Content of the Lecture

Surveying
Objective/Importance of Surveying
Responsibilities of a Surveyor
Classification of Surveying
Measurements &Instrumentation
Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 4

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 Introduction to Land Surveying

Surveying is the technique for determining the relative

positions of different features on, above or beneath the surface
of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements and
finally representing them on a sheet of paper called Plan or
Map.

According to the American Congress on Surveying and

Mapping (ACSM),

“Surveying is the science and art of making all essential

measurements to determine the relative position of points or
physical and cultural details above, on, or beneath the surface
of the Earth, and to show them in a usable form, or to
establish the position of points or details.”
Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Surveying
Definition
Surveying is the art of
measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Surveying
Definition
Surveying is the art of
measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects
measuring angles between lines

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Surveying
Definition
Surveying is the art of
measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects
measuring angles between lines
determining the direction of lines

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 1

33
 Surveying
Definition
Surveying is the art of
measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects
measuring angles between lines
determining the direction of lines
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Surveying
Definition
Surveying is the art of
measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects
measuring angles between lines
determining the direction of lines
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements.
The data of survey is used to determine
Distances
Angles
Directions
Elevations
Areas
Volumes
Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Surveying

Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of

maps

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Surveying

Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of

maps

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

55
 Surveying

Survey data is portrayed graphically by the construction of

maps
profiles
cross sections etc.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Objective / Importance of Surveying

Land surveying is basically an art and science of mapping and

measuring land.

This is very important a s without this service, there would not

have been
railroads
skyscrapers
neither any individual could have put fences
around their yards for not intruding others land.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Objective / Importance of Surveying

Surveyors give advice and provide information to guide the

work of

Architects
Civil Engineers
Town Planners
Construction Companies
Property Owners
Mining Companies

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Objective / Importance of Surveying

Surveying is used to identify and map

contours of the ground and
existing features on the surface of the earth or slightly above or
below the earth surface e.g. trees, buildings, manhole, retaining
walls, utility poles, etc.

Before any kind of construction activity is started, it’s important

to have a survey done in the area
so an accurate record of the land’s existing conditions exists.

Survey maps are used to show elevations for architects,

engineers, and building contractors.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Objective / Importance of Surveying

Surveying helps to prepare cadastral maps showing the

boundaries of the properties and land rights.

A cadastral map is a map which provides detailed information

about property with in a specific area.

For Example: Map of a village which shows the boundaries of

all of the lots within the village.

These maps show the boundaries of lot lines and provide

measurements on each lot

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Objective / Importance of Surveying

Surveying helps to prepare a contour map to determine the

steepness or gentleness of slopes.

Contour maps are useful for various engineering works.

Civil engineers study the contours and find out the nature of
various areas to identify suitable sites for their projects.

Earth works can be estimated for civil engineering projects like

road works, railways, dams etc.

Quantities of water flow at any point of a river can be found.

. Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Objective / Importance of Surveying

Surveyors are the first people on any construction site,

measuring and mapping the land.

These primary measurements are then used by architects to

understand and make the most of the unique landscape when
designing.

And engineers to plan structures accurately and safely,

ensuring buildings not only fit with the landscape but are able to
be constructed.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Objective / Importance of Surveying

The planning and design of all Civil Engineering projects such

a s the construction of highways, bridges, tunnels, dams
etc. are based upon surveying measurements.

Moreover, during execution, a project of any magnitude is

constructed along the lines and points established by surveying.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Class Activity

What can be the possible roles of a civil engineer in

“Construction of a Building”.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Responsibilities of a Surveyor

Primary responsibilities are

Decision making (selecting techniques and equipments)

Fieldwork (data acquisition)

Data processing (calculations to give locations, areas,

volumes, etc.)

Mapping (maps, plans, charts)

Reporting (conclusion of the task)

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Accuracy of Work:

Geodetic Surveying
In geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is
taken into account.
Surveys are
conducted
with a high degree
of accuracy.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Accuracy of Work:

Plane Surveying
In plane surveying, the reference base for field work and
computations is
assumed to be a
flat horizontal
surface.
The error caused
by assuming the
earth to be a plane
area is not serious
if the area
measured is small
say, within
250km 2 . Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Use or Purpose of Resulting Maps

(a) Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and

vertical points that serve a s a reference framework for
other surveys.

(b) Topographic surveys show the natural features of a country

such a s rivers, streams, lakes, forests, hills, etc.

(c) Cadastral surveys establish property lines.

.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Use or Purpose of Resulting Maps

(d) Hydrographic surveys define the shore lines and depth of

water bodies e.g. oceans, reservoirs and lakes.
(e) Route surveys are done a s a preliminary to construction of
roads and railways.
(f)Mine surveys are done above and below the ground to
guide mining operations under ground.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Equipments Used

Chain survey

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Equipments Used

Chain survey
Theodolite survey

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Equipments Used

Chain survey
Theodolite survey
Plane table survey

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on Equipments Used

Chain survey
Theodolite survey
Plane table survey
Photogrammetric survey

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Classification of Surveying

Classification Based on the Position of Instruments

When measurement is done on the ground by say chain,

tape or electronic distance measuring equipments it
is ground survey

When photographic observations are taken from air; it is

aerial survey

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurements & Instrumentation

Distances
Chaining
Taping (steel tape)
Theodolite
Electronic Distance
Measurement
Devices (EDM, GPS)
Angles
Theodolite
Total station

Heights
Theodolite
Total station
Level Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 8
3

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 Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Depending on the accuracy desired and time available for

measurement, following are the methods of measuring
horizontal distances.

(i) Pacing
(ii)Odometer readings
(iii)Tacheometry
(iv) Electronic distance measurement
(v) Chaining
(vi) Taping

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Pacing is an approximate method of measuring distance.

Initially the surveyor must walk a known distance a number
of times in his own Natural
way so that his natural
pace is known.
To count the number of paces
a pedometer maybe used.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Measurement of Horizontal Distances

An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel

of a known circumference to a distance.
This method can often be used to advantage on preliminary
surveys where precise distances are not necessary.
Odometer distances should be converted
to horizontal distance when the slope of the ground is
steep.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

In Tacheometry, distance is measured not directly but

indirectly with the help of an optical instrument called
tacheometer.

A transit theodolite fitted with

special stadia diaphragm
is known a s tacheometer.

Its telescope contains

two horizontal hairs called
stadia hairs in addition to
the regular crosshairs.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Measurement of Horizontal Distances

EDM is a modem development in surveying where electro

magnetic waves are utilized to measure distance.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Chains are used to measure distances when very great

accuracy is not required.
Chain is composed of 100-150 pieces of
galvanized mild steel called LINKS.
Links are Connected to each other through
oval ring for flexibility.
End Provided with Brass handle to drag
chain, Outside of handle is ZERO.
Length Measured from outside of one
handle to outside of other handle.
Metallic tags are attached to specified
distances.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Types of chain in common use

1) Metric chains
2) Gunter’s chain or surveyors chain
3) Engineers chain
4) Revenue chain

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Metric chain

Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and

30m.

Tallies are fixed at every five-meter

length

Brass rings are provided at every meter length except

where tallies are attached

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Metric chain

Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and

30m.

Tallies are fixed at every five-meter

length

Brass rings are provided at every meter length except

where tallies are attached

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Gunter’s Chain
Length= 66’ (22 yards)
No of links= 100, Each link= 0.66’

Engineer’s Chain
Length=100’
No of links=100, Each link = 1’
Used in all Engineering Surveys.

Revenue Chain
Length=33’
No of links= 16
Commonly used for measuring fields in Cadastral Survey.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 48

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 Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Tapes

Cloth or linen tape

Very light, easy to handle
May effect by moisture

Metric steel tape

Made of steel
Outer end is provided with a ring for holding

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Measurement of Horizontal Distances

Tapes

Invar tape
Used for high precision work
Made of alloy steel

Synthetic tape
Made of glass fiber with PVC coating
These are used for short measurements

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Testing and Adjustment of Chain

During continuous use, the length of a chain

gets altered.
Its length is shortened chiefly due
to the bending of links.
Its length is elongated either due to stretching of the links
and joints and opening out of the small rings.
For accurate work it is necessary to test the chain time to
time.
The chain can be thus tested by a steel
tape or by a standard chain.
Sometimes, it is convenient to have a permanent test
gauge established where the chain is tested

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Testing and Adjustment of Chain

When the length of a chain is measured at a pull of 8 kg at

20 o C the length of the chain should measure 20 m ± 5 mm
and 30 m ± 8 mm for 20 m and 30 m long chain
respectively.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Testing and Adjustment of Chain

Following measures are taken to adjust the length of a

chain.
If chain is found to be too long, It can be adjusted by;
Closing up the joints of the rings if found to be
opened out
Reshaping damaged rings
Removing one or more small rings
Adjusting the links at the end.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Testing and Adjustment of Chain

If the chain is found to be too short

Straightening the bent links
Opening the joints of the rings
Replacing one or more small circular rings by
bigger ones.
Inserting new rings where necessary.
Adjusting the links at the end.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Arrows

Arrows are made of tempered steel wire of

diameter 4 mm.
One end of the arrow is bent into ring of diameter 50 mm
and the other end is pointed.
Overall length of arrow is 400 mm.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Arrows

Arrows are used for counting the number of chains

while measuring a chain line.
An arrow is inserted into the ground
after every chain length measured
on the ground.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Ranging Rods

Ranging rods are used for ranging some intermediate

points on the survey line.
Ranging rods are generally
2 to 3 m in length and are
painted with alternate
bands of black or white
or red and white colour
with length of each
equalizing 20 cm.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Ranging Rods/Offset Rods

The location of any survey station can be known from long

distances only by means of ranging rods. If the distance is
too long, a rod of length 4.0 to 6.0 m is used and is called
ranging pole.
The offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the
exception that instead of the flag, a hook is provided at
the top for pushing and pulling the chain or the tape. It
is also used for measuring small offsets

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Ranging Rod / Offset Rod

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Laths

Laths are 0.5 to 1.0 m long sticks of soft wood.

They are sharpened at one end and are painted with white
or light colours.
They are used a s intermediate points while ranging or while
crossing depressions.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Whites

Whites are the pieces of sharpened thick sticks cut from

the nearest place in the field.
One end of the stick is sharpened and the other end is split.
White papers are inserted in the split to improve the
visibility.
Whites are also used for the same purpose a s laths

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Pegs

Pegs are made of timber or steel and they are

used to mark the position of the station or
terminal points of a survey line.
Wooden pegs are 15 cm long and are driven into the
ground with the help of a hammer.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Plumb Bob

Plumb-bob is used to transfer points on the

ground.
It is also used for fixing the instruments
exactly over the station point marked on the
ground by checking the centre of the
instrument whether coincides with the centre of
the peg or station or not, by suspending the
plumb-bob exactly at the centre of the
instrument under it.
Plumb bob is thus used a s
centering aid in theodolites and
plane table

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

63

Ranging

When a survey line is longer than a chain length, it is

necessary to align intermediate points on chain line so that
the measurements are along the line.
The process of locating intermediate points on survey line is
known a s ranging.
There are two methods ofranging
1) Direct ranging
2) Reciprocal ranging.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Ranging

1) Direct Method

If the first and last points are intervisible this method is

possible.
Stations A and B in which an intermediate point C is to
be located.
Point C is selected at a distance slightly less
than a chain length.
At points A and B ranging rods are
fixed.
The assistant holds another ranging rod near C.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Ranging

1) Direct Method

Surveyor positions himself approximately 2 m behind

station A and looking along line AB directs the assistant
to move at right angles to the line AB till he aligns the
ranging rod along AB.
Then surveyor instructs the assistant to mark that point and
stretch the chain along AC.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Ranging

1) Direct Method

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Ranging

1) Direct Method

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Ranging

1) Direct Method

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Ranging

1) Direct Method

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

31
 Ranging

2) Indirect Method
This method is used when the stations are not intervisible.
It needs two assistants one at point say C and another at
point say D, where from those points both station A and
station B are visible.
It needs one surveyor at Aand another at B.
To start with C and D are approximately selected, say C1 and
D1.
Then surveyor near end Aranges person near C to position C2
such that AC2D1 are in a line.
Then surveyor at B directs person at D, to move to D2 such
that BD2C2 are in a line.
The process is repeated till ACDB are in a line.
Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Indirect Ranging

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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Indirect Ranging

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Indirect Ranging

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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Indirect Ranging

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Indirect Ranging

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Chaining a Horizontal Line

The following steps are involved:

a) Fixing of Station
b) Unfolding of a Chain
c) Ranging and Chaining
d) Folding the Chain

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chaining a Horizontal Line

a) Fixing of Station
Stations are first of all marked with pegs and
ranging rods to make them visible.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Chaining a Horizontal Line

b) Unfolding of a Chain
To open a chain, the strap is unfastened and the
two brass handles are held in the left hand and the
bunch is thrown forward with the right hand.
Then one chainmen moves forward by holding the other
handle until the chain is completely extended

Instru 9
ctor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 7

Chaining a Horizontal Line

c) Ranging a n d Chianing Method

Two persons are required in this operation, i.e.
Leader and Follower.
The chainman at the forward end of the chain
who drags the chain forward, is known a s the
leader
The chainmen at the rear end of the chain, who
holds the zero end of the chain at the station, is
known a s the follower.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 0

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 Chaining a Horizontal Line

c) Ranging a n d Chaining Method

To chain the line, the leader moves forward by dragging the
chain line and taking with him ranging rod and ten arrows.
The follower stands at the starting station by holding the
other end of the chain.
When the chain is fully extended, the leader holds the
ranging rod vertically at arms length.
The follower directs the leader to move his rod to the left or
right until the ranging rod is exactly in the line.
Then the follower holds the zero end of the chain by
touching the station peg.
The leader stretches the chain by moving it up and down
with both hands, and finally place it on the line. He then
inserts an arrow on the ground at the end of the chain and
Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad
mark it with cross.

Chaining a Horizontal Line

c) Ranging a n d Chianing Method

Again the leader moves forward by dragging the chain
with nine arrows and the ranging rod.
At the end of the chain, he fixes another arrow a s before,
As the leader moves further, the follower picks the arrow
which were inserted by the leader.
During chaining the surveyor or an assistant should conduct
the ranging operation.
In this way, chaining is continued, when all the arrows
are inserted the leader has non left with him, the
follower hands over to the leader.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Chaining a Horizontal Line

d) Folding the Chain

To fold the chain, a chainmen should move
forward by pulling the chain at the middle.
Then the two halves of the chain will come side by side.
After this, commencing from the central position
of the chain, two pairs of links are taken at a time
with the right hand and placed on the left hand
alternately in both directions.
Finally the two brass
handles will appear at top.
The bunch should be
then fastened by the strap.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chaining a Horizontal Line

Chaining o n Sloping Ground

The object of survey is to prepare a plan or a map.
In the plan or a map the distance plotted between
any two points is always a straight line.
Even if the chaining is done on a sloping ground, this
sloping distance is converted into horizontal equivalent
distance while plotting.
There are two methods of finding out horizontal distance
while on a sloping ground.
• Direct Method
• Indirect Method

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Chaining a Horizontal Line

Direct Method

This method is also called method of stepping.

In this method, the distance is measured in small horizontal
stretches.
A suitable length of chain or tape say l1 is taken.
The follower holds the zero end of the tape
at a point on the top of the hill or sloping ground. i.e. at
point A.
The tape is stretched horizontally from A at small length l1 of
3 to 5 m.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 85

Chaining a Horizontal Line

Direct Method
The point at the end of the l1 is dropped and marked on the
ground a s a1.
From a1, again tape is stretched exactly in a horizontal
plane at a convenient step l2 and drop end of l2 on the
ground a s b1.
Likewise entire length of line on the sloping ground is
measured.
Finally the total horizontal length of the line AB, i.e. D is
obtained
• D= l1 + l2 + l3 + ……… ln
• Where ln = the last step for the given survey line

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

39
 Chaining a Horizontal Line

Direct Method
The point at the end of the l1 is dropped and marked on the
ground a s a1. From a1, again tape is stretched exactly in a
horizontal plane at a convenient step l2 and drop end of l2 on
the ground a s b1. Likewise entire length of line on the sloping
ground is measured.
•Finally the total horizontal length of the line AB, i.e. D is
obtained
• D= l1 + l2 + l3 + ……… ln
• Where ln = the last step for the given survey line

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chaining a Horizontal Line

Direct Method

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad 88

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 Chaining a Horizontal Line

Indirect Method (Method 1)

Horizontal distance of the segment is calculated by

knowing sloping length of the segment and angle of
inclination of that with horizontal.
The angle of the sloping surface with horizontal
can be known by a simple handy instrument called
a s clinometer

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chaining a Horizontal Line

Indirect Method (Method 1)

Total Distance D= ∑d = d 1 +d2 +….d n,

and
D = l CosӨ for d 1 = l1 Cos Ө 1
Whe re ,
Ө = angle of sloping surface with horizontal and
l = sloping length

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

41
 Chaining a Horizontal Line

Indirect Method (Method 1)

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chaining a Horizontal Line

Indirect Method (Method 2)

If elevation difference between two terminal points
and the sloping distance between the two terminal
points is known, the horizontal distance H can be
calculated as,

Where,
L = sloping le ngth
d = Elevation difference between two points

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

42
 Chaining a Horizontal Line

Indirect Method (Method 2)

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Class Activity

What are the possible factors which can influence the chaining
of a line.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

43
 Assignment 01

Q No 01: What are the possible duties of the leader and

follower in chaining a horizontal line.
Q No: 02 Explain Different Types of Tap and Chain
Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

44
 Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

3) Slope Correction Ch: When you take a measurement

with a tape along an inclined plane (along the natural
slope of the ground), obviously, the taped distance is
The difference between the slope distance and the
horizontal distance is cal led the slope correction ch.
This correction is always subtracted from the slope
distance.

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

45
Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

47
Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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 Chain a n d Tape Corrections

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

References

Surveying and Leveling by “T.P Kanetkar& S.V. Kulkarni”

Part I and II

Instructor: Engr. Waqar Ahmad

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THANKS

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