Stanley Cauvain

Technology of Breadmaking
Third Edition

Springer
Contents

1 Bread: The Product 1

Introduction 1

Quality Characteristics of Bread 3

The Character of Bread 5
Bread Flavour 7
Bread Types 8

Assessing Bread Quality 12

External Character 12
Internal Character 15

Texture/Eating Quality and Flavour 16

Nutritional Qualities of Bread and Its Consumption 17
Conclusions 20
References 21

2 Breadmaking Processes 23
Functions of the Breadmaking Process 23
Cell Creation and Control 28

Major Breadmaking Process Groups 29

Straight Dough Bulk Fermentation 31

Yeast Level 32
Flours 33
Water Levels 34

Optional Ingredients 34
Process Variations 35
Creation of Bubble Structure 36

Sponge and Dough 36

Roles of the Sponge 37
Formulations 38

Improvers 38
Flours and Other Ingredients 39
Process Variations 39

xi
 Contents

Rapid Processing 39
Activated Dough Development (ADD) 40

No-Time Dough with Spiral Mixers 40

The Dutch Green Dough Process 41

Role of Improvers and Other Ingredients in Rapid Processing 42

Mechanical Dough Development 42

Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP) 43

Other Breadmaking Processes 51
Radical Bread Process 51

Sour Dough Processes 52

Breadmaking Processes, Bread Variety and Bread Quality 53

References 54

3 Functional Ingredients 57

Dough Conditioners and Their Composition 57

Ingredients 58
Fats 58

Soya Flour 61
Additives 63
Emulsifiers 63
Flour Treatment Agents or Oxidizing Agents 67
Preservatives 73

Processing Aids 75

Enzymes Used in Baking 75

Hemicellulases/Xylanases 80
Proteinases 81
Oxidase Enzymes 81

Lipase 81

Asparaginase 82

Transglutaminase 82
Health and Safety with Enzyme Usage 82

Summary of Small Ingredients Usage 83

Liquid Improvers 83

'Clean-Label'Improvers 84
Bakers'Yeast 84

Principal Forms of Yeast 85

Other Yeasts 86

Biology of Yeast Cells 87

Overview of Commercial Yeast Production 89
Yeast and Baking Processes 90
Starter Doughs 94
Salt (Sodium Chloride) 95
Sugars 96
Milk Products 97
Malt Products 97
References 97
Contents xiii

4 Mixing and Dough Processing 101

Functions of Mixing 101
Types of Mixer 102
CBP-Compatible Mixers 103
Mixing Under Pressure and Vacuum with CBP-Compatible Mixers.... 105
Oxygen-Enrichment of the Mixer Headspace
with CBP-Compatible Mixers 107
High-Speed and Twin-Spiral Mixers 108
Spiral Mixers 109
Horizontal Mixers 112
Low-Speed Mixers 112
Continuous Mixers 115
Control of Dough Temperature and Energy Transfer 116
Control of Dough Temperature 116
Energy Transfer 117
Dough Transfer Systems 118
Dough Make-Up Plant 119
Dividing 120
Dough Damage During Dividing 120
Two-Stage Oil Suction Divider 121
Extrusion Dividers 121
Single-Stage Vacuum Dividers 123
Rounding and Pre-moulding 124
Types of Rounder and First Shaping 126
Conical Rounders 126
Cylindrical Rounders 126
Rounding Belts 126
Reciprocating Rounders 127

Non-spherical Pre-moulding 128

Intermediate or First Proving 128

Pocket-Type Prover 130

First Prover Charging Methods 131
Indexing Conveyors 131
Pusher In-Feed Systems 131
Pallet In-Feed Systems 132
Discharging 132
Conveyorized First Provers 132
Final Moulding 132
Sheeting Action 135
Curling 136
The Final Moulding Board 138

Four-Piecing 138
Cross-Grain Moulding 140
Other Sheeting and Moulding Systems 140
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xjv

During Processing
Modification of Gas Bubble Structures 141

Sheet and Cut Dough Processing Systems 142

143
Panning and Traying Methods
for Small Bread and Rolls 143
Equipment
Small bun Divider Moulders 143

Multi-lane Roll Plants 145

Integrated,
Combination Bread and Roll Plants 145

References 146

and Cooling 147

5 Proving, Baking
Introduction 147
150
Psychrometry
Definitions 150
152
The Proving Process

Yeast Level, Proof Time and Prover Conditions 154

156
Prover Operation and Design
Practical Proving 156

Prover Checklist 156

Airflow 157

Ambient Conditions 157

Mechanical Handling 157

The Baking Process 161

Crumb Structure 161

Yeast Activity and the Foam to Sponge Conversion 161

Starch Gelatinization 162

Enzyme Activity 163

Baked Temperature 163

Crust Formation 163

Gloss Formation 165

Crust Crispness 167

Oven Break 168

Baking
Practical 169
PanStrapping 169
Oven Design 170
Oven to Cooler 173

The Cooling Process 173

Practical Cooling 175

Cooler Design 176

Part-Baked Processes 177

Process Economics 178

Energy Usage 178

Weight Loss 179

Life Cycle Costs 179
References 181
Contents xv

6 Dough Retarding and Freezing 183

Introduction 183

Retarding Fermented Doughs 184-

Suitability of Breadmaking Processes 184

Recipe and Yeast Level 185

Retarding Temperature 188

Storage Time 190

Proving and Baking 192
Guidelines for Retarded Dough Production 193
Retarding Pizza Doughs 194
Freezing Dough 195
Breadmaking Process, Recipe and Yeast 195
Processing and Freezing Doughs 198
Defrosting and Proving 202

Freezing Proved Doughs 203

Factors Affecting the Formation of White Spots on Retarded
and Frozen Doughs 204
Causes of Quality Losses with Retarded and Frozen Doughs 206
Skinning 206
Crust Fissures 206
Ragged Crust Breaks 207
Small Volume 207
White Spots or Small Blisters 207
Waxy Patches 208
Black Spots 208

Large Blisters 208

Dark Crust Colour 208
Uneven or Open Cell Structure 209
Areas of Dense Crumb 209
Principles of Refrigeration 209
Retarder-Provers and Retarders 210
References 212

7 Process Control and Software Applications in Baking 213

Introduction 213
Relevant Process Data 214

Recipe Data 215

Process Data 215

Mixing 215

Dough Divider Performance 217

Dough Processing 218

Proving, Baking and Cooling 218

On-Line Measurements 218
Off-Line Measurements 219
The Integration of Collected Data and Its Analysis 219
xvj Contents

220
Applications of Knowledge-Based Systems
221
Examples of Knowledge-Based Systems
Product Optimisation 222

Production Control with Knowledge-Based Systems 223

Production Scheduling (ROLLOUT) 224

Conclusions 226

References 226

the World 229

8 Baking Around
Introduction 229
229
History
The Breadmaking Process 233

Flour and Dough Development 235

Water 237

Yeast 238

Salt 239

Other Improvers 239

Dividing 240

Resting 240

Moulding 241

Panning and Pans 241

Final Proof 242

Baking 243

Cooling 243

Slicing and Packing 244

Packaging 244

Bread and Sandwich Making 245

Crustless Breads 248

The International Market 249

References 250

9 Speciality Fermented Goods 253

Introduction 253

Hamburger Bun 253

Production Rates 253
Formulation 254

Liquid Brews and Fermentation 254

Mixing 256

Dough Transfer 257

Do-How Unit 257

Dividing 258
AMF Pan-O-Mat 258
Flour Recovery and Pan Shaker Units 259

Proving 259
Seed Application 260

Baking 261

Depanning and Cooling 262

Contents xvii

Part-Baked Breads 262

Introduction 262
Manufacture of Part-Baked Breads 264
Post-baking Handling and Storage 265
Second Bake 266
Yeasted Laminated Products 267
Introduction 267
Formulations 268
Flour 269
Other Ingredients 269
Laminating or Roll-in Fat 269
Dough Mixing 272
Methods of Adding the Roll-in or Laminating Fat to the Dough 273
Lamination 273
Automatic Production 274
Frozen and Fully-Proved Frozen Laminated Products 274
Hot-Plate Products 274
Batter-Based Products 275
Fermented Dough-Based Products 275
References 276

10 Bread Spoilage and Staling 279

Introduction 279
Microbiological Spoilage of Bread 279
Mould Spoilage 279
Bacterial Spoilage : 281
Yeast Spoilage 282
Control of Microbiological Spoilage 283
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 284
Irradiation 286
Ultraviolet Irradiation 286
Microwave Radiation 286
Infrared Radiation 287
Bread Staling 287
Crust Staling 287
Role of the Main Bread Components in Crumb Staling 288

Staling Inhibitors 292

Enzymes 292
Emulsifiers 294
Pentosans 294
Alcohol 295

Sugars and Other Solutes 296

Freezing of Bread 296
References 299
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xviii

of Dough Formation 303

11 Principles
Introduction 303
304
Flour and Dough Components
Starch 305

Gluten 306

Pentosans 306
308
Lipids
Water-Soluble Proteins 308

Ash 309

and Water Absorption 309

Flour Components
Wheat Gluten Proteins 312
312
Amino Acid Composition
Gliadin 313

Glutenin 314
315
Stages in Dough Formation
316
Hydration
317
Blending
Gluten Development 318

The Formation of Other Bonds 321

Breakdown 321
322
Unmixing
Air Incorporation 322

The Gluten Matrix 324

324
Dough Rheology
Gluten Structure 328
328
Bonding Between Protein Chains
Gluten Elasticity 330

Gluten Viscosity 331

331
Extensibility
Stickiness and the Behaviour of Dough During Processing 332

References 334

12 Wheat Milling and Flour Testing 339

Introduction 339

The Modern Flour-Milling Process 340

Delivery of the Wheat 341

Wheat Testing 342

Wheat Storage 345

Mycotoxin Testing 346

The Mill Screenroom 346

Conditioning 348

Grain Sorting 348

De-branning and the Flour Milling Process 349

The Progress of Wheat Through the Mill 349

Break System 351

Contents xix

Scratch System and Bran Finishers 351

Scalping, Grading and Dusting 352
Purifiers 352
Reduction System 352
Flour Dressing 353
Wholemeal, Brown and Enriched Flours 355
Self-raising Flours 356
Malted Grain and Multi-seed Flours 356
Storage and Packing 356
Food Safety and Product Protection 357
Foreign Bodies 358
Chemical Contaminants 358
Biological Contaminants 358
Controlling Flour Quality and Specification 360
Gristing Versus Blending 360
Flour Treatments for Breadmaking 361
Ascorbic Acid 362
Enzymes 362
Nutritional Additions 363
Flour Testing Methods 363
Protein and Moisture Content 364
Ash, Flour Colour and Bran Specks 365
Water Absorption 366
Hagberg Falling Number 367
The Rheological Properties of Wheat Flour Dough 368
Dynamic Measurement During Mixing 368
Stretching and Expansion Tests 369
Amylograph, Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) and MixerLab 371
Choosing Appropriate Flour Testing Methods 372
Glossary of Milling Terms Used in This Chapter 373
References 373

13 Other Cereals in Breadmaking 377

Introduction 377
Rye Bread 377
Sour Dough Methods 379
Doughmaking 380

Baking 380
American Rye Breads 381

Keeping Qualities of Rye Breads 381

Triticale 381
Oats 382

Barley 383
Other Grains and Seeds in Bread 385

Modifying Nutritional Properties with Non-wheat Sources 387

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Gluten-Free Breads 387

Bread Without Wheat 389

Examples of Wheatless Breads 390

Cassava Bread (Satin 1988) 390
Riceor Maize Bread (Satin 1989) 390

Sorghum Breads 390

Sorghum and Maize Bread Using a Continuous Mixer 391

Sorghum Flat Breads 392

Unleavened Breads 393

Recipes for Unleavened Breads 394

Flours for Unleavened Breads 395
Conclusions 395
References 396

Index 399