionnaire Strategies:
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Example: Career Preference

Inventory

Language Abilities: Social and Interpersonal Clinical Assessments

Skills
Example: Indian Adaptation
of the Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test

Educational Assessments

Issue
Dyer : If you use them wrong, you get into trouble. If you use them right, you open up all
parts of new possibilities for the betterment of mankind
‘Skill India’ Aims to provide skill training and education to millions of Indian youth to enhance their
scheme : role of employability and promote economic growth
psychologist
Skill Gap Analysis : to Curriculum Development: Training Content:
understand the Psychologists can Psychologists can assist in
psychological and collaborate with experts to developing training materials
behavioral competencies develop curriculum content that focus on personal
needed for different jobs and that integrates psychological development,
roles principles. They can self-confidence, motivation,
contribute to designing and stress management
training modules that
address not only technical
skills but also interpersonal
skills, communication skills,
problem-solving abilities,

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and emotional intelligence

Learning Methodologies: Rural-urban Behavioral Change:

Psychologists can provide Successful skill

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insights into effective
learning methodologies that
enhance skill acquisition
development is not just
about technical proficiency;
it often requires changes in
behavior and mindset.
Psychologists can help
design interventions that
facilitate positive behavioral
changes, such as adopting a
proactive work attitude,
being open to feedback
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Career Counseling: Assessment and Feedback Mechanisms:
Psychologists can contribute Certification: Psychologists Psychologists can help
to providing career can assist in designing establish mechanisms for
counseling services to assessments to evaluate gathering feedback from
individuals undergoing skill both technical and trainees, trainers, and
training. They can help psychological skills employers. This feedback
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individuals align their newly can be used to continuously

acquired skills with their improve
personal strengths and
interests

ID importance
for vocational
Matching Strengths and Personalized Approach: A Maximizing Potential:
guidance
Interests: Recognizing one-size-fits-all approach to Understanding individual
individual differences allows career counseling is not differences enables
vocational counselors to effective due to diverse individuals to harness their
match a person's cognitive individual characteristics strengths and talents in
abilities, personality traits, areas where they excel
 and interests with suitable
career options

Reducing Mismatches: Adapting to Changing Promoting Diversity and

Mismatching individuals with Careers: As careers evolve Inclusion: Recognizing and
careers that do not align and industries change, valuing individual
with their abilities or individuals may need to differences fosters diversity
preferences can lead to adapt and acquire new and inclusion in the
dissatisfaction, burnout, and skills. Awareness of workplace
turnover individual differences helps
guide these transitions
effectively

Enhancing Self-Awareness: Reducing Occupational Career Transition

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Understanding one's own Stress: Occupations that Challenges: Many Indians
strengths, weaknesses, and align with individual transition between rural and
preferences fosters strengths and interests are urban areas for education
self-awareness more likely to result in lower and work. Individual

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these transitions are taken
into account to facilitate
smoother career transitions.

Globalization and Industry Trends: India's participation in the global economy brings
opportunities in various sectors. Vocational guidance considers individual interests and
skills in the context of global industry trends.

Evo of ID
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Early History and Francis Galton : One of the Alfred Binet : Binet's work
Measurement of earliest proponents of laid the foundation for
Intelligence: studying individual modern intelligence testing.
differences, Galton believed He developed the first
that intelligence and other intelligence test to identify
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psychological attributes children who needed

could be measured and educational assistance
quantified.

The Trait Approach and Gordon Allport : traits are Raymond Cattell :
Personality Differences: the building blocks of contributed to the
personality and that development of factor
understanding individual analysis in psychology
differences requires
studying these traits.

The Biological Basis of Eysenck : focused on the

Individual Differences: biological basis of
personality and proposed
that individual differences in
 behavior could be attributed
to genetic factors

Modern Approaches and Trait Theories: Modern trait Genetics and Neuroscience:
Advances: theories, like the Five-Factor Advances in genetics and
Model neuroscience have provided
insights into the genetic and
Cultural Considerations: The neurobiological basis of
concept of individual individual differences
differences has been
extended to consider
cultural variations in
personality, cognition, and
behaviors

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Standardization To standardise a test is to set up norms. Norms are sets of scores from clearly defined
of psychological samples and the importance of standardisation is that it gives test scores psychological
tests

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meaning and thus makes interpretation possible.

If a person scores 10 on an intelligence test, the meaning of that score depends on the
norms that are used to interpret it.
Sampling : The quality of the
norms depends upon the
adequacy of the samples on
which they are based.
Methods of sampling

Random sampling
Expressing the results

Some different norms :

Percentiles, Standard
scores
size and representativeness.
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To reduce standard errors a
sample size of 500 is more
than adequate.
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Alternative methods of interpreting test scores

The content criterion : For Criterion prediction : The regression method
example if a music test probability of subjects at
demands that subjects each score reaching a
recognise the dominant in a particular criterion
series of major chords, then
if they get the items right
they possess that skill. I

Challenges in
the development
Defining and Measuring Cultural Bias : An Limited Item Pools :
of psychological
Constructs: English-language test on Developing an adequate
tests
 cognitive abilities may pool of diverse test items
Developing a test to disadvantage individuals that accurately represent the
measure "creativity" requires from non-English-speaking construct can be challenging
operationalizing a backgrounds
multifaceted concept into
specific items

Sample Selection : If a test Norming Challenges : Ethical Considerations :

is designed for a specific Developing norms for a test Developing a test to
age group but the measuring an emerging measure trauma-related
standardization sample construct like "digital symptoms requires careful
includes mostly urban resilience" could be consideration of potential
adults, the norms may not challenging due to the lack distress caused to
accurately reflect of established reference participants

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performance across tribals points.

Item Ambiguity : An item on Test Adaptation and

a personality test asking "Do Cross-Cultural Validity :

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you often feel anxious?"
might yield inconsistent
responses due to varying
interpretations of "often"
Translating a personality test
into a different language
requires not only linguistic
accuracy but also cultural
adaptation to ensure the
items are meaningful across
cultures

Challenges in
the use of
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Stereotyping and Limited Scope : An Test-Taker Motivation : A
psychological
Stigmatization: A mental intelligence test focusing student taking an aptitude
tests
health assessment solely on cognitive abilities test with low motivation
indicating high anxiety might might miss emotional might not perform to their
result in the individual being intelligence aspects crucial actual ability level, affecting
stigmatized, affecting their for success. career guidance
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well-being.

Ethical Concerns : A Rapid Changes and Test Adaptation and Misuse

psychological test that asks Updates : An aptitude test : Using a clinical depression
intrusive questions about focused on skills relevant a test as a hiring tool for
personal experiences could decade ago might not assessing job applicants'
lead to distress or predict success in rapidly emotional stability can lead
discomfort for participants evolving industries. to inappropriate decisions

Test Anxiety and Environmental Factors : A

Performance Pressure student taking a cognitive
test in a noisy environment
might have difficulty
concentrating, leading to
 lower scores

psychological
tests are better
Standardization Reliability V
tools in
assessing Objectivity : reducing Range and Precision : Tests Comparability : Test scores
individual subjectivity and potential can measure a wide range can be compared across
differences bias introduced by human of attributes, from cognitive individuals and populations,
judgment abilities and personality facilitating meaningful
traits to emotional comparisons for
intelligence and vocational educational, clinical, and

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interests research purposes

Efficiency: Predictive Power: Personalized Feedback:

Psychological tests provide Well-designed tests can Psychological tests generate
efficient ways to gather predict future outcomes, detailed profiles that offer

period
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substantial information
about an individual's
attributes in a relatively short

Ethical Considerations:
Psychological tests adhere
to ethical guidelines,
such as academic success,
job performance, or mental
health concerns

Longitudinal Tracking:
Psychological tests can
track changes and
insights into an individual's
strengths, weaknesses, and
potential areas for
improvement

Evidence-Based
Decision-Making:
Psychological tests provide
ensuring that individuals' development over time, empirical data that can
rights and well-being are allowing researchers and inform decisions in
protected during practitioners to monitor education, clinical
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assessment progress or decline interventions, career
guidance, and
organizational settings.
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Uses of
Psychological
Diagnosis and Assessment Treatment Planning : Tests Progress Monitoring:
Tests in Clinical
help clinicians understand Repeated testing tracks
Settings
an individual's strengths, treatment progress, allowing
weaknesses, and specific clinicians to adjust
needs, informing tailored interventions based on
treatment plans. changes in test scores.

Symptom Severity: Tests Personality Assessment: Cognitive Assessment:

quantify the severity of Tests like the MMPI-2 Cognitive tests evaluate
symptoms, guiding clinicians assess personality traits and memory, attention, and
in determining the intensity patterns, assisting in executive functions, aiding
of interventions required. understanding individual in diagnosing conditions like
behavior. dementia
Misuses of
Psychological
Sole Basis for Diagnosis Labeling and Stigmatization: Cultural Insensitivity :
Tests in Clinical
Misinterpretation immigrants
Settings
Ignoring Clinical Context: Underestimating Client's
Overreliance on tests Perspective: Focusing solely
without considering the on test results may
individual's unique history disregard the client's
and context can lead to subjective experience and
inaccurate conclusions concerns.

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Limitations of
Psychological
Limited Scope: Tests might Context Dependency: Test Response bias
Tests in Clinical
not capture the complexity results can be influenced by
Settings
and richness of human environmental factors,

Cultural Variation
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experience and emotions making them
context-dependent

Dynamic Nature:
Psychological attributes
change over time, and tests
might not capture this
dynamic nature adequately
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How can one Decision depends on : your research goals, theoretical framework, available data, and the
make a decision stage of test development
of using
exploratory Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): It's an exploratory technique that aims to uncover the
factor analysis latent factors that best explain the patterns of correlation among your observed variables
or confirmatory
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often used in the early You're developing a You collect responses from
factor analysis
stages of test development questionnaire to assess a sample of managers and
or an integrated
when there is little prior "leadership styles" in a run an EFA on the items.
approach while
knowledge about the corporate setting. You have The analysis reveals that the
constructing a
underlying factor structure of a set of 20 potential items, items load onto three distinct
psychological
the psychological construct but you're not sure how they factors: "transformational
test?
cluster into distinct factors. leadership," "transactional
leadership," and
"laissez-faire leadership."

You're developing a new test You're exploring the Your research is more
or adapting an existing one dimensionality of a construct exploratory and
for a different population. in an open-ended manner. hypothesis-generating.

You're unsure about the

 number and nature of
underlying factors.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA): It tests whether the hypothesized factor structure fits
the observed data well
used when you have a clear You have well-defined You want to assess how well
theoretical framework or hypotheses about the your hypothesized model fits
specific hypotheses about number of factors and their the collected data.
the factor structure of your relationships.
test.

You're interested in Your research is more CFA requires more

validating an existing confirmatory and advanced statistical

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theoretical framework. hypothesis-testing. software and techniques,
such as structural equation
modeling, and involves
specifying factor loadings

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you are adapting an existing personality assessment tool for a new cultural context.
Previous research in similar cultures has suggested a three-factor model: "extraversion,"
"agreeableness," and "conscientiousness." You hypothesize that the same three-factor
structure will hold true in your new cultural context. You collect data from your target
population and conduct CFA

Integrated Approach : combines elements of both EFA and CFA. This involves initially
conducting an EFA to explore the underlying factor structure without any preconceived
notions
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You want to combine the Your initial EFA provides You're open to refining your
advantages of both insights that can guide the theoretical framework based
exploratory and confirmatory formulation of more focused on the initial EFA results.
techniques. hypotheses for CFA.

You are developing a self-esteem measure for adolescents. You start with an EFA on an
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initial sample of participants to explore the underlying factors related to self-esteem. The
EFA results suggest two potential factors: "academic self-esteem" and "social
self-esteem." Based on these findings, you develop a CFA model that includes these two
factors and specific items that load onto each factor

similarities
between
Assessing Individual Standardized Administration Psychometric Properties : R
intelligence,
Abilities &V
aptitude, and
achievement Norms and Reference Educational and Vocational Decision-Making : Help
tests Groups Context : Often used in guide educational and
educational and vocational career decisions
settings
differences
between
I Aptitude Achievement
intelligence,
aptitude, and Purpose and Focus Measure an potential for Evaluate an
achievement individual's general acquiring specific individual's acquired
tests cognitive abilities abilities in a knowledge and skills
and potential for particular area : in a specific subject
Stanford-Binet learning, future performance or domain.
Intelligence problem-solving
Scales, Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scope of Evaluate a broad Focus on a narrower Concentrate on
Scale (WAIS). Assessment range of cognitive set of skills or assessing what an

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abilities, including abilities relevant to a individual has
Differential reasoning, memory, particular domain learned in a specific
Aptitude Test vocabulary, and academic subject
(DAT), Armed mathematical skills
Services
Vocational
Aptitude Battery
(ASVAB).

Scholastic
Assessment Test
(SAT)
Predictive vs.
Demonstrative
13 general prediction of
an individual's
potential for learning
and cognitive
functioning.
Predict an
individual's potential
for success in a
specific area, such
as mechanical
aptitude for
engineering
Demonstrate an
individual's current
level of knowledge

Development and Relevant across the Typically used during Administered at

Learning Stage lifespan as they educational and specific points in
measure general career planning to time to assess
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cognitive abilities predict future knowledge or skills
that remain relatively performance. acquired up to that
stable point
Eg : CSAT
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Personal vs. Provide insight into Often used in Commonly used in

Educational an individual's educational and education to assess
Context cognitive abilities vocational settings to academic progress
irrespective of guide career and and inform
specific educational educational instructional
or vocational goals decisions. planning.

convergent and Convergent validity : shows that the Civil Services (Preliminary) test correlates strongly with
discriminant other tests or measures that are theoretically related to the construct being assessed
validity of the
Select Related Measures: Administer the Tests: Analyze Correlations:
civil services
Choose other measures that Administer the Civil Services Calculate the correlation
(preliminary) test
 are known to assess similar (Preliminary) test along with coefficients between the
or closely related constructs. the selected related scores of the Civil Services
cognitive ability tests, such measures to a diverse test and the scores of the
as tests of analytical sample of participants related measures
reasoning, critical thinking

Hypothesis Confirmation: If
the correlations between the
Civil Services test and the
related measures are
significant and in the
expected direction, it
indicates convergent validity

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Discriminant validity : demonstrates that the Civil Services (Preliminary) test does not
correlate highly with measures that assess unrelated constructs.
Select Unrelated Measures : Administer the Tests Analyze Correlations : If the
choose measures of
physical fitness

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Hypothesis Confirmation: If
the correlations between the
Civil Services test and the
unrelated measures are not
Civil Services test measures
a distinct construct, you
should observe weaker or
non-significant correlations

significant or are weak, it

indicates discriminant
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validity

Methods of A test is said to be valid if it measures what it claims to measure

assessing
Face validity : A test is said Concurrent validity : if it Predictive validity : if it will
validity
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to be face valid if it appears can be shown to correlate predict some criterion or

to be measuring what it highly with another test of other.
claims to measure. the same variable which
was administered at the The predictive validity of an
same time intelligence test : correlating
the intelligence test scores
correlations beyond .75 of a group of children, at age
would be regarded as good 5, with their subsequent
support for the concurrent academic success.
validity

Content validity : Involves Construct validity : Criterion Group

expert judgment to Cronbach and Meehl : Differences:
determine whether the items examining patterns of
 on the inventory adequately relationships between the Description: Compares
represent the content personality inventory and scores on the personality
domain of the construct. other measures, consistent inventory between groups
with theoretical expectations known to differ on relevant
Eg : content validity of a criteria (e.g., clinical vs.
musical test give the test to non-clinical groups).
a number of musicians and
ask them to say whether the
test covered all the
important aspects of musical
ability

Incremental and Incremental : extent to Differential validity

differential validity : which a new test or measure assesses whether a test

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specialised forms of validity adds unique information and performs differently for
predictive power beyond distinct groups of individuals
what is already captured by
existing measures

Methods of
assessing
reliability
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Inter-Rater Reliability:

Involve multiple raters or

observers in scoring or
evaluating responses.
Inter-Scorer Consistency:

Assess scorer agreement

and consistency through
agreement statistics

Internal Consistency Reliability: advantages

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Easy to Calculate: Internal Single Administration: Overall Measure: They
consistency measures like These measures can be provide a global index of
Cronbach's alpha are calculated using responses how well the items in a test
straightforward to compute from a single administration are consistent in measuring
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and widely used in practice of the test, making them the same construct.
convenient for one-time
assessments

Internal Consistency Reliability: disadvantages

Homogeneity Assumption: Item Redundancy: High Item Format Impact:
Internal consistency internal consistency may Internal consistency can be
assumes that all items in the indicate item redundancy, influenced by the format of
test measure the same where several items items (e.g., all true/false
underlying construct. This essentially ask the same questions may inflate
might not be true for thing without adding unique Cronbach's alpha).
multidimensional constructs information
 Stability Coefficients (Test-Retest Reliability): advantages
Assessment of Temporal Suitable for Stable
Stability: Stability Constructs: For relatively
coefficients assess the stable constructs, stability
consistency of scores over coefficients can be
time informative about the test's
consistency.

Stability Coefficients (Test-Retest Reliability): disadvantages

Influenced by Factors: Practice Effects: Familiarity Not Suitable for Dynamic

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Stability coefficients can be with the test items during Constructs: For constructs
affected by external factors, retest may inflate stability that may change over time
like changes in participants' coefficients, leading to an (e.g., mood states), stability
mood or context overestimation of true coefficients might not

R&V

Even though
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Consistent Error: If a
measurement tool
stability

Why a Measure Can Be Reliable but Not Valid:

Narrow Focus: A measure
might be reliable in
accurately represent the
construct's reliability

Response Sets: Individuals

might respond in a
validity requires
consistently produces the assessing a specific aspect consistent manner across
reliability, the
same error or bias in its of a construct but not the different items or questions
reverse is not
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results, it can lead to entire construct itself. For on a measure, leading to
true. Explain
reliability without validity example, a test might high internal consistency
reliably measure only a and thus reliability.
Some measures
single component of a
can be reliable but
multifaceted trait, leading to
not valid. Give
high consistency in scores
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egs.
but not capturing the
complete picture.
DO EGS
Limited Scope: A measure Construct A highly reliable test can be
might be reliable for a Underrepresentation: A invalid. For eg a test that
certain population or context measure might be reliable in contains many of the same
but not for others. If the measuring a construct but questions, in essentially
measure's validity is limited may not adequately capture paraphrases, will be reliable
to specific conditions or the full range or complexity (that is, with little random
groups, it might exhibit of that construct. This can error in the variance), but it
reliability within those limits lead to reliability without will not be valid because the
but not beyond them. validity because it doesn't reliable variance will be
fully represent what it's specific to the test.
intended to measure
Why Reliability is Necessary for Validity:
Consistency: A test's Confidence in Precision: Reliable
results must be consistent Interpretation: Reliable measurements provide more
across repeated measurements increase the precise estimates of the
administrations to ensure confidence that observed construct being measured,
that observed score score differences reflect leading to more accurate
differences are due to true genuine differences in the and meaningful
variations in the construct, construct, rather than interpretations of validity
not measurement error. fluctuations in evidence
measurement.

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