Unit 12: Environmental Chemistry - Water

(i)List the impurities present in rain water.

Impurities in Rain Water:

 Dust and dirt

 Pollen
 Soot and smoke
 Acidic gases (like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides)
 Heavy metals

(ii) List toxic substances present in household wastes.

Toxic Substances in Household Wastes:

 Batteries (lead, cadmium)

 Cleaning chemicals (bleach, ammonia)
 Pesticides and herbicides
 Old paint (lead)
 Pharmaceuticals

(iii) In what ways, industrial wastes pollute water.

Ways Industrial Wastes Pollute Water:

 Discharge of toxic chemicals and heavy metals

 Release of untreated wastewater
 Oil spills
 Thermal pollution (heated water)
 Nutrient pollution (excessive nitrogen and phosphorus)

(iv) What is water pollution?

Water Pollution:

 Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies (like rivers, lakes, and oceans) with
harmful substances, making the water unsafe for drinking, recreation, and aquatic life.

(v) List some waterborne diseases.

Waterborne Diseases:

 Cholera
 Typhoid fever
 Dysentery
 Hepatitis A
  Giardiasis

(vi) What are pathogenic microorganisms?

Pathogenic Microorganisms:

 Pathogenic microorganisms are harmful germs (like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa) that can
cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants.

Long Response Questions

3. How does tap water differ from distilled water?

Differences Between Tap Water and Distilled Water:

1. Source:

 Tap Water: Comes from local water supplies, such as rivers, lakes, and underground sources. It
is treated and supplied to homes and businesses.
 Distilled Water: Produced by boiling water to create steam and then condensing the steam back
into a liquid. This process removes impurities and minerals.

2. Purity:

 Tap Water: Contains various impurities, including minerals (like calcium and magnesium),
chemicals (like chlorine used for disinfection), and sometimes contaminants from the
environment.
 Distilled Water: Highly purified, with most impurities, minerals, and contaminants removed. It is
nearly free of dissolved substances.

3. Mineral Content:

 Tap Water: Usually has a balanced mineral content that can be beneficial for health. Minerals
like calcium and magnesium contribute to taste and nutritional value.
 Distilled Water: Lacks essential minerals because the distillation process removes them. This
can make it taste flat or bland.

4. Uses:

 Tap Water: Commonly used for drinking, cooking, bathing, and irrigation. It is generally safe to
use for everyday purposes.
 Distilled Water: Often used in specific applications, such as in laboratories, for medical devices
(like CPAP machines), and in some cooking processes (e.g., when making baby formula).
5. Cost:

 Tap Water: Usually inexpensive and readily available. The cost is typically covered in monthly
water bills.
 Distilled Water: More expensive than tap water, especially if bought in bottles. It can also be
produced at home using a distiller, which requires an initial investment.

4. Why are municipal water supplies treated with aluminium sulphate?

Municipal water supplies are treated with aluminum sulfate (often called alum) for several
important reasons:

1. Coagulation:

 Function: Aluminum sulfate acts as a coagulant, which helps to remove suspended particles,
such as dirt, silt, and organic matter, from the water.
 Process: When alum is added to water, it forms a gelatinous precipitate that traps these
particles. This process is known as coagulation, which is a key step in water treatment.

3. Improving Sedimentation:

 Function: The addition of alum enhances the sedimentation process in treatment plants.
 Process: The larger floc particles settle more quickly to the bottom of the treatment tanks,
allowing for more efficient removal of sediment and other contaminants.

4. Removal of Microorganisms:

 Function: The coagulation process also helps to reduce the number of microorganisms in the
water, including bacteria and viruses.
 Process: By removing these pathogens, alum contributes to making the water safer for drinking.

5. Cost-Effectiveness:

 Function: Aluminum sulfate is relatively inexpensive and readily available, making it a practical
choice for municipal water treatment.
 Process: Its effectiveness in improving water quality contributes to overall cost savings in the
treatment process.

5. What are some health effects of biological contamination of water?

Biological contamination of water occurs when harmful microorganisms, such as bacteria,

viruses, and parasites, enter water sources. This contamination can lead to several health effects,
including:
1. Waterborne Diseases:

 Cholera: Caused by Vibrio cholerae, leading to severe diarrhea and dehydration.

 Typhoid Fever: Caused by Salmonella typhi, characterized by high fever, fatigue, and
gastrointestinal issues.
 Dysentery: Caused by bacteria like Shigella or the parasite Entamoeba histolytica, resulting in
diarrhea with blood or mucus.

2. Gastrointestinal Infections:

 Contaminated water can lead to various gastrointestinal infections, causing symptoms like
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.

3. Hepatitis:

 Hepatitis A: A viral infection transmitted through contaminated water, causing liver

inflammation, jaundice, and flu-like symptoms.

4. Respiratory Infections:

 Some pathogens can cause respiratory issues if water is aerosolized (e.g., in showers or
humidifiers) and inhaled.

5. Long-Term Health Effects:

 Chronic exposure to contaminated water can lead to long-term health issues, such as kidney
damage, reproductive problems, or compromised immune function.

6. Vulnerable Populations:

 Children, the elderly, and individuals with weakened immune systems are at higher risk of
severe health effects from biological contamination.

6. Identify the negative effects of water pollutants on life.

Water pollutants can have numerous negative effects on life, impacting ecosystems, human
health, and the environment. Here are some of the key negative effects:

1. Human Health Risks:

 Waterborne Diseases: Polluted water can cause diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and
dysentery, leading to illness and even death, especially in vulnerable populations.
 Toxic Exposure: Chemicals like heavy metals (lead, mercury) and pesticides can accumulate in
the human body, causing long-term health problems such as cancer, neurological disorders, and
reproductive issues.
2. Impact on Aquatic Life:

 Ecosystem Disruption: Pollutants can disrupt aquatic ecosystems, leading to a decline in fish and
other aquatic species. This can alter food chains and reduce biodiversity.
 Habitat Destruction: Sediments and chemicals can destroy habitats, such as coral reefs and
wetlands, making it difficult for aquatic organisms to thrive.

3. Biomagnification:

 Concentration of Pollutants: Certain pollutants, like heavy metals and persistent organic
pollutants, can accumulate in the tissues of aquatic organisms. As these organisms are eaten by
larger predators, the concentration of toxins increases, affecting higher trophic levels, including
humans.

4. Economic Impact:

 Cost of Water Treatment: Polluted water requires extensive treatment, leading to increased
costs for municipalities and consumers.
 Loss of Livelihoods: Fisheries and tourism can suffer due to water pollution, resulting in
economic losses for communities dependent on these industries.

5. Environmental Degradation:

 Eutrophication: Excess nutrients from agricultural runoff can lead to algal blooms, which
deplete oxygen in water bodies and create dead zones, harming aquatic life.
 Soil Contamination: Polluted water can contaminate soil and groundwater, impacting
agriculture and drinking water supplies.

6. Reduced Quality of Life:

 Access to Clean Water: Pollution can make it difficult for communities to access safe drinking
water, affecting overall health and well-being.
 Aesthetic Concerns: Polluted water can lead to unpleasant odors, discoloration, and the
presence of debris, negatively affecting recreational activities and quality of life.

7. Water scarcity is an important issue in Pakistan. Give your comments on it.

Water scarcity is indeed a critical issue in Pakistan, affecting various aspects of life, the
economy, and the environment. Here are some key points regarding water scarcity in Pakistan:

1. Increasing Demand:

 Population Growth: With a rapidly growing population, the demand for water for drinking,
sanitation, agriculture, and industry is increasing, putting additional stress on already limited
water resources.
  Urbanization: As more people move to cities, the demand for water in urban areas has surged,
leading to shortages and over-extraction of water sources.

2. Agricultural Dependency:

 Irrigation Needs: Pakistan’s economy relies heavily on agriculture, which consumes about 90%
of the country’s water resources. Inefficient irrigation practices and outdated infrastructure lead
to significant water wastage.
 Climate Variability: Changes in climate patterns, such as irregular rainfall and prolonged
droughts, threaten agricultural production and exacerbate water scarcity.

3. Deteriorating Water Quality:

 Pollution: Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and untreated sewage contribute to the
pollution of rivers and groundwater, making water unsafe for consumption and use.
 Over-extraction: Excessive pumping of groundwater leads to the depletion of aquifers, further
reducing the availability of clean water.

4. Geopolitical Challenges:

 Indus Water Treaty: Pakistan shares rivers with India, and any changes in upstream water usage
can directly impact Pakistan’s water availability. Disputes over water rights can create tension
between the two countries.

5. Infrastructure Issues:

 Inefficient Distribution: Poor management and lack of maintenance of water distribution

systems result in significant water losses due to leaks and evaporation.
 Storage Capacity: Pakistan has limited water storage capacity, with few dams to capture and
store monsoon rains, leading to shortages during dry seasons.

6. Socio-Economic Impacts:

 Health Risks: Water scarcity can lead to inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices, increasing
the risk of waterborne diseases.
 Economic Strain: Industries reliant on water may face challenges, leading to job losses and
reduced economic growth in affected regions.

7. Solutions and Strategies:

 Water Management: Improved water management practices, including rainwater harvesting,

drip irrigation, and wastewater recycling, can help mitigate water scarcity.
 Awareness and Education: Educating the public about water conservation techniques and the
importance of preserving water resources is crucial.

8. What are fertilizers?

Fertilizers are substances that are added to soil or plants to provide essential nutrients necessary
for their growth and development. They play a crucial role in enhancing agricultural productivity
and improving crop yields. Here are the main aspects of fertilizers:

1. Types of Fertilizers:

 Chemical Fertilizers: These are manufactured using chemical processes and typically contain
specific nutrients. Common types include:
o Nitrogenous Fertilizers: High in nitrogen, which promotes leafy growth (e.g., urea,
ammonium nitrate).
o Phosphatic Fertilizers: Rich in phosphorus, supporting root development and flowering
(e.g., superphosphate).
o Potassic Fertilizers: Containing potassium, which enhances fruit quality and resistance
to disease (e.g., potassium chloride).
 Organic Fertilizers: Derived from natural sources, such as plant or animal matter. They improve
soil health and provide a slow release of nutrients (e.g., compost, manure).

2. Nutrient Content:

 Fertilizers typically contain three primary nutrients:

o Nitrogen (N): Essential for plant growth and development, promoting green foliage.
o Phosphorus (P): Important for energy transfer, root development, and flowering.
o Potassium (K): Enhances water regulation, disease resistance, and overall plant health.

3. Application:

 Fertilizers can be applied in various ways, including:

o Broadcasting: Spreading fertilizer evenly over the soil surface.
o Banding: Placing fertilizer in a band close to the plant roots.
o Foliar Application: Spraying fertilizer directly onto plant leaves for quick absorption.

4. Benefits:

 Increased Crop Yields: Fertilizers can significantly enhance the quantity and quality of
agricultural produce.
 Soil Fertility Improvement: Regular application can restore and maintain soil fertility over time.

5. Environmental Considerations:

 Overuse of fertilizers can lead to environmental issues, such as water pollution from runoff,
which may cause eutrophication in water bodies.
 Sustainable practices, such as using organic fertilizers or integrated nutrient management, can
help mitigate these effects.

9. Public health depends on water quality. Give arguments.

Water quality is fundamental to public health for several reasons. Here are key arguments
illustrating this relationship:

1. Prevention of Waterborne Diseases:

 Poor water quality can harbor pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, leading to
waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery. Access to clean water is
essential for preventing outbreaks and ensuring community health.

2. Safe Drinking Water:

 Clean water is necessary for drinking and cooking. Contaminated water can cause
gastrointestinal issues and other health problems, leading to increased morbidity and mortality
rates, particularly in vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.

3. Hygiene and Sanitation:

 Access to quality water is crucial for maintaining hygiene practices, such as handwashing,
bathing, and cleaning. Inadequate water supply and quality can compromise personal and
community hygiene, increasing the risk of infections and diseases.

4. Nutritional Health:

 Water quality impacts food safety and nutrition. Contaminated water used for irrigation can
lead to the growth of crops that are unsafe for consumption, affecting overall dietary quality
and public health.

5. Economic Impacts:

 Poor water quality can strain healthcare systems due to increased medical costs from treating
waterborne diseases. This economic burden can divert resources from other essential health
services and impact community productivity.

6. Environmental Health:

 Water pollution affects ecosystems, leading to bioaccumulation of toxins in fish and other
aquatic life. Consuming contaminated fish can pose health risks to humans and disrupt the food
chain, further impacting public health.

7. Access to Healthcare:

 In regions with poor water quality, healthcare facilities may struggle to provide adequate
services, as clean water is necessary for sanitation, sterilization, and patient care. This can lead
to increased health risks for the population.
8. Psychosocial Well-being:

 Access to clean water contributes to a sense of security and well-being in communities.

Conversely, concerns about water quality can lead to anxiety and stress, impacting mental
health.

10. How chemistry helps maintain a clean swimming pool? Explain.

Chemistry is essential for maintaining a clean swimming pool by balancing water chemistry,
ensuring effective disinfection, preventing algae growth, and clarifying the water. Regular testing
and chemical adjustments contribute to a safe and enjoyable swimming environment, protecting
the health of pool users and preserving the pool infrastructure.

11. It is advisable to wash hands well with soap after using bathrooms. Evaluate it.

Washing hands well with soap after using the bathroom is an essential practice for personal and
public health. It effectively removes harmful pathogens, prevents disease transmission, and
promotes overall hygiene awareness. By making hand washing a priority and encouraging proper
techniques, individuals can contribute significantly to their own health and the health of their
communities.
Unit 15: Biochemistry

i) Give three reasons why living organisms need food.

Reasons why living organisms need food:

o Food provides energy for growth and activity.

o It supplies nutrients for building and repairing tissues.
o It helps maintain bodily functions like metabolism and immunity.

(ii) What is a balanced diet? What is the importance of balance diet?

A balanced diet contains the right amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
minerals, and water. It keeps the body healthy, supports growth, and prevents
deficiencies.

(iii) State four functions of proteins. Give one example to illustrate your answer.

Functions of proteins:

 Builds and repairs body tissues (e.g., muscle repair after exercise).
 Helps form enzymes for digestion.
 Supports immune function.
 Acts as a secondary energy source when needed.

Example: Lean meats for muscle growth.

(iv) Suggest two major foods a mother could give to her growing child? And why.

Milk and eggs. These foods are rich in proteins and calcium, which support bone growth and
overall development.

(v) Carbohydrates are a major source of energy. Defend the statement.

Carbohydrates are easily broken down into glucose, which provides immediate energy for daily
activities and brain function.
(vi) Fatima has fond of junk food like French fries, burgers, and pizza. What will happen if
Fatima only eats junk food? What should she add to her routine food?

If Fatima only eats junk food, she may suffer from nutrient deficiencies, weight gain, and health
issues. She should add fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins to her diet for balanced
nutrition.

Long Response Questions

3. What are lipids? How are lipids important to our body?

Lipids are a group of molecules that include fats, oils, and waxes. They are an essential part of
our diet and play important roles in our body.

Importance of Lipids:

1. Energy Storage: Lipids store energy for our body. When we need extra energy, the body
can use stored fat.
2. Protection and Insulation: Lipids help protect our organs and keep us warm by acting as
insulation.
3. Cell Structure: They are a key part of cell membranes, helping to maintain the structure
and protect the cells.
4. Absorption of Vitamins: Lipids help absorb fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K,
which are necessary for good health.

4. How do you maintain a balanced diet?

Maintaining a balanced diet means eating a variety of foods in the right amounts to provide your
body with the nutrients it needs. Here are some key steps to achieve a balanced diet:

1. Include Different Food Groups: Make sure your diet includes:

o Fruits and Vegetables: Aim for at least five servings a day. They are rich in
vitamins, minerals, and fiber.
o Proteins: Include sources like meat, fish, eggs, beans, and nuts. They are essential
for growth and repair.
o Carbohydrates: Choose whole grains like brown rice, whole wheat bread, and
oats for energy.
o Dairy or Alternatives: Include milk, yogurt, or dairy alternatives for calcium and
vitamin D.
2. Be mindful of how much you eat. Use smaller plates, and listen to your body's hunger
and fullness cues.
3. Limit Sugary and Fatty Foods: Reduce the intake of junk food, sugary drinks, and high-
fat snacks. These can lead to weight gain and other health issues.
4. Stay Hydrated: Drink plenty of water throughout the day. Limit sugary drinks and
caffeine.
 5. Plan Your Meals: Prepare meals in advance to ensure you include a variety of foods and
avoid unhealthy choices.
6. Enjoy Your Food: Eat slowly and savor your meals. This can help you enjoy your food
more and recognize when you're full.

5. What percentage of fat is required in a balanced diet? Why is the percentage of fat being
lowest in major food components? Justify

In a balanced diet, fats should make up about 20% to 35% of your total daily calorie intake.
This means that if you eat 2,000 calories a day, about 400 to 700 calories should come from fats,
which is approximately 44 to 78 grams of fat.

Why is the Percentage of Fat Lower in Major Food Components?

1. Energy Balance: While fats are a dense source of energy consuming too much fat can
lead to excess calorie intake and weight gain. Keeping fat intake moderate helps maintain
a healthy weight.
2. Health Risks: High-fat diets, especially those high in saturated and trans fats, are linked
to various health problems, such as heart disease, high cholesterol, and obesity.
Therefore, it is recommended to limit the amount of unhealthy fats.
3. Nutrient Distribution: A balanced diet includes a variety of nutrients. If fat consumption
is too high, it can limit the intake of other essential nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins,
vitamins, and minerals. A lower fat percentage ensures that there is room for a diverse
range of foods.

6. What are the sources and functions of nucleic acids?

Sources of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are found in all living cells, and they are primarily obtained from the following
sources:

1. Foods Rich in Nucleic Acids:

o Meat: Chicken, beef, and fish are high in nucleic acids.
o Eggs: Another good source of nucleic acids.
o Dairy Products: Milk, cheese, and yogurt contain nucleic acids.
o Plants: Nuts, seeds, and legumes also provide nucleic acids, although in lower
amounts than animal sources.
2. Cellular Sources:
o Nucleic acids are produced within the cells of all living organisms, as they are
essential for cellular functions and genetic information.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids, primarily DNA and RNA, have several important functions:
 1. Genetic Information Storage:
o DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) stores the genetic blueprint of an organism,
containing instructions needed for growth, development, and reproduction.
2. Protein Synthesis:
o RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) plays a crucial role in translating the genetic code from
DNA into proteins. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the instructions from DNA
to the ribosomes, where proteins are made.
3. Genetic Expression Regulation:
o Nucleic acids help regulate which genes are expressed in a cell, influencing cell
function and behavior.
4. Replication:
o DNA replicates itself during cell division, ensuring that genetic information is
passed on to new cells.

7. Imagine you are a nutritionist task to design a meal plan for athletes participating in a
marathon. Explain the role of carbohydrates can affect an athlete's performance during
the marathon.

Role of Carbohydrates in Athlete's Performance

Carbohydrates are a crucial part of an athlete's diet, especially for those participating in
endurance events like marathons. Here’s how they impact performance:

1. Primary Energy Source:

o Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. During intense exercise, like
running a marathon, the body relies heavily on carbohydrates for fuel. They are
broken down into glucose, which provides the energy needed for muscle
contractions.
2. Glycogen Storage:
o The body stores carbohydrates in the form of glycogen in muscles and the liver.
Having sufficient glycogen stores is vital for athletes, as it helps sustain energy
levels throughout the marathon. Depleted glycogen can lead to fatigue and
decreased performance.
3. Preventing Fatigue:
o Carbohydrates can help delay the onset of fatigue. Consuming carbohydrates
before and during the marathon can maintain blood glucose levels, keeping
energy available for longer periods. This can help athletes avoid "hitting the
wall," a common experience where energy levels drop significantly.
4. Recovery:
o After the marathon, carbohydrates play a key role in recovery. Consuming carbs
helps replenish glycogen stores, allowing athletes to recover more quickly for
future training sessions or competitions.

Sample Meal Plan for Marathon Athletes

Here’s a sample meal plan that emphasizes carbohydrate intake:

1. Pre-Race Day (Carb Loading):

 Breakfast: Oatmeal with banana and honey

 Lunch: Whole grain pasta with marinara sauce and vegetables
 Snack: Rice cakes with almond butter
 Dinner: Grilled chicken with quinoa and steamed broccoli

2. Race Day:

 Breakfast (3-4 hours before): Bagel with peanut butter and a smoothie
 During Race: Energy gels or sports drinks containing carbohydrates every 30-45 minutes

3. Post-Race Recovery:

 Snack: Chocolate milk or a protein shake with a banana

 Dinner: Brown rice with lean protein (like chicken or fish) and mixed vegetables
Unit 16: Empirical Data Collection and Analysis

(i) What is the International System of Units (SI)? Why are SI units standardized for
better communication and collaboration?
The International System of Units (SI) is a standardized system of measurement used globally to
ensure consistency in scientific and technical communication. Standardizing units helps
scientists and professionals from different countries understand and compare their data
accurately.

(ii) In a race, why is it essential to use seconds or minutes as the unit for measurement for
recording time instead of hours?
Using seconds or minutes allows for more precise measurements of short time intervals in races.
Hours would be too large a unit to capture the quick changes in performance and speed during a
race.

(iii) Differentiate between accuracy and precision.

Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value, while precision
refers to how consistent and repeatable measurements are, regardless of whether they are close to
the true value.

(iv) A chemist has a sample of mass 0.003 kilograms. How will he convert this mass to
milligrams?
To convert kilograms to milligrams, multiply by 1,000,000 (since 1 kg = 1,000,000 mg).
0.003 kg × 1,000,000 mg/kg = 3,000 mg.

(v) What is the use of prefixes in measurements?

Prefixes in measurements help express quantities in a more manageable form by indicating
powers of ten. For example, "kilo-" means 1,000, making it easier to work with larger or smaller
quantities (e.g., kilometers instead of meters).

(vi) What are the advantages of using scientific tools like measuring cylinders, stopwatches,
and thermometers in measurements?
Using scientific tools improves the accuracy and reliability of measurements. Measuring
cylinders provide precise volume readings, stopwatches allow for accurate timekeeping, and
thermometers give exact temperature readings, which are crucial for conducting experiments and
gathering data.

Long Response Questions

3. How to Calculate the accuracy of measurements?

To calculate the accuracy of measurements, you can follow these steps:

1. Determine the True Value: Find out the true or accepted value of the quantity you are
measuring. This value is usually known from reliable sources or standards.
2. Measure the Value: Take your measurement using the appropriate tools or instruments.
 3. Calculate the Error: Subtract your measured value from the true value. This difference
is called the error.

Error=True Value−Measured Value

4. Calculate the Accuracy: To express accuracy as a percentage, you can use the formula:
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
Accuracy=(1− 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)×100

This formula gives you the accuracy in percentage form. A higher percentage means your
measurement is more accurate.

Example:

 If the true value of a length is 10 cm and you measure it as 9.8 cm:

o Error = 10 cm - 9.8 cm = 0.2 cm
o Accuracy = (1 - |0.2 cm| / 10 cm) × 100 = (1 - 0.02) × 100 = 98%

This means your measurement is 98% accurate compared to the true value.

4. Evaluate how tools for measurements are helpful in performing scientific techniques.

Measurement tools are essential in science because they help ensure that experiments and
observations are accurate, reliable, and repeatable. Here are some ways they are helpful:

1. Precision and Accuracy: Measurement tools like rulers, scales, and thermometers
provide precise and accurate data. This accuracy is crucial for obtaining valid results in
experiments.
2. Standardization: Tools help standardize measurements, allowing scientists to
communicate their findings clearly. For example, using the metric system ensures
everyone understands the measurements, whether they are in different countries or fields.
3. Data Collection: Instruments such as graduated cylinders, pipettes, and
spectrophotometers allow scientists to collect data systematically. This data is vital for
analyzing results and drawing conclusions.
4. Monitoring Changes: Measurement tools help scientists monitor changes in experiments
over time. For instance, using a thermometer to measure temperature changes can
indicate reactions or physical changes.
5. Improving Safety: Many measurement tools are designed to enhance safety in
laboratories. For example, using precise measurements in chemical reactions can prevent
dangerous spills or reactions.
6. Facilitating Comparison: Measurements allow scientists to compare results from
different experiments or studies. This comparison can help validate findings and
contribute to scientific knowledge.
Example:

In a chemistry lab, a balance measures the mass of a substance precisely. If a scientist adds 5
grams of a chemical to a reaction, they can confidently know that the measurement is accurate,
leading to consistent results when repeated.

5. How does scientific notation enhance the ability to communicate about extremely large
and small numbers? Convince.

Scientific notation is a powerful way to express extremely large or small numbers using a
standard format, which makes it easier to communicate and work with them. Here’s how it
enhances communication:

1. Simplicity: Scientific notation simplifies complex numbers. Instead of writing out long
strings of zeros, we can express numbers in a more compact form. For example, instead
of writing 1,000,000,000, we can write it as 1×109. This makes it easier to read and
understand.
2. Clarity: It helps clarify the scale of a number. Using scientific notation clearly indicates
whether a number is large or small. For instance, 5.2×10−3shows that the number is a
small fraction (0.0052), while 3.0×108 indicates a large quantity (300,000,000). This
clarity is crucial in scientific discussions.
3. Ease of Calculation: Scientific notation makes calculations with very large or very small
numbers easier. When multiplying or dividing numbers, we can simply add or subtract
the exponents. For example, (2×103)×(3×105)=6×103+5=6×108. This reduces errors and
speeds up calculations.
4. Consistency: It provides a consistent format for expressing numbers across different
scientific fields. Whether in physics, chemistry, or biology, scientists can communicate
effectively without confusion over how to write large or small values.
5. Avoiding Ambiguity: Using scientific notation minimizes the risk of misinterpretation.
For instance, a number written as 0.000045 can be easily misread, but 4.5×10−5clearly
conveys its magnitude.

Example:

In fields like astronomy, distances between stars are often measured in light-years, which can be
extremely large numbers. Instead of saying a star is 4,220,000,000,000 kilometers away, we can
say it is 4.22×1012kilometers. This makes it much easier to communicate such distances.

6. Why do scientists realize the need for a standardized system of measurement?

Scientists realize the need for a standardized system of measurement for several important
reasons:

1. Consistency: A standardized system ensures that measurements are consistent across

different experiments and studies. When all scientists use the same units, it eliminates
confusion and helps everyone understand the results in the same way.
 2. Communication: Standardized measurements allow scientists from different countries
and disciplines to communicate their findings clearly. This is crucial for collaboration,
sharing research, and building on each other’s work.
3. Accuracy and Precision: Standardization helps improve the accuracy and precision of
measurements. When scientists use established units, they can more easily compare
results and identify errors or discrepancies.
4. Reproducibility: Scientific experiments must be reproducible, meaning other scientists
should be able to repeat them and obtain similar results. A standardized system of
measurement makes it easier to replicate experiments and validate findings.
5. Global Collaboration: In an increasingly interconnected world, scientists often work
together across borders. A common measurement system facilitates international
cooperation and understanding in research and scientific advancements.
6. Reduction of Errors: Using standardized units reduces the risk of errors that can occur
when converting between different measurement systems. It minimizes
misunderstandings and increases the reliability of data.

Example:

For instance, the International System of Units (SI) is widely used because it provides a clear
framework for measurements like length (meters), mass (kilograms), and time (seconds). If
scientists all use these standard units, it’s easier to share and compare their findings, leading to
more effective scientific progress.
Unit 17: Separation Techniques

(i)Why is it important to separate materials from a mixture?

It is important to separate materials from a mixture to obtain pure substances, remove impurities,
and make the components easier to use in further processes or applications.

(ii) What is distillation

Distillation is a process used to separate liquids in a mixture based on their different boiling
points. It involves heating the mixture to boil one liquid, then cooling the vapor to collect the
purified liquid.

(iii) What is filtration?

Filtration is a method used to separate solids from liquids or gases using a filter. The filter allows
the liquid or gas to pass through while trapping the solid particles.

(iv) What is evaporation?

Evaporation is the process where a liquid turns into a gas at a temperature below its boiling
point. It occurs when the liquid is exposed to air or heat, allowing the molecules to escape into
the atmosphere.

Long Response Questions

2. What technique would you use to separate sand from water? There are two possibilities.
Mention their names.

To separate sand from water, you can use the following two techniques:

1. Filtration: This method involves pouring the mixture of sand and water through a filter
paper or a sieve. The sand will be trapped on the filter paper, while the water will pass
through and be collected in a separate container.
2. Sedimentation: This technique involves letting the mixture settle so that the sand sinks
to the bottom of the container. Once the sand has settled, you can carefully pour off the
clear water from the top, leaving the sand behind.

Both methods are effective for separating sand from water.

3. What technique would you use to separate alcohol from water?

To separate alcohol from water, you can use distillation. This technique takes advantage of the
different boiling points of the two liquids. Here’s how it works:
 1. Heating: The mixture of alcohol and water is heated in a distillation apparatus. Alcohol
(ethanol) has a lower boiling point (about 78.37 °C) compared to water (100 °C).
2. Vaporization: As the mixture heats up, the alcohol will vaporize first due to its lower
boiling point.
3. Condensation: The vapor passes through a condenser, where it cools and turns back into
liquid form.
4. Collection: The condensed alcohol is collected in a separate container, leaving most of
the water behind.

This method is effective for separating alcohol from water in mixtures, such as in the production
of spirits or in laboratories.

4. What are mixtures?

Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances that are not chemically bonded together.
In a mixture, each substance retains its individual properties, meaning that they can be physically
separated from each other. Mixtures can be classified into two main types:

1. Homogeneous Mixtures: These mixtures have a uniform composition throughout. The

individual components are evenly distributed, and you cannot easily distinguish one
substance from another. Examples include saltwater and air.
2. Heterogeneous Mixtures: In these mixtures, the components are not uniformly
distributed, and you can usually see the different parts. Examples include a salad, sand
and salt mixture, or oil and water.

Mixtures can involve solids, liquids, and gases, and they can vary in composition and properties
depending on the substances involved.

5. How separation of mixtures of two or more liquids is done. Name the separation
technique.

The separation of mixtures of two or more liquids can be done using fractional distillation. This
technique is particularly effective when the liquids have different boiling points. Here’s how it
works:

1. Heating the Mixture: The liquid mixture is heated in a distillation apparatus. As the
temperature rises, the liquid with the lower boiling point vaporizes first.
2. Vaporization: The vapor travels up through a fractionating column, where it encounters
materials that cause it to condense and re-vaporize multiple times. This process helps to
separate the components based on their boiling points.
3. Condensation: The vapor then passes through a condenser, where it cools down and
turns back into liquid form.
4. Collection: The separated liquids are collected in different containers based on their
boiling points. The liquid with the lower boiling point is collected first, followed by the
higher boiling point liquid.
Fractional distillation is commonly used in industries, such as petroleum refining and the
production of alcoholic beverages, to separate mixtures of liquids effectively.

6. How to separate a mixture of two solids?

To separate a mixture of two solids, you can use various techniques, depending on their physical
properties. Here are some common methods:

1. Sieving: If the two solids have different particle sizes, you can use a sieve or mesh to
separate them. The smaller particles will pass through the sieve, while the larger ones will
remain.
2. Magnetic Separation: If one of the solids is magnetic, you can use a magnet to attract
and remove the magnetic solid from the mixture. This is useful for separating metals
from non-metals.
3. Filtration: If one of the solids is soluble in a liquid and the other is not, you can dissolve
the soluble solid in a suitable solvent, then use filtration. The insoluble solid will remain
on the filter paper, while the soluble solid will pass through with the liquid.
4. Manual Separation: If the solids are distinctly different in appearance or texture, you
can separate them by hand. This method is practical for small quantities.
5. Decantation or Sedimentation: If one solid settles at the bottom of a mixture when
water is added, you can decant the liquid, leaving the solid behind. This method works
best when the solid is denser than the liquid.

7. What method will you use to separate a sand and sugar mixture?

To separate a mixture of sand and sugar, you can use the solubility method, which involves
dissolving the sugar in water. Here’s how to do it step by step:

1. Add Water: Place the sand and sugar mixture in a container and add a sufficient amount
of water. Stir the mixture to dissolve the sugar completely. Sugar is soluble in water,
while sand is not.
2. Filtration: After the sugar has dissolved, pour the mixture through a filter paper placed
in a funnel. The sand will remain on the filter paper as the residue, while the sugar
solution (filtrate) will pass through.
3. Evaporation: To recover the sugar from the sugar solution, you can evaporate the water.
Heat the solution gently until all the water has evaporated, leaving behind the sugar
crystals.
4. Drying the Sand: The sand collected on the filter paper can be left to dry or rinsed with a
small amount of water and then dried, if necessary.
Unit 18: Qualitative Analysis

i) How is ammonia detected by a litmus paper?

Ammonia turns red litmus paper blue because it is basic.

ii) How can you identify carbon dioxide?

Carbon dioxide can be identified by bubbling it through limewater, which turns cloudy due to the
formation of calcium carbonate.
(iii) How can you detect hydrogen gas?
Hydrogen gas can be detected by bringing a lit splint close to it; if hydrogen is present, it will
produce a "pop" sound.
(iv) How can you detect sulphur dioxide?
Sulphur dioxide can be detected by its pungent smell or by reacting it with potassium
dichromate, which changes color from orange to green.
(v) Differentiate between oxidizing and reducing flame?

 Oxidizing Flame: Has a blue inner cone and is hotter; it provides oxygen for
combustion.
 Reducing Flame: Has a yellow outer cone and is cooler; it lacks enough oxygen,
promoting the reduction of substances.

Long Response Questions

3. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative analysis?

Qualitative Analysis and Quantitative Analysis are two fundamental approaches used in
chemistry and other sciences to analyze substances. Here’s a concise comparison:

Qualitative Analysis:

 Purpose: Identifies the presence or absence of specific components in a sample.

 Focus: Describes the characteristics or properties of substances.
 Methods: Uses techniques like color change, smell, or reactions with reagents to indicate
the presence of certain elements or compounds.
 Results: Provides descriptive information, such as "substance A is present" or "substance
B is absent."

Quantitative Analysis:

 Purpose: Measures the amount or concentration of a specific component in a sample.

 Focus: Provides numerical data regarding the composition of the sample.
 Methods: Uses techniques like titration, gravimetric analysis, or spectroscopy to quantify
substances.
 Results: Produces numerical results, such as "the concentration of substance A is 0.5
moles per liter."
4. What is the origin of flame colour?

The color of a flame originates from the energy released when atoms or molecules in the flame
are heated. Here’s how it works:

1. Excitation of Electrons: When a substance is heated, its electrons gain energy and move
to higher energy levels, a state known as excitation.
2. Energy Release: As the excited electrons return to their original (ground) state, they
release energy in the form of light. The energy and wavelength of this light determine the
color of the flame.
3. Different Elements, Different Colors: Different elements produce characteristic flame
colors due to the unique energy levels of their electrons. For example:
o Sodium: Bright yellow flame
o Copper: Green flame
o Strontium: Red flame
o Potassium: Lilac flame
4. Combustion Products: The presence of certain compounds and impurities in the fuel can
also influence flame color. For example, incomplete combustion can produce a yellow
flame due to the presence of soot.

5. Why does hydrogen gas produce a popping voice when it is exposed to the flame?

Hydrogen gas produces a popping sound when exposed to a flame due to the following reasons:

1. Combustion Reaction: When hydrogen gas comes into contact with a flame, it reacts
explosively with oxygen in the air. The reaction can be represented by the equation:

2H2+O2→2H2O

This reaction produces water vapor and releases a large amount of energy.

2. Rapid Expansion of Gases: The heat from the flame causes the hydrogen and oxygen
gases to rapidly expand. This rapid expansion occurs as the gases convert into water
vapor, which takes up much more space than the original gases.
3. Pressure Build-Up: The quick expansion creates a sudden increase in pressure within a
confined space, such as the area around the flame.
4. Sound Production: The rapid release of energy and the sudden expansion of gases
produce a shock wave, which we hear as a "pop" sound. This sound is characteristic of
hydrogen combustion and is often referred to as a "pop test" for hydrogen.

6. Why the litmus paper turns white at the end after converting red.

When litmus paper turns white after initially turning red, it is typically due to the presence of a
bleaching agent, such as chlorine or hypochlorite, in the solution being tested. Here's a
breakdown of the process:
1. Initial Reaction with Acid:
o If red litmus paper is placed in an acidic solution, it remains red, indicating the
presence of an acid.
2. Alkaline Solution:
o If red litmus paper is introduced to a basic (alkaline) solution, it turns blue. This
change occurs because the basic solution neutralizes the acidic dye in the paper.
3. Bleaching Effect:
o If a bleaching agent is present, such as chlorine or sodium hypochlorite, it can
further react with the dyes in the litmus paper.
o This reaction breaks down the dye molecules, leading to decolorization and
ultimately turning the paper white.
Unit 19: Chromatography

(i)Define chromatography

Chromatography is a technique used to separate mixtures into their individual components based
on their different rates of movement through a medium, usually a solid or liquid.

(ii)Define locating agent

A locating agent is a chemical used in chromatography to visualize or identify the separated

substances on a chromatogram after the separation process.

(iii)What is R, value?

The Rf value (retention factor) is a numerical value that represents the ratio of the distance
traveled by a substance to the distance traveled by the solvent front in chromatography. It helps
identify substances.

(iv) Define paper chromatography

Paper chromatography is a method of separating and analyzing mixtures of substances using a

strip of paper as the stationary phase and a solvent as the mobile phase.

(v) What do you mean by paper chromatogram?

A paper chromatogram is the result of paper chromatography, showing the separated spots of
different substances on the paper, often used to analyze and identify the components of a
mixture.

Long Response Questions

2. Explain in detail paper chromatography.

Paper Chromatography is a simple and effective technique used to separate and analyze
mixtures of substances. Here’s a detailed explanation suitable for juniors:

What is Paper Chromatography?

Paper chromatography is a method used to separate different components of a mixture based on

their different affinities for a stationary phase (the paper) and a mobile phase (the solvent). It is
commonly used in laboratories to analyze food colors, plant pigments, and other substances.

How It Works:
 1. Preparation of the Paper:
o A special type of paper, usually chromatography paper, is used. This paper acts as
the stationary phase.
o A baseline is drawn with a pencil near one end of the paper, and small spots of the
mixture to be analyzed are placed on this line.
2. Application of the Solvent:
o The paper is then placed upright in a container with a small amount of solvent
(the mobile phase) at the bottom. The solvent should not touch the spots directly.
o As the solvent rises up the paper by capillary action, it carries the components of
the mixture with it.
3. Separation of Components:
o Different components in the mixture move at different rates based on their
solubility in the solvent and their interaction with the paper.
o Some substances may travel further than others, creating distinct spots on the
paper.
4. Visualization:
o After the solvent has traveled a certain distance, the paper is removed from the
container.
o If the components are not visible, a locating agent may be used to reveal the spots
(for example, by spraying with a chemical that changes color).
5. Calculation of Rf Values:
o The distance traveled by each component is measured and compared to the
distance traveled by the solvent front to calculate the Rf (retention factor) values,
which help identify the substances.

Applications:

 Identifying Compounds: It can be used to identify substances in food, medicine, and

biological samples.
 Analyzing Pigments: Used to separate plant pigments, helping in studying
photosynthesis and plant biology.

Advantages:

 Simple and inexpensive.

 Requires only small amounts of sample and solvents.
 Can separate multiple components simultaneously.

3. How can you identify an unknown substance by chromatography?

Identifying an unknown substance by chromatography involves a systematic process. Here’s how

it works:

Steps to Identify an Unknown Substance by Chromatography:

1. Preparation:
 o Select the Right Method: Choose a suitable chromatography method, such as
paper chromatography or thin-layer chromatography, based on the type of
substances being analyzed.
2. Sample Application:
o Spot the Sample: Apply a small amount of the unknown substance to a baseline
on the chromatography medium (e.g., chromatography paper or a plate).
3. Choose a Solvent:
o Select the Solvent: Choose an appropriate solvent or solvent mixture to use as the
mobile phase. The solvent's polarity should match the expected properties of the
unknown substance.
4. Run the Chromatography:
o Develop the Chromatogram: Place the chromatography medium in a container
with the solvent. As the solvent moves up the medium by capillary action, it will
carry the components of the mixture with it, separating them based on their
solubility and interaction with the medium.
5. Visualization:
o Visualize the Spots: Once the solvent has traveled a sufficient distance, remove
the medium and allow it to dry. Use a locating agent if necessary to visualize the
spots if they are not clearly visible.
6. Calculate Rf Values:
o Measure Distances: Measure the distance traveled by each component (including
the unknown) from the baseline and the distance traveled by the solvent front.
o Calculate Rf Values: Calculate the retention factor (Rf) values for the spots using
the formula:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Rf = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡

7. Comparison with Known Standards:

o Compare Rf Values: Compare the Rf values of the unknown substance to those
of known substances analyzed under the same conditions. Look for matches in
both the Rf values and the appearance (color, size) of the spots.
8. Identification:
o Identify the Substance: If the Rf values and characteristics match those of
known substances, you can conclude that the unknown substance is likely one of
those identified substances.

4. Differentiate between stationary and mobile phase.

The stationary phase and mobile phase are two essential components in chromatography that
work together to separate mixtures. Here’s a detailed differentiation between them:

Stationary Phase:
 1. Definition: The stationary phase is the phase that does not move during the
chromatography process. It remains fixed in place while the mobile phase travels through
or over it.
2. Composition: Typically consists of a solid material (e.g., silica gel, alumina) or a liquid
coated onto a solid support (e.g., chromatography paper, thin-layer plates).
3. Role:
o Provides a surface for the components of the mixture to interact with.
o Different components of the mixture interact with the stationary phase to varying
degrees based on their physical and chemical properties, which leads to their
separation.
4. Types: In paper chromatography, the paper itself serves as the stationary phase. In
column chromatography, the packed material in the column acts as the stationary phase.

Mobile Phase:

1. Definition: The mobile phase is the phase that moves through or over the stationary
phase. It carries the components of the mixture with it.
2. Composition: Usually consists of a liquid solvent or a gas. The choice of mobile phase
depends on the nature of the substances being separated.
3. Role:
o Helps to transport the components of the mixture along the stationary phase.
o The different solubilities of the components in the mobile phase influence how far
they travel and how quickly they separate.
4. Types: In liquid chromatography, the mobile phase is a liquid solvent. In gas
chromatography, it is an inert gas, such as nitrogen or helium.

Summary of Differences:

Feature Stationary Phase Mobile Phase

Moves through or over the stationary
Movement Does not move; remains fixed
phase
Composition Solid or liquid coated onto a solid Liquid solvent or gas
Provides a surface for interaction and Carries the mixture components for
Function
separation separation
Examples Chromatography paper, silica gel Water, ethanol (liquid), nitrogen (gas)